Law enforcement in Germany is constitutionally vested solely with the states, which is one of the main features of the German political system.

Policing has always been a responsibility of the German states even after 1871 when the country was unified. The 1919 constitution of the Weimar Republic did provide for the possibility of creating a national police force, should the necessity arise, but it was only in the Nazi era that Gestapo (secret state police) were unified under central control and a national police force created (the Reich Security Main Office—Reichssicherheitshauptamt, or RSHA). The police became a tool of the centralized state and the Nazi party.
Following the defeat of 1945, Germany was divided; in 1949 the three western zones were turned into the new West Germany, while the Soviet zone became East Germany. Each country pursued a different path concerning law enforcement.

In light of the gross misuse of power by the centralized Nazi state, the new West German constitution provided a strict separation of powers, placing law enforcement firmly in the hands of the states. The only policing agencies allowed at the federal level were the paramilitary Federal Border Guard (German: Bundesgrenzschutz), also responsible for coast guard services, and the Federal Criminal Police, both under the supervision of the Federal Ministry of the Interior. East Germany created a centralized police force under the Ministry of the Interior, the paramilitary Volkspolizei (literally "People's Police"). It also established a border police force (German: Grenztruppen der DDR), initially an independent force, later integrated into the army and then reorganized as an independent military organization. Because Germany's borders became largely open in 2005, due to the development of the European Union and spread of the Schengen Agreement to all neighbouring countries, the Bundesgrenzschutz was renamed to Federal Police (German: Bundespolizei). The duties of the Federal Police still are limited to the security of railway lines, main railway stations, airports, sea ports, and several other special duties.

Federal agencies

Federal Criminal Police Office

Another central police agency, the Federal Criminal Police Office (German: Bundeskriminalamt / BKA), with approximately 7,100 agents, operates nationwide from headquarters in Wiesbaden. The BKA is a clearinghouse for criminal intelligence records.

It provides assistance to the State Criminal Police Offices (German: Landeskriminalamt / LKA) in forensic matters, research, and criminal investigations. It is also the national point of contact for the International Criminal Police Organization (Interpol).
The BKA conducts own criminal investigations or enters existing cases only when requested by state authorities, or in cases involving two or more states. The BKA has been involved in investigations against various terrorist groups since the 1960s.

Federal Customs Service
The Federal Customs Service (German: Bundeszollverwaltung) is the executive and fiscal administrative agency of the Federal Ministry of Finance. It was founded in 1949 in West Germany. The purpose of the Customs Service is to administer federal taxes, execute demands for payment on behalf of the federal government and federal statutory corporations, monitor the cross border movements of goods with regard to compliance with bans and restrictions, and prevent illicit work. Uniformed federal agents are used for the execution of the financial legislation. Subordinated to the federal customs service, the Customs Investigation Bureau in Cologne (German: Zollkriminalamt / ZKA) coordinates customs investigations nationwide in particular monitoring foreign trade, uncovering violations of EU market regulations, illegal technology exports, subsidy fraud in the agricultural sector, drug trafficking and money laundering. In response to the increasing violence against law enforcement officers, the customs SWAT team, the Central Customs Support Group (German: Zentrale Unterstützungsgruppe Zoll / ZUZ) was implemented in 1997 as the customs tactical unit for dangerous missions.

Federal Intelligence Service
The  Federal Intelligence Service (German: Bundesnachrichtendienst / BND) was based in Munich. Since February 2019, the Service is based in Berlin. The BND is restricted to the investigation of threats originating outside of Germany. It depends heavily on wiretapping and other surveillance techniques applied to international communications. Such activities are authorized only to counter the danger of an armed threat to the country, but intelligence authorities have pressed for the added power to monitor suspected international traffickers of weapons and drugs.

Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution
The Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution (German: Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz / BfV) is primarily the domestic intelligence service of Germany, concerned with espionage, treason, and sedition. It has no powers of arrest and cannot use force, but it carries out surveillance and supplies the BKA and other police agencies with information e.g. on terrorist groups. Its main office is in Wiesbaden. Similar and independent offices exist in each state. Although they cooperate closely with the federal office, they operate under the control of state authorities.

Federal Police

Established in 1951, the Bundespolizei (BPOL) is the uniformed federal police force. It is subordinated to the Federal Ministry of the Interior (Bundesministerium des Innern (BMI)). The Bundespolizei was previously known as the Bundesgrenzschutz (BGS) ("Federal Border Guard") and had a more restricted role until July 1, 2005 when the law renaming the BGS as the BPOL was enacted.

All personnel on duty carry sidearms. Some units have light aircraft and helicopters to facilitate rapid access to remote border areas and for patrol and rescue missions. A coast guard force forms a part of the BPOL. It is equipped with 14 large patrol craft and several helicopters.

In addition to controlling Germany's border, the BPOL serves as a federal reserve force to deal with major disturbances and other emergencies beyond the scope of Land police. The BPOL guards airports , and several highly trained detachments are available for special crisis situations requiring demolition equipment, helicopters, or combat vehicles. After shortcomings in police procedures and training were revealed by the terrorist attack on Israeli athletes at the 1972 Olympics, a task force known as Border Guard Group 9 (GSG-9) was formed to deal with terrorist incidents, especially hostage situations. The GSG-9 won world attention when it rescued 86 passengers on a Lufthansa airliner hijacked to Mogadishu, Somalia, in 1977.

A military rank structure similar to that of the Bundeswehr was replaced in the mid-1970s by civil service-type personnel grades. The service uniform was green but has been changed to blue.

The West German Railway Police (Bahnpolizei), formerly an independent force, and the East German Transportpolizei were restructured under the BGS to form the Bundespolizei in 1990.

Military police

The Feldjäger are responsible for carrying out military law in Germany. It was formed in October 1955. They have no power over civilians.

State agencies

State Criminal Investigation Office

The State Criminal Police Office (German: Landeskriminalamt / LKA), is an independent law enforcement agency in most German states, that is directly subordinated to the respective state ministry of the interior. The LKA supervises police operations aimed at preventing and investigating criminal offences and coordinates investigations of serious crime, involving more than one regional headquarter. They can take over investigative responsibility in cases of serious crime, e.g. drug trafficking, organized crime, environmental and white-collar crime or extremist and terrorist offences. Each Landeskriminalamt is also a modern central office for information, analyzing police intelligence from home and abroad and transmitting it to police stations. It collates data on criminal offences and offenders in crime statistics that are used as a basis for new strategies, policy decisions and legislative initiatives. It also analyzes certain offense areas, evaluates the police measures executed in each case, forecasts expected tendencies and describes events in annual reports.

State Offices for the Protection of the Constitution
The State Office for the Protection of the Constitution (German: Landesamt für Verfassungsschutz / lfV) in every single state, is the domestic intelligence service, concerned with espionage, treason, and sedition. Due to the negative experiences of abusing power in Nazi-Germany, the domestic intelligence duties are not centralized and therefore maintained by the states. As the BfV, the LfV have no powers of arrest and cannot use force, but it carries out surveillance and supplies police agencies with information on extremist parties, international crime, drug trafficking, terrorism, and other illegal activities.

State Police Forces

The German states are responsible for managing the bulk of Germany's police forces. Each state has its own police force known as the State Police (German: Landespolizei). Each state promulgates a law which lays down the organisation and duties of its police (Landespolizeigesetz or Sicherheits- und Ordnungsgesetz).

Although the state police forces are regulated by sixteen different legislatures and are, in fact, different police forces, there has been an increasing tendency toward standardization of police activities nationwide. Concerns about terrorism and the growth of organized crime have strengthened the movement to centralize police procedures and operations. The idea of creating one single police code for the whole of Germany (allgemeines Polizeigesetz) came up in the 1960s but never passed.

These forces are organized by cities, towns, or rural communities, but all are integral components of the police forces of the state in which they are located. The respective state minister of interior supervises police operations in his or her jurisdiction. Although the internal organizations differ somewhat, all state police are divided into the Protective Police (German: Schutzpolizei / SchuPo), a uniformed service carrying out routine law and order duties, and Criminal Police Office (German: Kriminalpolizei / almost always abbreviated with KriPo), who carry out criminal investigations. The separate Administrative Police formerly had duties that included the registration of residents and the issuance of passports, identity cards, and various permits. These functions have been transferred to civil state government departments (Einwohnermeldeamt—Resident registration office) in all states.

The uniforms and vehicle colour schemes of the state police forces are different, but somewhat similar all over Germany, the state police forces are structured differently in each state as well. For example, in some states the Kripo can be part of the ordinary police force, in some states it is organized separately.

The idea of using the same colour for police uniforms and vehicles throughout the European Union has been realized in all German state police forces and the federal police. All vehicle liveries and uniforms changed from white/green to silver/blue until 2018. The basic silver colour for vehicles in the most states, is actually increasing the resale value and thus lowers leasing costs. The uniforms already have been changed by all state police forces and the federal police from the green/beige version introduced in 1979 to blue ones. Hamburg was the first state to make the transition, Bavaria the last state, finishing the replacement of the green/beige uniforms in 2018.

Auxiliary State Police Forces
Some German states maintain auxiliary police forces under different denominations, depending on the state's legislation. In most auxiliary forces, the officers are armed with pepper spray, in some forces with the regular equipment of professional police officers. Some states maintain a "Voluntary Police Service" (German: Freiwilliger Polizeidienst) like Baden-Württemberg and  Hesse, some a "Security Watch" (German: Sicherheitswacht), like Bavaria and Saxony, and only Brandenburg offers a "Security Partner" (German: Sicherheitspartner) program.

Their main duty is crime prevention by:
 conducting walking patrols to deter street crime
 patrolling near schools and kindergartens
 maintaining contact with potential victims of crime and juvenile delinquents.

