Clive Latham Baillieu, 1st Baron Baillieu, KBE, CMG (24 September 1889 – 18 June 1967) was an Australian-British businessman, public servant, and rower.

Biography

Baillieu was born in Melbourne, the son of William Baillieu, an Australian politician and financial expert, and his wife Bertha Martha (née Latham). The Baillieu family was of Belgian descent but had earlier lived in England. Baillieu was educated at Camberwell Grammar and Melbourne Grammar, and then Trinity College, Melbourne University. He subsequently moved to England where he studied at Magdalen College, Oxford. Baillieu rowed at Oxford and in 1911 was a member of the winning Magdalen College crew in the Grand Challenge Cup at Henley Royal Regatta. In 1913 he was a member of the Oxford crew in the Boat Race.

In 1914 Baillieu was called to the Bar at Inner Temple. He then served in the First World War, where he was mentioned in despatches and achieved the rank of Major in the Australian Imperial Forces and temporary Lieutenant-Colonel in the Royal Air Force. During the Second World War he notably served the British Government as Director-General of the British Purchasing Commission in Washington from 1941 to 1942 and as Head of the Raw Materials Mission in Washington and as Representative on the Combined Raw Materials Board from 1942 to 1943.

After the war Baillieu was President of the Federation of British Industries between 1945 and 1947 and deputy chairman of the Central Mining and Investment Corporation from 1959 to 1964 and served with the Dunlop Rubber Company as vice-chairman from 1945 to 1949, chairman from 1949 to 1957 and president from 1957 to 1967.

In 1947–48 Baillieu led a UK trade mission to Argentina to negotiate a new trade agreement. Trade between the two countries was substantial and UK merchant ships competed for cargo between the two countries, notably Argentinian refrigerated meat exports to the UK. Ballieu, his team, and the UK Ambassador to Argentina Reginald Leeper negotiated with President Juan Perón and his National Economic Council chairman Miguel Miranda for nine weeks from early December 1948 until early February 1949. An agreement was finally reached and signed on 7 February in the Port of Buenos Aires at a reception aboard the Royal Mail Lines flagship .

He was made an OBE in 1918, a CMG in 1929 and a KBE in 1938 and in 1953 he was raised to the peerage as Baron Baillieu, of Sefton in the Commonwealth of Australia and of Parkwood in the County of Surrey.

Lord Baillieu married Ruby Florence Evelyn Clark, daughter of William Clark, in 1915. They had three sons and a daughter. Lady Baillieu died in 1962. Lord Baillieu survived her by five years and died in Melbourne in June 1967, aged 77. He was succeeded in the barony by his eldest son William. His grandson Chris Baillieu was an Olympic rower who also competed in the Boat Race, but for Cambridge.

See also
List of Oxford University Boat Race crews

References

Sources
Kidd, Charles, Williamson, David (editors). Debrett's Peerage and Baronetage (1990 edition). New York: St Martin's Press, 1990.

External links

1889 births
1967 deaths
People educated at Melbourne Grammar School
People educated at Trinity College (University of Melbourne)
Businesspeople from Melbourne
Australian expatriates in the United States
Australian peers
Australian recipients of British honours
Australian Companions of the Order of St Michael and St George
Australian Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Rowers from Melbourne
Stewards of Henley Royal Regatta
Australian male rowers
Australian people of Belgian descent
British people of Belgian descent
Australian emigrants to the United Kingdom
Hereditary barons created by Elizabeth II

Clive Baillieu, 1st Baron Baillieu


The haggis is a traditional Scots dish memorialised as the national dish o Scotland bi Robert Burns' poem Address to a Haggis in 1786. It is recited afore mony a Burns supper. Durin Burns Nicht, abody staunds as the haggis is brocht in, fur usual on a muckle dish bi the chef whiles a bagpiper leads the wey tae the host's table. The host, or aiblins a guest, will then recite the poem, slicing open the haggis at the richt moment.

Words
Fair fa' your honest, sonsie face,
Great chieftain o' the puddin'-race!
Aboon them a' ye tak your place,
Painch, tripe, or thairm:
Weel are ye wordy o'a grace
As lang's my arm.

The groaning trencher there ye fill,
Your hurdies like a distant hill;
Your pin wad help to mend a mill
In time o' need;
While thro' your pores the dews distil
Like amber bead.

His knife see rustic Labour dight,
An' cut you up wi' ready sleight,
Trenching your gushing entrails bright,
Like ony ditch;
And then, O what a glorious sight,
Warm-reekin', rich!

Then, horn for horn, they stretch an' strive:
Deil tak the hindmost! on they drive,
Till a' their weel-swall'd kytes belyve
Are bent like drums;
Then auld Guidman, maist like to rive,
"Bethankit!" hums.

Is there that o'er his French ragout,
Or olio that wad staw a sow,
Or fricassee wad make her spew
Wi' perfect scunner,
Looks down wi' sneering, scornfu' view
On sic a dinner?

Poor devil! see him owre his trash,
As feckles as wither'd rash,
His spindle shank a guid whip-lash,
His nieve a nit;
Thro' bloody flood or field to dash,
O how unfit!

But mark the Rustic, haggis-fed -
The trembling earth resounds his tread!
Clap in his walie nieve a blade,
He'll mak it whissle;
An' legs, an' arms, an' heads will sned,
Like taps o' thrissle.

Ye Pow'rs, wha mak mankind your care,
And dish them out their bill o' fare,
Auld Scotland wants nae skinking ware
That jaups in luggies;
But, if ye wish her gratefu' prayer,
Gie her a Haggis!

References

Scots leeteratur
Scots sang
Poetry

Address to the Haggis


Toxic shock syndrome or TSS is a non-common, deadly infection caused by toxins from bacteria.

Toxic shock syndrome is usually caused by Staphylococcus bacteria, but it can also be caused by Streptococcus bacteria.

Symptoms

Symptoms of toxic shock syndrome can show up suddenly, and the disease can be deadly. The symptoms are different when the toxic shock syndrome is caused by different bacteria. When it is caused by Staphylococcus aureus, the symptoms are generally high fever, low blood pressure, confusion, and malaise. If the disease is not treated, someone with toxic shock syndrome caused by Staphylococcus aureus can go into a coma.

When toxic shock syndrome is caused by Streptococcus pyogenes, it usually is a rash that was already there getting worse. People with toxic shock syndrome caused by Streptococcus pyogenes have pain where the rash is, then the symptoms below happen very quickly.

The symptoms of toxic shock syndrome include:

A high fever that starts quickly

Low blood pressure

Vomiting or diarrhea

A rash that looks like a sunburn, mostly on the palms of the hand and soles of the feet

Confusion

Muscle pain

Redness of the eyes, mouth, and throat

Seizures

Headaches

Causes

Toxic shock syndrome can be caused by many things. The most common reasons are injuries to the skin that allow bacteria to get into the bloodstream and tampons.

Treatment

Many people with toxic shock syndrome have to stay in the hospital. If it is very bad, they might have to go to the intensive care unit so that doctors can make sure that they are getting good care. If the reason that they have toxic shock syndrome is because of tampon use, doctors will make sure that they take the tampon out. If the reason that they have toxic shock syndrome is an injury (an abscess or other infection), the injury has to be drained.

