Nostell Priory is a Palladian house in Nostell, West Yorkshire, England, near Crofton on the road to Doncaster from Wakefield. It dates from 1733, and was built for the Winn family on the site of a medieval priory. The Priory and its contents were given to the National Trust in 1953 by the trustees of the estate and Rowland Winn, 3rd Baron St Oswald.

History

Monastic history
The priory was a 12th-century Augustinian foundation, dedicated to St Oswald, supported initially by Robert de Lacy of Pontefract, and Thurstan of York.
By about 1114, Aldulf, confessor to Henry I of England, was prior of a group of regular canons at Nostell. It is probable that Scone Abbey was founded by monks from Nostell.

Sir John Field, the first Copernican Astronomer of note in England, is believed to have studied at Nostell in his youth under the tutelage of Prior Alured Comwn.

As part of the Dissolution of the Monasteries, the priory was seized and depredated in 1540 and granted to Dr Thomas Leigh. Nostell was purchased in 1567 by Sir Thomas Gargrave, a High Sheriff of Yorkshire, Speaker of the House of Commons and president of the Council of the North from James Blount, 6th Baron Mountjoy, for £3,560. In 1613 Nostell was purchased by William Ireland who later, in 1629, sold the estate to Sir John Wolstenholme, 1st Baronet for £10,000. Nostell was then bought by the Winns from Wolstenholme who was bankrupted by debts he incurred to provide finance for the Royalist cause.

Later history

The estate was purchased in 1654 by the London alderman, Sir Rowland Winn, after its last owner, Sir John Wolstenholme, was declared bankrupt in 1650. Construction of the present house started in 1733, and the furniture, furnishings and decorations made for the house remain in situ. The Winns were textile merchants in London, George Wynne of Gwydir was appointed Draper to Elizabeth I, his grandson, Sir George Winn was created 1st Baronet of Nostell in 1660. In the nineteenth century the family prospered from the exploitation of coal under the Nostell estate, and later from leasing land at Scunthorpe after iron ore deposits were found by
Rowland Winn, 1st Baron St Oswald in 1858; Winn subsequently played an important role in the construction of the Trent, Ancholme and Grimsby Railway and the development of the Lincolnshire iron industry (from 1864) and steel industry (from 1891).

The house was built by James Paine for Sir Rowland Winn 4th Bart on the site of a 12th-century priory dedicated to Saint Oswald. Robert Adam was commissioned to design additional wings, only one of which was completed, and complete the staterooms. Adam added a double staircase to the front of the house, and designed buildings on the estate, including the stable block.

Nostell Priory is home to a large collection of Chippendale furniture, all made for the house and commissioned by Sir Rowland Winn 5th Bart and his wife Sabine Winn. Thomas Chippendale was born in Otley in 1718 and had workshops in St Martins Lane, London. The Nostell Priory art collection includes The Procession to Calvary by Pieter Brueghel the Younger, William Hogarth's Scene from Shakespeare's The Tempest - the first depiction in a painting of any scene from Shakespeare's plays - and a self-portrait by Angelica Kauffman, as well as Rowland Lockey's copy of the painting by Hans Holbein (c1527 but now lost) of Sir Thomas More and Family; this copy was commissioned in 1592 by the More family and came to Nostell in the 18th century, and is said to be the most faithful to the destroyed original.

A longcase clock, with an almost completely wooden internal mechanism, made by John Harrison in 1717, is housed in the billiard room. Harrison, whose father Henry is thought to have been an estate carpenter, was born within half a mile of the estate. He was referred to as John "Longitude" Harrison, after devoting his life to solving the problem of finding longitude at sea by creating an accurate marine timekeeper. Known as H4, this chronometer can be seen at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, London.

In August 1982 there was a music festival there, sponsored and organized by Theakston's Brewery which was a great success. Two years later in 1984, there was another festival organized by a different group of people. Although this event was a commercial festival, the "Convoy" was involved in organising a free festival next to it. Riot police were mobilised to suppress this aspect of the event.

In May 2007, a set of Gillows furniture returned to the house after refurbishment. These pieces now furnish the tapestry room, as do a pair of large Venetian vases, made of wood inlaid with ivory and semi-precious stones.

The Adam stable block has undergone a major renovation and is now open as a visitor centre for the house and parkland.

In June 2009 a suite of bedrooms on the second floor was handed to the National Trust. These bedrooms used by the Winns, had never been on public view before. They contain the original contents, including a regency four-poster bed and suite of Victorian bedroom furniture. Another room open to visitors is the butler's pantry, with a display of Winn family silver, in the adjacent strongroom cabinets.

Grounds

Nostell Priory occupies 121 hectares (300 acres) of parkland. Within the grounds and gardens are lakeside walks. The main facade of the house faces east towards a grass vista. Leading to the lake on the west side of the house is the west lawn. The parkland has lakeside and woodland walks, views of the druid's bridge and walks to the restored Obelisk Lodge, a parkland gatehouse, through wildflower meadows. The park was purchased from Lord St Oswald by the National Trust with funding from the Heritage Lottery fund. This grant enabled the trust to acquire pictures, books, and furniture from the family.

The Obelisk Lodge was built in the 17th century and inhabited until the late 1950s.

The main lawn and the lower fields to the east of the Priory have been used for various large and small events over the years, however, it was "Central Yorkshire Scout County" in 2000 that provided a fundamental change to how the grounds could be used. The organisation chose Nostell Priory as the site for its year 2000 "Millennium Camp", which was to attract around 2500 people from across the Yorkshire Scouting movement. During the 12-month preparation project to create temporary facilities and infrastructure, Yorkshire Water employee Jon Potter persuaded his employers to donate/install subterranean high-pressure water mains and stand-pipe points around the entire eastern grounds. This was unprecedented both in terms of a corporate donation and in its benefit to the Priory, which up to that point had been considering how they could self-fund exactly this improvement.

In 2012 the BBC reported that planning permission had been granted for a new operating base for the Yorkshire Air Ambulance. The new site, including a hangar and aircrew accommodation, was operational by summer 2013. It replaced the previous facility at Leeds/Bradford Airport.

See also
 Grade I listed buildings in West Yorkshire
 Listed buildings in Huntwick with Foulby and Nostell

References

External links

 Nostell Priory information at the National Trust
 List of paintings on view

1540 disestablishments in England
Augustinian monasteries in England
Buildings and structures in the City of Wakefield
Christian monasteries established in the 12th century
Country houses in West Yorkshire
Gardens in West Yorkshire
Grade I listed churches in West Yorkshire
Grade I listed houses
Historic house museums in West Yorkshire
National Trust properties in West Yorkshire
Grade I listed monasteries

Nostell Priory


In September 2021, an average of 47,916 people slept in New York City's homeless shelters each night. This included 18,236 single adults, 14,946 children, and 14,734 adults in families. The total number peaked in November 2018, with 63,636 people sleeping in homeless shelters. Since March 2020, the number of people sleeping in shelters has declined significantly, likely an effect of the COVID-19 pandemic. The city reported that in 2019, 3,600 individuals experienced unsheltered homelessness, sleeping in public spaces such as streets and public transit rather than shelters. The homeless population has surged in New York City 18% in 2023 from 2022, despite efforts from Mayor Adams.

Demographics
The Coalition for the Homeless, a New York-based non-profit organization, reports that 30% of single adults entering the shelter system each year enter directly from institutional settings. In 2018 6,100 adults entered from institutional settings, including: 3,466 from prison, 1,294 from non-hospital facilities (i.e. nursing homes), 760 from psychiatric hospitals, and 580 discharged from Rikers Island.

In 2019, 59% of Single Adults in shelters were Black, 27% were Hispanic, 10% were White (non-Hispanic), 4% Unknown/other, and 0.4% Asian/Pacific Islander. Black people are disproportionately homeless, making up 29% of NYC residents (35% difference). Whites are underrepresented, making up 32% of NYC residents (22% difference). The NYC Asian homeless population is marginally higher than the statistic shown above, and found in Chinatown based shelters or are on the streets.

History
In 1979, a New York City lawyer, Robert Hayes, brought a class action suit before the courts, Callahan v. Carey, against the City and State, arguing for a person's state constitutional "right to shelter". It was settled as a consent decree in August 1981. The City and State agreed to provide board and shelter to all homeless men who met the need standard for welfare or who were homeless by certain other standards. By 1983 this right was extended to homeless women. Despite this, 70% of homeless refuse shelter and help when assist programs approach them.

In March 2013, the New York City Department of Homeless Services reported that the sheltered homeless population consisted of:
 27,844 adults
 20,627 children
 48,471 total individuals

According to the Coalition for the Homeless, the homeless population of New York rose to an all-time high in 2011. A reported 113,552 people slept in the city's emergency shelters last year, including over 40,000 children; marking an 8 percent increase from the previous year and a 37 percent increase from 2002. There was also a rise in the number of families relying on shelters, approximately 29,000. That is an increase of 80% from 2002. About half of the people who slept in shelter in 2010 returned for housing in 2011.

In 2004, New York's Department of Homeless Services (DHS) created HomeBase, a network of neighborhood-based services, to help tenants in housing crisis to remain in their communities and avoid entering shelter. Tenants can visit HomeBase locations within their neighborhoods to receive services to prevent eviction, assistance obtaining public benefits, emergency rental assistance and more. Brooklyn nonprofit CAMBA, Inc operates several HomeBase locations as well as an outfitted "You Can Van," which uses data on pending evictions to travel throughout the borough and offer help.

According to DHS, 64 percent of those applying for emergency shelter in 2010 were denied. Several were denied because they were said to have family who could house them when in actuality this might not have been the case. Applicants may have faced overcrowding, unsafe conditions, or may have had relatives unwilling to house them. According to Mary Brosnaham, spokeswoman for Coalition for the Homeless, the administration of Mayor Michael Bloomberg employs a deliberate policy of "active deterrence".

According to the Bowery Mission, "In most cases, multiple factors are involved [in homelessness]. Common ones include: mental illness, substance abuse, untreated medical issues, traumatic events, violence and abuse, lack of affordable housing and difficulty sustaining employment."

The New York City Housing Authority is experiencing record demand for subsidized housing assistance. However, just 13,000 of the 29,000 families who applied were admitted into the public housing system or received federal housing vouchers known as Section 8 in 2010. Due to budget cuts there have been no new applicants accepted to receive Section 8.

In March 2010, there were protests about the Governor's proposed cut of $65 million in annual funding to the homeless adult services system. The Bloomberg administration announced an immediate halt to the Advantage program, threatening to cast 15,000 families back into the shelters or onto the streets. A court has delayed the cut until May 2011 because there was doubt over the legality of cancelling the city's commitment. However, the Advantage program itself was consciously advanced by the Bloomberg administration as an alternative to providing long-term affordable housing opportunities for the poor and working class.

