The United States declared war on the German Empire on April 6, 1917, nearly three years after World War I started. A ceasefire and armistice were declared on November 11, 1918. Before entering the war, the U.S. had remained neutral, though it had been an important supplier to the United Kingdom, France, and the other powers of the Allies of World War I.

The U.S. made its major contributions in terms of supplies, raw material, and money, starting in 1917. American soldiers under General of the Armies John Pershing, Commander-in-Chief of the American Expeditionary Force (AEF), arrived at the rate of 10,000 men a day on the Western Front in the summer of 1918. During the war, the U.S. mobilized over 4.7 million military personnel and suffered the loss of over 116,000 soldiers. The war saw a dramatic expansion of the United States government in an effort to harness the war effort and a significant increase in the size of the U.S. Armed Forces.

After a relatively slow start in mobilizing the economy and labor force, by spring 1918, the nation was poised to play a role in the conflict. Under the leadership of President Woodrow Wilson, the war represented the climax of the Progressive Era as it sought to bring reform and democracy to the world. There was substantial public opposition to U.S. entry into the war.

Beginning

The American entry into World War I came on April 6, 1917, after a year long effort by President Woodrow Wilson to get the United States into the war. Apart from an Anglophile element urging early support for the British, American public opinion sentiment for neutrality was particularly strong among Irish Americans, German Americans and Scandinavian Americans, as well as among church leaders and among women in general. On the other hand, even before World War I had broken out, American opinion had been more negative toward the German Empire than towards any other country in Europe. Over time, especially after reports of atrocities in Belgium in 1914 and following the sinking of the passenger liner RMS Lusitania in 1915, the American people increasingly came to see the German Empire as the aggressor.

As U.S. president, it was Wilson who made the key policy decisions over foreign affairs: while the country was at peace, the domestic economy ran on a laissez-faire basis, with American banks making huge loans to Britain and France — funds that were in large part used to buy munitions, raw materials, and food from across the Atlantic. Until 1917, Wilson made minimal preparations for a land war and kept the United States Army on a small peacetime footing, despite increasing demands for enhanced preparedness. He did, however, expand the United States Navy.

In 1917, with the Russian Revolution and widespread disillusionment over the war, and with Britain and France low on credit, the German Empire appeared to have the upper hand in Europe, while the Ottoman Empire clung to its possessions in the Middle East. In the same year, the German Empire decided to resume unrestricted submarine warfare against any vessel approaching British waters; this attempt to starve Britain into surrender was balanced against the knowledge that it would almost certainly bring the United States into the war. The German Empire also made a secret offer to help Mexico regain territories lost in the Mexican–American War in an encoded telegram known as the Zimmermann Telegram, which was intercepted by British Intelligence. Publication of that communique outraged Americans just as German U-boats started sinking American merchant ships in the North Atlantic. Wilson then asked Congress for "a war to end all wars" that would "make the world safe for democracy", and Congress voted to declare war on the German Empire on April 6, 1917. On December 7, 1917, the U.S. declared war on Austria-Hungary. U.S. troops began arriving on the Western Front in large numbers in 1918.

Neutrality

After the war began in 1914, the United States proclaimed a policy of neutrality despite President Woodrow Wilson's antipathies against the German Empire.

When the German U-boat U-20 sank the British liner  on 7 May 1915 with 128 U.S. citizens aboard, Wilson demanded an end to German attacks on passenger ships, and warned that the US would not tolerate unrestricted submarine warfare in violation of "American rights" and of "international and obligations." Wilson's Secretary of State, William Jennings Bryan, resigned, believing that the President's protests against the German use of U-boat attacks conflicted with America's official commitment to neutrality. On the other hand, Wilson came under pressure from war hawks led by former president Theodore Roosevelt, who denounced German acts as "piracy", and from British delegations under Cecil Spring Rice and Sir Edward Grey.

U.S. Public opinion reacted with outrage to the suspected German sabotage of Black Tom in Jersey City, New Jersey on 30 July 1916, and to the Kingsland explosion on 11 January 1917 in present-day Lyndhurst, New Jersey.

Crucially, by the spring of 1917, President Wilson's official commitment to neutrality had finally unraveled. Wilson realized he needed to enter the war in order to shape the peace and implement his vision for a League of Nations at the Paris Peace Conference.