Bavaria has instituted a system of citizen patrols (Sicherheitswacht) in which unarmed teams of two volunteers patrol assigned areas to improve subjective security. These teams carry a radio to call for help if necessary and a pepper spray for protection. A white armband with black letters identifying them as a "Security Watch" patrol.

Citizens in Baden-Württemberg can participate in the volunteer police programme, where roughly 1,200 citizens voluntarily assist their local police in 20 towns. These volunteers are specially trained, wear regular uniforms and are sworn and armed with normal police gear.

Citizens in Hesse and Saxony can also participate in a Volunteer Police program, where some citizens voluntarily assist their local police. The volunteers are trained for 50 hours in Hesse and 60 hours in Saxony, receive uniforms, pepper spray and a mobile phone in Hesse and a radio in Saxony.

In Brandenburg there were established about 200 security partners along the Polish border as well as around Greater Berlin. The legal basis is a decree of the State Minister of the Interior of 11 October 1995.

People can also join on a full-time basis the Wachpolizei, which has less authority (and less pay) than regular police officers to perform basic police tasks, like the guarding of premisses like an embassy, to release regular officers for patrol work.

Local agencies

Municipal order enforcement agencies

In Germany municipal code enforcement is organized very heterogeneously, depending on state, county and municipal regulations. Currently, many cities in Germany maintain local order enforcement agencies, with limited police-type duties. Those bylaw enforcement officers in general are city employees. Contingent on the respective unit, the officers wear - usually police like - uniforms or wear plain clothes with an armband or a labeled jacket, they could be armed or unarmed. The order enforcement officers are the municipal administration's "eyes and ears on the street". Mostly they are charged with monitoring municipal by-laws and laws that fall under the responsibility of municipalities, which include monitoring the conduct of shop owners, sanitation inspections, veterinary inspections and minor infractions and misdemeanors such as illegal parking, littering, state and local dog regulations etc. They usually only hand out warnings and fines and can only perform a citizen's arrest as any other citizen can. If they see any major crimes they are required to call the state police for a criminal investigation, while they can intervene in ongoing crimes themselves.

Even the denominations are manifold, depending on local regulations as well, most of the time the denominations are:
 Municipal Code Enforcement Service ()
 Community Enforcement Service ()
 Order Enforcement Office (), most common denomination
 Municipal Enforcement Service ()
 Municipal Guard / Municipal Watch ()

Municipal police forces

In Baden-Württemberg municipal police officers do have the same rights, powers and obligations like the counterparts of the state police. The tasks of a municipal police force depend on the size of the municipality's territory and the number of inhabitants in which it is operating. The "police authority" () of a town or city can transfer more tasks and responsibilities to its police force, only if approved by the regional government of the state ().

In the state of Hesse, city police forces provide the local order enforcement. The officers wear police uniforms and are armed. Similar to the municipal order enforcement units, there are different denominations:
 City Police ()
 Community Police ()

Training

Police training is primarily the responsibility of the individual states, although the federal government provides assistance and coordination. The high level of police professionalism is attributed in large degree to the length and thoroughness of training. The situation is different in the five new states of eastern Germany. Long accustomed to a society made compliant by eliminating opposing opinions, police forces of the eastern states have to adapt to the growing numbers of opposing right-wing groups and factions.

Most police recruits spend about two and a half years in the regular police academy training (). The auxiliary police forces, with fewer powers and often not equipped with a duty-weapon, are trained in just 12 weeks. In case of higher education (), recruits can also start off at a higher rank, comparable to Lieutenant (Rank: ), which they have to attend police college for and acquire a bachelor's degree.

After about six years of duty as a patrol officer, an individual with an outstanding record who does well on a highly competitive examination and started off in the regular police academy () can go on to two or three years at a higher police school or a college of public administration to qualify for a bachelor's degree (). The very few candidates who qualify for the highest ranks of the police study for one year at the Federal Police Leadership Academy in Münster-Hiltrup.

Off duty carry
Depending on the certain state police regulation, German police officers may be authorized to carry their department-issued firearms while off duty. Some states allow their officers to apply for the approval to purchase a private firearm, that can be carried off-duty. Further restrictions that forbid off-duty carry exist (i.e. when drinking alcohol, at public events). In their private properties, the officers are required to have a safe to store their gun while not carrying it.

Women in the Police
The state police forces have had female members since the implementation of the several police forces after World War II. Initially, female officers were assigned to cases involving juveniles and women, working in plainclothes without weapons. Since the mid-1970s, female police officers have performed general police patrol duties and their proportion of total police officers is steadily rising. However, their representation in leadership positions is still relatively low.

Alert Police
The Alert Police (), literally "Readiness or Standby Police" is available in each state for riot control, although their primary function is training police recruits. In this tasks it is comparable with Anti-Riot Police Forces in other countries. Beside this, the Federal Police maintains a  as well, to assist the state police forces if necessary. While the states are free to choose the equipment and to organize their police forces autonomously, the state and federal alert police units receive standardized weapons, vehicles, anti-riot gears and communications equipment from the federal government by law. An office in the Federal Ministry of Interior monitors and coordinates the deployment of the  units, which can be called upon to assist the police of other states in case of riots or other civil unrest.

The Alert Police is assigned to barracks where they are organized along military lines into squads, platoons, and 120- to 150-member training or standby companies. In most states, the  contingents consists of one 600- to 800-member battalion, but in six of the larger states they are organized into regiments.

Duties vary according to local requirements. In Hamburg, for example, the  patrol the subway system, assist in police raids in the red-light district, and are present at large demonstrations and soccer matches. Their units are equipped with their own transport, tents, and rations, enabling them to be shifted quickly to other  without having to rely on outside support. The Readiness Police have water cannons and armoured vehicles but are armed with lighter weapons than those of the federal police.

All state alert police forces and the federal alert police force maintain specialized units as well, the so-called Arrest Units (, lit. "Units for arrests and securing evidence", abbreviated BFE). The BFE units were established in 1987 after two police officers were killed during demonstrations against the expansion of Frankfurt Airport.

As a reaction to several terrorist attacks in Europe since 2015, an additional unit, the BFE+, was implemented in summer 2015. The BFE+ should provide specialized operators for long lasting (search) operations for example after a terrorist attack.

Career brackets
In general, the German law enforcement authorities of today have personnel of three available career brackets, the lowest being the "" ("middle service"), followed by the so-called "" ("elevated service") and the "" ("higher service"). Only the Federal Customs Administration (Bundeszollverwaltung) and the Departments of Justice and Corrections of the states ( — Justice Enforcement Service) still have personnel of the very lowest career bracket "" ("simple service"). To understand this structure it may be helpful to compare it with military rank structures because decades ago it was really similar.

Development of career
Today nine of sixteen State Police Forces recruit only for the career bracket of the "".

Entry into "" requires successful completion of 10 years of schooling, or a successful training in any other job and some years of working in this job. Period of training is 2 years at the police academy starting with the rank of . The highest possible rank in this bracket is that of . In the mid to late seventies the "" was disestablished for the detective branch , but in some states of the former GDR, they still exist. Rank designation, in this case, f.e. .

Entry into the "" requires a high-school diploma and period of training is 3 years at a college of administration and justice. The highest possible rank in this career is that of .

The third career bracket is the so-called "". A direct entry into this career bracket is possible and requires a law degree of a university, but the majority of these officers had started their career in "" or "". The period of training is 2 years at the  or German Police University. That is the only official centralised educational institution of the German police. Starting at the rank of "" or "" (literally "police counsellor" or "detective counsellor") up to "" ("police president"), which is (in most German states) equivalent to the rank of Chief of Police in the USA.

Judiciary

The German legal system is a civil law mostly based on a comprehensive compendium of statutes, as compared to the common law systems. The  (Federal Constitutional Court, being located in the city of Karlsruhe) is the German supreme court responsible for constitutional matters, with power of judicial review. Germany's supreme court system, called  ("Supreme Federal Courts of Justice"), is specialised: for civil and criminal cases, the highest court of appeal is the inquisitorial Federal Court of Justice ("" in Karlsruhe) and for other affairs the courts are the Federal Labour Court ("" in Erfurt), the Federal Social Court ("Bundessozialgericht" in Kassel), the Federal Fiscal Court ("" in Munich) and the Federal Administrative Court ("" in Leipzig). The  (International Penal Law Code) regulates the consequences of crimes against humanity, genocide and war crimes, and gives German courts universal jurisdiction under specific circumstances.

Criminal and private laws are codified on the national level in the  (literally Penal Law Book) and the  (literally Civil Law Book) respectively. The German penal system is aimed towards rehabilitation of the criminal and the protection of the general public. Except for petty crimes, which are tried before a single professional judge, and serious political crimes, all charges are tried before mixed tribunals on which lay judges ( or assessors) sit side by side with professional judges.

Equipment

Vehicles

German police typically use cars from German manufacturers. Mercedes-Benz, Volkswagen, Audi, Opel and BMW are commonly used as patrol cars (Streifenwagen). States used to prefer vehicles built in or close to the respective state. However, with most states now leasing instead of buying their vehicles and in light of European Union rules on contract bidding, states have less latitude in choosing which manufacturer will provide their patrol cars than they did.

In the Saarland which is historically closely tied to neighboring France, vehicles from French companies as well as European Fords are used as police cars. The Bavarian State Police uses mainly BMW and Audi vehicles, as both companies are based in Bavaria (BMW in Munich and Audi in Ingolstadt). In the eastern states of Germany, mostly Volkswagens are in use (Volkswagen is based in Wolfsburg, close to the eastern states). The Hessian police prefer Opel cars (the Opel brand formerly belonged to General Motors, currently it is owned by PSA, which is a part of Stellantis) is based in Rüsselsheim near Frankfurt am Main in Hesse). Baden-Württemberg mostly uses Mercedes-Benz and Volkswagen cars for their police force.