The result, as the Coalition for the Homeless report points out, is that "Thousands of formerly-homeless children and families have been forced back into homelessness. In addition, Mayor Bloomberg proposed $37 million in cuts to the city's budget for homeless services this year."

In 2018, DHS's budget was $2.15 billion. It fluctuated over the next few years, with 2021's proposed budget being slightly lower at $2.13 billion.

Homeless encampments have long featured prominently in the landscape of American cities.  A vicious anti-homeless campaign called 'Peek-A-Boo, We See You Too' led by a union of NYPD officers sparked an uproar about the presence of homeless people more generally.  Urban financialization in particular has focused on the city's stock of low-income rent stabilized housing.  The warehousing of vacant buildings by speculators led to an increase in homeless encampments.

In 2022 the population of New York's homeless shelters increased as more asylum seekers arrived.

HOME-STAT
In 2015, Bill deBlasio introduced HOME-STAT (Homeless Outreach & Mobile Engagement Street Action Teams). HOME-STAT is a city-wide case management system which compiles information on unsheltered homelessness from 311 calls and street canvassing teams. Outreach teams include staff from different agencies including the Department of Homeless Services, the NYPD, and other social service agencies.

The core tenets of HOME-STAT are: proactive canvassing from Canal Street to 145th Street to identify "hotspots of persistent homelessness presence," immediate response to 311 calls by expanding the number of city street outreach staff and NYPD officers assigned to the Homeless Outreach Unit, and the creation of a city-wide case management system that facilitates "continuous monitoring and outreach" and "rapid response to individual problems." Under HOME-STAT, the city has created a by-name list of individuals known to outreach teams, confirmed to be experiencing homelessness, and currently engaged by outreach teams.

The city encourages New Yorkers to call 311 when they see individuals, they believe to be homeless, and call 911 if the individual seems to be a risk to themselves or others.  This relies on individual New Yorkers to assume someone to be homeless and creates a division between New Yorkers with reliable shelter and without, encouraging people to use the city as an intermediary.  The city labels homeless individuals who avoid the city's shelters as "service resistant".

In 2019, Coalition for the Homeless reported that the city's shelters struggle with 3 main issues including: "large-scale capital needs, routine cleaning and maintenance, and dehumanizing treatment by shelter staff." Coalition for the Homeless explains that these conditions create an unsafe, degrading and dehumanizing environment for those who stay in shelters.

Crimes relating to begging in New York

The administration of laws and regulations relating to begging in the state of New York is largely performed by each of the 62 cities of the state. Many of the state of New York's largest cities have introduced laws in the last decade prohibiting 'aggressive begging' in some form.  The 1993 Loper case was a challenge to the state-wide law in the New York Penal Code §240.35(1) which made it an offence to loiter in a public place for the purpose of begging. New York City Police Department rarely issued fines under this law, but used it to 'move on' beggars.

In Loper, the Second Circuit Court of Appeals found begging in this case to be a First Amendment right, but still legal to ban in subways. A similar judgement was made in International Society for Krishna Consciousness, Inc. v. Lee in regard to New York City's airports, which found it reasonable to ban such activities in airports.  However, the law still technically remained in force in the rest of New York state until it was repealed in 2010.

Some people in New York state were charged under that section of the law after Loper, but before it was repealed. Civil liberties groups have campaigned against the more targeted aggressive begging laws, however, they have been found to comply with the First Amendment. In 2010, New York City's current aggressive begging laws also withstood challenge in People v. Stroman.

See also

 New York City housing shortage

References

Housing in New York (state)
New York (state)
Housing in New York City

Homelessness in New York


The Rationalist Union (French: Union rationaliste) is a French  nonprofit organization founded in 1930 that promotes the role of reason. Many of the members are scientists, members of the Institut de France, Nobel Prize laureates, professors at the Collège de France, and famous writers.

The Union is strongly Republican (in the French sense of the term) and Jacobin and is opposed to communitarianism.

The Rationalist Union hosts two radio shows, one on the radio of the French Anarchist Federation, and another on the public radio France Culture, and publishes two journals, Les Cahiers Rationalistes, and Raison Présente.

External links

Humanist associations
1930 establishments in France
Church–state separation advocacy organizations
Criticism of religion
Non-profit organizations based in France
Organizations established in 1930
Secularism in France
Secularist organizations
Separation of church and state
Skeptic organizations in France

Rationalist Union


Nassir Abdulaziz Al-Nasser (; born 15 September 1952) is a Qatari diplomat and the former permanent representative of Qatar to the United Nations, appointed on 11 September 1998. Prior to this office at the United Nations, Al-Nasser had served as the ambassador to Jordan from 1993. He worked for his country's foreign affairs department beginning in November 1972. He was the President of the Sixty-sixth session of the United Nations General Assembly from 14 September 2011 to 18 September 2012.

Early life
Al-Nasser was born on 15 September 1952 in Doha, Qatar. He was educated in Lebanon and Qatar, and he graduated with degrees in political science and diplomacy in 1979. He is married to Muna Rihani, with whom he had a son, Abdulaziz.

Diplomatic career
He entered the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in 1971 and became Attaché at the embassy of Qatar in Beirut, Lebanon and was in office until 1974, when he became a member of Qatar's delegation to the Organisation of the Islamic Conference. He resigned in 1975 to become attaché at the Qatari embassy in Islamabad, Pakistan for a short time. Then, he was conseiller général at Qatar's embassy in Dubai, United Arab Emirates from 1975 to August 1981.

He returned to Doha and was a senior employee of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs from 1981 to 1985 as well as Deputy Foreign Minister from 1984 to 1985. He served as ambassador of Qatar to Jordan from 1993 to 1998.

United Nations career
In 1986 he was appointed minister to Qatar's permanent mission to the United Nations. He left office in 1993 to become ambassador to Jordan. On 11 September 1998, he was appointed as ambassador and permanent representative to the United Nations by Hamad bin Jassim bin Jaber Al Thani, then foreign minister. During his office at the United Nations, Al-Nasser has served as chairman of the delegation of Group of 77 and China, Vice-President of the General Assembly in 2002, and President of the Security Council in December 2006.

He was appointed as High Representative for the Alliance of Civilizations of the United Nations by the UN Secretary-General Ban Ki Moon on 28 September 2012.

President of the General Assembly
In June 2011 he was elected to serve as President of the General Assembly for its 66th session, beginning 13 September 2011. He took office on 13 September, saying in his opening speech that the international community had an opportunity to "define our place in this decisive moment in history" and to "prove that we have the courage, wisdom and tenacity to seek creative and visionary solutions." He also added that he was committed to working with every member state to "build bridges for a united global partnership" citing "strong collaboration and consensus-building [as...] essential for successfully moving forward the Assembly's agenda [in] this session."

Al-Nasser suggested the theme "The role of mediation in the settlement of disputes" for the General Debate during the opening session of the General Assembly. He said that "this theme has a broad and multi-faceted nature. I expect member states to touch upon different aspects of this matter through their own experience and perspective. [The UN is currently at a] critical juncture in the history of nations."

Post-presidency
In December 2013, Al-Nasser received the Global Thinkers Forum 2013 Award for 'Excellence in Leadership'.

References

External links

|-

1952 births
Living people
Qatari politicians
Ambassadors of Qatar to Jordan
Permanent Representatives of Qatar to the United Nations
Presidents of the United Nations General Assembly

Nassir Abdulaziz Al-Nasser


Ghislain Barbe is a Canadian illustrator and artist. He is best known for designing the visual aspects of the Heavy Gear science fiction franchise in the 1990s and early 2000s. He was also responsible for the overall graphics of publisher Dream Pod 9's role-playing game lines Jovian Chronicles and Tribe 8, along with some other works, for which he illustrated nearly a hundred books.

He also created the visuals for the characters of PBS's educational cartoon TV series Sagwa, the Chinese Siamese Cat and collaborated to several other shows such as CinéGroupe's Lion of oz and the badge of courage and Pig City.

In the videogames industry, apart from art directing console games (Teen Titans, Monster House, Indiana Jones and the Staff of Kings), he designed some of the newer characters of the Carmen Sandiego franchise, such as Cole Gannon and the V.I.L.E. Bots for the videogame Carmen Sandiego: The Secret of the Stolen Drums.

External links
 Ghislain Barbe Online Portfolio

Canadian illustrators
Canadian speculative fiction artists
Living people
Role-playing game artists
Science fiction artists
Year of birth missing (living people)

Ghislain Barbe


Albert R.N. is a 1953 British war film directed by Lewis Gilbert and starring Jack Warner, Anthony Steel and Robert Beatty.

Plot
An escape tunnel for the naval officer prisoners during the Second World War at a German prisoner-of-war camp is discovered.

Lieutenant Ainsworth devises a scheme with the escape committee to use the components of a mannequin named Albert to convince the Germans that all prisoners sent outside the camp for a bathhouse wash up are returned to the camp. A piece of Albert is smuggled with the prisoners going to the bathhouse and reassembled for the return. Ainsworth also has a woman pen pal he has never seen; he plans to marry her once he is free. Though the originator has the right to try out his own idea, Ainsworth insists that his hut mates draw cards for the privilege; Erickson wins and gets away.

After waiting a while, they decide to reuse the ploy. This time, Ainsworth's friend, after hearing that his pen pal has not written in a while, sees to it that the draw is rigged so that he wins. Ainsworth auctions his place, only to have Captain Maddox, the senior prisoner of war, order him to go. Ainsworth is recaptured the same day. Later, the camp commandant informs the men that Erickson was shot while resisting arrest by the Gestapo; his ashes are handed over.

When SS  Schultz expresses interest in American Lieutenant "Texas" Norton's chronometer, Norton notes Schultz is in charge of the camp's boundary lights and asks him to see that they malfunction during the next Allied night bombing raid but it is a trap. Schultz signals his men to turn the lights back on while Norton is cutting through the barbed wire fence, then shoots him down in cold blood.

Schultz tries to suborn Ainsworth but Ainsworth tells him he will see to it he is prosecuted for murder after the war. When Schultz becomes the new , Ainsworth insists on trying to escape again, using Albert. He gets away but waits at night to confront Schultz outside the camp. After a struggle, he gets Schultz's pistol. When Allied bombs drop uncomfortably close by, Schultz runs for it. Ainsworth is unable to bring himself to shoot the fleeing German in the back but a bomb kills him. Ainsworth takes back Norton's chronometer from the dead man and walks away.