Public opinion

American public opinion was divided, with most Americans until early 1917 largely of the opinion that the United States should stay out of the war.  Opinion changed gradually, partly in response to German actions in Belgium and the Lusitania, partly as German Americans lost influence, and partly in response to Wilson's position that America had to play a role to make the world safe for democracy.

In the general public, there was little if any support for entering the war on the side of the German Empire. The great majority of German Americans, as well as Scandinavian Americans, wanted the United States to remain neutral; however, at the outbreak of war, thousands of U.S. citizens had tried to enlist in the German army. The Irish Catholic community, based in the large cities and often in control of the Democratic Party apparatus, was strongly hostile to helping Britain in any way, especially after the Easter uprising of 1916 in Ireland. Most of the Protestant church leaders in the United States, regardless of their theology, favored pacifistic solutions whereby the United States would broker a peace. Most of the leaders of the women's movement, typified by Jane Addams, likewise sought pacifistic solutions. The most prominent opponent of war was industrialist Henry Ford, who personally financed and led a peace ship to Europe to try to negotiate among the belligerents; no negotiations resulted.

Britain had significant support among intellectuals and families with close ties to Britain. The most prominent leader was Samuel Insull of Chicago, a leading industrialist who had emigrated from England. Insull funded many propaganda efforts, and financed young Americans who wished to fight by joining the Canadian military.

Preparedness movement

By 1915 Americans were paying much more attention to the war. The sinking of the Lusitania aroused furious denunciations of German brutality.  In Eastern cities a new "Preparedness" movement emerged. It argued that the United States needed to build up immediately strong naval and land forces for defensive purposes; an unspoken assumption was that America would fight sooner or later. The driving forces behind Preparedness were all Republicans, notably General Leonard Wood, ex-president Theodore Roosevelt, and former secretaries of war Elihu Root and Henry Stimson; they enlisted many of the nation's most prominent bankers, industrialists, lawyers and scions of prominent families. Indeed, there emerged an "Atlanticist" foreign policy establishment, a group of influential Americans drawn primarily from upper-class lawyers, bankers, academics, and politicians of the Northeast, committed to a strand of Anglophile internationalism.

The Preparedness movement had what political scientists call a "realism" philosophy of world affairs—they believed that economic strength and military muscle were more decisive than idealistic crusades focused on causes like democracy and national self-determination. Emphasizing over and over the weak state of national defenses, they showed that the United States' 100,000-man Army, even augmented by the 112,000-strong National Guard, was outnumbered 20 to one by the German army; similarly in 1915, the armed forces of Great Britain and the British Empire, France, Russia, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Ottoman Empire, Italy, Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia, Belgium, Japan and Greece were all larger and more experienced than the United States military.

They called for UMT or "universal military service" under which the 600,000 men who turned 18 every year would be required to spend six months in military training, and then be assigned to reserve units. The small regular army would primarily be a training agency. Public opinion, however, was not willing to go that far.

Both the regular army and the Preparedness leaders had a low opinion of the National Guard, which they saw as politicized, provincial, poorly armed, ill trained, too inclined to idealistic crusading (as against Spain in 1898), and too lacking in understanding of world affairs. The National Guard on the other hand was securely rooted in state and local politics, with representation from a very broad cross section of the U.S. political economy. The Guard was one of the nation's few institutions that (in some northern states) accepted black men on an equal footing with white men.

Democrats respond

The Democratic party saw the Preparedness movement as a threat. Roosevelt, Root and Wood were prospective Republican presidential candidates. More subtly, the Democrats were rooted in localism that appreciated the National Guard, and the voters were hostile to the rich and powerful in the first place. Working with the Democrats who controlled Congress, Wilson was able to sidetrack the Preparedness forces. Army and Navy leaders were forced to testify before Congress to the effect that the nation's military was in excellent shape.