Before the police reform in the mid-1970s, Germany had many city police forces and each had its own police car livery. Dark blue, dark green and white were popular colours. However, the dark colours were perceived as a disadvantage as many accidents occurred at night during high-speed chases. Therefore, the conference of interior ministers decided on standardising police car liveries so that the cars appeared non-threatening and could be easily visible at night. Bright green and white became the colours associated with police vehicles in Germany beginning in the 1970s. More recently, police forces changed to silver cars and vans instead of white ones as they were easier to sell than the white ones when their police service was over. In an effort to harmonize the coloring of police in Europe, Germany has adopted a blue-silver livery with the addition of neon reflective surfaces to increase visibility.

Today, German police forces generally lease patrol cars from a manufacturer, usually for a period of three years. The leasing company marks the patrol cars using plastic foils with reflecting strips as borders instead of painting them. The foils are removed when the cars are sold to the public as standard silver used cars when the lease runs out.

Unlike in other countries like the United States, police cars in Germany rarely come with any special equipment (apart from the obvious, like flashing lights or sirens) not available to other users of the same model, as the cars on sale in European markets are generally considered to be fit for police duty without any further alteration.

Type of vehicles
These vehicles are used by law enforcement agencies in Germany:

Uniforms

History
From 1945 onwards, due to the multilayer organisation in municipal and rural state law enforcement agencies, Nazi Police forces wore completely different colored uniforms. In the mid-seventies the aftermath of Munich massacre a reorganisation of the state police forces took place. This opportunity was taken to implement a standard police uniform for all West German states and West Berlin. All state police forces implemented the same green and beige uniform, most parts designed by Heinz Oestergaard. The standard uniform consisted of a tunic, parka, pullover without shroud, coat, visor cap and necktie in moss-green, trouser, pullover and cardigan in brown-beige, shirt (long and short sleeve) in bamboo-yellow. Shoes, boots, holsters, leather jackets and other leather gear were black. Leather gloves were olive-drab. There were some exceptions. Visor caps with a white top were worn by the traffic police and by the Schutzpolizei during traffic regulation duties.

The state river or water police forces (German: Wasserschutzpolizei) wore uniforms of a completely different design. The basic uniform was navy-blue, the shirt was white and the visor cap had a white top. The BGS wore an all forest green uniform with a bamboo-yellow shirt. After German Reunification the Volkspolizei was broken up into Landespolizei and switched to the standard uniform. During the period of transition, they still wore their old uniforms but with Western-style sleeve and cap ensigns.

Transition to blue uniforms of state and federal police units
Like most European countries have blue police uniforms, all German State Police Forces (German: Landespolizei) and the Federal Police (German: Bundespolizei) have shifted to blue uniforms to conform with the common blue image of most police forces in Europe. In line with the uniforms, police vehicles and various items of equipment also changed the color to blue. Although there are 16 states, currently only six types of state police uniforms are in use, because many states co-operate in the design and sourcing of the police uniforms.
State level

Federal level

See also
 List of law enforcement agencies in Germany
 Police forces of Nazi Germany
 Police of Germany
 Zollkriminalamt (German Customs Investigation Bureau)
 Staatsanwaltschaft (public prosecutor's office)
 Crime in Germany
 Prisons in Germany
 List of killings by law enforcement officers in Germany
 Legal aid in Germany

References

Law enforcement in Germany


Angus Alexander Wall (born March 15, 1967) is a film editor and film title designer.  He and fellow film editor Kirk Baxter won the Academy Award for Best Film Editing for the David Fincher film The Social Network (2010) and again the next year for The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo (2011). He and Baxter were nominated the Academy Award for Best Film Editing, the BAFTA Award for Best Editing, and the American Cinema Editors Eddie Award for the 2008 film The Curious Case of Benjamin Button, also directed by David Fincher. Wall's title design work on the HBO television series Carnivàle and Game of Thrones both received Emmy Awards in 2004 and 2011, respectively, and his work on the series Romes titles was nominated for the BAFTA Award in 2005.

Life and career
Wall graduated from Woodberry Forest School in Virginia in 1984. He then earned a BA from Bowdoin College in 1988. In 1992, he and Linda Carlson started the firm Rock Paper Scissors, which has become "a respected West Hollywood creative editorial house known for its commercial work for such clients as BMW, HP, and Nike."

Wall's relationship with the director David Fincher extends back to 1988, when Wall entered the entertainment industry. Wall had edited some commercials directed by David Fincher, and he edited the titles for Fincher's film Se7en. He became an "editorial consultant" on  Fight Club (1999), which was edited by James Haygood, and he then co-edited Panic Room (2002) with Haygood. While Wall became the sole editor credited on Zodiac (2007), Kirk Baxter worked with him as an "additional editor". Wall proposed to Fincher that Baxter be the co-editor for The Curious Case of Benjamin Button.

Wall and his firm are noted for being early adopters of all-digital filmmaking using digital cameras. The film Zodiac (2007), which was directed by Fincher and edited by Wall, is noted as "the first major motion picture created without using film or tape," although some parts of the film were shot with conventional cameras. One important aspect of using digital cameras is that the director can view a scene immediately after it is recorded; as Fincher commented in an interview, "Dailies almost always end up being disappointing, like the veil is pierced and you look at it for the first time and think, 'Oh my god, this is what I really have to work with.' But when you can see what you have as it's gathered, it can be a much less neurotic process." Digital filmmaking also creates new possibilities for film editing compared to the "cutting" of reels of physical film; among these possibilities are subtle changes in the timing of an actor's performance, and combining of two different takes of a given scene within a single frame. The Curious Case of Benjamin Button has the additional novel element that the facial performances in many of the film's scenes were recorded independently of the body performances, and were combined to create the final film. Brad Pitt's face performances for Button were used in all the scenes, but for many of the scenes a second actor's performance was used for the rest of Button's body.

Filmography (as editor)

References

External links
.

1967 births
American film editors
Best Editing BAFTA Award winners
Best Film Editing Academy Award winners
Bowdoin College alumni
Living people
Woodberry Forest School alumni

Angus Wall


Valerius Licinianus Licinius (Greek: Λικίνιος; c. 265 – 325) was Roman emperor from 308 to 324. For most of his reign he was the colleague and rival of Constantine I, with whom he co-authored the Edict of Milan, AD 313, that granted official toleration to Christians in the Roman Empire. He was finally defeated at the Battle of Chrysopolis (AD 324), and was later executed on the orders of Constantine I.

Early reign
Born to a Dacian peasant family in Moesia Superior, Licinius accompanied his close childhood friend, the future emperor Galerius, on the Persian expedition in 298. He was trusted enough by Galerius that in 307 he was sent as an envoy to Maxentius in Italy to attempt to reach some agreement about the latter's illegitimate political position. Galerius then trusted the eastern provinces to Licinius when he went to deal with Maxentius personally after the death of Severus II.

Upon his return to the east Galerius elevated Licinius to the rank of Augustus in the West on 11 November 308, and under his immediate command were the Balkan provinces of Illyricum, Thrace and Pannonia. In 310 he took command of the war against the Sarmatians, inflicting a severe defeat on them. On the death of Galerius in May 311, Licinius entered into an agreement with Maximinus Daza to share the eastern provinces between them. By this point, not only was Licinius the official Augustus of the west but he also possessed part of the eastern provinces as well, as the Hellespont and the Bosporus became the dividing line, with Licinius taking the European provinces and Maximinus taking the Asian.

An alliance between Maximinus and Maxentius forced the two remaining emperors to enter into a formal agreement with each other. So in March 313 Licinius married Flavia Julia Constantia, half-sister of Constantine I, at Mediolanum (now Milan); they had a son, Licinius the Younger, in 315. Their marriage was the occasion for the jointly-issued "Edict of Milan" that reissued Galerius' previous edict allowing Christianity (and any religion one might choose) to be professed in the Empire, with additional dispositions that restored confiscated properties to Christian congregations and exempted Christian clergy from municipal civic duties. The redaction of the edict as reproduced by Lactantius – who follows the text affixed by Licinius in Nicomedia on 14 June 313, after Maximinus' defeat – uses neutral language, expressing a will to propitiate "any Divinity whatsoever in the seat of the heavens".

Daza in the meantime decided to attack Licinius. Leaving Syria with 70,000 men, he reached Bithynia, although harsh weather he encountered along the way had gravely weakened his army. In April 313, he crossed the Bosporus and went to Byzantium, which was held by Licinius' troops. Undeterred, he took the town after an eleven-day siege. He moved to Heraclea, which he captured after a short siege, before moving his forces to the first posting station. With a much smaller body of men, possibly around 30,000, Licinius arrived at Adrianople while Daza was still besieging Heraclea. Before the decisive engagement, Licinius allegedly had a vision in which an angel recited him a generic prayer that could be adopted by all cults and which Licinius then repeated to his soldiers. On 30 April 313, the two armies clashed at the Battle of Tzirallum, and in the ensuing battle Daza's forces were crushed. Ridding himself of the imperial purple and dressing like a slave, Daza fled to Nicomedia. Believing he still had a chance to come out victorious, Daza attempted to stop the advance of Licinius at the Cilician Gates by establishing fortifications there. Unfortunately for Daza, Licinius' army succeeded in breaking through, forcing Daza to retreat to Tarsus, where Licinius continued to press him on land and sea. The war between them ended only with Daza's death in August 313.

Given that Constantine had already crushed his rival Maxentius in 312, the two men decided to divide the Roman world between them. As a result of this settlement, the Tetrarchy was replaced by a system of two emperors, called Augusti: Licinius became Augustus of the East, while his brother-in-law, Constantine, became Augustus of the West.

After making the pact, Licinius rushed immediately to the East to deal with another threat, an invasion by the Persian Sassanid Empire.