Antibiotics like cephalosporin, penicillin, and vancomycin are used to stop the bacteria from growing. Clindamycin and gentamicin stop the toxins from being produced.

Tampons and toxic shock syndrome

In 1978, Procter and Gamble (a United States company that sells many different products) started selling tampons called Rely. Rely tampons could be left in for a whole menstrual cycle, which is from 2 to 8 days. Women who used Rely tampons sometimes got toxic shock syndrome because of this. Other tampons that are left in for a long time can also cause toxic shock syndrome.

References

Diseases caused by bacteria

Toxic shock syndrome


Margaret of Anjou (; 23 March 1430 – 25 August 1482) was Queen of England and nominally Queen of France by marriage to King Henry VI from 1445 to 1461 and again from 1470 to 1471. Born in the Duchy of Lorraine into the House of Valois-Anjou, Margaret was the second eldest daughter of René, King of Naples, and Isabella, Duchess of Lorraine.

Margaret was one of the principal figures in the series of dynastic civil wars known as the Wars of the Roses and at times personally led the Lancastrian faction. Some of her contemporaries, such as the Duke of Suffolk, praised "Her valiant courage and undaunted spirit" and the 16th-century historian Edward Hall described her personality in these terms: "This woman excelled all other, as well in beauty and favour, as in wit and policy, and was of stomach and courage, more like to a man, than a woman."

Owing to her husband's frequent bouts of insanity, Margaret ruled the kingdom in his place. It was she who called for a Great Council in May 1455 that excluded the Yorkist faction headed by Richard of York, 3rd Duke of York, and this provided the spark that ignited a civil conflict that lasted for more than 30 years, decimated the old nobility of England, and caused the deaths of thousands of men, including her only son Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales, at the Battle of Tewkesbury in 1471.

Margaret was taken prisoner by the victorious Yorkists after the Lancastrian defeat at Tewkesbury. In 1475, she was ransomed by her cousin, King Louis XI of France. She went to live in France as a poor relation of the French king, and she died there at the age of 52.

Early life and marriage

Childhood
Margaret  was born on 23 March 1430 at Pont-à-Mousson in Lorraine, a fief of the Holy Roman Empire east of France ruled by a cadet branch of the French kings, the House of Valois-Anjou. Margaret was the second daughter of René, King of Naples, and of Isabella, Duchess of Lorraine. She had five brothers and four sisters, as well as three half-siblings from her father's relationships with mistresses. Her father, popularly known as "Good King René", was duke of Anjou and titular king of Naples, Sicily, and Jerusalem; he has been described as "a man of many crowns but no kingdoms". Margaret was baptised at Toul in Lorraine and, in the care of her father's old nurse Theophanie la Magine, she spent her early years at the castle at Tarascon on the River Rhône in Provence and in the old royal palace at Capua, near Naples in the Kingdom of Sicily. Her mother took care of her education and may have arranged for her to have lessons with the scholar Antoine de la Sale, who taught her brothers. In childhood, Margaret was known as la petite créature and was interested in French romances and hunting.

Her family included several prominent women who exercised power in politics, war, and administration as regents and queen-lieutenants. Her mother, Isabella of Lorraine, fought wars on behalf of her husband while he was imprisoned in 1431-32 and 1434-36 by the duke of Burgundy, Philip the Good, and ruled the Duchy of Lorraine in her own right. Her paternal grandmother, Yolande of Aragon, ruled the Duchy of Anjou as regent for her son while Margaret was a child, repelling an English military presence and supporting the disinherited Dauphin. It has been suggested that this family example provided her with precedents for her later actions as regent for her son. Attitudes to women's exercise of power were different in Western Europe than in England, and England at the time was more opposed to women exercising authority.

Marriage, concession of Maine, and subsequent rule

Margaret met with English envoys at Tours on 4 May 1444 to discuss her marriage to Henry VI of England. On 24 May, she was formally betrothed to Henry by proxy. Her uncle, Charles VII of France, who may have suggested the marriage as part of peace efforts between France and England near the conclusion of the Hundred Years' War, was present. The marriage was negotiated principally by William de la Pole, Duke of Suffolk, and the settlement included a remarkably small dowry of 20,000 francs and the unrealised claim, via Margaret's mother, to the territories of Mallorca and Menorca, which had been occupied for centuries by the Crown of Aragon. The marriage settlement also contained the promise of a twenty-three-month truce with France. Opinions were mixed as to the wisdom of the marriage, but the prevailing understanding was that it represented a genuine effort at peace.

Loans were taken out by the government in order to pay for the considerable expense of transporting Margaret to England. Solicitation for the loans emphasised the role that the marriage, and Margaret herself, would play in seeking peace with France. This was a theme that continued throughout the preparations for her wedding. She arrived in England on 9 April 1445 and travelled to London accompanied by various lords and courtiers. She reached London on 28 May, where she was met by the mayor and aldermen of the city. The predicted turnout for her arrival and procession was so large that on 8 May, an inspection of roofs and balconies was ordered due to the expectation that spectators would use them as vantage points for her progress.

Her ceremonial progress through the city lasted two days, the intervening night spent, by custom, in the Tower of London. It was accompanied by eight theatrical pageants. Five of these pageants concerned the peace with France, casting Margaret as a symbol of, or the agent of, peace. Three spoke of her spiritual role as a redeemer and intercessor. It is uncertain whether these pageants represented a propaganda effort on the part of the Crown or reflected popular sentiment.

On 23 April 1445, Margaret married King Henry VI of England at Titchfield Abbey in Hampshire. She was fifteen, and he was twenty-three. She was then crowned Queen of England on 30 May 1445 at Westminster Abbey by John Stafford, Archbishop of Canterbury. Those that anticipated the future return of English claims to French territory believed that she already understood her duty to protect the interests of the Crown fervently. The wedding and her transport were very expensive, estimated by some historians at more than £5000.

Shortly after her coronation, René of Anjou entered negotiations with the English crown in an attempt to barter a lifetime's alliance and a twenty-year truce in exchange for the cession of the English-held territory of Maine to Anjou and Henry's agreement to abandon his claim to Anjou. Ultimately, the agreement ended without an alliance with Anjou and with the loss of Maine. Rumours that the concession of Maine was part of Margaret's marriage settlement, though false, circulated, and were repeated by chroniclers. Margaret, alongside Henry, corresponded closely with Charles VII regarding the agreement, attempting to act as a mediator.

The loss of Maine, regarded as a betrayal, was deeply unpopular with the English public, who were already inclined to mistrust Margaret due to her French origins. Blame was cast on William de la Pole, due to his role in negotiations. The reputation of Margaret's marriage suffered as a result, although she herself was not openly blamed for the loss.