In reality, neither the U.S. Army nor U.S. Navy was in shape for war in terms of manpower, size, military hardware or experience. The Navy had fine ships but Wilson had been using them to threaten Mexico, and the fleet's readiness had suffered. The crews of the Texas and the New York, the two newest and largest battleships, had never fired a gun, and the morale of the sailors was low. The Army and Navy air forces were tiny in size. Despite the flood of new weapons systems unveiled in the war in Europe, the Army was paying scant attention. For example, it was making no studies of trench warfare, poison gas or tanks, and was unfamiliar with the rapid evolution of aerial warfare. The Democrats in Congress tried to cut the military budget in 1915. The Preparedness movement effectively exploited the surge of outrage over the Lusitania in May 1915, forcing the Democrats to promise some improvements to the military and naval forces. Wilson, less fearful of the Navy, embraced a long-term building program designed to make the fleet the equal of the British Royal Navy by the mid-1920s, although this would not come to pass until World War II. "Realism" was at work here; the admirals were Mahanians and they therefore wanted a surface fleet of heavy battleships second to none—that is, equal to Great Britain. The facts of submarine warfare (which necessitated destroyers, not battleships) and the possibilities of imminent war with the German Empire (or with Britain, for that matter), were simply ignored.

Wilson's decision touched off a firestorm.  Secretary of War Lindley Garrison adopted many of the proposals of the Preparedness leaders, especially their emphasis on a large federal reserves and abandonment of the National Guard. Garrison's proposals not only outraged the provincial politicians of both parties, they also offended a strongly held belief shared by the liberal wing of the Progressive movement, that was, that warfare always had a hidden economic motivation. Specifically, they warned the chief warmongers were New York bankers (such as J. P. Morgan) with millions at risk, profiteering munition makers (such as Bethlehem Steel, which made armor, and DuPont, which made powder) and unspecified industrialists searching for global markets to control.  Antiwar critics blasted them.  These selfish special interests were too powerful, especially, Senator La Follette noted, in the conservative wing of the Republican Party. The only road to peace was disarmament in the eyes of many.

National debate

Garrison's plan unleashed the fiercest battle in peacetime history over the relationship of military planning to national goals. In peacetime, War Department arsenals and Navy yards manufactured nearly all munitions that lacked civilian uses, including warships, artillery, naval guns, and shells. Items available on the civilian market, such as food, horses, saddles, wagons, and uniforms were always purchased from civilian contractors.

Peace leaders like Jane Addams of Hull House and David Starr Jordan of Stanford University redoubled their efforts, and now turned their voices against the President because he was "sowing the seeds of militarism, raising up a military and naval caste." Many ministers, professors, farm spokesmen and labor union leaders joined in, with powerful support from a band of four dozen southern Democrats in Congress who took control of the House Military Affairs Committee. Wilson, in deep trouble, took his cause to the people in a major speaking tour in early 1916, a warm-up for his reelection campaign that fall.

Wilson seemed to have won over the middle classes, but had little impact on the largely ethnic working classes and the deeply isolationist farmers. Congress still refused to budge, so Wilson replaced Garrison as Secretary of War with Newton Baker, the Democratic mayor of Cleveland and an outspoken opponent of preparedness. The upshot was a compromise passed in May 1916, as the war raged on and Berlin was debating whether America was so weak it could be ignored. The Army was to double in size to 11,300 officers and 208,000 men, with no reserves, and a National Guard that would be enlarged in five years to 440,000 men. Summer camps on the Plattsburg model were authorized for new officers, and the government was given $20 million to build a nitrate plant of its own. Preparedness supporters were downcast, the antiwar people were jubilant. The United States would now be too weak to go to war. Colonel Robert L. Bullard privately complained that "Both sides [Britain and the German Empire] treat us with scorn and contempt; our fool, smug conceit of superiority has been exploded in our faces and deservedly.". The House gutted the naval plans as well, defeating a "big navy" plan by 189 to 183, and canceling the battleships. The battle of Jutland (May 31/June 1, 1916) saw the main German High Seas Fleet engage in a monumental yet inconclusive clash with the far stronger Grand Fleet of the Royal Navy. Arguing this battle proved the validity of Mahanian doctrine, the navalists took control in the Senate, broke the House coalition, and authorized a rapid three-year buildup of all classes of warships. A new weapons system, naval aviation, received $3.5 million, and the government was authorized to build its own armor-plate factory. The very weakness of American military power encouraged the German Empire to start its unrestricted submarine attacks in 1917. It knew this meant war with America, but it could discount the immediate risk because the U.S. Army was negligible and the new warships would not be at sea until 1919 by which time the war would be over, Berlin thought, with the German Empire victorious. The notion that armaments led to war was turned on its head: refusal to arm in 1916 led to war in 1917.