Conflict with Constantine I

In 314, a civil war erupted between Licinius and Constantine, in which Constantine used the pretext that Licinius was harbouring Senecio, whom Constantine accused of plotting to overthrow him. Constantine prevailed at the Battle of Cibalae in Pannonia (8 October 314). Although the situation was temporarily settled, with both men sharing the consulship in 315, it was but a lull in the storm. The next year a new war erupted, when Licinius named Valerius Valens co-emperor, only for Licinius to suffer a humiliating defeat on the plains in the Battle of Mardia (also known as the Battle of Campus Ardiensis) in Thrace. The emperors were reconciled after these two battles and Licinius had his co-emperor Valens killed.

Over the next ten years, the two imperial colleagues maintained an uneasy truce. Licinius kept himself busy with a campaign against the Sarmatians in 318, but temperatures rose again in 321 when Constantine pursued some Sarmatians, who had been ravaging some territory in his realm, across the Danube into what was technically Licinius's territory. When he repeated this with another invasion, this time by the Goths who were pillaging Thrace under their leader Rausimod, Licinius complained that Constantine had broken the treaty between them.

Constantine wasted no time going on the offensive. Licinius's fleet of 350 ships was defeated by Constantine's fleet in 323. Then in 324, Constantine, tempted by the "advanced age and unpopular vices" of his colleague, again declared war against him and having defeated his army of 165,000 men at the Battle of Adrianople (3 July 324), succeeded in shutting him up within the walls of Byzantium. The defeat of the superior fleet of Licinius in the Battle of the Hellespont by Crispus, Constantine's eldest son and Caesar, compelled his withdrawal to Bithynia, where a last stand was made; the Battle of Chrysopolis, near Chalcedon (18 September), resulted in Licinius' final submission. In this conflict Licinius was supported by the Gothic prince Alica. Due to the intervention of Flavia Julia Constantia, Constantine's sister and also Licinius' wife, both Licinius and his co-emperor Martinian were initially spared, Licinius being imprisoned in Thessalonica, Martinian in Cappadocia; however, both former emperors were subsequently executed. After his defeat, Licinius attempted to regain power with Gothic support, but his plans were exposed, and he was sentenced to death. While attempting to flee to the Goths, Licinius was apprehended at Thessalonica. Constantine had him hanged, accusing him of conspiring to raise troops among the barbarians.

Character and legacy

As part of Constantine's attempts to decrease Licinius's popularity, he actively portrayed his brother-in-law as a pagan supporter. This may not have been the case; contemporary evidence tends to suggest that he was at least a committed supporter of Christians at one point. He co-authored the Edict of Milan which ended the Great Persecution, and re-affirmed the rights of Christians in his half of the empire. He also added the Christian symbol to his armies, and attempted to regulate the affairs of the Church hierarchy just as Constantine and his successors were to do. His wife was a devout Christian.

It is even a possibility that he converted. However, Eusebius of Caesarea, writing under the rule of Constantine, charges him with expelling Christians from the Palace and ordering military sacrifices to pagan gods, as well as interfering with the Church's internal procedures and organization. It has been theorized that he originally supported Christians along with Constantine, but later in his life turned against them and to paganism.

Finally, on Licinius's death, his memory was branded with infamy; his statues were thrown down; and by edict, all his laws and judicial proceedings during his reign were abolished.  Such official erasure from the public record has come to be called damnatio memoriae.

Family tree

References

Sources
 Grant, Michael (1993), The Emperor Constantine, London.
 Pears, Edwin. "The Campaign against Paganism A.D. 324." The English Historical Review, Vol. 24, No. 93 (January 1909): 1–17.

260s births
325 deaths
4th-century executions
4th-century murdered monarchs
4th-century Roman consuls
4th-century Roman emperors
Constantinian dynasty
Dacians
Executed Roman emperors
Licinii
People executed by hanging
People executed by the Roman Empire
People from Zaječar District
Tetrarchy
Valerii
Illyrian emperors
Damnatio memoriae

Licinius


A sailboat or sailing boat is a boat propelled partly or entirely by sails and is smaller than a sailing ship. Distinctions in what constitutes a sailing boat and ship vary by region and maritime culture.

Types

Although sailboat terminology has varied across history, many terms have specific meanings in the context of modern yachting. A great number of sailboat-types may be distinguished by size, hull configuration, keel type, purpose, number and configuration of masts, and sail plan.

Popular monohull designs include:

Cutter

The cutter is similar to a sloop with a single mast and mainsail, but generally carries the mast further aft to allow for  a jib and staysail to be attached to the head stay and inner forestay, respectively. Once a common racing configuration, today it gives versatility to cruising boats, especially in allowing a small staysail to be flown from the inner stay in high winds.

Catboat

A catboat has a single mast mounted far forward and does not carry a jib. Most modern designs have only one sail, the mainsail; however, the traditional catboat could carry multiple sails from the gaff rig. Catboat is a charming and distinctive sailboat featuring a single mast with a single large sail, known as a gaff-rigged sail, and a broad beam that ensures stability. This type of vessel, named after the "cat" tackle used in sailing, has a rich history dating back to the 19th century in the coastal regions of the United States, particularly New England, where it was widely used by fishermen and sailors. With its straightforward design and uncomplicated rigging, the catboat offers a straightforward and laid-back sailing experience, making it an ideal choice for beginners and pleasure sailors alike. Even today, catboats continue to be cherished by enthusiasts who appreciate their heritage and enjoy their picturesque appearance while cruising through the waterways.

Dinghy

A dinghy is a type of small open sailboat commonly used for recreation, sail training, and tending a larger vessel. They are popular in youth sailing programs for their short LOA, simple operation and minimal maintenance. They have three (or fewer) sails: the mainsail, jib, and spinnaker.

Ketch

Ketches are similar to a sloop, but there is a second shorter mast astern of the mainmast, but forward of the rudder post. The second mast is called the mizzen mast and the sail is called the mizzen sail. A ketch can also be Cutter-rigged with two head sails.

Schooner

A schooner has a mainmast taller than its foremast, distinguishing it from a ketch or a yawl. A schooner can have more than two masts, with the foremast always lower than the foremost main. Traditional topsail schooners have topmasts allowing triangular topsails sails to be flown above their gaff sails; many modern schooners are Bermuda rigged.

Sloop

The most common modern sailboat is the sloop, which features one mast and two sails, typically a Bermuda rigged main, and a headsail. This simple configuration is very efficient for sailing into the wind.

A fractional rigged sloop has its forestay attached at a point below the top of the mast, allowing the mainsail to be flattened to improve performance by raking the upper part of the mast aft by tensioning the backstay. A smaller headsail is easier for a short-handed crew to manage.

Yawl

A yawl is similar to a ketch, with a shorter mizzen mast carried astern the rudderpost more for balancing the helm than propulsion.

Hulls

Traditional sailboats are monohulls, but multi-hull catamarans and trimarans are gaining popularity. Monohull boats generally rely on ballast for stability and usually are displacement hulls. This stabilizing ballast can, in boats designed for racing, be as much as 50% of the weight of the boat, but is generally around 30%. It creates two problems; one, it gives the monohull tremendous inertia, making it less maneuverable and reducing its acceleration. Secondly, unless it has been built with buoyant foam or air tanks, if a monohull fills with water, it will sink.

Multihulls rely on the geometry and the broad stance of their multiple hulls for their stability, eschewing any form of ballast. Some multihulls are designed to be as light-weight as possible while still maintaining structural integrity. They can be built with foam-filled flotation chambers and some modern trimarans are rated as unsinkable, meaning that, should every crew compartment be completely filled with water, the hull itself has sufficient buoyancy to remain afloat.

A multihull optimized for light weight (at the expense of cruising amenities and storage for food and other supplies), combined with the absence of ballast can result in performance gains in terms of acceleration, top speed, and manoeuvrability.

The lack of ballast makes it much easier to get a lightweight multihull on plane, reducing its wetted surface area and thus its drag. Reduced overall weight means a reduced draft, with a much reduced underwater profile. This, in turn, results directly in reduced wetted surface area and drag. Without a ballast keel, multihulls can go in shallow waters where monohulls can not.

There are trade-offs, however, in multihull design. A well designed ballasted boat can recover from a capsize, even from turning over completely. Righting a multihull that has gotten upside down is difficult in any case and impossible without help unless the boat is small or carries special equipment for the purpose. Multihulls often prove more difficult to tack, since the reduced weight leads directly to reduced momentum, causing multihulls to more quickly lose speed when headed into the wind. Also, structural integrity is much easier to achieve in a one piece monohull than in a two or three piece multihull whose connecting structure must be substantial and well connected to the hulls.

All these hull types may also be manufactured as, or outfitted with, hydrofoils.

Keel
All vessels have a keel, it is the backbone of the hull. In traditional construction, it is the structure upon which all else depends. Modern monocoque designs include a virtual keel. Even multihulls have keels. On a sailboat, the word "keel" is also used to refer to the area that is added to the hull to improve its lateral plane. The lateral plane is what prevents leeway and allows sailing towards the wind. This can be an external piece or a part of the hull.

Most monohulls larger than a dinghy require built-in ballast. Depending on the design of the boat, ballast may be 20 to 50 percent of the displacement. The ballast is often integrated into their keels as large masses of lead or cast iron. This secures the ballast and gets it as low as possible to improve its effectiveness. External keels are cast in the shape of the keel. A monohull's  keel is made effective by a combination of weight, depth, and length.

Most modern monohull boats have fin keels, which are heavy and deep, but short in relation to the hull length. More traditional yachts carried a full keel which is generally half or more of the length of the boat. A recent feature is a winged keel, which is short and shallow, but carries a lot of weight in two "wings" which run sideways from the main part of the keel. Even more recent is the concept of canting keels, designed to move the weight at the bottom of a sailboat to the upwind side, allowing the boat to carry more sails. A twin keel has the benefit of a shallower draft and can allow the boat to stand on dry land.

