The Coral Sea () is a marginal sea of the South Pacific off the northeast coast of Australia, and classified as an interim Australian bioregion. The Coral Sea extends  down the Australian northeast coast. Most of it is protected by the French Natural Park of the Coral Sea () and the Australian Coral Sea Marine Park. The sea was the location for the Battle of the Coral Sea, a major confrontation during World War II between the navies of the Empire of Japan, and the United States and Australia.

The sea contains numerous islands and reefs, as well as the world's largest reef system, the Great Barrier Reef (GBR), which was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1981. All previous oil exploration projects were terminated at the GBR in 1975, and fishing is restricted in many areas. The reefs and islands of the Coral Sea are particularly rich in birds and aquatic life and are a popular tourist destination, both domestically and internationally.

Geography
It is bounded in the west by the east coast of Queensland, thereby including the Great Barrier Reef, in the east by Vanuatu (formerly the New Hebrides) and by New Caledonia, and in the northeast approximately by the southern extremity of the Solomon Islands. In the northwest, it reaches to the south coast of eastern New Guinea, thereby including the Gulf of Papua. It merges with the Tasman Sea in the south, with the Solomon Sea in the north and with the Pacific Ocean in the east. On the west, it is bounded by the mainland coast of Queensland, and in the northwest, it connects with the Arafura Sea through the Torres Strait.

The sea is characterised by its warm climate, with frequent rains and tropical cyclones.

Extent

While the Great Barrier Reef with its islands and cays belong to Queensland, most reefs and islets east of it are part of the Coral Sea Islands Territory. In addition, some islands west of and belonging to New Caledonia are also part of the Coral Sea Islands in a geographical sense, such as the Chesterfield Islands and Bellona Reefs.

The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Coral Sea as follows:
On the North. The South coast of New Guinea from the entrance to the Bensbach River (141°01'E) to Gadogadoa Island near its Southeastern extreme (), down this meridian to the 100 fathom line and thence along the Southern edges of Uluma Reef and those extending to the Eastward as far as the Southeast point of Lawik Reef () off Tagula Island, thence a line to the Southern extreme of Rennell Island (Solomon Islands) and from its Eastern point to Cape Surville, the Eastern extreme of San Cristobal Island [Makira], Solomons; thence through Nupani Island, the Northwestern of the Santa Cruz Islands () to the Northernmost Island of the Duff Islands ().

On the Northeast. From the Northernmost island of the Duff Islands, through these islands to their Southeastern extreme, thence a line to Méré Lava, Vanuatu Islands() and down the Eastern coasts of the islands of this Group to Anatom Island () in such a way that all the islands of these Groups, and the straits separating them, are included in the Coral Sea.

On the Southeast. A line from the Southeastern extreme of Anatom Island to Nokanhoui (reefs) () off the Southeast extreme of New Caledonia, thence through the East point of Middleton Reef to the Eastern extreme of Elizabeth Reef () and down this meridian to Latitude 30° South.

On the South. The parallel of 30° South to the Australian coast. (Bordering the Tasman Sea.)

On the West. The Eastern limit of the Arafura Sea [The entrance to the Bensbach River (141°01'E), and thence a line to the Northwest extreme of York Peninsula, Australia ()] and the East Coast of Australia as far south as Latitude 30° South.

Geology

The fairly deep Coral Sea basin was formed between 58 million and 48 million years ago when the Queensland continental shelf was uplifted, forming the Great Dividing Range, and continental blocks subsided at the same time. The sea has been an important source of coral for the Great Barrier Reef, both during its formation and after sea level lowering.

The geological formation processes are still proceeding, as partly evidenced by the seismic activity. Several hundred earthquakes with the magnitude between 2 and 6 were recorded in the period 1866–2000 along the Queensland coast and in the Coral Sea. However this seismic activity is much less than to the east or north of the sea, and most of the area under the sea can be regarded as now tectonically inactive except for sedimentation. On 2 April 2007, the Solomon Islands were struck by a major earthquake followed by a several metres tall tsunami. The epicentre of this magnitude  earthquake was  northwest of Honiara, at a depth of . It was followed by more than 44 aftershocks of a magnitude 5.0 or greater. The resulting tsunami killed at least 52 people and destroyed more than 900 homes.

The sea received its name because of its numerous coral formations. They include the GBR, which extends about  along the northeast coast of Australia and includes approximately 2,900 individual reefs and 1000 islands. The Chesterfield Islands and Lihou Reef are the largest atolls of the Coral Sea.

Topography
To the east of the north Australian coast is the Great Barrier Reef on the continental shelf as already mentioned. To its east is a plateau that is host to the Coral Sea Islands Territory that is known as either the Coral Sea Plateau or the Queensland Plateau. To the north of the Great Barrier Reef the Eastern and Papuan Plateaus continue the southern continental shelf of New Guinea. The Coral Sea Basin, while being the main oceanic basin of the sea, is associated with much more geologically complex and younger basins situated to the seas's east and south. It is separated to the east from these younger basins by the Louisiade Plateau. To the east of the Louisiade Plateau is what has been named geologically as the Rennell Basin, south-west of Rennell Island, but is gazetted as being known as either the Rennell or Rennel Trough. To the east of this Rennell Basin is the Rennell Island Ridge (Rennel Island Ridge) which contains both Rennell Island and the Indispensable Reefs. To the southeast of the Rennell Island Ridge is the South Rennell Trough, quite a deep spreading center linear structure extending from northeast to southwest extending along the south east border of the Mellish Rise. The main eastern basins are the north the Santa Cruz Basin and to its south the D'Entrecasteaux Basin which is delimited to its south by the undersea D'Entrecasteaux Ridge. South of the D'Entrecasteaux Ridge is the North Loyalty Basin (gazetted as the Loyalty Basin as an alternative name), which is bordered on its southwest by the Loyalty Ridge that contains the Loyalty Islands. This ridge is the north east border of the submerged continent of Zealandia and all the structures on the sea floor of the Coral Sea to its south east are related to this area of continental crust. In turn going to the south west they are the South Loyalty Basin, the New Caledonia Nappe, the New Caledonia Trough (previously known as the New Caledonia Basin) and to its south west the Bellona Plateau.

Hydrology

Major Coral Sea currents form a counter-clockwise gyro which includes the East Australian Current. It brings warm nutrient-poor waters from the Coral Sea down the east coast of Australia to the cool waters of the Tasman Sea. This current is the strongest along the Australian coasts and transforms 30 million m3/s of water within a flow band of about 100 kilometres wide and 500 metres deep. The current is strongest around February and weakest around August.

The major river flowing into the sea is the Burdekin River, which has its delta southeast of Townsville. Owing to the seasonal and annual variations in occurrence of cyclones and in precipitation (typically between 200 and 1600 mm/year), its annual discharge can vary more than 10 times between the two succeeding years. In particular, in the period 1920–1999, the average flow rate near the delta was below 1000 m3/s in 1923, 1931, 1939, 1969, 1982, 1985, 1987, 1993 and 1995; it was above 25,000 m3/s in 1927, 1940, 1946, 1950, 1951, 1959, 1968, 1972, 1974 and 1991, and reached about 40,000 m3/s in 1946. This irregularity results in concomitant fluctuations of the sea water composition near the river delta.

The surface water temperature varies on the south of the sea from 19 °C in August to 24 °C in February. It is rather warm and stable at 27–28 °С in the north all through the year. Water salinity is 34.5–35.5‰ (parts per thousand). The water is mostly very clear, with the visibility of about 30 metres (100 ft) near the reefs.

History
The Coral Sea takes its name from its coral formations of the Great Barrier Reef, the largest known reef system in the world.

In May 1942, a battle between Allied and Imperial Japanese naval units took place in the Coral Sea, which resulted in the prevention of the Japanese sea-borne invasion of Port Moresby.

Climate

The sea has a subtropical climate and is frequently hit by tropical cyclones, especially between January and April. This range extends to November–May in the areas south to 10°S. Between 1969 and 1997, the GBR experienced 80 cyclones, 90% which were of category 1 or 2 (winds 17–33 m/s, central pressure 970–1000 hPa) and only 10% of category 3 (winds >33 m/s, pressure <970 hPa). The cyclone frequency decreased between 1997 and 2005 to 1.5 per year (12 in total).

Annual rainfall typically ranges between 1,000 and 3,000 mm depending on the area. Most rains fall between December and March, in bursts of 30–60 days. The number of clear days per year varies approximately between 80 and 125, and the typical temperature variation through the year are 18–27 °C.

Climate change made it 175 times more likely that the surface waters of the Coral Sea would reach the record-breaking temperatures March 2016 that bleached reefs, modelling analysis showed.

Winds
Winds in the Coral Sea can be classified by season, longitude and latitude. Southeasterly trade winds dominate through all sea areas and all seasons, especially between 20°S and 25°S, west of the meridian of 155°E. However, between September and December they change to northerly and northwesterly winds in this region, and the direction is mostly southwestern in May–August. West of 155°E, gales are common between January and August and are less frequent in September–December.

In January, the northwest monsoon may occur between the parallels of 15°S and 20°S, west of the 150°E meridian. Gales are rare in this region most of the year except for June–August, when strong southeasterly winds occur a few days per month.

The southeasterly trades are also strong north of 15°S between March and November. They weaken and often change to westerly winds in December and to northerly and northwesterly winds in January
and February.

Flora
The Australian shore of the Coral Sea is mostly composed of sand. The GBR is too far away to provide significant coral deposits, but it effectively screens the coast from the ocean waves. As a result, most land vegetation spreads down to the sea, and the coastal waters are rich in underwater vegetation, such as green algae. The most common genera of seagrasses are Halophila and Halodule.

The islands of the GBR contain more than 2,000 plant species, and three of these are endemic. The northern islands have 300–350 plant species which tend to be woody, whereas the southern islands have 200 which are more herbaceous; the Whitsunday region is the most diverse, supporting 1,141 species. The plants are spread by birds.

Fauna

The sea hosts numerous species of anemones, sponges, worms (e.g. Spirobranchus giganteus shown in the photograph), gastropods, lobsters, crayfish, prawns and crabs. Red algae Lithothamnion and Porolithon colour many coral reefs purple-red and the green alga Halimeda is found throughout the sea. The coastal plants consisting of only about 30–40 species, and mangroves occur in the northern part of the sea. Four hundred coral species, both hard corals and soft corals inhabit the reefs. The majority of these spawn gametes, breeding in mass spawning events that are triggered by the rising sea temperatures of spring and summer, the lunar cycle, and the diurnal cycle. Reefs in the inner GBR spawn during the week after the full moon in October, while the outer reefs spawn in November and December. Its common soft corals belong to 36 genera. There are more than 1500 fish species in the reef systems. Five hundred species of marine algae or seaweed live on the reef, including thirteen species of the genus Halimeda, which deposit calcareous mounds up to  wide, creating mini-ecosystems on their surface which have been compared to rainforest cover.

Crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci) is the major predator of the reefs, as it preys upon coral polyps by climbing onto them, extruding its stomach over them, and releasing digestive enzymes to absorb the liquefied tissue. An individual adult can eat up to 6 m2 of reef per year. In 2000, an outbreak of crown-of-thorns starfish contributed to a loss of 66% of live coral cover on sampled reefs. Changes in water quality and overfishing of natural predators, such as the giant Triton, may have contributed to an increase in the number of crown-of-thorns starfish.

There are at least 30 species of whales, dolphins, and porpoises, including the dwarf minke whale, Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin, humpback whale and dugongs. Six species of sea turtles breed on the GBR – the green sea turtle, leatherback sea turtle, hawksbill turtle, loggerhead sea turtle, flatback turtle and the olive ridley.

More than 200 species of birds (including 22 species of seabirds and 32 species of shorebirds) visit, nest or roost on the islands and reefs, including the white-bellied sea eagle and roseate tern. Most nesting sites are on islands in the northern and southern regions of the GBR, with 1.4–1.7 million birds using the sites to breed.

Seventeen species of sea snake, including Laticauda colubrina (pictured), live on the GBR in warm waters up to  deep and are more common in the southern than in the northern section; none of them are endemic or endangered. The venom of many of these snakes is highly toxic; for example, Aipysurus duboisii is regarded as the world's most venomous sea snake.

There are more than 1,500 fish species, including the clownfish (Amphiprioninae), red bass (Lutjanus bohar), red-throat emperor (Lethrinus miniatus), coral trout (Plectropomus leopardus) and several species of snapper (Lutjanidae). Forty-nine species mass spawn and eighty-four other species spawn elsewhere in their range. With a maximum total length of 0.84 cm (0.33 in), Schindleria brevipinguis, which is native to the GBR and Osprey Reef, is one of the smallest known fish and vertebrate. There are at least 330 species of ascidians on the reef system with the diameter of . Between 300 and 500 species of bryozoans live on the reef.

Saltwater crocodiles live in mangrove and salt marshes on the coast. Around 125 species of shark, stingray, skates or chimaera live on the GBR, in addition to about 5,000 species of mollusc. The latter include the giant clam and various nudibranchs and cone snails.

One study of 443 individual sharks gives the following distribution of their species on the Australian side of the Coral Sea: grey reef shark (Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos, 69%), whitetip reef shark (Triaenodon obesus, 21%), silvertip shark (Carcharhinus albimarginatus, 10%), tiger shark (Galeocerdo cuvier, <1%) and great hammerhead (Sphyrna mokarran, <1%). The interaction rate (free diving) at the Coral Sea reefs ranged from a few to 26 sharks per hour. The rare Etmopterus dislineatus shark species is endemic to the central part of the Coral Sea. It has been observed at depths of 590–700 m on or near the continental slope.

Human activities
The coastal areas of the Coral Sea were populated at least 40,000 years ago by prehistoric people descending through the northern islands. Those Aboriginal tribes have been dispersed and nowadays only about 70 groups live in the area around the GBR.

The sea was the location for the Battle of the Coral Sea, a major confrontation during World War II between the navies of the Empire of Japan, and the United States and Australia. An example is the wreckage of the USS Lexington found in 2018.

Navigation has long been a traditional human activity on the Coral Sea and there are 10 major ports on the Queensland coast alone. More than 3,500 ships operated in this area in 2007, making over 9,700 voyages that transported coal, sugar, iron ore, timber, oil, chemicals, cattle and other goods. The abundance of coral reefs hinders shipping traffic, and about 50–60 accidents per year were reported between 1990 and 2007 in the GBR alone.

Other economic activities in the sea include fishing and exploration of petroleum deposits in the Gulf of Papua. The sea is also a popular tourism destination. In 2006–2007, tourism on the GBR contributed A$5.1 billion to the Australian economy. The tourism is mostly foreign or from remote parts of Australia, with a local contribution of about A$153 million. In particular, about 14.6 million visits were made to the Coral Sea reefs by the Queensland residents over 12 months in 2008. Growing concerns over the environmental effects of tourism resulted in establishment in 1975 of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. There are also smaller state and national parks. In 1981, the Great Barrier Reef was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. From the middle of 2004, approximately one-third of the GBR Marine Park is protected from species removal of any kind, including fishing, without written permission.

It was suggested in 1923 that the Great Barrier Reef contains a major oil reservoir. After the Commonwealth Petroleum Search Subsidies Act of 1957, hydrocarbon exploration increased in Queensland, including a well drilled at Wreck Island in the southern Great Barrier Reef in 1959. In the 1960s, drilling for oil and gas was investigated throughout the Great Barrier Reef, in the Torres Strait, along "the eastern seaboard of Cape York to Princess Charlotte Bay" and along the coast from Cooktown to Fraser Island. In the late 1960s, more exploratory oil wells were drilled near Wreck Island in the Capricorn Channel, and near Darnley Island in the Torres Strait, but with no results. In the 1970s, responding to concern about oil spills, the Australian government forbade petroleum drilling on the GBR. Yet oil spills due to shipping accidents are still a threat to environment, with a total of 282 spills between 1987 and 2002.

Queensland has several major urban centres on the coast including Cairns, Townsville, Mackay, Rockhampton, Bundaberg, Sunshine Coast and the industrial city of Gladstone, which inevitably contaminate the sea. About thirty rivers and hundreds of small streams add continental water, which contains sediments, pesticides and industrial waste. Runoff is especially concerning in the region south of Cairns, as it may receive up to 4200 mm of rain per year. About 90% of sea contamination originates from land farming activities. The area is continuously urbanising, so that the population is expected to increase by 40% by 2026. As a result, 70–90% of the coastal wetlands has been lost over the past decades, and many remaining flora species are endangered.

On 3 April 2010, the Chinese ship Shen Neng 1 carrying 950 tonnes of oil, ran aground east of Rockhampton in Central Queensland, Australia, causing the 2010 Great Barrier Reef oil spill and inflicting the largest damage to the GBR and the Coral Sea so far. The scarred area was roughly  long and  wide, and some parts of it have become completely devoid of marine life. There are concerns that there could be considerable long-term damage and it will take 10 to 20 years for the reef to recover. By 13 April 2010, oil tar balls were washing up on the beaches of North West Island, a significant bird rookery and turtle nesting colony.

Protection
The Coral Sea Commonwealth Marine Reserve was proclaimed in December 2013, but it was not seen to offer enough protection for the environment. A group of 10 environmental NGOs came together as a coalition called the Protect our Coral Sea campaign, asking the government to create a very large highly protected Coral Sea Marine Park. In November 2011 the Australian government announced that a  protected area was planned and pending approval.

The Coral Sea Commonwealth Marine Reserve was renamed as the Coral Sea Marine Park in October 2017. It covers an area of  and is assigned IUCN category IV. It is Australia's largest single marine park and is one of the world's largest protected areas.

Research
Before 2020, only shallow parts of Coral Sea reefs had been mapped. During 2020 some of the deepest parts of the sea were mapped using an advanced multi-beam sonar system aboard a research ship owned by the Schmidt Ocean Institute, after it was diverted from a Papua New Guinea deployment because of the pandemic. A robotic submarine sent back the first ever high-resolution footage and seafloor mapping of the vital marine protected area connecting the Great Barrier Reef to the Pacific Ocean. An area of  was mapped, during 14 dives by the submarine, which went down up to  into the depths and spent almost 100 hours in the sea. Geoscientist Jody Webster of the University of Sydney, marine geologist Robin Beaman of James Cook University led the expedition, with colleagues controlling the diving and mapping remotely. Rare  marine life was identified after the images were shared with other scientists on social media, but researchers think that some of the species captured on film could be entirely new to science. Notable finds included a species of spikefish called Hollardia goslinei, previously only seen in Hawaii, and Tosanoides bennetti, first described in 2019 and never seen alive.

See also

APNG (cable system)
Coral Sea Islands
Torres Strait Islands
Willis Island

References

Bibliography

External links

Australia–New Caledonia border
Australia–Solomon Islands border
Marginal seas of the Pacific Ocean
Bodies of water of Australia
Seas of Oceania
Geology of the Pacific Ocean

Coral Sea


Stefan Wyszyński (3 August 1901 – 28 May 1981) was a Polish prelate of the Catholic Church. He served as Bishop of Lublin from 1946 to 1948, Archbishop of Warsaw and Archbishop of Gniezno from 1948 to 1981. He was created a cardinal on 12 January 1953 by Pope Pius XII. He assumed the title of Primate of Poland.

The case for his beatification and canonization opened in 1989 (he had the title of Servant of God when the cause commenced) and has many proponents in the Vatican and in his native Poland, where he is well known for his stands against both National Socialism and Communism, and because of his connections to Pope John Paul II (he played a key role in urging Cardinal Wojtyła to accept his election as pope). Pope Francis named him as Venerable on 18 December 2017 upon confirming his heroic virtue. He was scheduled to be beatified in Warsaw on 7 June 2020 but the beatification was delayed because of the COVID-19 pandemic. It was rescheduled and celebrated on 12 September 2021.

To many he was the unquestionable spiritual leader of the Polish nation, in opposition to the totalitarian communist government. He is also credited for the survival of Polish Christianity in the face of its repression and persecution during the reign of the 1945–1989 Communist regime. He himself was imprisoned for three years, and is considered by many to be one of Poland's national heroes.

Early life and ordination
Wyszyński was born in the village of Zuzela in eastern Mazovia on the Bug River. During the Partitions of Poland, this area was part of the Russian Empire (more specifically, Congress Poland) until the end of the First World War. The Wyszyński family counted itself among the nobility of Poland (the szlachta), with the coat of arms of Trzywdar and the title of baron, although it was not materially well off.

Wyszyński's mother died when he was nine. In 1912, his father sent him to Warsaw. In the years 1914–1916 Stefan attended the high-school in Łomża. The following year he enrolled in the seminary in Włocławek, and on his 23rd birthday (3 August 1924), after being hospitalised with a serious illness, he received his priestly ordination from Bishop Wojciech Stanisław Owczarek.