War declared

In January 1917, the German Empire resumed unrestricted submarine warfare in hopes of forcing Britain to begin peace talks. The German Foreign minister, Arthur Zimmermann invited revolution-torn Mexico to join the war as the German Empire's ally against the United States if the United States declared war on the German Empire in the Zimmermann Telegram. In return, the Germans would send Mexico money and help it recover the territories of Texas, New Mexico and Arizona that Mexico lost during the Mexican–American War 70 years earlier. British intelligence intercepted the telegram and passed the information on to Washington. Wilson released the Zimmerman note to the public and Americans saw it as a casus belli—a justification for war.

At first, Wilson tried to maintain neutrality while fighting off the submarines by arming American merchant ships with guns powerful enough to sink German submarines on the surface (but useless when the U-boats were under water). After submarines sank seven U.S. merchant ships, Wilson finally went to Congress calling for a declaration of war on the German Empire, which Congress voted on April 6, 1917.

As a result of the Russian February Revolution in 1917, the Tsar abdicated and was replaced by a Russian Provisional Government. This helped overcome Wilson's reluctance to having the U.S. fight alongside a country ruled by an absolutist monarch. Pleased by the Provisional Government's pro-war stance, the U.S. accorded the new government diplomatic recognition on March 9, 1917.

Furthermore, as the war raged on Wilson started to increasingly see belligerency in the war as a ticket to the international conferences that would undoubtedly follow the war's end. This was part of his wider mission to make the United States a more instrumental player on the global stage (which he would later expand upon in his Fourteen points).

Congress declared war on the Austro-Hungarian Empire on December 7, 1917, but never made declarations of war against the other Central Powers, Bulgaria, the Ottoman Empire or the various small co-belligerents allied with the Central Powers. Thus, the United States remained uninvolved in the military campaigns in central and eastern Europe, the Middle East, the Caucasus, North Africa, Sub-Saharan Africa, Asia and the Pacific.

Home front

The home front required a systematic mobilization of the entire population and the entire economy to produce the soldiers, food supplies, munitions, and money needed to win the war. It took a year to reach a satisfactory state. Although the war had already raged for two years, Washington had avoided planning, or even recognition of the problems that the British and other Allies had to solve on their home fronts. As a result, the level of confusion was high at first. Finally efficiency was achieved in 1918.

The war came in the midst of the Progressive Era, when efficiency and expertise were highly valued. Therefore, the federal government set up a multitude of temporary agencies with 50,000 to 1,000,000 new employees to bring together the expertise necessary to redirect the economy into the production of munitions and food necessary for the war, as well as for propaganda purposes.

Food
The most admired agency for efficiency was the United States Food Administration under Herbert Hoover. It launched a massive campaign to teach Americans to economize on their food budgets and grow victory gardens in their backyards for family consumption.  It managed the nation's food distribution and prices and built Hoover's reputation as an independent force of presidential quality.

Finance

In 1917 the government was unprepared for the enormous economic and financial strains of the war. Washington hurriedly took direct control of the economy. The total cost of the war came to $33 billion, which was 42 times as large as all Treasury receipts in 1916. A constitutional amendment legitimized income tax in 1913; its original very low levels were dramatically increased, especially at the demand of the Southern progressive elements. North Carolina Congressman Claude Kitchin, chairman of the tax-writing Ways and Means Committee argued that since Eastern businessman had been leaders in calling for war, they should pay for it. In an era when most workers earned under $1000 a year, the basic exemption was $2,000 for a family. Above that level taxes began at the 2 percent rate in 1917, jumping to 12 percent in 1918. On top of that there were surcharges of one percent for incomes above $5,000 to 65 percent for incomes above $1,000,000. As a result, the richest 22 percent of American taxpayers paid 96 percent of individual income taxes. Businesses faced a series of new taxes, especially on "excess profits" ranging from 20 percent to 80 percent on profits above pre-war levels. There were also excise taxes that everyone paid who purchased an automobile, jewelry, camera, or a motorboat.
The greatest source of revenue came from war bonds, which were effectively merchandised to the masses through an elaborate innovative campaign to reach average Americans. Movie stars and other celebrities, supported by millions of posters, and an army of Four-Minute Men speakers explained the importance of buying bonds. In the third Liberty Loan campaign of 1918, more than half of all families subscribed. In total, $21 billion in bonds were sold with interest from 3.5 to 4.7 percent. The new Federal Reserve system encouraged banks to loan families money to buy bonds.  All the bonds were redeemed, with interest, after the war. Before the United States entered the war, New York banks had loaned heavily to the British. After the U.S. entered in April 1917, the Treasury made $10 billion in long-term loans to Britain, France and the other allies, with the expectation the loans would be repaid after the war. Indeed, the United States insisted on repayment, which by the 1950s eventually was achieved by every country except Russia.