In the early years of their marriage, prior to Henry's illness, Margaret and Henry spent significant proportions of their time together by choice. They shared an interest in education and culture. On 30 March 1448, she was granted license to found Queens' College, Cambridge. Prior to 1453, there is little evidence of public political efforts on her part. Most of her surviving letters were written during this period, and the majority pertain to acts of intercession, mediation, and intervention in matters on which she had been asked to act, such as the arranging of marriages, the return of wrongfully taken property, and the collection of alms. These were expected and important parts of the role of a noblewoman or queen. Some were successful, and others regarded as high-handed or ill-thought-out. On one occasion, she recommended a man named Alexander Manning to the role of gaoler at Newgate; shortly after, he turned the prisoners loose in an act of protest at his rumoured dismissal for negligence and was then jailed himself.

Birth of a son
Henry, who was more interested in religion and learning than in military matters, was not a successful king. He had reigned since he was only a few months old, and his actions had been controlled by protectors, magnates who were effectively regents. When he married Margaret, his mental condition was already unstable, and by the time of the birth of their only son, Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales (born 13 October 1453), he had suffered a complete breakdown.

Beginnings of the dynastic civil wars

Enmity between Margaret and the Duke of York

After retiring from London to live in lavish state at Greenwich, Margaret was occupied with the care of her young son and did not display any signs of political will until she believed her husband was threatened with deposition by the ambitious Richard of York, 3rd Duke of York, who, to her consternation, had been appointed Lord Protector while Henry was mentally incapacitated from 1453 to 1454. The duke was a credible claimant to the English throne and by the end of his protectorship there were many powerful nobles and relatives prepared to back his claim. Whereas the Duke of York was ambitious and capable, Henry (surrounded with corrupt advisers) was trusting, pliable, and increasingly unstable, and Margaret was defiantly unpopular, grimly and gallantly determined to maintain the English crown for her progeny. Yet at least one scholar identifies the source of the eventual Lancastrian downfall not as York's ambitions nearly so much as Margaret's ill-judged enmity toward York and her over-indulgence in unpopular allies. Nevertheless, Queen Margaret was a powerful force in the world of politics. King Henry was putty in her hands when she wanted something done.

Margaret's biographer Helen Maurer, however, disagrees with earlier historians having dated the much-vaunted enmity between the Queen and York to the time he obtained the office of the protectorship. She suggests the mutual antagonism came about two years later in 1455 in the wake of the First Battle of St Albans, when Margaret perceived him as a challenge to the king's authority. Maurer bases this conclusion on a judicious study of Margaret's pattern of presenting gifts; this revealed that Margaret took a great deal of care to demonstrate that she favoured both York and Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset, equally in the early 1450s. Maurer also claims that Margaret appeared to accept York's protectorship and asserts there is no substantial evidence to back up the long-standing belief that she was responsible for the Yorkists' exclusion from the Great Council following Henry's recovery (see below).

The late historian Paul Murray Kendall, on the other hand, maintained that Margaret's allies Edmund Beaufort and William de la Pole, then Earl of Suffolk, had no difficulty in persuading her that York, until then one of Henry VI's most trusted advisers, was responsible for her unpopularity and already too powerful to be trusted. Margaret not only persuaded Henry to recall York from his post as governor in France and banish him instead to Ireland, she repeatedly attempted to have him assassinated during his travels to and from Ireland, once in 1449 and again in 1450. Edmund Beaufort and Suffolk's joint responsibility for the secret surrender of Maine in 1448, and then the subsequent disastrous loss of the rest of Normandy in 1449 embroiled Margaret and Henry's court in riots, uprisings by the magnates, and calls for the impeachment and execution of Margaret's two strongest allies. It also might have made an ultimate battle to the death between Margaret and the House of York inevitable by making manifest Richard's dangerous popularity with the Commons. Richard of York, safely returned from Ireland in 1450, confronted Henry and was readmitted as a trusted advisor. Soon thereafter, Henry agreed to convene Parliament to address the calls for reform. When Parliament met, the demands could not have been less acceptable to Margaret: not only were both Edmund Beaufort and Suffolk impeached for criminal mismanagement of French affairs and subverting justice, but it was charged as a crime against Suffolk (now a duke) that he had antagonised the king against the Duke of York. Further, the demands for reform put forward included that the Duke of York be acknowledged as the first councillor to the king, and the Speaker of Commons, perhaps with more fervour than wisdom, even proposed Richard, Duke of York, be recognised as heir to the throne. Within a few months, however, Margaret had regained control of Henry, Parliament was dissolved, the incautious Speaker thrown in prison, and Richard of York retired to Wales for the time being.

In 1457, the kingdom was again outraged when it was discovered that Pierre de Brézé, a powerful French general and an adherent of Margaret, had landed on the English coast and burnt the town of Sandwich. As leader of a French force of 4,000 men from Honfleur, he aimed at taking advantage of the chaos in England. The mayor, John Drury, was killed in this raid. It thereafter became an established tradition, which survives to this day, that the Mayor of Sandwich wears a black robe mourning this ignoble deed. Margaret, in association with de Brézé, became the object of scurrilous rumours and vulgar ballads. Public indignation was so high that Margaret, with great reluctance, was forced to give the Duke of York's kinsman Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick, a commission to keep the sea for three years. He already held the post of Captain of Calais.

Leader of Lancastrian faction

Hostilities between the rival Yorkist and Lancastrian factions soon flared into armed conflict. In May 1455, just over five months after Henry VI recovered from a bout of mental illness and Richard of York's protectorship had ended, Margaret called for a Great Council from which the Yorkists were excluded. The Council called for an assemblage of the peers at Leicester to protect the king "against his enemies". York apparently was prepared for conflict and soon was marching south to meet the Lancastrian army marching north. The Lancastrians suffered a crushing defeat at the First Battle of St Albans on 22 May 1455. Edmund Beaufort, the Earl of Northumberland and Lord Clifford were killed, Wiltshire fled the battlefield and King Henry was taken prisoner by the victorious Duke of York. In March 1458 along with her husband and leading nobles of the warring factions, she took part in The Love Day procession in London.

In 1459, hostilities resumed at the Battle of Blore Heath, where James Tuchet, 5th Baron Audley, was defeated by a Yorkist army under Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury.
The battle had only just begun.

The Wars of the Roses

Early campaigns

While Margaret was attempting to raise further support for the Lancastrian cause in Scotland, her principal commander, Henry Beaufort, 3rd Duke of Somerset, gained a major victory for her at the Battle of Wakefield on 30 December 1460 by defeating the combined armies of the Duke of York and the Earl of Salisbury. Both men were beheaded and their heads displayed on the gates of the city of York. As Margaret was in Scotland at the time of the battle, it was impossible that she issued the orders for their execution, despite popular belief to the contrary. Next was the Second Battle of St Albans (at which she was present) on 17 February 1461. In this battle, she defeated the Yorkist forces of Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick, and recaptured her husband. After this battle, she ordered the execution of two Yorkist prisoners of war, William Bonville, 1st Baron Bonville, the rival of the loyal Lancastrian, the Earl of Devon, and Sir Thomas Kyriell. Both men had kept watch over King Henry, a prisoner to Warwick, to keep him out of harm's way during the battle. The king had promised the two knights immunity, but Margaret gainsaid him and ordered their execution by decapitation. It is alleged that she put the men on trial with her son presiding. "Fair son", she allegedly asked, "what death shall these knights die?" Prince Edward replied that their heads should be cut off, despite the king's pleas for mercy.