Cast

 Jack Warner as Captain Maddox
 Anthony Steel as Lieutenant Geoffrey Ainsworth
 Robert Beatty as Lieutenant Jim Reed
 William Sylvester as Lieutenant Texas Norton
 Anton Diffring as SS Hauptsturmführer Schultz (credited as a Hauptmann, the Heer equivalent in the credits)
 Michael Balfour as Lieutenant Henry Adams
 Guy Middleton as Captain Barton
 Paul Carpenter as Lieutenant Fred Erickson
 Moultrie Kelsall as Commander Henry Dawson
 Eddie Byrne as Commander Joe Brennan
 Geoffrey Hibbert as Lieutenant Cutter Craig
 Peter Jones as Lieutenant Schoolie Browne
 Frederick Valk as Camp Kommandant
 Frederick Schiller as Herman
 Walter Gotell as Feldwebel
 Peter Swanwick as Obergefreiter

Historical background
The film is based on a true story. "Albert R.N." was a dummy constructed in Marlag O, the prisoner of war camp in northern Germany for naval officers. The head was sculpted by war artist John Worsley (1919–2000),  the body by Lieutenant Bob Staines RNVR, and Lieutenant-Commander Tony Bentley-Buckle devised a mechanism enabling Albert's eyes to blink and move, adding realism to the dummy. "Albert" was used as a stand-in for a head count while a prisoner escaped and was used on two occasions. In the first attempt Lieutenant William "Blondie" Mewes RNVR escaped from the camp shower block and the skilful use of "Albert" during roll-calls gave him four days head start before a missing PoW was reported. Mewes was recaptured in Lübeck and returned to Marlag camp. The second occasion failed when the escaping PoW was discovered hiding in the camp shower block and "Albert" was discovered in the subsequent searches.

Worsley made a new "Albert" for use in the film. Senior Commissioned Gunner (TAS) Lieutenant John William Goble RN aided Worsley in the development of "Albert" in the POW camp, Marlag O and acted as technical adviser for the film. Worsley made a third "Albert" for the retrospective exhibition of his work held in Brighton College's Burstow Gallery. After the show, it was donated to the Royal Naval Museum Portsmouth. Guy Morgan and Edward Sammis, who were British POWs, wrote a play based on the story on which this film was based. This was subsequently adapted into a screenplay.

Production
The film was first planned as a project for Romulus Productions and star Sonny Tufts (as an American film star), Trevor Howard, Anton Walbrook and Ralph Richardson. Jack Warner and Anthony Steel were both leased to producer Daniel Angel by the Rank Organisation. Both had previously appeared in POW movies, The Captive Heart (1946) and The Wooden Horse (1950) respectively, and had just made Emergency Call together. Steel frequently made war films in support of an older British actor. A POW camp was built on Headley Heath. At one stage the film was going to be called The Spare Man.

Release
Lewis Gilbert said the film earned its money back in the United Kingdom. Variety on 21 October 1953, page 181, described it as "Well-done British-made prison meller, lacks names for U.S. market", and went on to say, "A solid all-round cast admirably fits into the plot. Anthony Steel handsomely suggests the young artist responsible for the creation of 'Albert' and Jack Warner is reliably cast as the senior British officer who maintains discipline with understanding in the camp. Robert Beatty, William Sylvester and Guy Middleton are among the principal POWs. Frederick Valk is a sympathetic camp commandant, but Anton Diffring suggests the typical ruthless Nazi type."

References

External links

1953 films
1953 war films
British black-and-white films
British war films
Films directed by Lewis Gilbert
Films scored by Malcolm Arnold
World War II films based on actual events
World War II prisoner of war films
1950s English-language films
1950s British films

Albert R.N.


Milak (, also Romanized as Mīlak) is a village in Jahanabad Rural District, in the Central District of Hirmand County, Sistan and Baluchestan Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 2,385, in 444 families.

Milak is situated on the Afghanistan-Iran border. It is one of the major junctions that connects land-locked Afghanistan to international waters through Iran. After the collapse of the Taliban government in Afghanistan, Milak lost importance in the transit of goods to Afghanistan. In recent years, Afghanistan, Iran and India have agreed to reactivate the Milak route by building a new international logistics hub in Chabahar, connected to Milak.

In 2004, the governments of Iran and Afghanistan officially reopened the Milak-Zaranj border crossing, which is heavily used today.

There is also a project for a railway connection to Chabahar via Zahedan.

The Milak-Zaranj Bridge crosses the Helmand River.

References

External links

 http://www.unece.org/trans/doc/.../ECE-TRANS-WP5-GE2-02-pres07e.pdf
 https://www.jstor.org/stable/40209845
 http://www.e-ariana.com/.../62DF31C4E4CBE0F487256CB8007A27FA?..

Populated places in Hirmand County
Afghanistan–Iran border crossings

Milak, Sistan and Baluchestan


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The General Electric T31 (company designation TG-100A) was the first turboprop engine designed and built in the United States.

Design and development

The TG-100A benefited from the Anglo/American technology exchange with one of its designers, Glenn Warren, stating that one of the most important British contributions was the concept of multiple combustion cans. The GE axial compressor design was directly influenced by NACA with their 8-stage compressor. NACA had developed the theory and designed and tested the compressor.

General Electric adopted a single shaft engine configuration, like the Rolls-Royce Dart
, where the turbine drove both the compressor and the propeller reduction gearbox. This epicyclic gearbox was relatively long. Air entered a screened annular intake directly behind the gearbox. After compression, the air entered the combustion chambers in a radially outward direction. These chambers were mounted around the casing of the axial compressor, presumably to shorten the shaft. A portion of the air destined for the combustion chambers was diverted to cool the turbine nozzle guide vanes before entering the outer part of the combustion chambers. Combustion products exiting the chambers discharged through the single stage turbine before entering a rapidly converging annular exhaust terminated by a circular tail pipe. Although the 14 stage all-axial compressor produced a decent pressure ratio (approximately 6.15:1 at design speed; 5.3:1 at Maximum Power, SLS,ISA), it was not particularly efficient. A large diameter turbine facilitated the use of a single stage, whereas the Rolls-Royce Dart (which had a similar engine cycle) required 3 stages.

The General Electric XT31 was first used in the experimental Consolidated Vultee XP-81.  The XP-81 first flew in December 1945, the first aircraft to use a combination of turboprop and turbojet power.

The T31 engine was the first American turboprop engine to power an aircraft. It made its initial flight in the Consolidated Vultee XP-81 on 21 December 1945. The T31 was mounted in the nose; an Allison J33 turbojet engine mounted in the rear fuselage provided added thrust. The T31 was also used on the Navy XF2R-1, similarly powered by a turboprop/turbojet engine combination. The engine was to have been flown experimentally on a Curtiss XC-113 (a converted Curtiss C-46), but the experiment was abandoned after the XC-113 was involved in a ground accident. Only 28 T31s were built; none were used in production aircraft, but improved production turboprop engines were developed from the technology pioneered by the T31.

A derivative of the T31, the General Electric TG-110A, given the military designation T41, was ordered but subsequently cancelled.

Applications
 Consolidated Vultee XP-81
 Curtiss-Wright XC-113
 Ryan XF2R Dark Shark

Specification (TG-100A)

Specification (T31-GE-3)

See also

References

1940s turboprop engines
T31
Abandoned military aircraft engine projects of the United States
Axial-compressor gas turbine engines

General Electric T31


The 1890 Bassetlaw by-election was a parliamentary by-election held for the British House of Commons constituency of Bassetlaw in Nottinghamshire on 15 December 1890.

Vacancy
The by-election was caused by the death of the sitting Conservative MP, William Beckett-Denison, on 23 November 1890. Beckett-Denison had won the newly created seat at the 1885 general election.

The candidates
The Conservative party selected Sir Frederick Milner, son-in-law of the deceased MP and former member for York, as their candidate. Milner's candidature was supported by Francis Foljambe, a Liberal Unionist and former MP for the area, who had been defeated by Beckett-Denison in the 1885 election. The Liberal candidate was John William Mellor, former MP for Grantham.

The campaign
Campaigning was lively. "The constituency is being flooded with literature of every description", reported the Times. Women campaigners were active, from the Conservative Primrose League and the Women's Liberal association who were reported to be 'taking a Home Rule van through the district'.

The Home Rule issue was a difficult one for the Liberals at this precise moment, with a split in the Irish Parliamentary Party taking place over the continued leadership of Charles Stewart Parnell, following a crisis over the divorce of his partner Katharine O'Shea; Liberal leader William Gladstone had warned the party that Parnell's continued leadership would mean the end of prospects of Home Rule. At a public meeting in the Constituency, the Conservative MP for North Armagh, Edward James Saunderson, made fun of Gladstone's difficulties: "in 1886, a marriage was consummated between Mr Gladstone and his followers and Mr Parnell and his friends. Since then, however, there had been a divorce (cheers and laughter), and ... they had discovered that all the love was on one side". The issue was picked up in a later speech by the Liberal Unionist MP for Tyrone South Thomas Russell: "he would ask his fellow Nonconformists not to submit the Presbyterians, Methodists and Independents of Ireland to the shame and humiliation of being governed by a man who was a convicted adulterer and liar, and whose conduct, he regretted to say, was practically condoned by the Liberal party".

The Liberal position was put in a speech by Henry Labouchère, MP for Northampton: "He was not going to love Ireland less because Mr Parnell loved Mrs O'Shea more. (Laughter) ... Mr Parnell was doing his best to wreck Home Rule in Ireland ... if they could only win [the] Bassetlaw election it would put backbone and hope into the Liberals all over the country." Gladstone himself, speaking at a public meeting in the constituency, emphasised that the crisis only showed how important it was to achieve Home Rule: "Why should English politics, and Scotch and Welsh politics, be dependent on the choice of an Irish leader?"

The Parnell crisis overshadowed all other issues in the campaign, although it was always most likely that Milner would hold his father-in-law's seat, picking up the rural vote while the miners supported the Liberal. The Conservatives defended their actions on improvements in housing for the poor while Milner had spoken against an eight-hour day for miners, which Mellor supported.

The vote
Polling, which opened at 8 a.m., was heavy in the 28 polling districts in the constituency. Counting began at 9 a.m. next morning, with the result declared at half past ten. Milner held the seat for the Conservatives, with a substantially increased majority from the last contested election of 728 votes (Beckett-Denison had been returned unopposed in 1886). He told his supporters that this was a blow against the Liberal leader: "He could only hope that this emphatic answer would cause Mr Gladstone to withdraw himself from the arena of active politics". Mellor, in his turn, assured his followers that "the party would go on increasing and the great cause of Liberalism would surmount all difficulties."