Labor
The American Federation of Labor (AFL) and affiliated trade unions were strong supporters of the war effort. Fear of disruptions to war production by labor radicals provided the AFL political leverage to gain recognition and mediation of labor disputes, often in favor of improvements for workers. They resisted strikes in favor of arbitration and wartime policy, and wages soared as near-full employment was reached at the height of the war. The AFL unions strongly encouraged young men to enlist in the military, and fiercely opposed efforts to reduce recruiting and slow war production by pacifists, the anti-war Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) and radical socialists. To keep factories running smoothly, Wilson established the National War Labor Board in 1918, which forced management to negotiate with existing unions. Wilson also appointed AFL president Samuel Gompers to the powerful Council of National Defense, where he set up the War Committee on Labor.

After initially resisting taking a stance, the IWW became actively anti-war, engaging in strikes and speeches and suffering both legal and illegal suppression by federal and local governments as well as pro-war vigilantes. The IWW was branded as anarchic, socialist, unpatriotic, alien and funded by German gold, and violent attacks on members and offices would continue into the 1920s.

Women's roles

World War I saw women taking traditionally men's jobs in large numbers for the first time in American history. Many women worked on the assembly lines of factories, assembling munitions. Some department stores employed African American women as elevator operators and cafeteria waitresses for the first time.

Most women remained housewives. The Food Administration helped housewives prepare more nutritious meals with less waste and with optimum use of the foods available. Most important, the morale of the women remained high, as millions of middle-class women joined the Red Cross as volunteers to help soldiers and their families.   With rare exceptions, women did not try to block the draft.

The Department of Labor created a Women in Industry group, headed by prominent labor researcher and social scientist Mary van Kleeck. This group helped develop standards for women who were working in industries connected to the war alongside the War Labor Policies Board, of which van Kleeck was also a member. After the war, the Women in Industry Service group developed into the U.S. Women's Bureau, headed by Mary Anderson.

Propaganda
Crucial to U.S. participation was the extensive domestic propaganda campaign. On April 13, 1917, President Wilson issued Executive Order 2594 establishing the Committee on Public Information (CPI), the first state bureau in the United States dedicated solely to propaganda. George Creel, an energetic journalist and political campaign organizer, was appointed by President Wilson to lead the CPI. Creel sought out any information that would discredit his opponents. With boundless energy, Creel developed an intricate and unprecedented propaganda system that influenced every aspect of American life. Through photographs, movies, rallies, press reports, and public meetings, the CPI saturated the public with propaganda, fostering American patriotism and stoking anti-German sentiment among the younger generation.  This effectively suppressed the voices of neutrality supporters. The CPI also controlled the dissemination of war information on the American home front. The committee's New Division influenced news coverage by releasing thousands of press releases. The News Division also promoted a system of voluntary censorship by newspapers and magazines while policing seditious and anti-American content.  The Espionage Act of 1917 and the Sedition Act of 1918 effectively outlawed any criticism of the government or the war effort. Violating these laws carried a penalty of up to 20 years in prison. While technically applicable to everyone, both laws were disproportionately enforced against immigrants and African Americans who often used their second class citizenship to protest their involvement in the war. propaganda campaign involved tens of thousands of government-selected community leaders delivering carefully scripted pro-war speeches at numerous public gatherings.

In addition to government agencies, officially sanctioned private vigilante groups like the American Protective League closely monitored — and sometimes harassed — people who opposed American entry into the war or displayed too much German heritage.

Propaganda took various forms, including newsreels, billboards, magazine and newspaper articles, and large-print posters designed by well-known illustrators of the day, including Louis D. Fancher and Henry Reuterdahl.  After the armistice was signed in 1918, the CPI was disbanded, having pioneered some of the tactics still employed by propagandists today.