Sojourn in France
The Lancastrian army was beaten at the Battle of Towton on 29 March 1461 by the son of the late Duke of York, the future Edward IV of England, who deposed King Henry and proclaimed himself king. Margaret was determined to win back her son's inheritance and fled with him into Wales and later Scotland. Finding her way to France, she made an ally of her cousin, King Louis XI of France, and at his instigation she allowed an approach from Edward's former supporter, Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, who had fallen out with his former friend as a result of Edward's marriage to Elizabeth Woodville, and was now seeking revenge for the loss of his political influence. Warwick's daughter, Anne Neville, was married to Margaret's son Edward, Prince of Wales, in order to cement the alliance, and Margaret insisted that Warwick return to England to prove himself before she followed. He did so, restoring Henry VI briefly to the throne on 3 October 1470.

Final defeat at Tewkesbury

By the time Margaret, her son and daughter-in-law Anne were ready to follow Warwick back to England, the tables had again turned in favour of the Yorkists, and the Earl was defeated and killed by the returning King Edward IV in the Battle of Barnet on 14 April 1471. Margaret was forced to lead her own army at the Battle of Tewkesbury on 4 May 1471, at which the Lancastrian forces were defeated and her seventeen-year-old son Edward of Westminster was killed. The circumstances of Edward's death have never been made clear; it is not known whether he was killed in the actual fighting or executed after the battle by the Duke of Clarence. Over the previous ten years, Margaret had gained a reputation for aggression and ruthlessness, but following her defeat at Tewkesbury and the death of her only son, she was completely broken in spirit. After she was taken captive by William Stanley at the end of the battle, Margaret was imprisoned by the order of King Edward. She was sent first to Wallingford Castle and then was transferred to the more secure Tower of London. Henry VI was also imprisoned in the Tower in the wake of Tewkesbury and he died there on the night of 21 May; the cause of his death is unknown, though regicide was suspected, specifically smothering in his sleep. In 1472 she was placed in the custody of her former lady-in-waiting Alice Chaucer, Duchess of Suffolk, where she remained until ransomed by Louis XI of France in 1475.

Final years and death

Margaret lived in France for seven years as a poor relation of the king. She was hosted by Francis de Vignolles and died, impoverished, in his castle of Dampierre-sur-Loire, near Anjou on 25 August 1482 at the age of 52. She was entombed next to her parents in Angers Cathedral, but her remains were removed and scattered by revolutionaries who ransacked the cathedral during the French Revolution.

Margaret's letters
Many letters written by Margaret during her tenure as queen consort are still extant. One was written to the Corporation of London regarding injuries inflicted on her tenants at the manor of Enfield, which comprised part of her dower lands. Another letter was written to the Archbishop of Canterbury. Margaret's letters, which typically began with the words "By the Quene," are compiled in a book edited by Cecil Munro published for the Camden Society in 1863.

Possible connection to Elizabeth Woodville

Elizabeth Woodville (born ca 1437), later Queen of England as the wife of Margaret's husband's rival, King Edward IV, purportedly served Margaret of Anjou as a maid of honour. However, the evidence is too scanty to permit historians to establish this with absolute certainty; several women at Margaret's court bore the name Elizabeth or Isabella Grey.

Ancestors

Depictions in fiction
Margaret is a major character in William Shakespeare's first tetralogy of History plays. Henry VI, Part 1, Part 2, Part 3 and Richard III. She is the only character to appear alive in all four plays, but due to the length of the plays many of her lines are usually cut in modern adaptations. Shakespeare portrays Margaret as an intelligent, ruthless woman who easily dominates her husband and fiercely vies for power with her enemies. In Henry VI, Part 2 Margaret has an affair with the Duke of Suffolk and mourns his death by carrying around his severed head. In Henry VI, Part 3 Richard Plantagenet Duke of York famously calls her "She-wolf of France/ but worse than wolves of France/
Whose tongue more poisons than the adder's tooth!"  Later, she personally stabs the Duke of York on the battlefield after humiliatingly taunting him, and becomes suicidal when her son Edward is killed in front of her. Although in reality, Margaret spent the rest of her life outside England after the death of her husband and son, Shakespeare has her return to the court in Richard III. Margaret serves as a Cassandra-like prophetess; in her first appearance she dramatically curses the majority of the nobles for their roles in the downfall of the House of Lancaster. All of her curses come to pass as the noblemen are betrayed and executed by Richard of Gloucester, and each character reflects on her curse before his execution. Shakespeare had famously described Margaret: "How ill-beseeming is it in thy sex/ To triumph like an Amazonian trull/ Upon their woes whom Fortune captivates."

Margaret's prominence in Shakespeare has led many theatre-makers to interpret the story with her at the center, drawing from the plays she is featured in. An adaptation called Margaret of Anjou by Elizabeth Schafer and Philippa Kelly was performed in 2016 in London by By Jove Theatre Company and an adaptation of the three Henry VI plays and Richard III entitled War of the Roses by Eric Ting and Philippa Kelly at California Shakespeare Theater in 2018 gave Margaret great prominence. In 2018 the Royal Exchange theatre in Manchester premiered Queen Margaret, using all the lines spoken by Margaret over the four plays with additional material by playwright Jeanie O'Hare.

Citations

References

External links
 Comprehensive catalogue of depictions of Margaret, from the 15th century to modern times.

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1430 births
1482 deaths
15th-century English people
15th-century English women
15th-century French people
15th-century French women
English royal consorts
Female Shakespearean characters
Henry VI of England
House of Lancaster
House of Valois-Anjou
Irish royal consorts
Ladies of the Garter
People of the Wars of the Roses
Prisoners in the Tower of London
Women in 15th-century warfare
Women in medieval European warfare
Women in war in France
French prisoners of war
Founders of colleges of the University of Cambridge
Daughters of kings

Margaret of Anjou


Länsiväyläjuoksu is an annual running event held in Espoo, Finland since 1976. Länsiväyläjuoksu is organised in conjunction by several private sporting clubs, and is open for everyone, both men and women, both adults and children, for a small participation fee.

There are three different options available in Länsiväyläjuoksu:
 Long-distance run (the main Länsiväyläjuoksu event): 17.4 km
 Short-distance run: 6.5 km
 Walk: 6.2 km

All options start and finish in Otaniemi, Espoo. From there all routes go to Tapiola, after which the short-distance run and walking routes turn back to Otaniemi. The long-distance run route goes from Tapiola to Mankkaa, then to Leppävaara and Laajalahti, crosses the municipality border to Munkkiniemi, Helsinki, then to Kuusisaari and Lehtisaari, crosses the municipality border back to Keilaniemi, Espoo and finally back to Otaniemi.

Participants in the running events are given individual participant numbers and RFID tags which provide real-time recordings of their running times. Participants of the walking event do not get any individual participant identification. All participants who successfully finish any event are given a commemorative medal as a reward.