References

1890 elections in the United Kingdom
By-elections to the Parliament of the United Kingdom in Nottinghamshire constituencies
1890 in England
Bassetlaw District
19th century in Nottinghamshire

1890 Bassetlaw by-election


is a yaoi manga series created by Satosumi Takaguchi. It was originally serialized in the shōjo magazine Monthly Asuka.

The story revolves around Shino Hisae, a thirty-five-year-old yaoi anime voice actor, who despite his age still looks like a teenager. Due to his looks, he is often subject to advances from his fellow co-workers Tenryu-san and Mizusawa-kun. Not only does he have to deal with these advances but also has drama and tension at home with his seventeen-year-old son Hisae Nakaya who also is just discovering his homosexuality.

This series may be categorized as a yaoi but it has less sexual contact that other series in the genre, until the last two volumes.

Plot summary
Shino had gotten his high school girlfriend pregnant, knowing that he would become a father because he very much loved his girlfriend. However his girlfriend, who came from a wealthy family, left him so that she "wouldn't interfere with his goal of becoming an actor".

The story actually begins when Shino's son Nakaya finds the apartment of his father. He finds out the yaoi aspect of Shino's job later and is not quite pleased, though he ends up reconciling with it. When Nakaya has a false pregnancy alarm with his girlfriend, he begins to relate to his father more.

At work, Shino is constantly being hit on by thirty-seven-year-old Tenryu and twenty-something year-old Mizusawa. They're both bisexual and play the seme to Shino's uke. Tenryu is just getting over a divorce with his wife, and is going through emotional turmoil as his wife has forbidden him from seeing their seven-year-old daughter ever again. He turns to Shino during the turmoil and consequently things go further than Shino is at first comfortable with.

In the third volume, a Canadian hockey player becomes Nakaya's coach and Nakaya becomes infatuated with him. They end up a couple, much to Shino's dismay, who believes that the homosexuality seen in his son is because he plays uke so many times in yaoi anime series.

Characters
Shino Hisae
A thirty-five-year-old voice actor for the show Miracle Dieter Miyuki, struggling with his co-worker's advancements. He's raising his only son by himself to become a good person
Nakaya Hisae
A seventeen-year-old high school student with an avid zeal for hockey; he loses half a tooth from it at one point. He's very protective of his overly naive father, and is very confused about his own sexuality.
Tenryu
Thirty-seven-year-old voice actor who has just gotten divorced and is suffering from sexual turmoil. He is one of the people advancing on Shino.
Mizusawa
A young twenty-something year-old bisexual voice actor who has taken a liking to Shino, and is often giving him a hard time.
Fuse Akihi
An attractive and talented hockey player, whose knee injury prevents him from participating in the world competitions.

Media

Manga

Volume list

External links

 Blu's site for Shout Out Loud!
Official website
IGN review
Mania review
Shaenon Garrity recommendation
David Welsh review
Library Journal review

1996 manga
Comedy anime and manga
Kadokawa Shoten manga
Romance anime and manga
Tokyopop titles
Yaoi anime and manga

Shout Out Loud!


The NXT UK Women's Championship is a wrestling title owned by WWE and competed for by the women of NXT UK. It was created on June 18, 2018 during the first night of the 2018 United Kingdom Championship Tournament. There was an announcement during the tournament that an 8-woman tournament would happen on the first episodes of NXT UK and it would decide the first NXT UK Women's Championship. Rhea Ripley beat Toni Storm in the final to become the first champion. Storm beat Ripley at NXT UK TakeOver: Blackpool to become the current champion.
World Wrestling Entertainment championships

NXT UK Women's Championship


The ¡Alarma! Chronicles is the name of a short story written by Terry Scott Taylor.

The story was originally included in four albums released by the rock band Daniel Amos. Part one was included in their 1981 release, ¡Alarma!, part two was included in their 1983 release, Doppelgänger, part three was included in their 1984 release, Vox Humana and the final part was included in their 1986 release, Fearful Symmetry. Each album musically and conceptually followed the themes of each part of the story.

The entire story was then released in its entirety in the 200 page hardcover book The ¡Alarma! Chronicles in 1999. That book also included three CDs with all of the music from the four previously mentioned albums, plus interviews with the band members, photos, essays and lyrics.

References

1999 short stories
American short stories

The ¡Alarma! Chronicles


Samuel George Pearse, VC, MM (16 July 1897 – 29 August 1919) was an Australian recipient of the Victoria Cross, the highest award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces. Serving in the Australian Imperial Force during the First World War, he saw action during the final weeks of the Gallipoli Campaign in 1915 and later on the Western Front from 1916 to 1918. Following the Armistice he fought as part of the North Russia Relief Force with the British Army during the North Russia Campaign in 1919. He was killed after charging a machine gun post during an action at Emtsa, in North Russia, for which he was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross.

Early life
Samuel George Pearse was born on 16 July 1897 at Penarth, Glamorganshire, Wales to George Stapleton Pearse and his wife Sarah Ann, née Sellick. Initially educated at Penarth Boarding School, he moved to Australia with his family in 1911, with his father acquiring a property near at Koorlong, near Mildura, Victoria. Pearse later worked as a fruit-picker, labourer, trapper, and as a deck-hand on a paddle-steamer.

Military service
Pearse served in the Militia for two years with the 73rd Infantry Regiment, before volunteering for overseas service with the Australian Imperial Force (AIF) during the First World War. At the time of his enlistment in the AIF in July 1915 just before he turned eighteen, Pearse's occupation was as a rabbit-trapper. He sailed from Melbourne on 10 September 1915 aboard the Star of Victoria, assigned to the 9th Reinforcement for the 7th Battalion reaching Gallipoli shortly before the evacuation and spending two weeks in the line there in December 1915.

After transferring to the 2nd Machine Gun Company, assigned to support the 2nd Brigade, Pearse subsequently saw action on the Western Front where he was wounded on 24 August 1916 but soon returned to his unit. On 28 September 1917 he was awarded the Military Medal for an action in single-handedly raiding a German machine gun-post east of Ypres in Belgium:

Challinger records that Pearse was awarded his Military Medal in the field by General Sir William Birdwood but that at the time Birdwood had run out of medals and decorated Pearse with a strip of medal ribbon. Challinger also references Pearse's army record which quite apart from his awards for valour includes entries for neglect of duty, absence from guard and disobedience to orders. He was promoted to lance corporal on 21 November 1917, and to corporal on 10 April 1918. He was wounded in action for a second time on 19 May 1918. He subsequently returned to England to recover, but did not return to his unit until the end of the war. After undergoing training at the Machine Gun Depot, he was posted the 1st Machine Gun Battalion on 1 December 1918.

Following the Armistice, Pearse was attracted by the prospect of a tour of duty with the North Russia Relief Force and like the other 150 Australian soldiers who volunteered, Pearse was discharged from the AIF on 18 July 1919 and re-enlisted in the British Army as a private soldier. Many of the volunteering Australians had come late to action in First World War but Pearse was a battle-hardened veteran and was soon promoted to sergeant. He was a 22-year-old sergeant in the 45th Battalion, The Royal Fusiliers during the North Russia Campaign under the command of Brigadier General Lionel Sadleir-Jackson when the following deed took place for which he was awarded the VC:

Burial and medals
Samuel Pearse was buried in a military graveyard near the Obozerskaya railway station, between Emtsa and Archangel, North Russia. A photo taken in September 1919 shows his grave to be intact, but all visible traces of the graveyard eventually disappeared and the location forgotten. The Commonwealth War Graves Commission records him being buried in the Obozerskaya Burial Ground and then commemorated at the Archangel Allied Cemetery. The Allied War Cemetery in Archangel has plaques on its walls listing the names of all those buried elsewhere.  His Victoria Cross, Military Medal and 1914–15 Star are on display under his photo in the Hall of Valour at the Australian War Memorial (AWM) in Canberra. Two other service medals were issued but their whereabouts is unknown.

In 2018, a small team of Russian volunteers found a grave believed to be that of Sgt. Pearse after part-time searching for more than ten years. Guided by a 1925 map and 1919 aerial photograph, the remains were exhumed and are currently being stored at the Archangel Morgue. As of 2019, formal DNA identification of the remains has not yet been undertaken but the skeleton is the same height as Sgt. Pearse (5'6"); the remains of a slouch hat were found in the grave; the grave was precisely as shown on the 1925 map; a toe was missing from the right foot, as mentioned in Pearse's Australian army records; and the whitewashed stones found during the exhumation appeared to be those shown in the 1919 photograph.

On 29 August 2019, a brief ceremony with nine people in attendance took place at the remains of the bunker where Pearse died, unofficially commemorating the 100th anniversary. Those in attendance included seven Russians – three members of the search team, a priest, a female interpreter, a female reporter and her cameraman – and two Australians, Damien Wright, historian and author (Churchill's Secret War With Lenin, 2017), and Richard Christen, grandson of Pearse.

Family life
While on leave in England in January 1918 Pearse met Kitty Knox, an ambulance driver serving in the Women's Army Auxiliary Corps. They were engaged in May 1918 and that same month spent time together while Pearse was convalescing after suffering a foot wound. They were married on 1 June 1919 in Durham and when Kitty became pregnant they had decided to delay returning to Australia. The couple had a daughter, Victoria Catherine Sarah Pearse, born in February 1920, after his death. Kitty and Victoria later emigrated in May 1920 to Australia and Kitty married Albert Rose.

Notes

References

External links
List of Australian winners of the Victoria Cross

1897 births
1919 deaths
Australian World War I recipients of the Victoria Cross
Legion of Frontiersmen members
People from Penarth
British Army personnel of the Russian Civil War
Royal Fusiliers soldiers
Australian recipients of the Military Medal
Welsh emigrants to Australia
People educated at Stanwell School
British Army recipients of the Victoria Cross
Australian Army soldiers
Burials at Archangel Allied Cemetery
British military personnel killed in action
North Russia intervention

Samuel Pearse


The Leander Reeve House, also known as the Old Stone House, is a historic structure located near Geneva, Iowa in the United States.  Leander Reeve came to Franklin County from Ashtabula County, Ohio in 1853.  He initially worked as a trapper until he acquired  of land from Allison Phelps and began to farm.  He built the stone house in 1854 and brought his family from Ohio the same year.  It is the first permanent structure built in the county.  His wife did not care for the pioneer lifestyle and they returned to Ohio three years later.  Although some said she wanted to have her last child at her Ohio home, and she also didn't get along with her sister in law. Simeon Carter bought the house from the Reeves.  His daughter and son-in-law, a lawyer named D. W. Dow, were the next people to live in the house.  They were followed by 13 other families.  The floor plan of the house has never been altered and it did not have electricity until the restoration committee had plug-ins installed.  The house is still in excellent shape, and an Old Stone House Committee remains active through the Franklin County Historical Society.  The house has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places since 1979.