Multihulls, on the other hand, have minimal need for such ballast, as they depend on the geometry of their design, the wide base of their multiple hulls, for their stability. Designers of performance multihulls, such as the Open 60's, go to great lengths to reduce overall boat weight as much as possible. This leads some to comment that designing a multihull is similar to designing an aircraft.

A centreboard or daggerboard is retractable lightweight keel which can be pulled up in shallow water.

Mast
On small sailboats, masts may be "stepped" (put in place) with the bottom end in a receptacle that is supported above the keel of the boat or on the deck or other superstructure that allows the mast to be raised at a hinge point until it is erect. Some masts are supported solely at the keel and laterally at the deck and are called "unstayed". Most masts rely in part or entirely (for those stepped on the deck) on standing rigging, supporting them side-to-side and fore-and aft to hold them up. Masts over  may require a crane and are typically stepped on the keel through any cabin or other superstructure.

Auxiliary propulsion
Many sailboats have an alternate means of propulsion, in case the wind dies or where close maneuvering under sail is impractical. The smallest boats may use a paddle; bigger ones may have oars; still others may employ an outboard motor, mounted on the transom; still others may have an inboard engine.

See also

 Boat
Boat building
Boating
Cruising (maritime)
Land sailing
Sail
Sailing
Sailing (sport)
Sailing ship
Sailboat design and manufacturing
Yacht racing
:Category:Two-person sailboats

References

General references

External links

SailboatData Sailboat database
SailingtheWeb Sailboat database
John's International Boats: Directory of Sailboats, Designers, Builders, Associations & More (15,000 entries)
Web site of the International Sailing Federation

Sailboat


Poole Pottery is a British pottery brand owned by Denby Pottery Company, with the products made in Stoke on Trent, Staffordshire.

It was founded as a manufacturer in 1873 on Poole quayside in Dorset where it produced pottery, before moving its factory operations in 1999 to a new site in Sopers Lane until its closure in 2006. They generally specialised on earthenware, although other bodies such as stoneware were periodically produced.

Historical products from Poole Pottery are displayed in museums including the Victoria and Albert Museum in London.

History

Poole Pottery was originally "Carter's Industrial Tile Manufactory" and it was this company that provided the financial foundation for the later "Poole Pottery". Carter (Jesse) joined forces in the 1920s with designers Harold Stabler and Phoebe Stabler, and potters John Adams and Truda Adams (Truda Carter) to form "Carter Stabler Adams", who produced Art Deco pottery.

The Carter company produced much of the ceramic tiling used on London Underground stations built in the 1930s and, of particular note, made the relief tiles, designed by Stabler, showing symbols of London–some of these can still be seen on stations such as Bethnal Green.

"Carter Stabler Adams" eventually became "Poole Pottery", and during and after World War II produced many lines, including Twintone and Traditional. Much of the traditional range was based on the work of the chief designer in the 1920s, Truda Carter; her original designs were interpreted by "paintresses" who added their own individuality to the pieces, all of which were handmade.

Robert Jefferson joined in the 1950s, and alongside such artisans as Leslie Elsden (designer of the "Aegean" Range), Guy Sydenham, thrower and designer of the "Atlantis" range, Tony Morris, developer of the early "Delphis" Studio wares with Jefferson, and paintresses such as Carol Cutler, Diana Davies, Ros Sommerfeld, Ann Godfrey and others, including the three Wills sisters, Laura, Julia and Carolyn, produced two lines which are probably the most famous of all Poole's output: Delphis and Aegean.

Delphis is easily recognised: it is psychedelic, with vibrant colours and designs inspired by artists such as Mondrian, Warhol, Matisse and Pollock. Aegean is more subtle, with the sgraffito technique used to create the "silhouette" patterns that make this range so recognisable.

Twintone
Poole Pottery (Carter, Stabler and Adams) produced two-coloured tableware from the 1930s, but had to stop production during World War Two. When they re-launched the range in the late 1940s, they named it Twintone. Twintone was used on three shapes of tableware, many table accessories and a whole host of decorative ware right up to 1981.

Delphis

The Poole Delphis range, launched in 1963, was initially conceived by Guy Sydenham and Robert Jefferson and later developed by Jefferson and Tony Morris. Every piece is pretty much unique, with designs created by the decorators themselves.

Aegean
Introduced in 1970, Aegean utilises spray-on glazes in a wide range of techniques (sgraffito, silhouette, mosaic, flow line and carved clay) and patterns (from pure 1970's abstraction to more figurative images of fish, leaves, boats and pastoral scenes).  Initially thought of as a replacement for Delphis, it was never as successful.

Living Glaze
Poole Pottery giftware is currently created using "Living Glaze". This involves the application of different glazes which react with one another to achieve unique results on each piece.

Closure and re-establishment
Leonard Curtis were appointed administrators in 2003, and sold the company as a going concern to Dorset businessman Peter Ford. They also raised funds for creditors by selling historic artefacts from the Pottery's museum.

On 15 December 2006, it was announced that the shop would close, due to non-payment of debts mounting up since new owners took over in August. The company, including the factory, went into administration on 20 December 2006, owing £1 million to over 300 creditors.

Poole Pottery came out of administration on 10 February 2007 and was under the control of Lifestyle Group Ltd, which also owns Royal Stafford Tableware.

The pottery shop opened on Poole Quay, selling Poole Pottery giftware (first and seconds), lighting, tableware and studio ranges. The shop closed down in 2017.

The main Poole Pottery factory is now at the Middleport Pottery (sharing with Burleigh Pottery) in Burslem, Stoke on Trent where production is now carried out following the closure of the Poole factory.

In June 2011, the Denby Pottery Company under the ownership of Hilco bought Poole Pottery.

See also
Poole Museum (Dorset)

References

External links

Virtual Museum of Poole Pottery
The Denby Family

English pottery
Ceramics manufacturers of England
Tourist attractions in Poole
Companies based in Poole
Companies established in 1873
History of Poole
Art pottery

Poole Pottery


Albert Ely Edwards (March 19, 1937 – April 29, 2020) was an American politician who served in the Texas Legislature representing District 146. He is best known as the principal proponent of the Juneteenth Texas state holiday, approved in 2007, which in 2021 became a federal holiday. Edwards served on three of the most influential Committees, including Chairman of the Rules and Resolutions Committee, Chairman of Budget and Oversight of the Ways and Means Committee and a member of the Appropriations Committee.

Biography

Life
Edwards was a native Houstonian. He was the sixth child out of the sixteen children of Reverend E. L. Edwards Sr. and Josephine Radford Edwards.

Edwards graduated from Wheatley High School in Houston.  Edwards was a member of Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity.

He received a bachelor's degree from Texas Southern University, Houston, Texas in 1966, a Certificate in Corrective Therapy at Tuskegee Institute in Alabama. He became a realtor and mortgage broker.

Career
He was involved in the Civil Rights Movement, where he participated in peaceful marches and demonstrations throughout the United States of America with Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., Reverend Jesse Jackson, Mr. Carl Stocks, Reverend William (Bill) Lawson, and others.

Edwards was a thirteen-term elected member of the Texas House of Representatives, serving in that capacity from 1978 to 2007. In 1979, he authored and sponsored House Bill 1016, making June 19 ("Juneteenth") a state paid holiday in Texas. He founded Juneteenth, U.S.A., in 1979 along with Al Edwards Real Estate and Mortgage Company. The Juneteenth legislation passed in 2007.

1980s
He served as a member of the board of Push International Trade Bureau of Chicago, Illinois from 1983 to 1989. Al Edwards served as the State Chairman for Reverend Jesse Jackson's campaign for President of the United States in both 1984 and 1988.

In 1986, he founded "Operation Justus ", a community-based organization that serves as a referral service for persons with social problems and concerns.
In 1987, he was arrested in Houston and went to jail for peacefully demonstrating against apartheid in South Africa. Others demonstrating on the national level included Reverend Jesse Jackson, Dick Gregory, Aretha Franklin, Harry Belafonte along with many others.
In 1989, he traveled to Mozambique, Johannesburg, and Angola, South Africa on a peace-seeking mission.

1990s
Representative Edwards served as Chairman of the Texas Legislative Black Caucus from 1991 to 1997.
Al Edwards was called to ministry in April 1993. Revered Al Edwards is a member of Progressive New Hope Church.

During the Clinton administration, Al Edwards was often invited to the White House as the guest of Bill and Hillary Clinton.  In May 1994, he was inducted into the Hall of Fame of the African American Biographic Association in Atlanta, Georgia.  Al Edwards was elected Chairman of the Democratic National Committee Black Caucus and held that position for six years. He was Vice-Chairman for ten years.

Edwards received his Doctorate of Divinity from World Bible Christian University in San Antonio. In 1999, Edwards was appointed Chairman of Texas Emancipation Juneteenth Cultural and Historical Commission by Governor George W. Bush.

2004
On January 15, 2004, Al Edwards helped to lead a successful march of over 5000 people in Waller County in order for the students of Prairie View A & M University to be able to vote. As a senior member of the State Legislature, Al Edwards served on three of the most influential Committees. He was the Chairman of the Rules and Resolutions Committee, Chairman of Budget and Oversight of the Ways and Means Committee and a member of the Appropriations Committee.

Awards
He was inducted into "Who's Who in America " in 1989 and "Who's Who of Global Decision Makers" in 2006. In 1983, he received an honorary doctoral degree from the University of Belize. Edwards is memorialized with a statute near Ashton Villa in Galveston, depicting him holding up a copy of the Juneteenth legislation.

Death
Edwards died from natural causes on April 29, 2020, at age 83.