External links
 Official site

Sport in Espoo
Foot races in Finland
Recurring sporting events established in 1976
1976 establishments in Finland

Länsiväyläjuoksu


Boronia humifusa is a plant in the citrus family, Rutaceae and is endemic to the south-west of Western Australia. It is a low-growing, mostly hairless, wiry perennial with four-angled branches, simple, flat leaves and pink or red, four-petalled flowers in groups on the ends of the branches.

Description
Boronia humifusa is a low-growing perennial with four-angled stems that grows to a height of about  and is mostly glabrous. The leaves are simple, oblong to elliptic,  long and slightly rough on the upper surface. The flowers are pink to red and are borne in cymes, each flower on a pedicel  long. The four sepals are triangular,  long with pimply glands. The four petals are elliptic,  long with a rounded end and their bases overlapping. The eight stamens are hairy and similar to each other. Flowering occurs in June or September.

Taxonomy and naming
Boronia humifusa was first formally described in 1998 by Paul G. Wilson and the description was published in Nuytsia from a specimen collected near the Capel to Donnybrook road. The specific epithet (humifusa) is a Latin word meaning "spread-out over the ground", referring to the habit of this boronia.

Distribution and habitat
This boronia grows is only known from the area between Busselton and Donnybrook where it grows in open forest.

Conservation
Boronia humifusa is classified as "Priority One" by the Government of Western Australia Department of Parks and Wildlife meaning that it is known from only one or a few locations which are potentially at risk.

References

humifusa
Flora of Western Australia
Plants described in 1998
Taxa named by Paul G. Wilson

Boronia humifusa


Bruce Jensen (born 1962 in Indianapolis, Indiana) is a US illustrator who has created book covers for science fiction authors such as Kim Stanley Robinson, Neal Stephenson, Charles Sheffield, Joe Haldeman, Linda Nagata, Kelley Eskridge, and Philip K. Dick. His covers were described by Nagata as "deftly illustrat[ing] the mood, the feeling of the book". He also drew the unfinished Neuromancer graphic novel in 1989. He won the 1995 Jack Gaughan Award for Best Emerging Artist.

Career overview

Bruce Jensen began drawing at an early age, drawing the typical childhood birds and dinosaurs. As he grew older he discovered science fiction. A book that heavily influenced his decision to become a science fiction cover artist was Jack Gaughn's cover to The Skylark of Valeron by E. E. Smith. When Bruce was in high school he realized his dream to become an artist. He then went on to the Columbus College of Art and Design, receiving BFA in 1984; it is here that he developed his more abstract usage of color.

In the summer of 1984 Jensen received his first cover assignment, which went well enough for him to receive others immediately after this. During the next six years after his first book cover he had produced twelve book covers; he also spent some time working in television. In 1990 Jensen was earning enough money from painting science fiction book covers that he considered it to be his full-time job.

External links
 2006 brief interview

 Bruce Jensen entry in Pen & Paper RPG Database
 Bruce Jensen: Bibliography – Bruce Jensen's bibliography (archived
 Bruce Jensen's blog Alien Menagerie

References

Science fiction artists
American illustrators
American speculative fiction artists
1962 births
Living people
Columbus College of Art and Design alumni

Bruce Jensen


Admiral Sir Andrew Mitchell, KB (1757 – 26 February 1806) was an admiral of the blue in the Royal Navy. He married Mary Uniacke (daughter of Richard John Uniacke) in Halifax, Nova Scotia on 3 May 1805.

Career
Mitchell entered service in 1771 as a midshipman on HMS Deal Castle. He was promoted to lieutenant in 1776, while serving in the West Indies and again promoted to post-captain, skipping the rank of commander, after distinguishing himself in action in 1778.

He distinguished himself again while serving with the 1782 expedition of Sir Edward Hughes in India. On 12 August 1782, Mitchell was captain of the frigate , when she encountered the French frigate Bellone off Friars Hood, Ceylon. After two-and-a-half hours, Bellone sailed away. Coventry had suffered 15 men killed and 29 wounded in the engagement.

When Hughes returned to England, he left Mitchell in charge of the East Indies Station as commodore. Mitchell returned to England in 1786.

In February, 1795 he received command of a ship in the Channel fleet of Admiral Howe. In June, 1795 he was promoted rear-admiral of the blue, and in 1799 vice-admiral and given the command of Sheerness.

In August, 1799 he conducted the naval part of the Anglo-Russian invasion of Holland. Here he obtained the surrender of a squadron of the navy of the Batavian Republic in the Vlieter Incident.

For his service in this expedition he was appointed Knight Companion of the Order of the Bath, with his own ribbon (no stall being vacant at this time) by King George III in 1800. He was voted the thanks of Parliament, and the City of London presented him with a sword of honour at a value of 100 guineas.

He was commander-in-chief of the North America and West Indies Station from 1802 to his death in 1806. His wife Mary died years later and was buried in the crypt of St. Paul's Church (Halifax, Nova Scotia).

In 1805 he was raised to the rank of admiral of the blue. He died in Bermuda after a severe illness on 26 February 1806.

Sources

References
 (1844) Historical and statistical account of Dunfermline, Edinburgh and London, William Blackwood & Sons, pp. 306–307

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Royal Navy personnel of the American Revolutionary War
Royal Navy personnel of the French Revolutionary Wars
Royal Navy admirals
Knights Companion of the Order of the Bath
1757 births
1806 deaths

Andrew Mitchell (Royal Navy officer)


Walter Stanborough Sutton (April 5, 1877 – November 10, 1916) was an American geneticist and biologist whose most significant contribution to present-day biology was his theory that the Mendelian laws of inheritance could be applied to chromosomes at the cellular level of living organisms. This is now known as the Boveri–Sutton chromosome theory.

Early life
Sutton was born in Utica, New York, and was raised on a farm as the fifth of seven sons to Judge William B. Sutton and his wife, Agnes Black Sutton, in Russell, Kansas.  On the farm, he developed a mechanical aptitude by maintaining and repairing farm equipment, an aptitude that proved helpful later as he worked on oil drilling rigs and with medical instrumentation.

University of Kansas
After graduating high school in Russell, he enrolled at the University of Kansas in engineering in 1896.  Following the death of his younger brother (John) from typhus in 1897, Sutton switched his major to biology with an interest in medicine.  While at the University of Kansas, both he and his older brother, William Sutton, played basketball for Dr. James Naismith.  Sutton distinguished himself as a student by being elected to both Phi Beta Kappa and Sigma Xi and receiving both bachelor's and master's degrees by 1901.  For his Masters thesis, he studied the spermatogenesis of Brachystola magna, a large grasshopper indigenous to the farmlands upon which Sutton was raised.

Columbia University
Considering the advice of his mentor at KU, Dr. C. E. McClung, Sutton moved to Columbia University for further study of zoology under Dr. Edmund B. Wilson.  It was here that Sutton wrote his two significant works in genetics – "On the morphology of the chromosome group in Brachystola magna" and "The chromosomes in heredity".  Effectively, Sutton could now explain "why the yellow dog is yellow".