References

External links
 Franklin County Historical Society

Houses completed in 1854
Houses in Franklin County, Iowa
Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Iowa
Historic house museums in Iowa
Museums in Franklin County, Iowa
National Register of Historic Places in Franklin County, Iowa

Leander Reeve House


Where is the Nophelet? () is a Soviet 1988 romantic comedy directed by Gerald Bezhanov.

Plot
Talented engineer Pavel Fedorovich Golikov who works at a research institute in a team comprised purely of females, is surprisingly timid and inexperienced in his relationships with women considering that he is more than forty years old. He is still single and lives with his parents who have long dreamed of having grandchildren. They unsuccessfully introduce him to unmarried daughters of friends in the hope that Pavel will finally marry. But suddenly cheerful and reckless Gena comes to Moscow for furniture - Pavel's cousin. At the request of Pavel's parents, Gena decides to stay in Moscow until he finds a wife for his brother. First, Gena disguises Pavel in a new suit, then they get acquainted with various girls using the pick-up line "Where is the nophelet?" ("Nophelet(e)" is an anadrome — the word "telephone" pronounced in the reverse order). But in his quiet fantasies of family life and children, Pavel sees an unknown female passenger, with whom he travels on a daily bus.

Later Gena's wife arrives who is troubled by his lengthy absence - she is an imperious and commanding woman, and as Pavel's parents look at her they even begin to doubt the need to marry off their son. Subsequently Pavel sorts out his timidity and decides to speak with the stranger from the bus.

Cast
Vladimir Menshov — Pavel Fedorovich Golikov, son of Fedor Mikhailovich and Elena Arkadyevna, Gena's cousin
Aleksandr Pankratov-Chyorny — Gena, Vali's husband, father of two children, Pavel's cousin (singing voice by Mikhail Evdokimov)
Valentina Telichkina — female stranger on the bus
Lyudmila Shagalova — Elena Arkadievna Golikova, wife of Fedor Mikhailovich, Pavel's mother, pensioner
Nikolay Parfyonov — Fedor Mikhailovich Golikov, Elena Arkadievna's husband, Pavel's father, war veteran, pensioner
Marina Dyuzheva— Marina, Pavel's colleague
Lyudmila Nilskaya — Vera Simukova, Pavel's colleague
Natalia Konovalova — Nadia, Pavel's colleague
Olga Shorina — Lyuba, Pavel's colleague
Elena Pokatilova — Lena, Pavel's colleague
Yelena Safonova — Alla, Galya's friend
Ekaterina Zhemchuzhnaya — Zemfira, gipsy-speculator and fortune-teller
Irina Rozanova — Valentina, wife of Gena, mother of two children
Inna Ulyanova — Klara Semyonovna, the head of Pavel
Natalia Karpunina — Tamara, Zoya's friend, a student of a medical school
Elena Skorokhodova — Zoya, Tamara's friend, a student of a medical school
Nina Agapova — aunt Emma
Inna Alenikova — Emma
Elena Arzhanik — passer-by who fell for the "nophelet" line
Rita Gladunko — passenger of a trolleybus
Mikhail Kokshenov — trolley driver
Lydia Dranov — cousin of Emma
Olga Kabo — visitor from the Urals
Veronica Izotova — passer-by, who fell for the "nophelet" line
Alexander Pyatkov — thug in a red jacket

Production
The screenwriter Anatoly Eiramdzhan initially wrote the part of Gena for Andrei Mironov. But the actor did not like the idea of getting typecasted as a womanizer, and thus he was to play Pavel in the film instead, but Mironov died in 1987.

Roles for female actresses were decided at random.

References

External links

1988 romantic comedy films
1988 films
Films scored by Aleksandr Zatsepin
Russian romantic comedy films
Soviet romantic comedy films
1980s Russian-language films

Where is the Nophelet?


Heinrich Gottlieb Imig (24 February 1893 – 24 February 1956) was a German trade unionist and politician.

Born in Essen, Imig worked as a coal miner from the age of 19.  He joined the Social Democratic Party, and also the Alter Verband union.  He served in the military during World War I, then returned to mining.  In 1920, he was elected to the works committee of his mine, and from 1929 he was the full-time union official for Bochum and Castrop-Rauxel.

In 1933, the Nazis dissolved all trade unions, and Imig found himself unemployed.  He set up his own business, then during World War II was conscripted into the air raid police.  After the war, he was immediately elected as town clerk of Castrop-Rauxel, and joined the new IG Bergbau union.  He won election as its second president in 1949, and was also elected to the executive of the German Trade Union Confederation.

In the 1949 West German federal election, Imig won election, and he also served in the general assembly of the European Coal and Steel Community.  In 1953, the position of president of IG Bergbau became available and, although Heinrich Gutermuth won, he immediately stood down in favour of Imig.  The following year, Imig was also elected as president of the Miners' International Federation.  He died, still in post, in 1956.

References

1893 births
1956 deaths
German trade unionists
Members of the Bundestag for North Rhine-Westphalia
Politicians from Essen
Members of the Bundestag for the Social Democratic Party of Germany

Heinrich Imig


The Gov. George S. Boutwell House is a historic house at 172 Main Street in Groton, Massachusetts, USA, that was home to Governor George S. Boutwell. It was built in 1851 and added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2005. It is the current headquarters of the Groton Historical Society.

Description and history
The Boutwell House is set on the north side of Main Street in the center of Groton. It is a -story wood-frame structure with Italianate styling, with a main block and a series of ells added in the late 19th century. Features of the main block's exterior include corner quoining, a water table at the base, and eaves decorated with brackets. The front facade is three bays wide, with a centered entrance sheltered by a deep flat portico supported by square posts.

The house was built in 1851 for George S. Boutwell who was Governor of Massachusetts at the time. He and his family were the only occupants of the house and when his daughter Georgianna died in 1933 she left the house to the historical society. Currently, the Boutwell House is used to both display period furniture and decorative arts and showcase special exhibits in the rotating exhibit gallery.

Light fills the front study inside the Greek Revival mansion, just the way it did a century and half ago when Gov. George Boutwell used to prepare his speeches there. The over-sized window looking over Station Avenue allowed him to see trains arrive from Boston. Boutwell would stand by the window and wave to guests getting off the train. Downstairs, inside the crimson-walled drawing room, Boutwell would entertain federal and state officials and dignitaries, including President Ulysses S. Grant for a night in 1869.

In 2010, the Boutwell House suffered two very serious water pipe failures which flooded portions of the museum's exhibition and work areas. The Groton Historical Society's Board of Directors sought and obtained both a Community Preservation Act grant for $176,525 which was unanimously approved at Groton Town Meeting in April 2013, and a Cultural Facilities Fund grant for $79,000 awarded in November 2012 from the Massachusetts Cultural Council. Both of these grants were for physical renovations including new wiring and plumbing, plaster replacement, a fire suppression system, and a new furnace. The first round of work was completed and the house was reopened on October 5, 2013.

See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Middlesex County, Massachusetts

References

Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Middlesex County, Massachusetts
Buildings and structures in Groton, Massachusetts
Historic house museums in Massachusetts
Museums in Middlesex County, Massachusetts
Houses completed in 1851
Italianate architecture in Massachusetts
1851 establishments in Massachusetts

Gov. George S. Boutwell House


The Dakota Apartments is a Chateauesque style cooperative apartment building in Manhattan, New York City. The name of the building Dakota comes from the fact that Manhattan was sparsely populated at the time of the building's construction, just like South Dakota and North Dakota. The 10-storey building has 94 units, no two of which are the same. Dakota Apartments is one of the hardest co-op buildings to buy into and the co-op board has rejected the residency applications of celebrities like Madonna and Billy Joel.

John Lennon and his wife Yoko Ono are the most famous residents of the Dakota.

Buildings and structures in Manhattan

Dakota Apartments


The kererū (Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae) is the only type of pigeon native to New Zealand. It is very big and easy to spot, and its wings make a loud sound when it flies. It is the only still-living New Zealand bird which can eat large fruits whole, and so is important for spreading the seeds of many native trees. Kererū were an important type of food for Māori. There are much fewer kererū now than before the Europeans arrived in New Zealand, mostly because the Europeans brought meat-eating animals like cats, ferrets, stoats, possums, and rats, and cut down a lot of the forest. Because there are not many kererū any more, it is against the law to hunt them.

Name
'Kererū' is the most common name for this bird, but in some parts of the North Island it is called kūkū or kūkupa. Kererū are also called wood pigeon, but they are a different type of bird to the wood pigeon (Columba palumbus) of the Northern Hemisphere.

Description
Kererū are big and generally weigh between 550 and 850 grams. They have a white underbelly and dark green/blue head, shoulders, and wings. The green/blue colour is iridescent, meaning it is shiny and shows lots of different blues, greens, and purples in the sunlight.

References

Birds of New Zealand
Columbiformes

Kererū


The Proto-Auto Lola B08/70 is a Daytona Prototype sports car built in 2008 by Lola Cars and sold by Proto-Auto LLC.

It was débuted by Krohn Racing at the GAINSCO Grand Prix of Miami, the second round of the 2008 Rolex Sports Car Series season, after Krohn Racing has used the previous year's Riley at the 24 Hours of Daytona. Originally powered by a Pontiac 5.0 litre V8 engine, it received a new Ford "Cammer" for 2009, producing .

The car scored its first win at the 2009 Verizon Wireless 250 at the Thunderbolt Raceway, with Niclas Jönsson and Ricardo Zonta at the wheel.

References

External links
  PDF Specs

Sports prototypes

Proto-Auto Lola B08/70


A hyperparasite is a parasite (or parasitoid) which is parasitic on another parasite. Usually, this means it is parasitic on the larval stage of the victim species.

Typical examples are members of the Apocrita, and some species in two other insect orders, the Diptera (true flies) and Coleoptera (beetles). Seventeen families in the Hymenoptera and a few species of Diptera and Coleoptera are hyperparasitic.

Primary parasitism in the Hymenoptera evolved in the Jurassic period about 135 million years ago.

In literature
Jonathan Swift refers to hyperparasitism in these lines from his poem "On Poetry: A Rhapsody":

So nat'ralists observe, a flea
Hath smaller fleas that on him prey;
And these have smaller fleas to bite 'em.
And so proceeds ad infinitum.

Number of levels
Three levels of parasitism have been seen in fungi (a fungus on a fungus on a fungus on a tree).

References

Parasitism
Insects

Hyperparasite


David L. Rosenhan (1929 – February 6, 2012) was an American psychologist. He was best known for the Rosenhan experiment. This was a study which looked at how valid psychiatry diagnoses were.