Priest and professor
Wyszyński celebrated his first Solemn High Mass of Thanksgiving, at Jasna Góra in Częstochowa, a place of special spiritual significance for many Catholic Poles. The Pauline monastery there holds the picture of the Black Madonna, or Our Lady of Częstochowa, the patron saint and guardian of Poland. Wyszyński spent the next four years in Lublin, where in 1929 he received a doctorate at the Faculty of Canon Law and the Social Sciences of the Catholic University of Lublin. His dissertation in Canon Law was entitled The Rights of the Family, Church and State to Schools. For several years after graduation he traveled throughout Europe, where he furthered his education.

After returning to Poland, Wyszyński began teaching at the seminary in Włocławek. When the Second World War broke out with the German invasion of Poland in 1939, he was forced to leave Włocławek because he was wanted by the Gestapo: he had written articles critical of the Nazis in a Catholic journal. At the request of Bishop Kozal, he went to Laski near Warsaw. When the Warsaw Uprising broke out on 1 August 1944, he adopted the nom de guerre "Radwan II" and became chaplain of the insurgents' hospital in Laski, and of the Żoliborz military district of the Armia Krajowa, the Polish underground resistance organisation.

During the Nazi occupation of Poland, Wyszyński aided several Jews. In the fall of 1941, the future cardinal had arrived in  to an estate run by Franciscan nuns to hide from the Gestapo. While there, Wyszyński and another man helped hide a Jewish widower and his two children - who would later be denounced by a Ukrainian nationalist and killed by the Germans - in an attic. Additionally, Esther Grinberg, in her testimony held at the Yad Vashem Institute in Jerusalem, mentions twice that she survived the Holocaust rescued by Poles who hid her after Wyszyński had implored them, in veiled language of a sermon, to save Jews "running from the fire of war".

In 1945, a year after the end of war in the area, Wyszyński returned to Włocławek, where he started a restoration project for the devastated seminary, becoming its rector as well as the chief editor of a Catholic weekly.

Bishop
Just a year later, on 25 March 1946, Pope Pius XII appointed him Bishop of Lublin; he was consecrated by Cardinal August Hlond on 12 May that year. After Hlond's death on 22 October 1948, he was named Archbishop of Gniezno and Warsaw, and thus Primate of Poland, on 12 November 1948. As the cardinal lay dying, he had asked that Wyszyński's name be forwarded to Rome as a potential replacement.

Post-war resistance to Communism

World War II ended in 1945; however, beginning in the eastern portion of present-day Poland, and later in the west, hostilities continued for several years between a large segment of Poles and the Stalinist government. The Catholic Church hoped for the return of the Polish government-in-exile from London and the removal of Stalin's puppet regime; it actively supported the anti-Communists. One of the prime issues was the confiscation of church property by the Communist government. In 1950, Wyszyński decided to enter into a secret agreement with the Communist authorities, which was signed on 14 April 1950 by the Polish episcopate and the government. The agreement settled the political disputes of the church versus the government in Poland. It allowed the church to hold onto "reasonable" property, separated the church from politics, and even allowed authorities to select a bishop from a list of three candidates.

Beginning in 1953, another wave of persecution swept Poland. When the bishops continued their support for anti-Communist resistance, the government began holding mass trials and imprisoning priests, including Wyszyński, who had just been made cardinal. On 25 September 1953 he was imprisoned at Rywałd, and later placed under house arrest in  near Lidzbark Warmiński, in Prudnik near Opole and in the Komańcza monastery in the Bieszczady Mountains. While imprisoned, he observed the brutal torture and mistreatment of detainees, some of it highly perverse in nature. He was released on 26 October 1956 following Polish October.

Cardinal and Primate of Poland

On 12 January 1953, Wyszyński was elevated to the rank of cardinal by Pope Pius XII, but it was not until 18 May 1957 that he was designated Cardinal-Priest of Santa Maria in Trastevere.

He never stopped his religious and social work. Its crowning achievement was the celebration of Poland's Millennium of Christianity in 1966 – the thousandth anniversary of the baptism of Poland's first historical ruler, Mieszko I. During the celebration, the Communist authorities refused to allow Pope Paul VI to visit Poland and they also prevented Cardinal Wyszyński from attending celebrations abroad. Wyszyński triumphed in 1978, when Karol Wojtyła of Kraków was elected Pope John Paul II, followed by a spectacular papal visit to Poland in 1979. Wyszyński did not turn a blind eye towards the civil unrest in 1980. When the Solidarity trade union was created in Poland, he appealed to both sides, the government as well as the striking workers, to act responsibly.

Cardinal Wyszyński, often called the Primate of the Millennium, died on 28 May 1981 at the age of 79 of abdominal cancer. He is buried in St. John's Archcathedral in Warsaw. The cardinal, who had heard of the assassination attempt on the pope, offered his own life for that of the pontiff's.

To commemorate the twentieth anniversary of his death, the year 2001 was announced by the Sejm as the Year of Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński. The Sejm also honoured the Cardinal as a "great Pole, chaplain and statesman".

Legacy

In 1981 Krzysztof Penderecki composed the Agnus Dei of his Polish Requiem in his memory. In 2000, a motion picture was made about the life and imprisonment of Wyszyński. The Primate – Three Years Out of a Thousand was directed by Teresa Kotlarczyk. The title role was played by Andrzej Seweryn.

In the CBS miniseries Pope John Paul II (based on the life of the Polish pope), Cardinal Wyszyński was portrayed by English actor Christopher Lee.

Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński University in Warsaw, earlier the Warsaw Theological Academy, was renamed for him. The Museum of John Paul II and Primate Wyszyński is being constructed at the Temple of Divine Providence in Warsaw.

In 2022, another motion picture of Wyszyński's life was made. Prophet, was directed by Michal Kondrat. The title role was played by Slawomir Grzymkowski.

Beatification

The official "nihil obstat" was declared for the late cardinal on 26 April 1989 at the behest of Pope John Paul II. This gave Wyszyński the title of Servant of God and was the first step on the road to sainthood. The diocesan process of the cause commenced on 29 May 1989 and it concluded its business on 6 February 2001; the process was ratified by the Congregation for the Causes of Saints on 8 February 2002 in Rome. The Positio was assembled and was submitted to the Congregation for the Causes of Saints in November 2015 in which documents were submitted to the Cardinal Prefect Angelo Amato from Cardinal Kazimierz Nycz.

Theologians met to discuss the contents of the Positio on 26 April 2016 and voted in favor of the late cardinal's life of heroic virtue. It must be passed onto the members of the C.C.S. before receiving papal approval. The C.C.S. cardinal and bishop members voted and approved the cause in their meeting on 12 December 2017. Pope Francis confirmed his heroic virtue on 18 December 2017 and titled the late cardinal as Venerable.

An investigation on a diocesan level was initiated on 27 March 2012 for an alleged miracle attributed to him which concluded its business on 28 May 2013; the process was validated on 10 October 2014. The documentation proceeded from that point to Rome for further evaluation, but this evaluation could only take place upon the declaration of his heroic virtue (this happened in 2017 allowing for the miracle to be further assessed). The medical experts in Rome approved the miracle on 29 November 2018 with theologians later confirming it as well as the cardinals and bishops comprising the Congregation on 24 September 2019.

On 3 October 2019, the Congregation for the Causes of the Saints officially approved the miracle, the last step to his beatification after the Congregation's members themselves approved the miracle on 24 September. The beatification was scheduled to take place in Warsaw on 7 June 2020 but was delayed because of the COVID-19 pandemic. The beatification was re-scheduled and celebrated on 12 September 2021 with Cardinal Marcello Semeraro presiding on the Pope's behalf.

See also
 Letter of Reconciliation of the Polish Bishops to the German Bishops

Bibliography

Czaczkowska E., Kardynał Wyszyński, Świat Książki, Warszawa 2009, ;
Micewski A., Kardynał Wyszyński. Prymas i mąż stanu, Éditions du Dialogue, Paris 1982, ;
Romaniuk M.P., Prymas Wyszyński. Biografia i wybrane źródła, Gaudentinum, Gniezno 2001, ;
Szeloch H., Rodzina wobec pomocniczości i dobra wspólnego w nauczaniu społecznym Stefana Kardynała Wyszyńskiego – Prymasa Polski, PWT Wrocław 1988.

References

Books
Love and Social Justice: Reflections on Society, Arouca Press, 2021

External links
 Rooney, David M., Religion and nationalism in Soviet and East European politics, National Review; 11/7/1986.
 Virtual tour Gniezno Cathedral
List of Primates of Poland

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People from Ostrów Mazowiecka County
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Beatifications by Pope Francis
Deaths from cancer in Poland
Recipients of the Order of the White Eagle (Poland)

Stefan Wyszyński


Saint Donatus Catholic Church is a parish of the Archdiocese of Dubuque located in the Jackson County, Iowa community of St. Donatus.  The patron of the parish and the town is Saint Donatus of Muenstereifel, whose cultus is popular in Luxembourg and the Rhineland.  The parish complex includes a church building, rectory, chapel and cemetery.  They are all contributing properties in the Village of St. Donatus Historic District, which was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1989.

Description
The original church building, modeled after St. Boniface Church in New Vienna,  was completed in 1858.  It was destroyed in a fire on November 24, 1907.  The exterior stone walls survived, and were used to build the present church. It was completed in 1908. The stone for the bell tower was quarried from the nearby bluffs.  It is capped by a wooden steeple. There is little in the way of exterior ornamentation. The exterior stone walls have been covered with a coating of cement and lime.  The parish cemetery is located behind the church.  Some of the earlier graves are marked by elaborate iron crosses. Some of the early stone headstones were made in Dubuque, while others were created by 0. Wenzler of Milwaukee.  The rectory, located next to the church, is a contemporary of the original church.  It was built of stone that was quarried nearby and covered with light yellow/brown stucco.  It is capped with a hip roof that features cross gabled dormer windows.  The moderate pitch of the roof and the lack of eaves are typical of traditional Luxembourg architecture.

The parish is known for its outdoor Stations of the Cross located on the hill behind the church.  They were constructed in 1861 under the direction of the Rev. J. Michael Flammang, and may be one of the first developed in the United States.  Each of the fourteen stations are , and are placed in open, arched entrances and gabled roofs. They are spaced at intervals of about  along a dirt footpath that winds its way to the top of the bluff and the Pieta Chapel. During Holy Week the church sponsors a procession through the outdoor stations to the small chapel at the top of this hill.  The chapel is modeled after the Chapel du Bildchen near Vianden, Luxembourg.  The simple cut-stone structure was completed in 1885. The exterior stone has been left bare, and has little ornamentation.  A simple wooden bell tower is located above the front gable.