References

1937 births
2020 deaths
Businesspeople from Houston
Tuskegee University alumni
Texas Southern University alumni
20th-century American politicians
21st-century American politicians
African-American state legislators in Texas
Democratic Party members of the Texas House of Representatives
Politicians from Houston
20th-century African-American politicians
African-American men in politics
21st-century African-American politicians

Al Edwards (politician)


Ashtabula Harbor Light (also known as Ashtabula Light) is a lighthouse in Ashtabula, Ohio. It was listed in the National Register on August 8, 1983.

History
The first light marking Ashtabula's harbor was built in 1836, a short hexagonal wooden tower standing on a wooden crib just off the eastern pier. This used the oil lamps typical of the time and remained in service until replaced by a new tower on the west pier, a pyramidal tower with clapboard sides. This change was prompted by changes in the harbor configuration. The new light was equipped with a fourth-order Fresnel lens, exhibiting a red light. Keepers lived in a frame house in town. This tower was moved in 1882 but remained in service.

In 1905 the Ashtabula River mouth was widened and breakwater constructed, prompting construction of the third light, the structure that exists today. This building was originally placed 1750 feet SSE of its present location, but was moved and enlarged in 1915, placed on a concrete crib at the end of the north breakwater. The new house, built of steel and iron plate, afforded living quarters for the keepers. At the same time a new fourth-order lens was mounted in the tower. The old light was by this time left standing by itself, sixty feet from shore.

The new light's exposed position made it vulnerable to various assaults. In 1927 it was struck by a steamship, shifting it six inches off its base. The following year, however, a more famous incident occurred. An ice storm completely encased the light, trapping the keepers inside. After two days they managed to thaw the front door sufficiently to get it open, only to have to tunnel to through some five feet of ice in order to escape.

The light was the last Great Lakes light to be manned, and was finally automated in 1973. The original keeper's house was deeded to the city in the same year, but returned to federal ownership in 1976 due to a lack of funds to complete a plan to convert the building to a museum. In 1982 the building again passed into private hands and was opened in 1984 as the Ashtabula Marine Museum. The lighthouse itself continued in service, even as the breakwater was extended past it. The Fresnel lens was replaced with a modern beacon and given to the museum in 1995.

Cleveland resident Jim Woodward, one of only four men in the U.S. who can properly be called "lampists," (one who is qualified to repair and restore the classical Fresnel lighthouse lenses) restored the lens.  He is the only one of the four who apprenticed under a lampist in the old United States Lighthouse Service.

In 2003 a society was formed to take possession of the light under the National Historic Lighthouse Preservation Act, and they applied for the light when it was offered in the following year. They assumed control of the light in 2007 and began a program of restoration with the intent of making the lighthouse available for public tours. In May 2008 they received a grant to allow them to construct a floating dock, necessary since all access to the light is by water.  The Society has in fact acquired the light.

References

Further reading
 Oleszewski, Wes. Great Lakes Lighthouses, American and Canadian: A Comprehensive Directory/Guide to Great Lakes Lighthouses, (Gwinn, Michigan: Avery Color Studios, Inc., 1998) .
 U.S. Coast Guard. Historically Famous Lighthouses (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1957).
 Wright, Larry and Wright, Patricia. Great Lakes Lighthouses Encyclopedia Hardback (Erin: Boston Mills Press, 2006)

External links
 Ashtabula Lighthouse Restoration and Preservation Society - official site
 Ashtabula Mar Maritime and Surface Transportation Museum
 Aerial photograph, Ashtabula Harbor Light, Marinas.com.
 1910 Postcard view of Ashtabula Harbor Light.
 Satellite view of the light Google Maps.

Lighthouses completed in 1905
Ashtabula, Ohio
Lighthouses on the National Register of Historic Places in Ohio
1836 establishments in Ohio
Buildings and structures in Ashtabula County, Ohio
National Register of Historic Places in Ashtabula County, Ohio
Tourist attractions in Ashtabula County, Ohio
Transportation in Ashtabula County, Ohio

Ashtabula Harbor Light


Voice of Mongolia is the official international broadcasting station of Mongolia.

The Voice Of Mongolia is the country's only overseas broadcasting service and is operated by Mongolian National Broadcaster, a pioneer sole public service broadcaster. Short-wave international broadcasting in Mongolia dates back over 40 years. The first broadcast in October, 1964 was a half hour transmission in Mongolian and Chinese, beamed to China. In the next few years, Mongolian international broadcasting expanded in terms of languages used, broadcast hours and target areas. The English service of Radio Ulaanbaatar, which was renamed The Voice Of Mongolia on January 1, 1997, was launched on January 29, 1965. Today the output of The Voice Of Mongolia consists of various programmes designed to provide information about Mongolia and the Mongolians, their history, traditions and culture. It broadcasts a total of 8 hours a day in 5 languages: Mongolian, English, Chinese, Russian and Japanese.

Current broadcasts
All of the Voice Of Mongolia's broadcasts come directly from its Khonkhor Transmitting Station, about 25 km east of Ulan Bator, Mongolia's capital. It broadcasts through Soviet-made 100, 250, and 500 kW transmitters and curtain antennas built in the mid sixties. The transmissions beamed to East Asia provide fair reception in South America, and the South Asian transmissions can be heard in Southern Africa and in Europe as well. However, this reception is influenced by propagation conditions and frequency congestion.

See also
 Mongolian National Broadcaster, the Mongolian publicly funded radio and television broadcaster

External links
 Voice of Mongolia Webpage

International broadcasters
Radio stations in Mongolia
Radio stations established in 1964

Voice of Mongolia


Venus in Fur () is a 2013 French language erotic drama film directed by Roman Polanski, based on the play of the same name by American playwright David Ives, which itself was inspired by Leopold von Sacher-Masoch's novel Venus in Furs. It stars Emmanuelle Seigner and Mathieu Amalric, the only actors in the film.

The film premiered in competition for the Palme d'Or at the 2013 Cannes Film Festival on 25 May. In January 2014 the film received five nominations at the 39th César Awards, winning for Best Director.

Plot
Thomas Novacheck is the writer-director of a new play, an adaptation of the 1870 novel Venus in Furs by Austrian author Leopold von Sacher-Masoch. Early in the movie, we learn that the book begins with a quote from the Book of Judith: "And the Lord hath smitten him and delivered him into a woman's hands."

The film begins with Thomas alone in a Parisian theatre after a day of auditioning actresses for the lead character, Wanda von Dunayev. Thomas laments on the phone about the poor performances he's had to deal with.

As Thomas prepares to leave the theatre, an actress named Vanda Jordan arrives disheveled from the rain. She claims to have had an audition slot earlier in the day, but her name does not appear on the audition list. Thomas wants to leave for his fiancee. In a whirlwind of energy and unrestrained aggression, Vanda persuades Thomas to let her stay and read for the part. At first appearing untalented, when she begins to read it becomes clear that she is an excellent actress and perfect for the part.

Although initially presenting as uneducated, throughout the movie Vanda displays knowledge and talent that almost seems superhuman. For example, she surprises Thomas by producing the full script, not just the portion given out to actors to use in the audition and having memorized it. The audition is in a theater and she shows not only a command of staging but also the lighting rig- adjusting the theater's lightboard, which presumably she has never seen before, without hesitation. And she also has brought a full set of costumes, including some for Thomas to wear which fit him perfectly. At one point she "guesses" an amazingly accurate picture of Thomas' fiancé's life and background.

The subject of the play is sexual domination and submission. As the audition continues Vanda attacks the script as sexist, soft-core S&M pornography. Thomas at first defends it as a faithful adaptation of a literary classic about passion and desire. Vanda accuses Thomas of having his own masochistic fantasies, which he denies. However, as the film develops, he increasingly identifies with the masochistic male lead in the play. By the end of the film, he has become Vanda's slave.

In the final scene Thomas is bound and tied to a pole. Vanda appears, proclaims "Bacchae of the Cadmea. Dance for Dionysus!", dances before Thomas, and leaves. The movie ends with the quote from the Book of Judith: "And the Lord hath smitten him and delivered him into a woman's hands."

Cast
 Emmanuelle Seigner as Vanda Jourdain
 Mathieu Amalric as Thomas Novacheck

Production
The intention to adapt Ives' play was announced in September 2012. Louis Garrel was to play Novacheck. Filming was scheduled to begin in November 2012, but in the event, production was delayed until January 2013 and Garrel was replaced by Amalric.

Release
Sundance Selects and IFC Films acquired the U.S. rights to the film following its premiere at Cannes.

Critical reception
A. O. Scott of The New York Times said, "Working from a French translation of the play (which was widely acclaimed when it ran on and off Broadway a few years ago), Mr. Polanski has marked the text with his own fingerprints. One of the two characters—the splendidly volatile Vanda, an actress—is played by Emmanuelle Seigner, his wife. Her foil—a writer and theater director named Thomas—is played by Mathieu Amalric in a performance that is very close to a Polanski impersonation."

PopMatters wrote, "Venus in Fur is fascinating to the point that (subtitles or not), you simply cannot look away from the screen. There is always something to see, hear and feel."

References

External links

2013 films
2013 drama films
2010s erotic drama films
2010s French-language films
BDSM in films
Films directed by Roman Polanski
Films scored by Alexandre Desplat
Films shot in Paris
Films whose director won the Best Director César Award
Films with screenplays by Roman Polanski
French erotic drama films
French films based on plays
Polish erotic drama films
Polish films based on plays
Two-handers
2010s French films

Venus in Fur (film)


Anna Wheeler (c. 1780 – 1848), also known by her maiden name of Anna Doyle, was an Irish born British writer and advocate of political rights for women and the benefits of contraception. She married Francis Massey Wheeler when she was "about 16" and he was "about 19", although the year is not known. They separated twelve years later. After his death she supplemented her income by translating the works of French philosophers.

She was an acquaintance of Robert Owen, Jeremy Bentham, and Frances Wright. The philosopher William Thompson described his book Appeal of One Half of the Human Race, Women, Against the Pretensions of the Other Half, Men, to Retain them in Political, and Hence in Civil and Domestic, Slavery as the "joint property" of himself and her.