The German biologist Theodor Boveri independently reached the same conclusions as Sutton, and their concepts are often referred to as the Boveri–Sutton chromosome theory.  Sutton's hypothesis was widely accepted by most scientists, particularly cytologists, at the time.  The continued work of Thomas Hunt Morgan at Columbia brought the theory to universal acceptance by 1915 through his studies of Drosophila melanogaster, the fruit fly, even as William Bateson continued to question the theory until 1921.

Sutton did not complete his PhD in Zoology as he originally planned.  At the age of 26, he returned to the Kansas oil fields for 2 years.  There he was able to perfect a device to start large gas engines with high pressure-gas and develop hoisting apparatuses for deep wells.  Sutton's mechanical aptitudes never left him.  His father finally directed him to return to his medical studies and he did so returning to Columbia University in 1905.

Sutton's medical studies proceeded through the College of Physicians and Surgeons at Columbia University.  While he continued to work on patents associated with oil drilling, Sutton also began at this stage to apply his mechanical aptitude to improving medical instruments.  With credit for his graduate studies at both the University of Kansas and Columbia University, Sutton obtained his doctorate in medicine in 1907 graduating with "high standing".  He then began an internship at Roosevelt Hospital in New York working in the surgical division headed by Dr. Joseph Blake.

Career
In addition to his clinic duties at Roosevelt Hospital, Sutton was also able to work with the Surgical Research Laboratory at the College of Physicians and Surgeons.  With that support, he was able to begin developing and improving a variety of medical and surgical practices including improving anesthetic techniques, and perfecting abdominal irrigation.

In 1909, Sutton returned to Kansas City, Kansas where his family had relocated and his father and brother were in law practice.  Sutton was appointed assistant professor of surgery at the four-year-old University of Kansas Medical School.  The tenuous nature of the appointment at the young school led him to also maintain a private practice and serve on the staff of St. Margaret's Hospital as well as the university's Bell Memorial Hospital.  For six years, Sutton performed a wide range of surgeries carefully documenting the procedures.  He published several articles related to these cases going back to his internship at Roosevelt.

In 1911, he had accepted a commission as a First Lieutenant in the United States Army Medical reserve Corps.  This eventually led to his taking a leave of absence from the university in February 1915 to serve at the American Ambulance Hospital outside Paris.  Sutton and others from his days at Columbia and Roosevelt arrived at College of Juilly on February 23 where hospital facilities had been set up only 40 miles from the front lines of World War I.  Within 2 months, he was surgeon-in-chief handling administrative duties in addition to his surgical responsibilities.  His inventive aptitude was perhaps never more valued as he developed fluoroscopic techniques to identify and localize shrapnel within the soldier's bodies and then removed the foreign items with instruments of his own design.  After his return, he documented these techniques in Binnie's Manual of Operative Surgery.  Sutton's return sailing from France was on June 26, 1915, having stayed only four months, but have made a significant contribution to wartime medical treatment.

Dr. Sutton died rather unexpectedly at the age of 39 due to complications from acute appendicitis.

References

External links
 Walter Sutton's Chromosome Theory of Heredity:  One Hundred Years Later

1877 births
1916 deaths
Military personnel from Utica, New York
People from Russell, Kansas
Kansas Jayhawks men's basketball players
University of Kansas alumni
Columbia University Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons alumni
American geneticists
United States Army officers
Scientists from Kansas
Scientists from New York (state)
American men's basketball players
Basketball players from Kansas
Basketball players from New York (state)
Deaths from appendicitis

Walter Sutton


The following polls make up the 1996 NCAA Division I baseball rankings.  USA Today and ESPN began publishing the Coaches' Poll of 31 active coaches ranking the top 25 teams in the nation in 1992.  Each coach is a member of the American Baseball Coaches Association.  Baseball America began publishing its poll of the top 20 teams in college baseball in 1981.  Beginning with the 1985 season, it expanded to the top 25.  Collegiate Baseball Newspaper published its first human poll of the top 20 teams in college baseball in 1957, and expanded to rank the top 30 teams in 1961.

USA Today/ESPN Coaches' Poll
Currently, only the final poll from the 1996 season is available.

Baseball America
Currently, only the final poll from the 1996 season is available.

Collegiate Baseball
Currently, only the final poll from the 1996 season is available.

References

College baseball rankings in the United States

1996 NCAA Division I baseball rankings


Leamy Lake (in French: Lac Leamy) is a lake in the Hull sector of Gatineau, Quebec, Canada. The lake is located just to the south of the Gatineau River, and just west of the Ottawa River, and is linked to both of them with flowing in from the Gatineau and exiting to the Ottawa. To the south is the Lac de la Carrière, a former quarry that is now a lake that is also linked.

The lake is named after Andrew Leamy, an Irish settler in the region who operated a mill near the lake. He was married to Erexina Wright, the granddaughter of Hull's founder, Philemon Wright. The area became heavily industrialized in the nineteenth century. Much of the industry left the area after the Second World War and in the 1960s much of the area around the lake was turned into a large park. The beach on the lakeshore became a popular swimming location, however there were persistent problems with pollution, mainly flowing in from the Gatineau River. To solve this the inflow to the lake was blocked in the 1970s. This solved some of the problem. By the 1990s the Gatineau River had become much cleaner, and the stagnation of the lake was causing its own problems, the channel was thus reopened.

On the southern shore of the lake, between it and Lac de la Carrière, is the Casino du Lac-Leamy, one of the region's major tourist attractions.

References
Lac Leamy regulations, Canada Gazette Part II, Vol. 132, No. 23

Landforms of Gatineau
Lakes of Outaouais

Leamy Lake


Uncertainty refers to epistemic situations involving imperfect or unknown information. It applies to predictions of future events, to physical measurements that are already made, or to the unknown. Uncertainty arises in partially observable or stochastic environments, as well as due to ignorance, indolence, or both. It arises in any number of fields, including insurance, philosophy, physics, statistics, economics, finance, medicine, psychology, sociology, engineering, metrology, meteorology, ecology and information science.

Concepts
Although the terms are used in various ways among the general public, many specialists in decision theory, statistics and other quantitative fields have defined uncertainty, risk, and their measurement as:

Uncertainty
The lack of certainty, a state of limited knowledge where it is impossible to exactly describe the existing state, a future outcome, or more than one possible outcome.
Measurement of uncertainty A set of possible states or outcomes where probabilities are assigned to each possible state or outcome – this also includes the application of a probability density function to continuous variables.

Second order uncertainty
In statistics and economics, second-order uncertainty is represented in probability density functions over (first-order) probabilities.

Opinions in subjective logic carry this type of uncertainty.

Risk
 Risk is a state of uncertainty, where some possible outcomes have an undesired effect or significant loss. Measurement of risk includes a set of measured uncertainties, where some possible outcomes are losses, and the magnitudes of those losses. This also includes loss functions over continuous variables.

Uncertainty versus variability
There is a difference between uncertainty and variability. Uncertainty is quantified by a probability distribution which depends upon knowledge about the likelihood of what the single, true value of the uncertain quantity is. Variability is quantified by a distribution of frequencies of multiple instances of the quantity, derived from observed data.