Children

The nation placed a great importance on the role of children, teaching them patriotism and national service and asking them to encourage war support and educate the public about the importance of the war. The Boy Scouts of America helped distribute war pamphlets, helped sell war bonds, and helped to drive nationalism and support for the war.

Motor vehicles
Before the American entry into the war, many American-made heavy four-wheel drive trucks, notably made by Four Wheel Drive (FWD) Auto Company, and Jeffery / Nash Quads, were already serving in foreign militaries, bought by Great Britain, France and Russia. When the war started, motor vehicles had begun to replace horses and pulled wagons, but on the European muddy roads and battlefields, two-wheel drive trucks got stuck all the time, and the leading allied countries could not produce 4WD trucks in the numbers they needed. The U.S. Army wanted to replace four-mule teams used for hauling standard 1 U.S. ton (3000 lb / 1.36 metric ton) loads with trucks, and requested proposals from companies in late 1912. This led the Thomas B. Jeffery Company to develop a competent four-wheel drive, 1 short ton capacity truck by July 1913: the "Quad".

The Jeffery Quad truck, and from the company's take-over by Nash Motors after 1916, the Nash Quad, greatly assisted the World War I efforts of several Allied nations, particularly the French. The U.S. first adopted Quads in anger in the USMC's occupations of Haiti, and the Dominican Republic, from 1915 through 1917, as well as in the 1916 Pancho Villa Expedition against Mexico.
Once the U.S. entered World War I, general John Pershing used Nash Quads heavily in the European campaigns. They became the workhorse of the Allied Expeditionary Force there — both as regular transport trucks, and in the form of the Jeffery armored car. Some 11,500 Jeffery / Nash Quads were built between 1913 and 1919.

The success of the Four Wheel Drive cars in early military tests had prompted the U.S. company to switch from cars to truck manufacturing. For World War I, the U.S. Army ordered an amount of 15,000 FWD Model B, three-ton (6000 lb / 2700 kg) capacity trucks, as the "Truck, 3 ton, Model 1917", with over 14,000 actually delivered. Additional orders came from the United Kingdom and Russia. Once the FWD and Jeffery / Nash four-wheel drive trucks were required in large numbers in World War I, both models were built under license by several additional companies to meet demand. The FWD Model B was produced under license by four additional manufacturers.

The Quad and the FWD trucks were the world's first four-wheel drive vehicles to be made in five-figure numbers, and they incorporated many hallmark technological innovations, that also enabled the decisive U.S. and Allied usage of 4x4 and 6x6 trucks subsequently in World War II. The Quad's production continued for 15 years with a total of 41,674 units made.

Socially, it was the FWD company that employed Luella Bates, believed to be the first female truck driver, chosen to work as test and demonstration driver for FWD, from 1918 to 1922.  During World War I, she was a test driver traveling throughout the state of Wisconsin in an FWD Model B truck. After the war, when the majority of the women working at Four Wheel Drive were let go, she remained as a demonstrator and driver.

American military

As late as 1917, the United States maintained only a small army, one which was in fact smaller than those of thirteen of the states already active in the war. After the passage of the Selective Service Act in 1917, it drafted 4 million men into military service. The Commission on Training Camp Activities sought to improve the morals and morale of the troops.

By the summer of 1918, about 2 million U.S. soldiers had arrived in France, about half of whom eventually saw front-line service; by the Armistice of November 11 approximately 10,000 U.S. soldiers were arriving in France daily. In 1917, Congress gave U.S. citizenship to Puerto Ricans when they were drafted to participate in World War I, as part of the Jones Act. In the end, the German Empire miscalculated the United States' influence on the outcome of the conflict, believing it would be many more months before U.S. troops would arrive and overestimating the effectiveness of U-boats in slowing the American buildup. Beginning with the Battle of Saint-Mihiel, the first major battle involving the American Expeditionary Forces, the leaders of the United States war efforts were General of the Armies John J. Pershing, Navy Admiral William Sims, and Chief of Air Service Mason Patrick.