References

Roman Catholic churches completed in 1908
Donatus
Churches in Jackson County, Iowa
Gothic Revival church buildings in Iowa
Churches on the National Register of Historic Places in Iowa
National Register of Historic Places in Jackson County, Iowa
Historic district contributing properties in Iowa
1858 establishments in Iowa
20th-century Roman Catholic church buildings in the United States

Saint Donatus Catholic Church


Colony, or Colony Bar and Grill is a restaurant, bar and grill located at 7–9 Paddington Street, Marylebone, Central London, England. It opened in early April 2010 and was run by restaurateur Carlo Spetale and the Michelin-starred executive chef Atul Kochhar.

Atul Kocchar announced he was leaving the business in June 2011 to focus on other interests. The split was described as amicable.

The cuisine of the restaurant is inspired by that of the British colonies from colonial Asia, East Africa, the Caribbean etc. but is mainly inspired by Indian street food, specifically "the marinades, aromatic flavours and grilling methods" of the street traders of colonial Asia.
 The General Manager of the restaurant is John Lacombe, formerly of The Connaught Hotel, 5th Floor Restaurant at Harvey Nichols and Notting Hill Brasserie amongst others. Lacombe is also responsible for the winery of the restaurant. It has a reputable cocktail lounge.

Reception
The restaurant has received mixed reviews. Zoe Williams of The Daily Telegraph was highly praising and described the restaurant as "I think this is what heaven will look like – complete with a barman making you feel it would be almost rude not to have a martini. " Williams was content with her meal and remarked that the "pancakes were made of chickpea flour (the chickpeas' main contribution was a lovely, rich density, with only the whiff of their flavour), packed with spinach, in a tomato and cream sauce".

Tracey MacLeod of The Independent was critical about the menu, saying:

Colony, in slightly less leafy Marylebone, calls itself a bar and grill, but the menu is far less casual than this implies. Rather than serving a selection of patties, puris and grilled meats, or going down the Anglo-Indian route pioneered by Chutney Mary, the restaurant offers complex, recondite dishes which would have the memsahibs calling for the smelling salts. Roasted mallard marinated in lindi peppers and stone moss? Lamb meat loaf infused with rose petals? Veal vindaloo with coriander chips? Whatever this is, it certainly isn't street food.

She said about the food, "Even though many of the dishes we tried were very good, they weren't quite good enough to earn Colony a rave review", and remarked that the chicken tikka masala was "authentically inauthentic, in its creamy sweetness and brick-red colour." Both MacLeod and Hugo Rifkind of The Times were unconvinced with the authenticity of the cuisine, mentioning that is more a fusion of Eastern and Western cuisines rather than truly Asian.

Matthew Norman of The Guardian was strongly negative of the restaurant, giving it a scathing review and a score of 0.05/10.

Notable diners
The restaurant is said to be a favourite of Simon Cowell's when he is in London and in September 2010 Liam Gallagher stormed out of the restaurant after the staff refused to make him a bacon butty.

References

External links

 Carlo Spetale runs several restaurant businesses in London: http://intercreditreport.com/search/1?query=Carlo+spetale .

Asian restaurants in London
Fusion cuisine
Restaurants established in 2010
2010 establishments in England
2010 in London

Colony (restaurant)


Edmount Island, also called Ballinger Island, is a  island in Lake Ballinger, in the Seattle suburbs of south Snohomish County, in the U.S. state of Washington.

A home was constructed on the island  the early 1900s, in which lived settlers Ira Bartholemew and Julia Bartholomew, who may have built it as a hunting lodge, then Seattle mayor Richard A. Ballinger and Julia Ballinger during the summers, and Richard Achilles' father Col. Richard Henry Ballinger (from whom the lake the island is situated in is named for), a U.S. Civil War veteran. The Bartholomews were from Pennsylvania and homesteaded the lake island in 1862 – "perhaps, the only homestead of its kind in the entire country" – requiring the United States government to re-survey the land which did not exist in official records. A land patent was issued in 1902. At one time, a wooden bridge linked the west shore to the island.

As of the 2010s, the island is part of Mountlake Terraces Ballinger Park. The home and lodge are no longer standing. The island is made of peat, which was completely engulfed in a runaway barbecue fire during a summer heat wave in 2009. Since the fire, the island has been closed to public access, with emergency access provided by the local fire department's rigid inflatable boat.

Notes

References

External links

1862 in Washington Territory
Geography of Snohomish County, Washington
Islands of Washington (state)
Uninhabited islands of Washington (state)
Lake islands of Washington (state)

Edmount Island


is a Japanese keyboardist and music producer who has worked with artists such as eX-Girl, The Pugs, Bradford Reed, Bill Laswell, Jan Linton, Marc Ribot, Hugh Hopper/Elton Dean and Damo Suzuki.

Biography

His record company, God Mountain, was named after the English translation of his family name. God Mountain was established in 1993 after his frustration with EMI pulling two of his albums from sale.

Kamiyama cites Mauricio Kagel, Luciano Berio, Iannis Xenakis and Karlheinz Stockhausen as his influences – artists with a "bizarre sense and distorted feel and touch".

His nickname is derived from Hoppy, a cheap Japanese liquor that he drank during his early professional musician days.

References

External links
 Official fan site
 God Mountain

1960 births
Living people
Japanese record producers
Japanese jazz keyboardists
Musicians from Saitama Prefecture

Hoppy Kamiyama


Lac de Maury (also known as Lac de la Selves) is a lake in Aveyron, France. At an elevation of 590 m, its surface area is 1.66 km².

The Lac de Maury lies in the communes of Saint-Amans-des-Cots, Florentin-la-Capelle, Montpeyroux, Entraygues-sur-Truyère and Campouriez.

Maury

Lac de Maury


Cliffside Railroad was a Class III railroad operating freight service in southwestern North Carolina from 1905 until service ended in 1987.  The line was formally abandoned in 1992.

History

The Cliffside Railroad Company was incorporated on March 2, 1905, and the 3.7-mile railroad line was opened between Cliffside, North Carolina to Cliffside Junction that same year.

In 1984, the railroad acquired the Seaboard System Railroad branch line between Ellenboro, North Carolina and Cliffside Junction, increasing the railroad's total mileage to 8.14.

By the 1980s, the railroad's traffic mix included textile products, waste, and scrap, and the railroad was owned by the Cone Mills Corporation and others.

Late in 1987, the railroad's service was suspended.  The line was formally abandoned in January 1992.

Preserved Equipment

Two of the railroad's steam locomotives, both of which representing the last steam engines to operate on the railroad before it dieselized in 1962, have been preserved:

Number 110, 2-6-2, built by the Vulcan Iron Works in 1927 as McRae Lumber & Manufacturing Gulf number 1.  Later went to the Beechwood Band Mill in Cordele, Georgia, and was acquired by the Cliffside in 1933.  The engine made its final run on July 23, 1962, after which the railroad switched entirely to diesel powered operations and the 110 was placed in reserve until it was sold to the Swamp Rabbit Railroad in Cleveland, South Carolina, a year later.  Swamp Rabbit eventually sold the engine to the Stone Mountain Scenic Railroad, where it was given the name "Yonah II" and operated around Stone Mountain Park until it encountered running gear issues and was withdrawn in 1982.  In 1984, the 110 was placed on display outside the Stone Mountain's Memorial Depot. In late 2012, Stone Mountain sold the 110 to the New Hope Valley Railway in Bonsal, NC for eventual restoration to operation on their 4.5 mile tourist railroad.
Number 40, 2-8-0, built by the Baldwin Locomotive Works in 1925 for the Lancaster and Chester Railway.  The Cliffside Railroad bought the engine in 1947, and the engine operated until 1962 when, despite having been refurbished for continued use, the engine had been retired by the Cliffside and sold to the New Hope Railroad, where it continues to operate.

See also

New Hope Railroad 40
New Hope Railroad

References

Defunct North Carolina railroads
Railway companies established in 1905
Railway companies disestablished in 1987
American companies established in 1905

Cliffside Railroad


"The Diminisher" is the alter-ego of Chicago musician David McDonnell (born  1976), who was a founding member of the trio Bablicon, bass player Griffin Rodriguez informally assigned the moniker in reference to McDonnell's liberal use of the so-called diminished chord in Bablicon songs. When Bablicon informally dissolved in 2001, he began or joined a number of experimental jazz/rock projects, such as Michael Columbia and Icy Demons, and continued composing in Chicago.

In 2006, McDonnell released a solo album on the label Unsound Records, titled Imaginary Volcano, under the name of The Diminisher.

References

1976 births
Living people

The Diminisher


The following is a list of monarchs of the Kingdom of Desmond. Most were of the MacCarthy Mór ("great MacCarthy"), the senior branch of the MacCarthy dynasty.

12th century

MacCarthy

MacCarthy claimants

O'Brien claimants

MacCarthy

13th century

14th century

15th century

16th century

Claim I

Claim II

Final

Later MacCarthy Mór chiefs
The title Chief of the Name MacCarthy Mór, heir of the historical chief, was claimed by Terence Francis MacCarthy and recognised in 1992 by the Chief Herald of Ireland. In 1999 recognition was withdrawn after it emerged that evidence for the claim had been fabricated.

In June 2009, Liam Trant MacCarthy (born 27 December 1957) of Southern Rhodesia received recognition from Garter Principal King of Arms at the College of Arms in London as the senior descendant and claimant to the title MacCarthy Mór. He is the son of Cormac Trant McCarthy (1931-1999), the son of William, otherwise Liam, Trant McCarthy, Solicitor (1894-1967), the son of William Patrick Trant McCarthy (1853-1901), the son of Daniel McCarthy of Srugrena and his wife Ellen, the daughter of Patrick Trant of Waterford. The top two generations of this pedigree appear on a pedigree in the former Ulster Office of Arms. The family pedigree was also published in  Burke's Irish Landed Gentry under the heading MacCarthy of Srugrena Abbey Co. Kerry.

References

See also
Earl of Clancarty
Earl of Desmond
Eóganachta
FitzGerald dynasty
Kings of Munster
MacCarthy of Muskerry
MacCarthy Reagh

Munster
History of County Cork
History of County Kerry

MacCarthy dynasty

List of monarchs of Desmond


Warm is the opposite of cool.

When objects get warm, more energy is stored in them. When an object is heated, its molecules move faster. Heat always goes from a warmer object to a colder object; it never goes in the opposite way. A person usually feels good when they are warm, but they do not like to be too warm, because this may become uncomfortable.