Knightian uncertainty
In economics, in 1921 Frank Knight distinguished uncertainty from risk with uncertainty being lack of knowledge which is immeasurable and impossible to calculate. Because of the absence of clearly defined statistics in most economic decisions where people face uncertainty, he believed that we cannot measure probabilities in such cases; this is now referred to as Knightian uncertainty.

Knight pointed out that the unfavorable outcome of known risks can be insured during the decision-making process because it has a clearly defined expected probability distribution. Unknown risks have no known expected probability distribution, which can lead to extremely risky company decisions.

Other taxonomies of uncertainties and decisions include a broader sense of uncertainty and how it should be approached from an ethics perspective:

Risk and uncertainty
For example, if it is unknown whether or not it will rain tomorrow, then there is a state of uncertainty. If probabilities are applied to the possible outcomes using weather forecasts or even just a calibrated probability assessment, the uncertainty has been quantified. Suppose it is quantified as a 90% chance of sunshine. If there is a major, costly, outdoor event planned for tomorrow then there is a risk since there is a 10% chance of rain, and rain would be undesirable. Furthermore, if this is a business event and $100,000 would be lost if it rains, then the risk has been quantified (a 10% chance of losing $100,000). These situations can be made even more realistic by quantifying light rain vs. heavy rain, the cost of delays vs. outright cancellation, etc.

Some may represent the risk in this example as the "expected opportunity loss" (EOL) or the chance of the loss multiplied by the amount of the loss (10% × $100,000 = $10,000). That is useful if the organizer of the event is "risk neutral", which most people are not. Most would be willing to pay a premium to avoid the loss. An insurance company, for example, would compute an EOL as a minimum for any insurance coverage, then add onto that other operating costs and profit. Since many people are willing to buy insurance for many reasons, then clearly the EOL alone is not the perceived value of avoiding the risk.

Quantitative uses of the terms uncertainty and risk are fairly consistent from fields such as probability theory, actuarial science, and information theory. Some also create new terms without substantially changing the definitions of uncertainty or risk. For example, surprisal is a variation on uncertainty sometimes used in information theory. But outside of the more mathematical uses of the term, usage may vary widely. In cognitive psychology, uncertainty can be real, or just a matter of perception, such as expectations, threats, etc.

Vagueness is a form of uncertainty where the analyst is unable to clearly differentiate between two different classes, such as 'person of average height' and 'tall person'. This form of vagueness can be modelled by some variation on Zadeh's fuzzy logic or subjective logic.

Ambiguity is a form of uncertainty where even the possible outcomes have unclear meanings and interpretations. The statement "He returns from the bank" is ambiguous because its interpretation depends on whether the word 'bank' is meant as "the side of a river" or "a financial institution". Ambiguity typically arises in situations where multiple analysts or observers have different interpretations of the same statements.

At the subatomic level, uncertainty may be a fundamental and unavoidable property of the universe. In quantum mechanics, the Heisenberg uncertainty principle puts limits on how much an observer can ever know about the position and velocity of a particle. This may not just be ignorance of potentially obtainable facts but that there is no fact to be found. There is some controversy in physics as to whether such uncertainty is an irreducible property of nature or if there are "hidden variables" that would describe the state of a particle even more exactly than Heisenberg's uncertainty principle allows.

Radical Uncertainty
The term 'radical uncertainty' was coined by John Kay and Mervyn King in their book Radical Uncertainty: Decision-Making for an Unknowable Future, published in March 2020. It is distinct from Knightian uncertainty, by whether or not it is 'resolvable'. If uncertainty arises from a lack of knowledge, and that lack of knowledge is resolvable by acquiring knowledge (such as by primary or secondary research) then it is not radical uncertainty. Only when there are no means available to acquire the knowledge which would resolve the uncertainty, is it considered 'radical'.

In measurements

The most commonly used procedure for calculating measurement uncertainty is described in the "Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement" (GUM) published by ISO. A derived work is for example the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Technical Note 1297, "Guidelines for Evaluating and Expressing the Uncertainty of NIST Measurement Results", and the Eurachem/Citac publication "Quantifying Uncertainty in Analytical Measurement". The uncertainty of the result of a measurement generally consists of several components. The components are regarded as random variables, and may be grouped into two categories according to the method used to estimate their numerical values:
 Type A, those evaluated by statistical methods
 Type B, those evaluated by other means, e.g., by assigning a probability distribution
By propagating the variances of the components through a function relating the components to the measurement result, the combined measurement uncertainty is given as the square root of the resulting variance. The simplest form is the standard deviation of a repeated observation.

In metrology, physics, and engineering, the uncertainty or margin of error of a measurement, when explicitly stated, is given by a range of values likely to enclose the true value. This may be denoted by error bars on a graph, or by the following notations:
 measured value ± uncertainty
 measured value
 measured value (uncertainty)

In the last notation, parentheses are the concise notation for the ± notation. For example, applying 10  meters in a scientific or engineering application, it could be written  or , by convention meaning accurate to within one tenth of a meter, or one hundredth. The precision is symmetric around the last digit. In this case it's half a tenth up and half a tenth down, so 10.5 means between 10.45 and 10.55. Thus it is understood that 10.5 means , and 10.50 means , also written  and  respectively.  But if the accuracy is within two tenths, the uncertainty is ± one tenth, and it is required to be explicit:  and  or  and .   The numbers in parentheses apply to the numeral left of themselves, and are not part of that number, but part of a notation of uncertainty. They apply to the least significant digits. For instance,  stands for , while  stands for . This concise notation is used for example by IUPAC in stating the atomic mass of elements.

The middle notation is used when the error is not symmetrical about the value – for example . This can occur when using a logarithmic scale, for example.

Uncertainty of a measurement can be determined by repeating a measurement to arrive at an estimate of the standard deviation of the values. Then, any single value has an uncertainty equal to the standard deviation. However, if the values are averaged, then the mean measurement value has a much smaller uncertainty, equal to the standard error of the mean, which is the standard deviation divided by the square root of the number of measurements. This procedure neglects systematic errors, however.

When the uncertainty represents the standard error of the measurement, then about 68.3% of the time, the true value of the measured quantity falls within the stated uncertainty range. For example, it is likely that for 31.7% of the atomic mass values given on the list of elements by atomic mass, the true value lies outside of the stated range. If the width of the interval is doubled, then probably only 4.6% of the true values lie outside the doubled interval, and if the width is tripled, probably only 0.3% lie outside. These values follow from the properties of the normal distribution, and they apply only if the measurement process produces normally distributed errors. In that case, the quoted standard errors are easily converted to 68.3% ("one sigma"), 95.4% ("two sigma"), or 99.7% ("three sigma") confidence intervals.

In this context, uncertainty depends on both the accuracy and precision of the measurement instrument. The lower the accuracy and precision of an instrument, the larger the measurement uncertainty is. Precision is often determined as the standard deviation of the repeated measures of a given value, namely using the same method described above to assess measurement uncertainty. However, this method is correct only when the instrument is accurate. When it is inaccurate, the uncertainty is larger than the standard deviation of the repeated measures, and it appears evident that the uncertainty does not depend only on instrumental precision.