The United States Navy sent a battleship group to Scapa Flow to join with the British Grand Fleet, destroyers to Queenstown, Ireland and submarines to help guard convoys. Several regiments of Marines were also dispatched to France. The British and French wanted U.S. units to be used to reinforce their troops already on the battle lines and not to waste scarce shipping on bringing over supplies. The U.S. rejected the first proposition and accepted the second. General John J. Pershing, American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) commander, refused to break up U.S. units to serve as mere reinforcements for British Empire and French units. As an exception, he did allow the African-American combat regiments that made up the 93rd Combat Division to fight in French divisions. This allowed him to fulfill his pledge to provide the French military with troops while getting rid of the black combat regiments who had become indignant at the fact that they couldn't fight on the front lines. The Harlem Hellfighters fought as part of the French 16th Division, earning a unit Croix de Guerre for their actions at Château-Thierry, Belleau Wood, and Séchault.

African Americans in the military

World War I was the first international conflict in which African Americans played a notable role. Around 400,000 black men were enlisted in the military from 1917 to 1918 with half of these men being sent to Europe. However, with the exception of the 42,000 men in the 92nd and 93rd Combat Divisions, the majority of African Americans weren't permitted to serve in active combat roles as white officers believed that black men lacked the 'mental stamina and moral sturdiness' that a front line soldier required. Those enlisted in the army and sent to Europe most commonly served in labour battalions under the banner of Services of Supply (SOS). The African Americans placed in these units often spent their days doing tough labour like unloading supplies from ships or transporting goods from ports to warehouses near the front lines. These battalions were also tasked with building warehouses, roads, railroads and other vital infrastructure near major ports like Brest, Bordeaux, Marseilles, and St. Nazaire.

The men who served in these units were faced with some of the worst living conditions of all US soldiers thanks to the racial segregation enforced by white officers. In the first couple of months after their arrival in Europe, many black soldiers reported that they had to: sleep in tents on the dirt floors of barracks, eat outside (rather than in canteens), go to the bathroom in makeshift outhouses, and wash themselves in makeshift bathrooms. Conditions did not improve much as the war went on. Moreover, African American recruits faced various forms of abuse from their white counterparts. There were several cases of African American soldiers being verbally abused by white soldiers working or living in their proximity. In some cases physical abuse also occurred. Ely Green, a man who worked in a labour battalion in St Nazaire, reported various events wherein African American men were assaulted and even murdered for breaching the stark lines of segregation that were enforced by the US military. Some have come to see the work camps that black soldiers were subjected to as a means for the export of Jim Crow as the people within them essentially became a servant class for the white military officers.

Despite the rough conditions, major figures in the African American community actually endorsed enlistment in the military. W.E.B Du Bois for example urged his fellow African Americans to "join shoulder to shoulder with our fellow citizens and the allied nations that are fighting for democracy". This was done because African Americans saw the war effort as an opportunity to prove their patriotism and loyalty to the United States. Many hoped that by involving themselves in the war they would win expanded rights on the home front; this did not end up occurring as can be seen in the Race Riots that followed the war in the Red Summer (1919). What the war did do, however, was sharpen the politics of African American soldiers; they returned home referring to themselves as the 'New Negro'. These men had experienced what life could be like without the restrictions of second-class citizenship thanks to the fact French citizens had treated them kindly when they wandered outside of the segregated military camps. They thus returned home to America with a new fighting spirit that made them more determined to win expanded rights. This came with significant push back, however, as many white Americans pushed to return to 'normalcy' and saw African American soldiers as a symbol of wartime change. In turn then we start to see events like the lynching of Sergeant Caldwell.

Women in the military
American women never served in combat roles (as did some Russians), but many were eager to serve as nurses and support personnel in uniform. During the course of the war, 21,498 U.S. Army nurses (American military nurses were all women then) served in military hospitals in the United States and overseas. Many of these women were positioned near to battlefields, and they tended to over a million soldiers who had been wounded or were unwell. 272 U.S. Army nurses died of disease (mainly tuberculosis, influenza, and pneumonia). Eighteen African-American Army nurses, including Aileen Cole Stewart, served stateside caring for German prisoners of war (POWs) and African-American soldiers. They were assigned to Camp Grant, IL, and Camp Sherman, OH, and lived in segregated quarters.