A staunch advocate of political rights for women and equal opportunities in education, she was friendly with French feminists and socialists.

Early life
Anna Doyle was the daughter of the Rev. Nicholas Milley Doyle, a Church of Ireland clergyman, Rector of Newcastle, County Tipperary. She had no formal education, but learned French, geography, reading and writing at home.  In 1795, at about the age of fifteen, she married Francis Massey Wheeler, of Lizard Connell, heir to an estate at Ballywire, who proposed to her at a ball. Born in 1776, and a grandson of Hugh Massy, 1st Baron Massy (1700–1788) he was himself only nineteen, and they set up home in County Limerick. According to the autobiography of her daughter Rosina, Wheeler had five daughters, although a more general source says two. Her daughter Rosina Doyle Wheeler, who later wrote that she had been born in 1802, became the novelist Rosina Bulwer Lytton.

Wheeler read widely, taking in both the French Age of Enlightenment thinkers and Mary Wollstonecraft. Her husband was an abusive alcoholic, so she separated from him after twelve years by moving to Guernsey to live with her uncle, General Sir John Doyle then in post as Lieutenant Governor of Guernsey. In 1815 she moved to London, to benefit the education of her daughters. By 1816 she had started journeying through France.

One of her brothers, Sir John Milley Doyle (1781–1856) was a commander of British and Portuguese forces in the Peninsular War and the War of the Two Brothers.

Later life
Wheeler's husband died in 1820 and left her penniless, so she supplemented her income by translating into English the works of Charles Fourier and other French Owenite philosophers. She managed to spend her life travelling, staying with friends and promoting the news and ideas of the feminist movement.  She lived principally in London, Dublin, Caen, and Paris.

In London, she met Robert Owen, Jeremy Bentham and Frances Wright, and became close friends with William Thompson. In 1825, provoked by James Mill's dismissal of political representation for women, Thompson wrote Appeal of One Half of the Human Race, Women, Against the Pretensions of the Other Half, Men, to Retain them in Political, and Hence in Civil and Domestic, Slavery. Thompson described the book as the "joint property" of himself and Anna Wheeler. They were both advocates of the benefits of contraception.

Wheeler was one of the first women to campaign for women's rights at public meetings in England. She sometimes spoke at the South Place Chapel, "a radical gathering-place" then under the leadership of the Reverend William Johnson Fox and now better known as Conway Hall. Unitarians, like Quakers, supported female equality, and this chapel, situated on Finsbury Square in central London, gave her the pulpit to speak on "The Rights of Women". In this address of 1829, Wheeler forensically refuted arguments for male superiority and encouraged women to work together to create an organisation "to obtain... the removal of the disabilities of women and the introduction of a national system of equal education for the Infants of both sexes."

A staunch advocate of political rights for women and of equal opportunities in education, Wheeler was a friend of the French feminists and socialists Flora Tristan and Desirée Veret. In the early 1830s. she helped to establish the journal . Her other friends and associates included Henri Saint-Simon and Charles Fourier, Suzanne Voilquin (editor of Tribune des femmes), , and Jeanne Deroin.

In 1833 William Thompson died, leaving Wheeler an annuity of £100, which was then enough to maintain a modest household.

Publications
William Thompson, Appeal of One Half of the Human Race, Women, Against the Pretensions of the Other, Men (1825); Thompson credited Wheeler with many of the ideas in this tract.
Anna Wheeler, The Rights of Women (1830), published in The British Co-operator.
Anna Wheeler, Letter from Vlasta (1833)

Death and descendants
Wheeler was forced to withdraw from public life in the 1840s due to ill health, and she died on 7 May 1848 in Camden, London, having refused invitations to take part in the revolution in France of that year.

Wheeler's daughter Rosina Bulwer Lytton was a novelist and outspoken public speaker. Her grandson Robert Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Earl of Lytton, served as Viceroy of India from 1876 to 1880, and two of her great grandsons became the second and third Earls of Lytton.

One of Wheeler's great-granddaughters was the sister-in-law of the Prime Minister Gerald Balfour, while another, Lady Constance Lytton, followed Anna's role model and became a leading suffragette protester, hunger striker and writer, and a third, Lady Emily Bulwer-Lytton, dismayed her parents by successfully proposing to the architect Edwin Landseer Lutyens and later became a Theosophist. The biographers Mary Lutyens and Jane Ridley (born 1953) are descendants of that marriage.

See also
History of feminism

References

Further reading
Bonnie S. Anderson, Joyous Greetings: The First International Women's Movement 1830–1860 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000)
Margaret MaFadden, Golden Cables of Sympathy: the Transatlantic Sources of Nineteenth-Century Feminism (Lexington, Ky: University of Kentucky Press, 1999)
Karen Offen, European Feminisms 1700–1795: a Political History (Stanford, Ca: Stanford University Press, 2000)

William Thompson, ed. by Dolores Dooley, Appeal of One Half of the Human Race, Women, Against the Pretensions of the Other, Men (1825, reprinted Cork, Ireland: Cork University Press, 1997)
Anna Wheeler, "To the Editor of The Crisis", in The Crisis dated August 1833; reprinted in Marie Mulvey Roberts and Tamae Mizuta (eds.), The Rebels, Irish Feminists (London: Routledge / Thoemmes Press, 1995)

1780s births
1848 deaths
Writers from County Tipperary
Irish feminists
British feminists
British suffragists
Socialist feminists
Feminism and history
British salon-holders
Women of the Victorian era
19th-century Irish writers
19th-century Irish women writers
People associated with Conway Hall Ethical Society
People from Newcastle, County Tipperary

Anna Wheeler (author)


Cocculus carolinus otherwise known as Carolina Coralbead, Redberry Moonseed or the Carolina snailseed. It is indigenous to several states along the South to Midwest. It gets its name from the bright red color of the marble like berry that protrudes from the leaves of the plant.

Description
The Carolina Coralbead is a deciduous, woody vine that can twines along the trunks of several trees or along the ground. It occurs in timberline areas, rocky woods, glades, fence rows and ponds. Carolina Coralbead can grow 10–12 ft (3–3.6 m) and usually spaced within 3–4 ft (90–120 cm) of one another. If ingested in large amounts, the berry on Cocculus carolinus can be poisonous, but the overall toxicity of its berries do not prove to be fatal. In areas in Little Rock, Arkansas, the Carolina Coralbead is referred to as an invasive weed system which seedlings have been spread by birds. Once a root system has been established, it is hard to remove the plant, so planting in new areas has been a point of concern for this plant. The best ornamental features of the plant are its foliage and its attractive red berries in fall.  Cocculus carolinus can grow in temperatures between from -3.8 °C (25 °F) to -28.8 °C (-20 °F). Its leaves are covered in short hairs and should not be confused with the species Smilax bona-nox,which has tendrils and prickles.

Distribution
The Carolina Coralbead has been reported in the following states of Alabama, Arkansas, Kansas, Mississippi, North Carolina, Oklahoma, Tennessee and Texas. Locations of the plant range from opening of forests, to the beginning of streams.

Cultivation
The flowers are small and plentiful. At a young age, Carolina Coralbead appear greenish. Bloom time for the plant is in late spring and mature by late summer. They grow in tight abundant amounts of bright red berries.  By using its scarlet fruits for aesthetic effects, landscapers allow it to be grown on trellises, fences or let naturally flourish through other weeds and shrubs. The berries should not be eaten by people but are eaten by a large number of birds.  Each fruit has a single seed that resembles a small snail shell which is protected by the hard endocarp, also known as the inner section of the ovary wall.

Vines
Epiphytes
Ranunculales

Cocculus carolinus


Pierre Granier (1655 — 1715) was a proficient but minor French sculptor, trained in the excellent atelier of François Girardon who produced a generation of highly competent sculptors for the Bâtiments du Roi. Granier served as a modest member of the extensive team that provided sculpture for the Château de Versailles and its gardens. Strict control over the subjects, scale, materials and to a great extent the design of sculpture for Versailles was exercised by the premier peintre du Roi, Charles Le Brun. According to Antoine-Nicolas Dézallier d'Argenville, Le Brun provided a wax model for Granier's marble group Ino and Melicertes, and a Shepherdess was sculpted after a sketch given by Le Brun.

Born at Les Matelles near Montpellier, he was an official of the Académie royale de peinture et de sculpture, where he was received in 1686 and to whom he had presented his bust of Louis XIV.

When the marble sculpture of a god discovered at Smyrna was offered to Louis XIV, Granier was commissioned in 1686 to provide  a missing right arm, raised and brandishing a thunderbolt: the result was the so-called Jupiter de Smyrne, now conserved at the Louvre Museum.

Further reading
 F. Souchal, French Sculptors of the 17th and 18th Centuries, The reign of Louis XIV, vol. II, Oxford, 1981.

Notes

External links

17th-century French sculptors
French male sculptors
18th-century French sculptors
Versailles
1715 deaths
1655 births
18th-century French male artists

Pierre Granier


Sunday at the Village Vanguard is a live album by jazz pianist and composer Bill Evans and his Trio consisting of Evans, bassist Scott LaFaro, and drummer Paul Motian. Released in 1961, the album is routinely ranked as one of the best live jazz recordings of all time.

History
Sunday at the Village Vanguard was drawn from material recorded on June 25, 1961, at the Village Vanguard in New York City. The trio played five sets—two in the afternoon and three in the evening—each one comprising four or five numbers and lasting about half an hour. This was the last performance by the Bill Evans Trio with bassist Scott LaFaro, who was killed in a car accident eleven days after the recording.