In the media
Uncertainty in science, and science in general, may be interpreted differently in the public sphere than in the scientific community.  This is due in part to the diversity of the public audience, and the tendency for scientists to misunderstand lay audiences and therefore not communicate ideas clearly and effectively. One example is explained by the information deficit model. Also, in the public realm, there are often many scientific voices giving input on a single topic. For example, depending on how an issue is reported in the public sphere, discrepancies between outcomes of multiple scientific studies due to methodological differences could be interpreted by the public as a lack of consensus in a situation where a consensus does in fact exist. This interpretation may have even been intentionally promoted, as scientific uncertainty may be managed to reach certain goals.  For example, climate change deniers took the advice of Frank Luntz to frame global warming as an issue of scientific uncertainty, which was a precursor to the conflict frame used by journalists when reporting the issue.

"Indeterminacy can be loosely said to apply to situations in which not all the parameters of the system and their interactions are fully known, whereas ignorance refers to situations in which it is not known what is not known." These unknowns, indeterminacy and ignorance, that exist in science are often "transformed" into uncertainty when reported to the public in order to make issues more manageable, since scientific indeterminacy and ignorance are difficult concepts for scientists to convey without losing credibility. Conversely, uncertainty is often interpreted by the public as ignorance. The transformation of indeterminacy and ignorance into uncertainty may be related to the public's misinterpretation of uncertainty as ignorance.

Journalists may inflate uncertainty (making the science seem more uncertain than it really is) or downplay uncertainty (making the science seem more certain than it really is). One way that journalists inflate uncertainty is by describing new research that contradicts past research without providing context for the change. Journalists may give scientists with minority views equal weight as scientists with majority views, without adequately describing or explaining the state of scientific consensus on the issue. In the same vein, journalists may give non-scientists the same amount of attention and importance as scientists.

Journalists may downplay uncertainty by eliminating "scientists' carefully chosen tentative wording, and by losing these caveats the information is skewed and presented as more certain and conclusive than it really is". Also, stories with a single source or without any context of previous research mean that the subject at hand is presented as more definitive and certain than it is in reality. There is often a "product over process" approach to science journalism that aids, too, in the downplaying of uncertainty. Finally, and most notably for this investigation, when science is framed by journalists as a triumphant quest, uncertainty is erroneously framed as "reducible and resolvable".

Some media routines and organizational factors affect the overstatement of uncertainty; other media routines and organizational factors help inflate the certainty of an issue. Because the general public (in the United States) generally trusts scientists, when science stories are covered without alarm-raising cues from special interest organizations (religious groups, environmental organizations, political factions, etc.) they are often covered in a business related sense, in an economic-development frame or a social progress frame. The nature of these frames is to downplay or eliminate uncertainty, so when economic and scientific promise are focused on early in the issue cycle, as has happened with coverage of plant biotechnology and nanotechnology in the United States, the matter in question seems more definitive and certain.

Sometimes, stockholders, owners, or advertising will pressure a media organization to promote the business aspects of a scientific issue, and therefore any uncertainty claims which may compromise the business interests are downplayed or eliminated.

Applications
 Uncertainty is designed into games, most notably in gambling, where chance is central to play.
 In scientific modelling, in which the prediction of future events should be understood to have a range of expected values
 In optimization, uncertainty permits one to describe situations where the user does not have full control on the outcome of the optimization procedure, see scenario optimization and stochastic optimization.
 In weather forecasting, it is now commonplace to include data on the degree of uncertainty in a weather forecast.
 Uncertainty or error is used in science and engineering notation. Numerical values should only have to be expressed in those digits that are physically meaningful, which are referred to as significant figures. Uncertainty is involved in every measurement, such as measuring a distance, a temperature, etc., the degree depending upon the instrument or technique used to make the measurement. Similarly, uncertainty is propagated through calculations so that the calculated value has some degree of uncertainty depending upon the uncertainties of the measured values and the equation used in the calculation.
 In physics, the Heisenberg uncertainty principle forms the basis of modern quantum mechanics.
 In metrology, measurement uncertainty is a central concept quantifying the dispersion one may reasonably attribute to a measurement result. Such an uncertainty can also be referred to as a measurement error.
 In daily life, measurement uncertainty is often implicit ("He is 6 feet tall" give or take a few inches), while for any serious use an explicit statement of the measurement uncertainty is necessary. The expected measurement uncertainty of many measuring instruments (scales, oscilloscopes, force gages, rulers, thermometers, etc.) is often stated in the manufacturers' specifications.
 In engineering, uncertainty can be used in the context of validation and verification of material modeling.
 Uncertainty has been a common theme in art, both as a thematic device (see, for example, the indecision of Hamlet), and as a quandary for the artist (such as Martin Creed's difficulty with deciding what artworks to make).
 Uncertainty is an important factor in economics. According to economist Frank Knight, it is different from risk, where there is a specific probability assigned to each outcome (as when flipping a fair coin). Knightian uncertainty involves a situation that has unknown probabilities.
 Investing in financial markets such as the stock market involves Knightian uncertainty when the probability of a rare but catastrophic event is unknown.

Philosophy

In Western philosophy the first philosopher to embrace uncertainty was Pyrrho resulting in the Hellenistic philosophies of Pyrrhonism and Academic Skepticism, the first schools of philosophical skepticism. Aporia and acatalepsy represent key concepts in ancient Greek philosophy regarding uncertainty.

Artificial intelligence

See also

 Certainty
 Dempster–Shafer theory
 Further research is needed
 Fuzzy set theory
 Game theory
 Information entropy
 Interval finite element
 Measurement uncertainty
 Morphological analysis (problem-solving)
 Propagation of uncertainty
 Randomness
 Schrödinger's cat
 Scientific consensus
 Statistical mechanics
 Subjective logic
 Uncertainty quantification
 Uncertainty tolerance
 Volatility, uncertainty, complexity and ambiguity

References

Further reading

 "Treading Thin Air: Geoff Mann on Uncertainty and Climate Change", London Review of Books, vol. 45, no. 17 (7 September 2023), pp. 17–19. "[W]e are in desperate need of a politics that looks [the] catastrophic uncertainty [of global warming and climate change] square in the face. That would mean taking much bigger and more transformative steps: all but eliminating fossil fuels... and prioritizing democratic institutions over markets. The burden of this effort must fall almost entirely on the richest people and richest parts of the world, because it is they who continue to gamble with everyone else's fate." (p. 19.)

External links

Measurement Uncertainties in Science and Technology, Springer 2005
Proposal for a New Error Calculus
 Estimation of Measurement Uncertainties — an Alternative to the ISO Guide
Bibliography of Papers Regarding Measurement Uncertainty
Guidelines for Evaluating and Expressing the Uncertainty of NIST Measurement Results
Strategic Engineering: Designing Systems and Products under Uncertainty (MIT Research Group)
Understanding Uncertainty site from Cambridge's Winton programme

Cognition
Concepts in epistemology
Doubt
Experimental physics
Measurement
Probability
Probability interpretations
Prospect theory

Uncertainty