Basic English 850 words
Thermodynamics

Warm


Gerboise Bleue (; ) was the codename of the first French nuclear test. It was conducted by the Nuclear Experiments Operational Group (GOEN), a unit of the Joint Special Weapons Command on 13 February 1960, at the Saharan Military Experiments Centre near Reggane, French Algeria in the Sahara desert region of Tanezrouft, during the Algerian War. General Pierre Marie Gallois was instrumental in the endeavour, and earned the nickname of père de la bombe A ("father of the A-bomb").

Name
Gerboise is the French word for jerboa, a desert rodent found in the Sahara. The color blue (Bleue) adjuncted is said to come from the first colour of the French Flag.

Test

Explosion
On April 11, 1958, French Prime Minister Félix Gaillard ordered a nuclear test in the first quarter of 1960. President Charles de Gaulle reaffirmed the decision after the French Fourth Republic collapsed in the May 1958 crisis.

On 13 February 1960 at 7:04:00 UTC, the plutonium filled bomb was detonated atop a steel tower with an altitude of 100 metres. The command post was located 16 kilometres away from the blast. In order to study the immediate effects, military equipment was placed at varying distances from the epicenter, while jets flew overhead to take samples of radioactive particles. No journalists were allowed on site; instead, an eyewitness account was given to the French press, saying "the desert was lit up by a vast flash, followed 45 seconds later by an appreciable shock-wave"; an "enormous ball of bluish fire with an orange-red centre" gave way to the typical mushroom cloud.

With Gerboise Bleue, France became the fourth nuclear power, after the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United Kingdom. Prior to this test, there had been no nuclear detonations for 15 months. Gerboise Bleue was by far the largest first test bomb up to that date, larger than the American "Trinity" (20 kt), the Soviet "RDS-1" (22 kt), or the British "Hurricane" (25 kt). The yield was 70 kilotons, bigger than these three bombs put together; In comparison, Fat Man, the Nagasaki bomb, was 22 kilotons, one-third as powerful.

As the atomic yield of a new bomb design cannot be precisely predicted, the French army planned an explosion between 60 and 70 kt. Gerboise Bleue was a total success, yielding the full designed power. However, because of the bomb's irregularly high yield, some experts believe that the bomb may have been "overfilled with plutonium to assure success".

Only two other A-bombs tested in the Sahara facilities were more powerful: Rubis (<100 kt, 20 October 1963), and Saphir (<150 kt, 25 February 1965). Both were detonated underground at the In Ekker facilities.

According to Lieutenant Colonel Warner D. Farr in a report to the USAF Counterproliferation Center "Progress in nuclear science and technology in France and Israel remained closely linked throughout the early fifties." Furthermore, according to Farr, "There were several Israeli observers at the French nuclear tests and the Israelis had 'unrestricted access to French nuclear test explosion data.'"

Fallout
Initial monitoring reported a radiation dose of 10 rad/h at 0.8 km from ground zero one hour after the blast, 10 rad/h at 28.5 km and 3 rad/h at 570 km. Monitoring at Fort Lamy (now N'Djamena), around 2,400 km from Reggane, reported 10−9 Ci/m3.

For decades, documentation of the Gerboise tests remained heavily classified by the French government. The Ministry of the Armed Forces had maintained that the radioactive effects on humans present at the site would be "weak", and "well below annual doses." However, persons present at the site have since stated that protection gear was extremely minimal at the time of testing. In addition, ex-military officers have come forward with stories of being used as test subjects to study the effects of nuclear radiation on humans. Immediately following the explosion of Gerboise Verte (which yielded <1 kiloton), soldiers were sent within a 1 km radius of the explosion site, where they practiced combat exercises and drove tanks around the area. In total, these subjects were exposed to high levels of radiation for three hours. Following the exercises, the soldiers state that they were given showers as the only means of decontamination.

Subsequent tests
After Gerboise Bleue in February 1960, France conducted until April 1961 three additional atmospheric tests in Reggane facility's Saharan Military Experiments Centre. They were only "emergency devices", with yields deliberately reduced to less than 5 kilotons.

Shortly after the final Gerboise bomb (Gerboise Verte), the French moved their nuclear testing to the mountainous In Ekker region, which housed an underground facility. In 1962, the Algerian War ended with the signing of the Évian Accords. Although the French military agreed to withdraw from Algeria within 12 months, Chapter III of the Évian Accords granted France "the use of a number of military airfields, the terrains, sites and installations necessary to her." It was because of this stipulation that France was able to continue nuclear testing in Algeria until 1966.
With the underground tests the sequence designation was changed to jewel names, starting in November 1961 with Agate (<20 kt). On 1 May 1962, during the second test, the Béryl incident occurred, which was declassified many years later.

Five months after the last Gerboise A-bomb, the Soviet Union responded by breaking its atmospheric tests moratorium, settled de facto since late 1958 with the United States and the United Kingdom. The USSR conducted many improvement tests, starting in September 1961 with a series of 136 large H-bombs. The series included the most powerful bomb ever tested, the 50-megaton (50,000 kt) "Tsar Bomba", which was detonated over Novaya Zemlya.

Following the USSR, the United States reactivated its own atmospheric test program with a series of 40 explosions from April 1962 to November 1962. This series included two powerful H-bombs topping 7.45 Mt and 8.3 Mt.

China also launched its own nuclear program, resulting in the A-bomb "596" (22 kt) tested on 16 October 1964, and the H-bomb Test No. 6 (3.3 Mt), tested 17 June 1967.

In 1968, France detonated its first thermonuclear weapon, Canopus (2.6 Mt), at the new facility at Fangataufa, a desert atoll in French Polynesia.

All other French atomic-bomb tests, including Canopus, were carried out in French Polynesia from 1966 to 1996. The last bomb, Xouthos (<120 kt), was detonated on 27 January 1996.

See also List of nuclear weapons tests of France.

International reactions

In France, the news of Gerboise Bleues success was generally met with satisfaction and national pride. President De Gaulle stated:{{cquote|Hurray for France! Since this morning, she is stronger and prouder.Il y a cinquante ans, la France réalisait son premier essai nucléaire, Jean-Dominique Merchet, Libération, 13 February 2010
}}

However, the nation faced many international critics following the nuclear test, especially from Africa. Just days after the test, all French assets in Ghana were frozen, "until such time as the effects of the present explosion and the future experiments referred to by the French Prime Minister become known." Morocco, which lays claim to the portion of the Sahara where the bomb was detonated, withdrew its ambassador from Paris just two days after the event. Other African nations expressed their disappointment with France's decision to test nuclear weapons in the Sahara, citing fears of radioactive fallout and the safety of their citizens.

 Programme

13 February 1960: Gerboise Bleue ("blue jerboa"): 70 kt
1 April 1960: Gerboise Blanche ("white jerboa"): <5 kt
27 December 1960: Gerboise Rouge ("red jerboa"): <5 kt
25 April 1961: Gerboise Verte ("green jerboa"): <1 ktGerboise Rouge was followed by a joint exercise, in which infantry, helicopters and armour reconnoitered the contaminated area.Gerboise Verte was intended to yield between 6 and 18 kilotonnes, but effectively yielded less than 1. Like Gerboise Rouge, it was followed by a joint exercise in the contaminated area, codenamed Garigliano. The test had been patched up hastily and fired prematurely because of the Algiers putsch, as it was feared that the nuclear bomb could fall in the hands of seditious elements. As a result, the bomb yielded less than 1 kiloton, 10 times less than the intended output.

 Later effects
After the tests, nuclear fallout was detected as far away as Senegal, Ivory Coast, Burkina Faso and Sudan.

In 2005, the Algerian government asked for a study to assess the radioactivity of former nuclear testing sites. The International Atomic Energy Agency published the report suggesting that Gerboise Bleue explosion site had the second highest caesium-137 surface levels of the four tests of the series, with a residual surface activity between 0.02 and 2.0 MBq/m2 over a surface area of about 1 km2. The same report showed that the fallout of the bomb were contained in a circular area of less than 1 km in diameter. It also stated that these levels were not enough to warrant intervention and did not pose a threat to visitors of the area or inhabitants of Reggane.

In 2009, the French government agreed to compensate victims who had been exposed to nuclear radiation as a result of the testing in Algeria and French Polynesia. The government also agreed to release additional documents which detailed how the tests had been carried out.

According to the French NGO ACRO, Saharan dust blown northwards by strong seasonal winds to France in early 2021 carried measurable levels of radioactive caesium-137 attributable to the Gerboise tests.

 See also
 Agate (French first underground A-bomb)
 Canopus (French first atmospheric H-bomb)
 Force de Frappe''
 List of nuclear weapons tests of France
 List of states with nuclear weapons
 Nuclear weapons and France
 History of nuclear weapons

Notes

References

External links
 Report of Pierre Billaud, physician present at the test
 French Assembly report n°3571
 Les premiers essais français au Sahara (1960-1966) (fr)
The failed atomic destiny of the French Algeria (fr)
 Podcast BBC Witness History: France's nuclear tests in Algeria (9 minutes, 19 January 2023)

French nuclear weapons testing
1960 in France
1960 in Algeria
History of the Sahara
Algerian War
Algeria–France relations
1960 in science
1960 in military history
1960 in politics
February 1960 events in Africa

Gerboise Bleue (nuclear test)


Events
 April 11 – Battle of Ravenna. French forces under Gaston de Foix, Duc de Nemours defeat the Spanish under Raymond of Cardona, but Gaston is killed in the fighting.
 October 19 – Martin Luther becomes a doctor of theology [Doctor in Biblia].
 October 21 – Martin Luther joins the theological faculty of the University of Wittenberg
 November 1 – The ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, painted by Michelangelo (Michelangelo Buonarroti), is shown to the public for the first time.
 Juan Ponce de León discovers the Turks and Caicos Islands.
 Selim I succeeds Beyazid II as Sultan, ruler of the Ottoman Empire.
 Moldavia is conquered by the Turks.
 Copernicus writes Commentariolus and moves the sun to the center of the solar system.
 First use of the word "masque" to denote a poetic drama.
 Florentine Republic is dismantled and the Medici family comes back into power.

Births
 January 31 – King Henry of Portugal (d. 1580)
 March 5 – Gerardus Mercator, Flemish cartographer (d. 1594)
 April 10 – King James V of Scotland (d. 1542)
 Galeazzo Alessi, Italian architect (d. 1572)
 Henry Balnaves, Scottish politician and religious reformer (d. 1579)
 Patrick Hepburn, 3rd Earl of Bothwell, Scottish renegade (d. 1556)
 Edward Fiennes Clinton, English admiral (d. 1585)
 Marcin Kromer, bishop of Warnia (d. 1589)
 James Lainez, Jesuit General and theologian (d.1565)
 Catherine Parr, sixth wife of Henry VIII of England (d. 1548)
 Mikolaj Rudy Radziwill, Polish magnate (d. 1584)
 Tabinshwehti, king who unified Burma
 Adrianus Turnebus, French classical scholar (d. 1565)
 Jeronimo Zurita y Castro, Spanish historian (d. 1580)

Deaths

1512


"One Last Thing" (previously titled "Horse and Wagon" and also known as "One Last Time") is the ninth episode of the third season of the American television drama series Homeland, and the 33rd episode overall. It premiered on Showtime on November 24, 2013.