Rosenhan got his Bachelor of Arts degree from Yeshiva University. At Columbia University in 1953 he earned his master's degree. Five years later, he earned a Ph.D in psychology. Rosenhan was an expert on psychology and law.

In 1973 Rosenhan published "On Being Sane in Insane Places". This was one of the most-read pieces of writing in psychology. The article talks about the Rosenhan experiment. The experiment was that eight people with no history of psychopathology would try to get into twelve psychiatric hospitals. All of these people were allowed in, and were diagnosed with either schizophrenia or bipolar disorder. Psychiatrists then tried to cure the people using psychiatric medicines. All eight were allowed to leave within 7 to 52 days, but only when they had said that they accepted the illness they had been diagnosed with. Later in the study, a research and teaching hospital challenged Rosenhan to run a similar experiment with its own diagnoses and rules for letting people in to the hospital. Psychiatric staff were warned that at least one pseudo-patient might be sent to their hospital. At least one staff member thought that 83 out of the 193 new patients were actors. In fact, Rosenhan sent no actors. The study showed that the ways diagnosis was done was very inaccurate in telling people with mental disorders and people without mental disorders apart. The paper made a lot of controversy. Some people are not sure of how valid and credible the study was, but say that psychiatric diagnoses need to be improved.

Professor Rosenhan worked with the Stanford University Department of Psychology. Later, he became professor emeritus at Stanford University. He died on February 6, 2012, aged 82.

References

Other websites

American psychologists
1929 births
2012 deaths
Scientists from New Jersey

David Rosenhan


Every Animal is a vegan animal rights organization in Ukraine.

History
The public organization "Every Animal" was founded in 2019 with the aim of popularizing veganism and forming a movement for animal rights. During its existence, more than 100 activists joined the organization, 75 manifestations, more than 50 educational events were held, and more than 62,000 free vegan lunches were distributed.

The organization arranges educational events of various formats: lectures, trainings, meetings, discussions, screenings of documentaries, etc. Has its own charity merchandise.

Before the full-scale Russian invasion of Ukraine, street actions "Open your eyes" were regularly organized in various cities of Ukraine. During the action, some activists were holding TV screens with documentary footage about animal cruelty in the meat, dairy, egg, and fur industries while others were talking to passers-by about veganism.

On August 11, 2020, the organization launched a free weekly seven-day online course on veganism for beginners called "Vegan Express". The course is divided into lessons that contain an overview of industries that exploit animals, tips on transitioning to a vegan lifestyle, selection of ethical products, plant-based recipes for the day, and answers to the most common questions. As of February 2023, 98 courses were held, where more than 8,600 people participated.

In the summer of 2021, the organization visited ten Ukrainian cities as a part of a Vegan Tour. During the campaign, they organized screenings of the 2018 documentary "Dominion", lectures on veganism, activist-focused workshops, "Open your eyes" and "Look at the world through their eyes" actions, and a sampling of plant-based products. As part of the "Look at the world through their eyes" action, visitors were offered to see animal industries through the eyes of farm animals using virtual reality goggles.

In December 2021, they published the first children's book about veganism in Ukrainian called "Hands, paws, or hooves" (Ukrainian: "Руки, лапи чи копита"). With the support of the Supreme Master Ching Hai organization, four thousand copies of the book were distributed to immigrant children in Poland, as well as to children in Bucha, Kyiv Oblast, where Every Animal organized a charity event in September 2022. The book is also distributed in some Ukrainian children libraries.

With the start of the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, they actively support vegans that serve in the Armed Forces of Ukraine by sending them vegan food. They created the Vegan Kitchen of Ukraine project, which provides free vegan meals to forcibly displaced people, volunteers, and servicemen of the Territorial Defense Forces. As of February 2023, more than 62,000 free vegan lunches were distributed and 760 parcels were sent to vegans in the Armed Forces of Ukraine.

In the fall of 2022, a lecture on veganism and sports was held, as well as two charity festivals "Vegan Weekend" in Kyiv. At events, the organization raised funds to support the Armed Forces of Ukraine.

References

External links

Animal rights organizations
2019 establishments in Ukraine

Every Animal


Mary Peck Butterworth (July 27, 1686 – February 7, 1775)  was a counterfeiter in colonial America.

Biography
Born to Joseph and Martha Peck in Rehoboth, Massachusetts, Mary married John Butterworth, son of a British captain in 1710. Mary allegedly started her counterfeiting operation around 1716. According to those who would later testify against her, she used starched cotton cloths to produce counterfeit bills, rather than the metal plates used more commonly in counterfeiting.

Using a slightly dampened piece of starched cloth she was able to lift ink from a genuine bill. With a hot iron, she transferred a pattern from the cloth to a blank paper bill, then inked the pattern by hand with quill pens. The original cotton cloth was easily disposed of through burning, leaving no hard evidence of a crime. Butterworth allegedly organized her counterfeiting operation into a cottage industry, sternly overseeing the work of the entire family. At the height of her operation, she was reportedly selling counterfeit bills at half their face value.

Colonial authorities knew of an extensive counterfeiting ring operating somewhere in the Rhode Island area throughout the later half of the 1710s, and felt it was beginning to have a damaging impact on the entire colonial economy. In 1722 colonial authorities became suspicious of Mary Butterworth after her husband John purchased a large, expensive new home for the family.

On August 14, 1723 a trial was held in Newport, Rhode Island. One Nicholas Campe testified he passed two counterfeit Rhode Island bills he obtained through Butterworth. Two of Butterworth's associates (her brother and his wife) turned state's evidence and also testified against her. Ultimately though, the court dismissed all charges against her for lack of hard evidence. Under the legal code of 1710 in colonial Rhode Island if any of the Butterworth family had been convicted of the crime of counterfeiting they would have faced severe punishment.

[The offender] was to suffer the pains of having their ears cropped, to be whipped or fined at discretion and imprisoned as the nature of the offense requires, and to pay double damage to the persons defrauded. In case the offender had no estate, he should be set at work, or sold for any term of years which the discretion of the judges considered satisfactory.

After the trial, Mrs. Butterworth reportedly gave up counterfeiting. She died in 1775 in Bristol County, Massachusetts, aged 88.

References

1686 births
1775 deaths
American counterfeiters
Colonial American women
People from Rehoboth, Massachusetts
People of colonial Massachusetts

Mary Butterworth


El Mokhtar (February 9, 1971 – December 31, 1983) was an Arabian horse, and one of three black Arabian stallions used to portray "The Black" in the second Black Stallion film, The Black Stallion Returns.

El Mokhtar was imported by a syndicate of American Arabian breeders in 1975. El Mokhtar was of Egyptian Arabian bloodlines, rarely shown, and originally not even broke to ride because he was considered so valuable. The American Arabian enthusiast knew him from a few ads in magazines, but no super-hype promotion surrounded his breeding career.

The Black Stallion
Shortly after his arrival in America, El Mokhtar was seen by The Black Stallion author Walter Farley.  An offer was made for El Mokhtar's services for the role of 'The Black' for the first Black Stallion film, but it was firmly declined by his syndicate. Black Stallion trainer Corky Randall also liked El Mokhtar, and, at Randall's urging, the movie studio bought out the entire 40-member syndicate in order to secure El Mokhtar for the second Black Stallion film.

El Mokhtar was one of three black Arabian stallions used to portray the Black in the second film. The director loved his huge, expressive eyes, so he appears in several close-up shots. More important to the film was how El Mokhtar could run; he is the Black in the cross-country race. The native extras riding the other horses were urged to make a real race of it. The 'come from behind' win of 'The Black' is the product of a real race.

El Mokhtar was also trained to do the 'courting' scenes with the gray gelding Talishma, who played the mare Johar in the film. Those scenes were scheduled as the last to be shot. Just prior to the filming date, El Mokhtar developed a severe case of horse colic. No modern veterinary facility was available in Morocco, making surgery impossible, and as a result, El Mokhtar was humanely destroyed on the set December 31, 1983. An autopsy revealed a severe twist, and a rupture; even if surgery had been possible, it is very unlikely he would have survived.

El Mokhtar was unusually tall for a purebred Arabian, and very 'Egyptian' in type with a long, clean-cut neck, small head, and fine boned for his size. El Mokhtar was not only a good athlete - the work in the Black Stallion film was strenuous and demanding - but he also had a very good nature and was a willing performer. Corky Randall said, "He just never did anything wrong."

References

External links

1971 animal births
1983 animal deaths
Individual Arabian and part-Arabian horses
Horse actors

El Mokhtar


Amaro Rodríguez Felipe y Tejera Machado (3 May 1678, in San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Tenerife - 4 October 1747, in San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Tenerife), more popularly known as Amaro Pargo, was a famous Spanish corsair.

He was noted for his commercial activities and for his frequent religious donations and aid to the poor. In his role as a privateer, he dominated the route between Cadiz and the Caribbean, on several occasions attacking ships belonging to enemies of the Spanish Crown (mainly England and Holland), earning recognition in his time as a hero and coming to be regarded as "the Spanish equivalent of Francis Drake". Because of his service to the Spanish Crown and country, he was declared a Caballero hijodalgo in 1725 and obtained certification of nobility and royal arms in 1727.

He felt a considerable devotion for Sister Mary of Jesus de León y Delgado, even financing his funeral and his grave. He made several donations with the aim of improving the lives of the poorest of Tenerife, especially for the improvement of the living conditions of the inmates of the prison of San Cristóbal de La Laguna.

His figure has been wrapped in a halo of romanticism that has related to piracy, hidden treasures and illicit romances. Different authors have taken advantage of this mysticism that surrounds his figure to elaborate his novels. In addition, the video game company Ubisoft sent a study on Amaro Pargo, emphasizing its physiognomy, facing its possible appearance in the video game Assassin's Creed IV: Black Flag.

References

1678 births
1747 deaths
Pirates
People from the Canary Islands
Spanish criminals

Amaro Pargo


Friedrich Groos (23 April 1768 – 15 June 1852) was a German physician and philosopher born in Karlsruhe.

Initially a student of law in Tübingen and Stuttgart, his interest later turned to medicine. From 1792 studied medicine in Freiburg im Breisgau and Pavia, and following graduation became city physician () in Karlsruhe. From 1805 to 1813 he worked as a doctor in several locations, and in 1814 became a senior physician at the asylum and Siechenanstalt in Pforzheim. With the 1826 relocation of the Pforzheim mental asylum to Heidelberg, he moved to the latter city, where he also gave lectures in psychiatry at the university.

Groos was the author of works in several subjects, such as philosophy, forensic medicine, psychiatry, et al. During a period of severe illness, he became deeply interested in Stoic philosophy. As a psychiatrist he believed that mental illness was due to spiritual as well as mental causes.