Riverside had been looking for only one album from this date, but LaFaro's death changed the economics. The album was subtitled "Featuring Scott LaFaro"  and was rushed out for release three months after recording by September 1961. Evans and producer Orrin Keepnews reportedly selected the tracks for Sunday at the Village Vanguard to best feature LaFaro's masterly performance on bass, beginning and ending with two tracks ("Gloria's Step" and "Jade Visions") written by LaFaro himself, and with all the others featuring solos by him.

This memorable day's performance resulted in additional material released in a second album in 1962, Waltz for Debby, as well as a further selection  of takes appearing posthumously in 1984 as another LP: Bill Evans — More From the Vanguard (Milestone M-9125).

In numerous interviews Evans has paid tribute to what he always considered to be his finest trio:

"I am thankful that we recorded that day, because it was the last time I saw Scott and the last time we would play together. When you have evolved a concept of playing which depends on the specific personalities of outstanding players, how do you start again when they are gone?"

After this recording at the Village Vanguard and the death of LaFaro, became one of the extreme low periods in the life and career of Evans. He did not play for many months, not even at home.

Reception

Writing for AllMusic, music critic Thom Jurek wrote of the album: "This trio is still widely regarded as his finest, largely because of the symbiotic interplay between its members. This is a great place to begin with Evans." C. Michael Bailey of All About Jazz wrote: "Along with bassist wunderkind Scott LaFaro and drummer Paul Motian, Evans perfected his democratic vision of trio cooperation, where all members performed with perfect empathy and telepathy... It is these performances, currently available as Sunday at the Village Vanguard and Waltz for Debby that comprise the number one best jazz live recording in this present series."

Starting in 1992, both this album and its successor Waltz for Debby have been awarded a crown in all nine editions of The Penguin Guide to Jazz Recordings. In 2000, it was voted number 946 in Colin Larkin's All Time Top 1000 Albums. In 2005, the album was included in Robert Dimery's 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die.

Reissue
In 2005, Riverside issued The Complete Village Vanguard Recordings, 1961 a fully remastered three-CD box set containing virtually all the material from the entire day's recording at the Village Vanguard (one number has been lost) on  that date of 25 June.
While all of this music was already available on the 12-CD box-set released in 1984 Bill Evans - The Complete Riverside Recording, this re-issue has had the audience ambiance enhanced and includes introductions, on-stage discussions between the musicians, interaction with the audience, and a few bars of music that Evans improvised to fill out the tape at the end of the night.

Track listing
"Gloria's Step" (take 2) (Scott LaFaro) – 6:09
"My Man's Gone Now" (George Gershwin) – 6:21
"Solar" (Miles Davis) – 8:52
"Alice in Wonderland" (take 2) (Sammy Fain) – 8:34
"All of You" (take 2) (Cole Porter) – 8:17
"Jade Visions" (take 2) (Scott LaFaro) – 3:44

Bonus tracks on CD:
"Gloria's Step" (take 3) – 6:54
"Alice in Wonderland" (take 1) – 6:59
"All of You" (take 3) – 8:03
"Jade Visions" (take 1) – 4:16

Personnel
Bill Evans – piano
Scott LaFaro – bass
Paul Motian – drums

Credits
Orrin Keepnews – Producer
Dave Jones – Recording engineer
Ken Deardoff – Album design
Donald Silverstein – Album cover photograph
Steve Schapiro – Back liner photograph ("The trio, between sets, in the back room at the Vanguard")
Ira Gitler and Orrin Keepnews – Liner notes

References

External links
 Bill Evans entry at the Jazz Discography Project

Albums produced by Orrin Keepnews
Bill Evans live albums
1961 live albums
Riverside Records live albums
Albums recorded at the Village Vanguard

Sunday at the Village Vanguard


Wilbur Kitchener Jordan (also known as W. K. Jordan), (1902-1980) was an American historian, specializing in sixteenth and seventeenth century Britain.

Raised in Lynnville, Indiana, Jordan received a bachelor's degree from Oakland City College in 1923, before earning a master's (1926) and doctoral (1931) degree from Harvard University. Jordan went on to become a leading historian of sixteenth and seventeenth century England, accruing many honors, and producing books, including Men of Substance: Revolutionary Thinkers of 1640 (1942), Philanthropy in England, 1480-1660 (1959), and a two-volume study of the reign of Edward VI (1968, 1970).

Jordan's most enduring scholarly work, however, has been his four-volume The Development of Religious Toleration in England, published from 1932 to 1940, in which Jordan documented the origins of religious toleration in Elizabethan, Stuart, and revolutionary England and the evolution of these ideas into the late seventeenth century, following the English Civil War. Though sometimes criticized for attributing too great an importance to skeptical and secular motives for toleration, this capacious and well-sourced work continues to provide the foundation for contemporary studies of the history of religious toleration in England.

In 1943, Kitchener declined the presidency of the prestigious Scripps College, and chose instead to become the fourth President of Radcliffe College (1943-1960). As President of Radcliffe College from 1943 to 1960, Jordan presided over a period of dramatic change at this prestigious women's college, promoting greater integration with nearby Harvard University and the adoption of a liberal arts curriculum, and becoming an early advocate of providing education for women essentially identical to that traditionally provided for men. Jordan's students, including Natalie Zemon Davis, benefited from this teaching philosophy.

References
Harvard University Library Retrieved 1 February 2012

External links
 Papers of Wilbur Kitchener Jordan, 1943-1965. Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University.

1902 births
1980 deaths
Presidents of Radcliffe College
Harvard University alumni
Oakland City University alumni
20th-century American Episcopalians
Corresponding Fellows of the British Academy

Wilbur Kitchener Jordan


Eric Strand (born September 28, 1980, in San Francisco, California), better known as Fatgums, is an American record producer, hip hop DJ and independent record label owner/president. He is best known for his work with rapper Bambu of the rap group Native Guns. Fatgums' independent record label, Beatrock Music, was founded in 2009 in collaboration with the Long Beach based clothing company Beatrock.

Background
Fatgums started his music career in 1993 as a DJ/turntablist in the San Francisco Bay Area. In 1999, he moved to Los Angeles to attend college at UCLA. He began his professional hip hop production career after graduating in 2004.

Recent and current projects
In April 2009, Fatgums and Bambu released the critically acclaimed EP, Beatrock Presents: Fatgums x Bambu ...A Peaceful Riot.... The musical chemistry between Fatgums and Bambu has been likened to that of 9th Wonder and Murs. Bookends (produced by Fatgums and Gammaray) by Novelists (Ajax and Randall Park aka Randruff), was his first full-length production effort.

Discography

Mixtapes
 2000: OHHSSH!! by Fatgums and Gammaray
Albums
 2008: Bookends (Produced by Fatgums and Gammaray) by Novelists
 2008: The Appetizer by The CounterParts
 2009: Beatrock Presents: Fatgums X Bambu ...A Peaceful Riot... by Fatgums x Bambu
 2009: The CounterParts LP by The CounterParts
 2010: Remittances by Power Struggle
 2010: Gumstrumentals Volume I by Fatgums
Featured Production
 2005
 The Committee - "Struggles" (The Committee EP)
 2008
 Bambu - "Make Change" (...Exact Change...)
 Bambu - "Seven Months" (...Exact Change...)
 Bambu - "Exact Change" (...Exact Change...)
 Bambu - "Iron Bam" (...Exact Change...)
 ReVision - "Forward Progress ft. DJ Krissfader" (Forward Progress Mixtape)
 ReVision - "Daily Grind ft. C-Los" (Forward Progress Mixtape)
 2009
 Geologic (of Blue Scholars), Kiwi & Bambu (of Native Guns) - "Divide & Conquer" (A Song For Ourselves Mixtape by DJ Phatrick)
 2010
 Rocky Rivera - "The Rundown" (Rocky Rivera)
 Bambu - "The Queen Is Dead" (...Paper Cuts...)
 2011
 Bambu - "Jonah's Lament" (...exact change... Reloaded)
 Dregs One - "Think About It" (The Wake Up Call Mixtape)
 Prometheus Brown and Bambu - "Lookin Up" (Prometheus Brown and Bambu Walk Into A Bar)
 Otayo Dubb - "Jerry McGuire" (Cold Piece of Work)
 Otayo Dubb - "A Lil' More (feat. Bambu)" (Cold Piece of Work)
 2012
 Bwan - "Infinite" (Living Room)
 Bwan - "Grindstone" (Living Room)
 Bwan - "Lyricists (feat. Akil)" (Living Room)
 2013
 Patience - "City Love" (Broken Hourglass)
 Bambu - "Sun In A Million" (Sun Of A Gun)
 Rocky Rivera - "Air Mail" (Gangster of Love)
 2014
 Power Struggle - "A Round For My Friends" (In Your Hands)
 Power Struggle - "Live That Life" (In Your Hands)
 Power Struggle - "Falling From The Sky" (In Your Hands)
 2015
 Rocky Rivera - "Godsteppin" (Nom de Guerre)
 Rocky Rivera - "Turn You" (Nom de Guerre)

References

External links
 Official Fatgums Blog
 FATGUMS X BAMBU EPK Electronic Press Kit
 Beatrock
 Beatrock Music
Album Reviews
 Taylor, Patrick "Power Struggle :: Remittances", RapReviews.com
 Kiwi "POWER STRUGGLE – "REMITTANCES" (A REVIEW)", The Deconstruction of Kiwi Illafonte
 Taylor, Patrick "The CounterParts LP", RapReviews.com
 Taylor, Patrick "Fatgums X Bambu: A Peaceful Riot Going On", RapReviews.com
 The Mixshow Commander "Fatgums/Bambu: A Peaceful Riot", The Slap Report
 Ryan, Gabe, & Robins, Freesia. "OHHSSH!! DJ's Release First Mixtape!", The Guardsman

Hip hop record producers
American hip hop record producers
American hip hop DJs
Underground hip hop producers
1980 births
Living people
DJs from San Francisco
University of California, Los Angeles alumni
Hip hop musicians from San Francisco
Record producers from California

Fatgums