Plot
Saul (Mandy Patinkin) and Dar Adal (F. Murray Abraham) watch over the agonizing ordeal of Brody (Damian Lewis) going through heroin withdrawal. Saul has six days until Lockhart assumes control of the CIA and wants Brody to fulfill his role before then.  When it looks like Brody's heroin withdrawals will take too long, Dar Adal endorses the use of ibogaine, a drug which speeds up the withdrawal process but also induces severe, violent hallucinations; Adal implies that he's used the drug for that purpose. During a bad series of hallucinations, Brody smashes a wooden chair in his room and uses a broken piece to repeatedly stab himself in the arm, as if with a needle, before Saul physically restrains him.

When Brody has been weaned off the heroin, Saul offers him a chance at redemption with a mission where he can "be a Marine again". Brody declines, saying he'd rather just die. Saul goes to Carrie (Claire Danes) and outlines his plans:  Brody will seek political asylum in Iran where he will likely be hailed as a hero, with the goal of assassinating the leader of the Revolutionary Guard, which would then lead to Majid Javadi inheriting that position. Carrie, in an attempt to motivate Brody, takes him to the motel where Dana (Morgan Saylor) is now working as a maid. They sit in the car and wait until Dana comes outside, at which point Brody desperately tries to get out of the car and see her but is subdued by the soldiers flanking him.

Virgil (David Marciano) and Max (Maury Sterling) find the recording device in Saul's house and are able to trace it back to Alain Bernard (William Abadie), who is working in Israeli intelligence. Trailing him, they then take photographs of Bernard meeting with Senator Lockhart (Tracy Letts). Saul uses this information to buy more time for Brody. Lockhart agrees to postpone his appointment as the new director in exchange for Saul not exposing Lockhart as having conspired against him.

Back at the base, Brody pleads with Carrie to be allowed to tell Dana that he is innocent. Carrie retorts that even if he is innocent of the Langley bombing, there are many other things he's done he has to atone for. Carrie appeals to Brody's love of his family and eventually gets him to agree to the mission. Over a period of sixteen days, Brody is worked back into peak physical condition with the assistance of a team of special ops soldiers.

Carrie secretly takes Brody to visit Dana shortly before his scheduled departure. Brody tries to connect with Dana, apologizing for all that he's done to her and insisting that he wasn't responsible for the bombing, but Dana is upset and very standoffish. Brody leaves disheartened when Dana asks him what he wants her to say so that she'll never have to see him again. As he prepares to leave, Brody promises he will survive the mission and return to Dana and Carrie. Brody is taken back to the base where he departs for Iran.

Production
The episode was directed by Jeffrey Reiner and written by co-executive producer Barbara Hall.

Reception

Ratings
The original broadcast was watched by 1.94 million viewers, an increase in viewership from the previous week.

Critical response
Reception of the episode was positive.  Scott Collura of IGN rated the episode 8.5 out of 10 and wrote that "for a change, Homeland hits a good balance between its emotional beats and the thriller-isms it's grown dependent on." TVLine named Damian Lewis the "Performer of the Week" for his performance in this episode, writing that "Brody's accelerated transformation from withered, defeated heroin addict to lucid, able-bodied warrior was one of the more painful and graphic in TV history."

References

External links
"One Last Thing" at Showtime

2013 American television episodes
Homeland (season 3) episodes

One Last Thing (Homeland)


Hellmuth Walter (26 August 1900 – 16 December 1980) was a German engineer who pioneered research into rocket engines and gas turbines. His most noteworthy contributions were rocket motors for the Messerschmitt Me 163 and Bachem Ba 349 interceptor aircraft, so-called Starthilfe jettisonable rocket propulsion units used for a variety of Luftwaffe aircraft during World War II, and a revolutionary new propulsion system for submarines known as air-independent propulsion (AIP).

Early life

Walter began training as a machinist in 1917 in Hamburg and in 1921 commenced studies in mechanical engineering at the Technical University of Berlin. He left before completing these studies, however, in order to take up a position at the Stettiner Maschinenbau AG Vulcan, a major shipyard. Walter's experience with marine engines here led him to become interested in overcoming some of the limitations of the internal combustion engine. He reasoned that an engine powered by a fuel source already rich with oxygen would not require an external supply of oxygen (from the atmosphere or from tanks). This would have obvious advantages for powering submarines and torpedoes.

Research suggested that hydrogen peroxide was a suitable monopropellant fuel—in the presence of a suitable catalyst it would break down into oxygen and steam at high temperature. The heat of the reaction would cause the oxygen and steam to expand, and this could be used as a source of pressure. Walter also realised that another fuel could be injected into this hot mixture of gases to provide combustion and therefore more power. He patented this idea in 1925.

Entrepreneur
After working for some time at the Germaniawerft shipyard in Kiel, Walter branched out on his own in 1934 to form his own company, Hellmuth Walter Kommanditgesellschaft (HWK, or Walter-Werke), to further research and development of his ideas. That same year, he made a proposal to the Oberkommando der Kriegsmarine (OKM – Naval High Command) suggesting that a submarine powered by one of these engines would have considerable speed advantages over the conventional combination of diesel engine(s) for surface running and electric motor(s) while submerged. The proposal was met with much scepticism, but Walter persisted, and in 1937 showed his plans to Karl Dönitz, who was able to assist in obtaining a contract to produce a prototype. Construction started in 1939 on a small research submarine designated the V-80. When it was launched in 1940, the submarine demonstrated a top speed of 23 knots submerged, twice that of any submarine in the world at the time. Despite these spectacular results, problems with the production, supply, and safe handling of hydrogen peroxide prevented wide-scale implementation of Walter's revolutionary engine. In the end, only a handful of German Type XVII submarines were built using this engine, and none saw combat.

Rocket engines

At the same time that Walter was developing submarine engines, he was also applying his ideas to rocketry. The high-pressure gas mixture created by the rapid decomposition of hydrogen peroxide could not only be used in a turbine, but if simply directed out of a nozzle, created considerable thrust. Wernher von Braun's rocketry team working at Peenemünde expressed interest in Walter's ideas, and in 1936 began a programme of installing Walter rockets into aircraft. The experimental results obtained by von Braun created interest among Germany's aircraft manufacturers, including Heinkel and Messerschmitt, and in 1939, the Heinkel He 176 became the first aircraft to fly on liquid-fuelled rocket power alone. This type of engine went on to become the cornerstone of the Messerschmitt Me 163 rocket-powered fighter, when married to Alexander Lippisch's revolutionary airframe design. Throughout the course of World War II, Walter's aircraft engines became increasingly powerful and refined. The original design of simply decomposing hydrogen peroxide was soon changed to its use as an oxidizer (much like dinitrogen tetroxide would be used later) when combined with a hydrazine/methanol true rocket fuel designated C-Stoff, into the hot, high-pressure gases, and in later, never-deployed developments, a second, 400 kg (880 lb) thrust "cruising" combustion chamber, nicknamed a Marschofen, was added below the main chamber to allow for more precise control of the engine. Versions of this engine were intended to power a variety of aircraft design proposals and missile projects and was also licence-built in Japan (see HWK 109-509).

Another Walter engine was used to assist heavily laden aircraft to take off (JATO or RATO). When the rockets' fuel had run out, they would separate from the aircraft and return to the ground by parachute for refurbishment and re-use (see Walther HWK 109-500).

In 1945, Walter was awarded the Knight's Cross for his wartime service. Walter was captured by a British Army unit named T-Force following a 60-mile advance behind German lines to prevent his research falling into the hands of the advancing Russians. His factory was then investigated by 30 Assault Unit, a unit of Royal Marines which had been established by James Bond author Ian Fleming.

Post-war career

The end of the war saw all of his research materials confiscated by the British military and Walter and his colleagues taken to the UK to work for the Royal Navy. With Walter's co-operation, one of the German submarines using his drive, the U-1407 was raised from where it had been scuttled and re-commissioned as HMS Meteorite. The Royal Navy constructed two more submarines using AIP engines before abandoning research in this direction in favour of nuclear power.

Allowed to return to Germany in 1948, Walter worked for the Paul Seifert Engine Works. In 1950 he emigrated to the United States and joined the Worthington Pump Corporation of Harrison, New Jersey, eventually becoming vice president of research and development. In 1956 he founded the company Hellmuth Walter GmbH in Kiel, and in 1967 constructed a civilian submarine, STINT, with Walter propulsion.

See also

List of German inventors and discoverers

Notes

References

External links

 "The Hellmuth Walter Website"

1900 births
1980 deaths
Engineers from Schleswig-Holstein
German rocket scientists
Emigrants from West Germany to the United States
Recipients of the Knights Cross of the War Merit Cross
People from Wedel

Hellmuth Walter


The trauma triad of death is a medical term describing the combination of hypothermia, acidosis, and coagulopathy. This combination is commonly seen in patients who have sustained severe traumatic injuries and results in a significant rise in the mortality rate. Commonly, when someone presents with these signs, damage control surgery is employed to reverse the effects.

The three conditions share a complex relationship; each factor can compound the others, resulting in high mortality if this positive feedback loop continues uninterrupted.

Severe bleeding in trauma diminishes oxygen delivery, and may lead to hypothermia. This in turn can halt the coagulation cascade, preventing blood from clotting. In the absence of blood-bound oxygen and nutrients (hypoperfusion), the body's cells burn glucose anaerobically for energy, causing the release of lactic acid, ketone bodies, and other acidic compounds into the blood stream, which lower the blood's pH, leading to metabolic acidosis. Such an increase in acidity damages the tissues and organs of the body and can reduce myocardial performance, further reducing the oxygen delivery.

References

External links

Blood disorders
Traumatology
Medical emergencies
Trauma surgery
Medical triads

Trauma triad of death


The Overberg branch line is a railway line in the Western Cape, South Africa. It runs from Cape Town through Somerset West and Caledon to Bredasdorp.