Written works
 Betrachtungen über die moralische Freiheit und Unsterblichkeit, 1818 - Reflections on moral freedom and immortality.
 Über das homöopathische Heilprincip. Ein kritisches Wort, 1825 - On the homeopathic health principle; a critical word.
 Untersuchungen über die moralischen und organischen Bedingungen des Irreseyns und der Lasterhaftigkeit, 1826 - Studies on the moral and organic conditions of insanity and depravity.
 Entwurf einer philosophischen Grundlage für die Lehre von den Geisteskrankheiten, 1828 - Philosophical basis for the doctrine of mental illness.
 Ideen zur Begründung eines obersten Princips für die psychische Legalmedicin, 1829 - Ideas for the creation of a supreme principle for forensic psychiatry.
 Die Schellingsche Gottes- und Freiheitslehre vor den Richterstuhl der gesunden Vernunft gefordert, 1829 - Schelling's God and doctrine of freedom before the tribunal of common sense.
 Der Weg durch den Vorhof der politischen Freiheit zum Tempel der moralischen Freiheit, 1849 - The path through the atrium of political freedom to the temple of moral freedom.

References
 "Article based on translated text from an equivalent article at the German Wikipedia; sources listed as:
 ADB:Groos, Friedrich @ Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie
 Groos, Friedrich @  Neue Deutsche Biographie (NDB). Band 7, Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1966.

German psychiatrists
Physicians from Karlsruhe
Academic staff of Heidelberg University
1768 births
1852 deaths
19th-century German philosophers
German male writers

Friedrich Groos


In Europe, the Iron Age is the last stage of the prehistoric period and the first of the protohistoric periods, which initially meant descriptions of a particular area by Greek and Roman writers. For much of Europe, the period came to an abrupt end after conquest by the Romans, though ironworking remained the dominant technology until recent times. Elsewhere, the period lasted until the early centuries AD, and either Christianization or a new conquest in the Migration Period.

Iron working was introduced to Europe in the late 11th century BC, probably from the Caucasus, and slowly spread northwards and westwards over the succeeding 500 years. For example, the Iron Age of Prehistoric Ireland begins around 500 BC, when the Greek Iron Age had already ended, and finishes around 400 AD. The use of iron and iron-working technology became widespread concurrently in Europe and Asia.

The start of the Iron Age is marked by new cultural groupings, or at least terms for them, with the Late Bronze Age Mycenaean Greece collapsing in some confusion, while in Central Europe the Urnfield culture had already given way to the Hallstatt culture. In north Italy the Villanovan culture is regarded as the start of Etruscan civilization. Like its successor La Tène culture, Hallstatt is regarded as Celtic. Further to the east and north, and in Iberia and the Balkans, there are a number of local terms for the early Iron Age culture. Roman Iron Age is a term used in the archaeology of Northern Europe (but not Britain) for the period when the unconquered peoples of the area lived under the influence of the Roman Empire.

The Iron Age in Europe is characterized by an elaboration of designs in weapons, implements, and utensils. These are no longer cast but hammered into shape, and decoration is elaborate curvilinear rather than simple rectilinear; the forms and character of the ornamentation of the northern European weapons resemble Roman arms in some respects, while in other respects they are peculiar and evidently representative of northern art.

Timeline

Dates are approximate, consult particular article for details
  Prehistoric (or Proto-historic) Iron Age  Historic Iron Age

Eastern Europe
The early first millennium BC marks the Iron Age in Eastern Europe. In the Pontic steppe and the Caucasus region, the Iron Age begins with the Koban and the Chernogorovka and Novocherkassk cultures from . By 800 BC, it was spreading to Hallstatt culture via the alleged "Thraco-Cimmerian" migrations.

Along with the Chernogorovka and Novocherkassk cultures, on the territory of ancient Russia and Ukraine the Iron Age is, to a significant extent, associated with Scythians, who developed iron culture since the 7th century BC. The majority of remains of their iron-producing and blacksmithing industries from the 5th to 3rd centuries BC was found near Nikopol in Kamenskoye Gorodishche, which is believed to be the specialized metallurgic region of the ancient Scythia.

The Old Iron Age was an era of immense changes in the lands inhabited by the Balts, i.e. the territories from the Vistula Lagoon and the Baltic Sea in the west to the Oka in the east, and between the Middle Dnieper in the south and northern Latvia to the north. In the first century A.D., the Baltic people began mass production of iron from the available limonite, widely available in swamps. The local smiths learned to harden iron into steel, which resulted in tougher weapons than stone or horn instruments.

Southeast Europe

In the Greek Dark Ages, edged iron weapons were widely available, but a variety of explanations fits the available archaeological evidence. From around 1200 BC, the palace centers and outlying settlements of the Mycenaean culture began to be abandoned or destroyed, and by 1050 BC, the recognizable cultural features (such as Linear B script) had disappeared.

The Greek alphabet began in the 8th century BC. It is descended from the Phoenician alphabet. The Greeks adapted the system, notably introducing characters for vowel sounds and thereby creating the first truly alphabetic (as opposed to abjad) writing system. As Greece sent colonists eastwards, across the Black Sea, and westwards towards Sicily and Italy (Pithekoussae, Cumae), the influence of their alphabet extended further. The ceramic Euboean artifact inscribed with a few lines written in the Greek alphabet referring to "Nestor's Cup", discovered in a grave at Pithekoussae (Ischia) dates from ; it seems to be the oldest written reference to the Iliad. The fragmentary Epic Cycles, a collection of Ancient Greek epic poems that related the story of the Trojan War, were a distillation in literary form of an oral tradition developed during the Greek Dark Age. The traditional material from which the literary epics were drawn treats the Mycenaean Bronze Age culture from the perspective of the Iron Age and later Greece.

Notable and autochthonous groups of peoples and tribes of Southeastern Europe organised themselves in large tribal unions such as the Thracian Odrysian kingdom in the east of Southeastern Europe in the 5th century BC. By the 6th century BC the first written sources dealing with the territory north of the Danube appear in Greek sources. By this time the Getae (and later the Daci) had branched out from the Thracian-speaking populations.

Central Europe

In Central Europe, the Iron Age is generally divided in the early Iron Age Hallstatt culture (HaC and D, 800–450 BC) and the late Iron Age La Tène culture (beginning in 450 BC). The transition from bronze to iron in Central Europe is exemplified in the great cemetery of Hallstatt, discovered near Gmunden in 1846, where the forms of the implements and weapons of the later part of the Bronze Age are imitated in iron. In the Swiss or La Tène group of implements and weapons, the forms are new and the transition complete.

The Celtic culture, or rather Proto-Celtic groups, had expanded to much of Central Europe (Gauls), and, following the Gallic invasion of the Balkans in 279 BC, as far east as central Anatolia (Galatians). In Central Europe, the prehistoric Iron Age ends with the Roman conquest.

From the Hallstatt culture, the Iron Age spreads westwards with the Celtic expansion from the 6th century BC. In Poland, the Iron Age reaches the late Lusatian culture in about the 6th century, followed in some areas by the Pomeranian culture.

The ethnic ascription of many Iron Age cultures has been bitterly contested, as the roots of Germanic, Baltic and Slavic peoples were sought in this area.

Italy

In Italy, the Iron Age was probably introduced by the Villanovan culture, which succeeded the Bronze Age Proto-Villanovan culture in the territory of Tuscany and northern Latium and spread in parts of Romagna, Campania and Fermo in the Marche. The burial characteristics relate the Villanovan culture to the Central European Urnfield culture (–750 BC), and 'Celtic' Hallstatt culture (which succeeded the Urnfield culture). Cremated remains were housed in double-cone shaped urns and buried. The Etruscans Old Italic alphabet spread throughout Italy from the 8th century. The Etruscan Iron Age was then ended with the rise of the Roman Republic, which conquered the last Etruscan city of Velzna in 264 BC.

In Sardinia, iron working seems to have begun around the 13th–10th century BC with the Nuragic civilization, perhaps via Cyprus.

Western Europe

The 'Celtic' culture had expanded to the group of islands of northwest Europe (Insular Celts) and Iberia (Celtiberians, Celtici and Gallaeci). In the British Isles, the British Iron Age lasted from about 800 BC until the Roman Conquest and until the 5th century in non-Romanized areas. Structures dating from this time are often impressive, for example, the brochs and duns of northern Scotland and the hill forts that dotted the islands. On the Iberian peninsula, the Paleohispanic scripts began to be used between 7th century to the 5th century BC. These scripts were used until the end of the 1st century BC or the beginning of the 1st century AD.

In 2017, a Celtic warrior's grave, dated to about BC 320 to 174, was discovered at a housing development under construction in Pocklington at the Yorkshire Wolds. After archeologists completed a very long excavation project, the site was found to include a bronze shield, remains of a chariot and the skeletons of ponies. The shield's boss bears a resemblance to the Wandsworth shield boss (circa BC 350 to 150), owned by the British Museum. One design element on the extremely well-preserved Pocklington shield, a scalloped border, "is not comparable to any other Iron Age finds across Europe, adding to its valuable uniqueness", said Paula Ware, managing director at MAP Archaeological Practice Ltd in late 2019. Horses were rarely included in Iron Age burials, making the find particularly significant. "The discoveries are set to widen our understanding of the Arras (Middle Iron Age) culture and the dating of artefacts to secure contexts is exceptional," according to Paula Ware.

Northern Europe

The early Iron Age forms of Scandinavia show no traces of Roman influence, though such influences become abundant toward the middle of the period. The duration of the Iron Age is variously estimated according to how its commencement is placed nearer to or farther from the opening years of the Christian era, but it is generally agreed that the last division of the Iron Age of Scandinavia, the Viking Period, is considered to be from 700 to 1000 AD, when paganism in those lands was superseded by Christianity.

The Iron Age north of about the Rhine, beyond the Celts and then the Romans, is divided into two eras: the Pre-Roman Iron Age and the Roman Iron Age. In Scandinavia, further periods followed up to 1100: the Migration Period, the Vendel Period and the Viking Age. The earliest part of the Iron Age in northwestern Germany and southern Jutland was dominated by the Jastorf culture.

Early Scandinavian iron production typically involved the harvesting of bog iron. The Scandinavian peninsula, Finland and Estonia show sophisticated iron production from c. 500 BC. Metalworking and Ananyino culture pottery co-occur to some extent. Another iron ore used was ironsand (such as red soil). Its high phosphorus content can be identified in slag. Such slag is sometimes found together with asbestos-ceramic-associated axe types belonging to the Ananyino culture.