Route

The line branches from the Bellville–Stellenbosch line at Eerste River, from which it runs through Faure and Firgrove to Somerset West. From Van der Stel station in Somerset West a short line branches to the right to Strand. After leaving Somerset West the line passes through Sir Lowry's Pass Village and climbs Sir Lowry's Pass. At the summit of the pass the line reaches an elevation of ; the summit tunnel is  long. The line passes through the fruit-farming area of Elgin before descending the Jakkals River valley to Botrivier. From Botrivier it runs across the Overberg plain through Caledon to a junction at Klipdale. From Klipdale one line continues east to Protem, while another goes south to Bredasdorp. Trains from Cape Town to Bredasdorp (or vice versa) cannot pass directly through the junction at Klipdale, but must first pass around a balloon loop. Bredasdorp is the southernmost railway station in Africa.

The line is single-track, and electrified only as far as Strand. Metrorail services of the Northern Line operate from Cape Town through Bellville to Strand; the rest of the line has no regular passenger service.

History

The railway arrived at Eerste River in 1862, as part of the construction of the Cape Town–Wellington railway line, the first in the then Cape Colony. A branch to Somerset West opened by the Cape Government Railways on 21 October 1889, and further to Sir Lowry's Pass Village on 1 February 1890. The Hottentots-Holland mountains were a significant obstacle to any further development, and construction of a line over Sir Lowry's Pass only started on 12 July 1899. The effects of the Anglo-Boer War slowed progress, but by 1 August 1902 the line was opened to Caledon. On 16 December 1905 the short branch to Strand was opened.

Two extensions of the line from Caledon were possible: eastwards towards Riviersonderend and Swellendam, with the ultimate possibility of reaching Mossel Bay; or southwards towards Napier and Bredasdorp. In 1906 a conference of delegates from the Overberg was unable to agree on a route for a continuation of the line. Meanwhile, by early 1906 the New Cape Central Railway (NCCR), a private company, had reached Mossel Bay with its line from Worcester via Swellendam, and was having difficulty running it at a profit; this did not bode well for the profitability of a line from Caledon to Swellendam.

Construction on an extension began in 1914, reaching Rietpoel on 5 January 1914, Klipdale on 6 April 1914, and Protem on 30 June 1915. This route was a compromise, Klipdale being about halfway between Riviersonderend and Bredasdorp. "Protem" means "for the time being", reflecting the intention to continue the line to Swellendam at some time in the future. Ultimately, though, the NCCR was taken over by the South African Railways (SAR) in 1925, making such an extension unnecessary.

In the mid-1920s the SAR embarked on a new phase of railway building, as part of which the line from Klipdale junction south to Bredasdorp was opened on 19 April 1924.

References

Railway lines in South Africa
3 ft 6 in gauge railways in South Africa

Overberg branch line


Roger James Edward Pratt, BSC (born 27 February 1947) is a British cinematographer.

Biography
The son of an Anglican priest, Pratt attended Loughborough Grammar School and then undertook a gap year with Voluntary Service Overseas in Mali. He enrolled at Durham University in 1966, where he graduated from the General Arts programme in 1969. After Durham, Pratt returned down south to study at the London Film School.

Pratt first met Terry Gilliam, one of his most frequent collaborators, while he was working on the set of Monty Python and the Holy Grail (1975) as a clapper loader. Pratt has been the director of photography for more than 35 films, including Batman (1989), Frankenstein (1994), 102 Dalmatians (2000), Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets (2002), Troy (2004), Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire (2005), Inkheart (2008) and The Karate Kid (2010). Other than Gilliam, his most recurring partnerships were with Roger Christian and Richard Attenborough.

He was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Cinematography for his work in The End of the Affair.

Filmography

Short film

Feature film

Television
TV movie

TV series

Awards and nominations

References

External links

Living people
British cinematographers
1947 births
Alumni of the London Film School
Alumni of St John's College, Durham

Roger Pratt (cinematographer)


Guild's Lake (also Guild Lake) was a flood-prone lowland near the confluence of Balch Creek with the Willamette River in the U.S. state of Oregon. Indigenous Multnomah people established villages on nearby Sauvie Island but not in the swampy area along the Balch Creek side of the river in what later became northwest Portland. The lake was at an elevation of  above sea level between what later became Northwest Saint Helens Road and Northwest Yeon Street, slightly west of Northwest 35th Avenue in the Northwest Industrial district of Portland.

The lake took its name from Peter Guild (pronounced guile), one of the first 19th-century settlers in the area. In 1847, he acquired nearly  of the wetlands through a donation land claim. After Guild's death in 1870, various landowners modified the area to accommodate sawmills, railroads, shipping docks, and Portland's city garbage incinerator.  The Guild's Lake Rail Yard, built by the Northern Pacific Railway in the 1880s, became an important switching yard for trains. Beginning in the 1890s, channel-deepening in the Willamette River improved the city's status as a deep-water seaport, as did completion in 1914 of a port terminal. These developments helped make nearby Guild's Lake the most important industrial area in Portland.

In 1905, the Lewis and Clark Centennial Exposition, held on an artificial island in Guild's Lake, had helped spur growth in the area. After the exposition ended, developers filled the lake and its surrounds with rocks and gravel sluiced from parts of the Balch Creek watershed in the West Hills above the floodplain or dredged from the Willamette River. Civic leaders promoted the Guild's Lake area as a good place for industry, and by the mid-1920s the lake was gone. Instead, it became "a drying and settling mud flat ... awaiting development during World War II". During World War II, the Guild's Lake Housing Project, an adjunct to the Vanport project, provided temporary housing for workers in the nearby Kaiser Shipyards. After the war, chemical and petroleum processing and storage, metals manufacturing, and other large industries expanded in the area. In 2001, the Portland City Council adopted the Guild's Lake Industrial Sanctuary Plan aimed at protecting the area's "long-term economic viability as an industrial district."

See also
 List of lakes in Oregon

References

External links
 Guild's Lake in The Oregon Encyclopedia

History of Portland, Oregon
Lakes of Oregon
Former lakes of the United States
World's fair sites in the United States
Lakes of Multnomah County, Oregon
Lewis and Clark Centennial Exposition

Guild's Lake


A magic series is a set of distinct positive integers which add up to the magic constant of a magic square and a magic cube, thus potentially making up lines in magic tesseracts.

So, in an n × n magic square using the numbers from 1 to n2, a magic series is a set of n distinct numbers adding up to n(n2 + 1)/2.  For n = 2, there are just two magic series, 1+4 and 2+3.  The eight magic series when n = 3 all appear in the rows, columns and diagonals of a 3 × 3 magic square.

Maurice Kraitchik gave the number of magic series up to n = 7 in Mathematical Recreations in 1942 .  In 2002, Henry Bottomley extended this up to n = 36 and independently Walter Trump up to n = 32.  In 2005, Trump extended this to n = 54 (over 2 × 10111) while Bottomley gave an experimental approximation for the numbers of magic series:

In July 2006, Robert Gerbicz extended this sequence up to n = 150.

In 2013 Dirk Kinnaes was able to exploit his insight that the magic series could be related to the volume of a polytope. Trump used this new approach to extend the sequence up to n = 1000.

Mike Quist showed that the exact second-order count has a multiplicative factor of  equivalent to a  denominator of

Richard Schroeppel in 1973 published the complete enumeration of the order 5 magic squares at 275,305,224. This recent magic series work gives hope that the relationship between the magic series and the magic square  may provide an exact count for order 6 or order 7 magic squares.  Consider an intermediate structure that lies in complexity between the magic series and the magic square. It might be described as an amalgamation of 4 magic series that have only one unique common integer. This structure forms the two major diagonals and the central row and column for an odd order magic square. Building blocks such as these could be the way forward.

References

External links
 Walter Trump's pages on magic series
 Number of magic series up to order 150

Magic squares

Magic series


The A234 is a highway in Nigeria. It is one of the east-west roads linking the main south-north roads. (It is named from the two highways it links).

It runs from the A2 highway near Abuja, the national capital, to the A3 highway at Akwanga, Nasarawa State In North Central Nigeria.

Highways in Nigeria

A234 highway (Nigeria)


M was a virtual assistant by Facebook, first announced in August 2015, that claimed to automatically complete tasks for users, such as purchase items, arrange gift deliveries, reserve restaurant tables, and arrange travel. It was intended to compete with services such as Siri and Cortana.  In practice, over 70% of requests were answered by human operators.

By April 2017, M was available to a small test audience of 10,000 users. It worked inside the Facebook Messenger instant messaging service.

If a user made a request for M, it used algorithms to determine what the user wanted. If M did not understand, a human took over the conversation, unbeknownst to the user.

The project was run by Alex Lebrun, of chatbot startup Wit.ai, which was bought by Facebook. The project began in 2015. In April 2017 the MIT Technology Review called M "successful", although it noted that "M is so smart because it cheats."

In April 2017, Facebook enabled "M Suggestions," based on the pure machine portion of M, for users in the United States. M Suggestions scanned chats for keywords and then suggested relevant actions. For example, a user writing "You owe me $20" to a friend might trigger M Suggestions to enable the user's friend to pay the user via Facebook's payment platform.

In January 2018, Facebook announced that they would be discontinuing M. The company stated that what they learned from M would be applied to other artificial intelligence projects at Facebook. It came out after M's shutdown that no more than 30% of M's answers to requests had ever been served by the AI system; 70% or more were from the humans backing the system.

References

Virtual assistants
Natural language processing software
Webcams
Messenger (software)
Discontinued software
Facebook software

M (virtual assistant)


Sphyraena barracuda, commonly known as the great barracuda, is a species of barracuda: large, predatory ray-finned fish found in subtropical oceans around the world.

Distribution and habitat
The great barracuda is present in tropical to warm temperate waters, in subtropical parts of the Indian, Pacific and Atlantic oceans, from mangrove areas to deep reef, with a lower depth limit of 110 meters. They are reported to be declining in Florida, and the Florida fish and wildlife conservation commission are considering imposing catch limits.

Description
Great barracudas are large fish, and one of the largest of the Barracudas. Mature specimens are usually around  in length and weigh . Exceptionally large specimens can exceed  and weigh over . The record-sized specimen caught on rod-and-reel weighed  and measured , while an even longer example measured . The largest great barracuda was said to have measured .

The Great barracuda is blue gray above, fading to silvery and chalky-white below. Sometimes, a row of darker crossbars occurs on its upper side, with black blotches on each lower side. The second dorsal fin and the anal and caudal fins range from dark violet to black with white tips.

In general, barracudas are elongated fish with powerful jaws. The lower jaw of the large mouth juts out beyond the upper. Barracudas possess strong, fang-like teeth that are unequal in size and set in sockets in the jaws and on the roof of the mouth. The head is quite large and is pointed and pike-like in appearance. The gill covers do not have spines and are covered with small scales. The two dorsal fins are widely separated, with the first having five spines and the second having one spine and 9 soft rays. The second dorsal fin equals the anal fin in size and is situated more or less above it. The lateral line is prominent and extends straight from head to tail. The spinous dorsal fin is situated above the pelvis. The hind end of the caudal fin is forked or concave, and it is set at the end of a stout peduncle. The pectoral fins are placed low down on the sides. The barracuda has a large swim bladder.

Behavior and biology

Barracudas appear in open seas. They are voracious predators and hunt by ambush. They rely on surprise and short bursts of speed up to 27 mph (43 km/h) to overrun their prey, sacrificing maneuverability. Barracudas are more or less solitary in their habits. Young and half-grown fish frequently congregate in shoals.

Barracudas can reach at least 14 years of age. The spawning season lasts from April to October. Females can release about 5,000 to 30,000 eggs. The diets of these top predators of reefs are composed almost totally of fish, cephalopods, and occasionally shrimp. Large barracudas, when gorged, may attempt to herd a school of prey fish in shallow water where they guard over them until they are ready for another hunt.

Relationship with humans
Barracudas are scavengers, and may mistake snorkelers for large predators, following them in hopes of eating the remains of their prey. Swimmers have been reported being bitten by barracuda, but such incidents are rare and possibly caused by poor visibility. Barracudas may mistake objects that glint and shine for prey.

Barracuda attacks on humans are rare, although bites can result in lacerations and the loss of some tissue. They are a popular target for recreational fishing, due to the strong fight they put up when hooked. However they are also known for the pungent odor they release upon being caught, and their meat has a chance of causing Ciguatera fish poisoning when eaten.

References

External links

Sphyraenidae
Fish of Hawaii
Fish of the Atlantic Ocean
Fish of Cuba
Fish of the Dominican Republic
Fish described in 1771

Great barracuda


The Favor is a 2006 drama film written and directed by Eva S. Aridjis. The film is about a photographer living in New Jersey who gets a phone call from a woman who broke his heart 25 years ago. The film was premiered on October 15, 2006, at the Morelia Film Festival in Mexico and opened in Mexico on October 19, 2007. It opened in New York City on May 2, 2008.

Plot summary
Two high school sweethearts, Lawrence (played by Luke Robertson) and Caroline (played by Laura Breckenridge), are about to go off to college, but claim they will stay together nonetheless. 25 years later, Lawrence (played by Frank Wood) is living back in his hometown, Bayonne, New Jersey, and is a photographer who photographs pets, as well as criminals at the local police station. He receives a surprise phone call from Caroline (played by Paige Turco), who has recently come back home in order to care for her sick father and who is divorced and has a troubled teenage son Johnny (played by Ryan Donowho). Caroline and Lawrence go on a date and rekindle their relationship, but shortly afterwards she dies in a freak accident. Johnny's father Harris (played by Aldo Perez) does not want to take care of him, and he will be going into foster care. When Johnny has a seizure at his mother's funeral, Lawrence decides to adopt him. The bulk of the film is about Lawrence and Johnny, and how Lawrence tries to be a father to Johnny while Johnny rejects him. Johnny also has a relationship with a neighborhood girl, Mariana (played by Isidra Vega), and problems with the local drug dealer Carter (played by Jesse Kelly).

Cast
Frank Wood as Lawrence
Ryan Donowho as Johnny
Paige Turco as Caroline
Isidra Vega as Mariana
Paul Lazar as Mr. Smith
Michael Higgins as Mr. Ritter
Luke Robertson as Young Lawrence
Laura Breckenridge as Young Caroline
Wally Dunn as Dr. Charles
Sterling K. Brown as Policeman #1
Jesse Kelly as Carter
Aldo Perez as Harris
Marceline Hugot as History Teacher
Aurelia Thierree as Photo Shop Girl
Richard M. Davidson as Principal Foreman

Production
Howard Gertler was the executive producer for the film. Eva S. Aridjis and Heather Greene served as co-producers. Lesa Greenfield was the line producer. Edwige Geminel was in charge of production design. Danny Hole provided original music for the film as well as art direction. Tere Duncan was the costume designer. The film was shot by Andrij Parekh on 35mm in New Jersey, at locations including Cape May and Bayonne High School. Production of the film began November 5, 2004 and ended December 14, 2004. The animals in the film were provided by Paws for Effect. The soundtrack includes songs from bands such as The Cure, The Troggs, Blondie, Interpol, The Stone Roses, The Cascades, Chris Montez, and Nikki Sudden.

Critical reception
The film received mixed reviews from critics. The review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reported that 49% of critics gave the film positive reviews, based on 18 reviews. Metacritic reported the film had an average score of 49 out of 100, based on 7 reviews — indicating mixed or average reviews.

Justin Chang of Variety wrote "A pair of beautifully mismatched lead performances elevate a predictable drama to unexpected resonance in The Favor." Chang called it a "tearjerker [that] should travel well on the festival circuit, though its modest aspirations and execution will probably draw more cable than [distributor] attention."

Mark Olsen of The Los Angeles Times wrote that "The Favor is that rare film that at every turn exhibits good taste and a sense of restraint."

References

External links

2006 drama films
2006 films
American drama films
Films shot in New Jersey
2000s English-language films
2000s American films

The Favor (2006 film)


Model-based design (MBD) is a way to create systems by using 'behavioral' and 'implementation' computer models, to simulate how they should work before being built in the real world. It is used in many industries, including aerospace, automotive, and medical sectors. These models can be used for fast testing of ideas, and can verify the success and performance of a system faster and more efficiently than simply creating various physical products first.

Behavioral Models

In model-based design, engineers start by creating a computer model that represents a product, often referred to as a "digital twin". This is a behavioral representation of the product, which helps engineers understand how the product should behave in different scenarios, in order to verify that it meets its requirements. This allows designers to simulate and test systems before they are actually built, allowing for a more efficient and effective design process.

Implementation Models

Once the engineers are happy with the behavior of the digital twin, they create a more specific implementation model. Implementation models provide a more detailed representation of a system's structure and functionality, often using specific languages or tools to describe the system's components and their interactions. Implementation models can even be used to automatically generate code, which helps save time and reduces the possibility of errors.

Product Examples

Model-based design is often used in embedded systems, such as equipment and medical devices. For example, engineers might create a digital twin of a pacemaker, and use this to simulate how it will behave in different scenarios. This can help ensure that the pacemaker will function correctly before being placed into a patient. Automotive companies also use model-based design when creating vehicles. For example, a digital twin of an engine may be created to simulate how it will perform in different driving conditions. This can help engineers optimize the design of the engine before building it in the real world.

Advantages

 System models can be tested in different scenarios early on, so designers can identify issues before physical products are built in the real world.
 Existing models can be used as a starting point for new ones, allowing for new products to be developed quicker than would otherwise be possible.
 Implementation models can be used to automatically generate code, reducing development costs and improving the overall quality of the product.

Disadvantages

 Model-based design requires knowledge in computer modeling and simulation, which may be a possible barrier for some designers or companies.
 The accuracy of simulations depends on the quality of the models used. If models are not built accurately, they may not provide useful information.
 As a system becomes more complex, the amount of functionality increases, making it more difficult and time-consuming to create accurate models.

Model-based design


Arndt & Partner was the name of a contemporary art gallery based in Berlin, Germany, founded by Matthias Arndt, that belongs to the city's most important exhibition sites. The gallery represents a programme of international artists including Douglas Kolk, Thomas Hirschhorn, Sophie Calle and Muntean and Rosenblum.

History

Facing the challenge of a continuously redefining art scene, Arndt & Partner emphasised a programme free of trends or (formal) standards from the beginning. Opening a new space in the Hackesche Höfe in Berlin-Mitte in 1994, Arndt and Partner was amongst the first galleries to establish itself in the new centre of Berlin.

The discovery of emerging Berlin artists and the formation of an international programme of artistic positions which had often not yet been exhibited in Berlin nor in Germany beforehand, then became the cornerstones of the gallery profile. In 1997, Arndt & Partner moved to Auguststrasse so as to contribute to the newly emerging gallery centre. There Arndt & Partner developed into an internationally operating art business, with branches in Zurich, New York City and Singapore, participating at the most important international art fairs, such as Art Basel, Art Basel Miami Beach, The Armory Show in New York, ARCO in Madrid, Zona Maco in México City and Frieze Art Fair in London.

Present

In Spring 2010, Matthias Arndt renamed Arndt & Partner into ARNDT and subsequently in 2015 he founded Arndt Art Agency (A3) in Berlin.

Artists of the gallery

Adam Adach
Erik Bulatov
Sophie Calle
Joe Coleman
William Cordova
Yannick Demmerle
Mathilde ter Heijne
Anton Henning
Thomas Hirschhorn
Jitish Kallat
Jon Kessler
Douglas Kolk
Karsten Konrad
Josephine Meckseper
Vik Muniz
Muntean and Rosenblum
Julian Rosefeldt
Charles Sandison
Dennis Scholl
Nedko Solakov
Hiroshi Sugito
Ena Swansea
Susan Turcot
Keith Tyson
Shi Xinning

Works by the gallery artists have been shown in many important exhibitions and institutions, such as the Venice Biennale (1993, 1995, 1999, 2007) the Biennale of Sydney (1992) the São Paulo Art Biennial (1996, 1998, 2004, 2006), documenta (1992, 2007), Whitney Biennial (2000, 2004), Berlin Biennale (2001), Moscow Biennale (2007), the Shanghai Biennale (2006), Museum of Modern Art New York (2006), Tate Modern (2003), Tate Britain (2004), Neue Nationalgalerie Berlin (2006) and the Tokyo National Museum of Modern Art (2004/5).

Parallel to the solo presentation of the named gallery artists, thematic group exhibitions and collaborations with established artists such as Emilia and Ilya Kabakov and Gilbert & George also shaped the profile of the gallery. In addition to the website and regular catalogue publications, the gallery published a quarterly magazine from 2007 to 2009 entitled "Checkpoint" edited by Kristin Rieber and Katrin Kramer.
Further key staff with formative influence include Eleonora Holthoff, Julie Burchardi, Thorsten Ben Albertz, Anna Duque y Gonzalez, Axel Benz, Natalija Martinovic, René Lahn, Michèle Sandoz and Marianne Karabelnik.

Literature
 »Ten Years. 1994-2004«, with texts by Matthias Arndt and Peter Herbstreuth, Berlin 2004. .

References

External links
 http://www.arndt-partner.com/
 http://www.arndtfineart.com/

Contemporary art galleries in Germany
1994 establishments in Germany
Art museums and galleries in Berlin
Art galleries established in 1994

Arndt & Partner