Transition to stationary agriculture due to the iron plough

In Southern Europe climates, forests consisted of open evergreen and pine forests. After slash and burn techniques these forests had little capacity for regrowth than the forests north of the Alps.

In Northern Europe, there was usually only one crop harvested before grass growth took over, while in the south, suitable fall was used for several years and the soil was quickly exhausted. Slash and burn shifting cultivation, therefore, ceased much earlier in the south than the north. Most of the forests in the Mediterranean had disappeared by classical times. The classical authors wrote about the great forests (Semple 1931 261-296).

Homer writes of wooded Samothrace, Zakynthos, Sicily and other wooded land. The authors give us the general impression that the Mediterranean countries had more forest than now, but that it had already lost much forest, and that it was left there in the mountains (Darby 1956 186).

It is clear that Europe remained wooded, and not only in the north. However, during the late Roman Iron Age and early Viking Age, forest areas drastically reduced in Northern Europe, and settlements were regularly moved. There is no good explanation for this mobility, and the transition to stable settlements from the late Viking period, as well as the transition from shifting cultivation to stationary use of arable land. At the same time plows appears as a new group of implements were found both in graves and in depots. It can be confirmed that early agricultural people preferred forest of good quality in the hillside with good drainage, and traces of cattle quarters are evident here.

The Greek explorer and merchant Pytheas of Massalia made a voyage to Northern Europe c. 330 BC. Part of his itinerary has survived to this day thanks in to the accounts by Polybius, Strabo and Pliny. Pytheas had visited Thule, which lay a six-day voyage north of Britain. There "the barbarians showed us the place where the sun does not go to sleep. It happened because there the night was very short -- in some places two, in others three hours -- so that the sun shortly after its fall soon went up again." He says that Thule was a fertile land, "rich in fruits that were ripe only until late in the year, and the people there used to prepare a drink of honey. And they threshed the grain in large houses, because of the cloudy weather and frequent rain. In the spring they drove the cattle up into the mountain pastures and stayed there all summer." This description may fit well with Norwegian coast. Here is an instance of both dairy farming and drying/threshing in a building.

In Italy, shifting cultivation was already a thing of the past at the birth of Christ. Tacitus describes it as the strange cultivation methods he had experienced among the Germans, whom he knew well from his stay with them. Rome was entirely dependent on shifting cultivation by the barbarians to survive and maintain "Pax Romana", but when the supply from the colonies "trans alpina" began to wear out, the Roman Empire collapsed.

Tacitus writes in AD 98 about the Germans: fields are proportionate to the participating growers, but they share their crops with each other by reputation. Distribution is easy because there is great access to land. They change soil every year, and mark some off to spare, for they seek not a strenuous job in reaping from this fertile and vast land even greater yields—such as by planting apple orchards, or by fencing off fields; or by watering gardens; grain is the only thing they insist that the ground will provide. Tacitus discusses the shifting cultivation.

The Migration Period in Europe after the Roman Empire and immediately before the Viking Age suggests that it was still more profitable for the peoples of Central Europe to move on to new forests after the best parcels were exhausted than to wait for the new forest to grow up. Therefore, the peoples of the temperate zone in Europe slash and burners, remained for as long as the forests permitted. This exploitation of forests explains this rapid and elaborate move. But the forest could not tolerate this in the long run; it first ended in the Mediterranean. The forest here did not have the same vitality as the powerful coniferous forest in Central Europe. Deforestation was partly caused by burning for pasture fields. Missing timber delivery led to higher prices and more stone constructions in the Roman Empire (Stewart 1956 123).

The forest also decreased gradually northwards in Europe, but in the Nordic countries it has survived. The clans in pre-Roman Italy seemed to be living in temporary locations rather than established cities. They cultivated small patches of land, guarded their sheep and their cattle, traded with foreign merchants, and at times fought with one another: etruscans, umbriere, ligurianere, sabinere, Latinos, campaniere, apulianere, faliscanere, and samniter, just to mention a few. These Italic ethnic groups developed identities as settlers and warriors . They built forts in the mountains, today a subject of much investigation. The forest has hidden them for a long time, but eventually, they will provide information about the people who built and used these buildings. The ruin of a large samnittisk temple and theater at Pietrabbondante is under investigation. These cultural relics have slumbered in the shadow of the glorious history of the Roman Empire.

Many of the Italic tribes realized the benefits of allying with the powerful Romans. When Rome built the Via Amerina 241 BC, the Faliscan people established themselves in cities on the plains, and they collaborated with the Romans on road construction. The Roman Senate gradually gained representatives from many Faliscan and Etruscan families. The Italic tribes are now settled farmers. (Zwingle, National Geographic, January 2005).

An edition of Commentarii de Bello Gallico from the AD 800. Julius Caesar wrote about Svebians, "Commentarii de Bello Gallico, "book 4.1; they are not by private and secluded fields, "privati ac separati agri apud eos nihil est", they cannot stay more than one year in a place for cultivation's sake, "Neque longius anno remanere uno in loco colendi causa licet ". The Svebes lived between the Rhine and the Elbe. About the Germans, he wrote: No one has a particular field or area for themselves, for the magistrates and chiefs give fields every year to the people and the clans, which have gathered so much ground in such places that it seems good for them to continue on to somewhere else after a year. "Neque quisquam agri modum certum aut fines habet proprios, sed magistratus ac principes in annos singulos gentibus cognationibusque hominum, qui tum una coierunt, a quantum et quo loco visum est agri attribuunt atque anno post alio transire cogunt" book 6, 22.

Strabo (63 BC – about AD 20) also writes about sveberne in Geographicon VII, 1, 3. Common to all the people in this area is that they can easily change residence because of their sordid way of life; that they do not grow any fields and do not collect property, but live in temporary huts. They get their nourishment from their livestock for the most part, and like nomads, they pack all their goods in wagons and go on to wherever they want. Horazius writes in 17 BC (Carmen säculare, 3, 24, 9 ff .) about the people of Macedonia. The proud Getae also live happily, growing free food and cereal for themselves on land that they do not want to cultivate for more than a year, "vivunt et rigidi Getae, immetata quibus iugera liberal fruges et Cererem freunt, nec cultura placet longior annua." Several classical writers have descriptions of shifting cultivation people. Many peoples' various shifting cultivations characterized the migration Period in Europe. The exploitation of forests demanded constant displacement, and large areas were deforested.

Locations of the tribes described by Jordanes in Norway, contemporary with, and some possibly ruled by Rodulf. Jordanes was of Gothic descent and ended up as a monk in Italy. In his work De origine actibusque Getarum (The Origin and Deeds of the Getae/Goths), the Gothic origins and achievements, the author Procopius provides information on the big island Scandza, which the Goths come from. He expects that of the tribes who live here, some are adogit living far north with 40 days of the midnight sun. After adogit come screrefennae and suehans who also live in the north. Screrefennae moved a lot and did not bring to the field crops, but made their living by hunting and collecting bird eggs. Suehans was a seminomadic tribe that had good horses like Thüringians and ran fur hunting to sell the skins. It was too far north to grow grain. Prokopios, ca. AD 550, also describes a primitive hunter people he calls skrithifinoi. These pitiful creatures had neither wine nor corn, for they did not grow any crops. "Both men and women engaged incessantly just in hunting the rich forests and mountains, which gave them an endless supply of game and wild animals." Screrefennae and skrithifinoi is well Sami who often have names such as; skridfinner, which is probably a later form, derived from skrithibinoi or some similar spelling. The two old terms, screrefennae and skrithifinoi, are probably origins in the sense of neither ski nor finn. Furthermore, in Jordanes' ethnographic description of Scandza are several tribes, and among these are finnaithae "who was always ready for battle" Mixi evagre and otingis that should have lived like wild beasts in mountain caves, "further from them" lived osthrogoth, raumariciae, ragnaricii, finnie, vinoviloth and suetidi that would last prouder than other people.

Adam of Bremen describes Sweden, according to information he received from the Danish king Sven Estridson or also called Sweyn II of Denmark in 1068: "It is very fruitful, the earth holds many crops and honey, it has a greater livestock than all other countries, there are a lot of useful rivers and forests, with regard to women they do not know moderation, they have for their economic position two, three, or more wives simultaneously, the rich and the rulers are innumerable." The latter indicates a kind of extended family structure, and that forests are specifically mentioned as useful may be associated with shifting cultivation and livestock. The "livestock grazing, as with the Arabs, far out in the wilderness" can be interpreted in the same direction.

See also
Prehistoric Europe
Bronze Age Europe
Hallstatt culture
La Tène culture
Pre-Roman Iron Age
Roman Iron Age
Roman imperial period (chronology)
British Iron Age

References

Iron Age Europe


Knud Knudsen (3 January 1832 – 21 May 1915) was one of Norway's first professional photographers and a pioneer within Norwegian photography. His work includes images from most of Norway in his time and documents much of Norwegian history and ethnology in his photography career 1862–1900.

Knudsen was born in Odda, the son of a merchant who was also a pomologist. His professional career started as a retail clerk in Bergen, and in 1862 he traveled to Reutlingen to study pomology. He returned with an enthusiasm for photography the year after and opened his photography business in Bergen 1864.

Knud Knudsen left a collection of 13.500 wet and dry plate negatives, and about 20.000 of albumin silver prints. The negative and print collection are at The Picture Collection, University of Bergen Library.

Bibliography
Walker Art Center, Friedman, Martin: The Frozen Image. Scandinavian photography. 1982
Naomi Rosenblum: A World History of Photography. 1984
Å.Digranes, S.Greve og O.Reiakvam:Det norske bildet. Knud Knudsens fotografier 1864–1900 1988
N.Morgenstern: Fotograf Knud Knudsen. Bilder fra en nylig oppdaget samling. 1989
O.Reiakvam, Bilderøyndom, røyndomsbilde: fotografi som kulturelle tidsuttrykk 1997
Heimatmuseum Reutlingen: Reise nach Reutlingen 1862. Stereoskopbilder des nerwegischen fotograafen Knud Knudsen. 1997
Roger Erlandsen: Pas nu paa!: Nu tar jeg fra Huldet!  Om fotografiets første hundre år i Norge - 1839-1940 2000
Larsen, Peter og Lien, Sigrid: Norsk Fotohistorie. Fra daguerrotypi til digitalisering. 2007
Ekeberg, Jonas og Østgaard Lund, Harald (red): 80 millioner bilder. Norsk Kulturhistorisk fotografi 1855–2005. 2008

External links

Knud Knudsen a Norwegian photographer pioneer
The Picture Collection, University of Bergen Library
http://www.galleribalder.com/portfolio38339p2.html

19th-century Norwegian photographers
1832 births
1915 deaths
People from Odda

Knud Knudsen (photographer)