Hello Girls was the colloquial name for American female switchboard operators in World War I, formally known as the Signal Corps Female Telephone Operators Unit. During World War I, these switchboard operators were sworn into the Army Signal Corps. This corps was formed in 1917 from a call by General John J. Pershing to improve the worsening state of communications on the Western front. Applicants for the Signal Corps Female Telephone Operators Unit had to be bilingual in English and French to ensure that orders would be heard by anyone. Over 7,000 women applied, but only 450 women were accepted. Many of these women were former switchboard operators or employees at telecommunications companies. Despite the fact that they wore Army Uniforms and were subject to Army Regulations (and Chief Operator Grace Banker received the Distinguished Service Medal), they were not given honorable discharges but were considered "civilians" employed by the military, because Army Regulations specified the male gender. Not until 1978, the 60th anniversary of the end of World War I, did Congress approve veteran status and honorable discharges for the remaining women who had served in the Signal Corps Female Telephone Operators Unit.

The first American women enlisted into the regular armed forces were 13,000 women admitted into active duty in the U.S. Navy during the war. They served stateside in jobs and received the same benefits and responsibilities as men, including identical pay (US$28.75 per month), and were treated as veterans after the war.

The U.S. Marine Corps enlisted 305 female Marine Reservists (F) to "free men to fight" by filling positions such as clerks and telephone operators on the home front.

During World War I, Myrtle Hazard enlisted in the Coast Guard, served as a telegraph operator, and was discharged as an Electrician 1st Class. She was the only woman to serve in the Coast Guard during the war and she is the namesake of USCGC Myrtle Hazard. Wartime newspapers erroneously reported that twin sisters Genevieve and Lucille Baker were the first women to serve in the Coast Guard. While they tried to enlist, they were not accepted.

These women were demobilized when hostilities ceased, and aside from the Nurse Corps the uniformed military became once again exclusively male. In 1942, women were brought into the military again, largely following the British model.

Impact of US forces on the war

On the battlefields of France in spring 1918, the war-weary Allied armies enthusiastically greeted the fresh American troops. They arrived at the rate of 10,000 a day, at a time when the Germans were unable to replace their losses. The Americans won a victory at Cantigny, then again in defensive stands at Chateau-Thierry and Belleau Wood. The Americans helped the British Empire, French and Portuguese forces defeat and turn back the powerful final German offensive (Spring Offensive of March to July, 1918), and most importantly, the Americans played a role in the Allied final offensive (Hundred Days Offensive of August to November). However, many American commanders used the same flawed tactics which the British, French, Germans and others had abandoned early in the war, and so many American offensives were not particularly effective. Pershing continued to commit troops to these full-frontal attacks, resulting in high casualties without noticeable military success against experienced veteran German and Austrian-Hungarian units. Nevertheless, the infusion of new and fresh U.S. troops greatly strengthened the Allies' strategic position and boosted morale. The Allies achieved victory over the German Empire on November 11, 1918 after German morale had collapsed both at home and on the battlefield.

After the war
The government promptly ended wartime contracts, ended the draft, and started to bring home its troops from Europe as fast as transport became available.   However, there was no GI Bill or financial or educational benefits for veterans, and the lack became a major political issue, especially for the large veterans' groups such as the Veterans of Foreign Wars and the new American Legion.   The readjustment period was marked by soaring unemployment, massive strikes, and race riots in 1919. The public demanded a return to "normalcy", and repudiated Wilson with the election of conservative Republican Warren G. Harding.

See also

United States campaigns in World War I
History of the United States (1865–1918)
German prisoners of war in the United States
General Pershing WWI casualty list
Spanish flu pandemic

References

Sources

Further reading

 Bailey, Thomas. A Diplomatic History of the American people (1947) pp 610–680 online
 Bassett, John Spencer. Our War with Germany: A History (1919) online edition
 Breen, William J. Uncle Sam at Home: Civilian Mobilization, Wartime Federalism, and the Council of National Defense, 1917-1919 (1984))

 Capozzola, Christopher. Uncle Sam Wants You: World War I and the Making of the Modern American Citizen (2008)
 Chambers, John W., II. To Raise an Army: The Draft Comes to Modern America (1987) online
 Clements, Kendrick A. The Presidency of Woodrow Wilson (1992)
 Coffman, Edward M. The War to End All Wars: The American Military Experience in World War I (1998), a standard military history. online free to borrow
 Committee on Public Information. How the war came to America (1917) online  840pp detailing every sector of society
 Cooper, John Milton. Woodrow Wilson: A Biography (2009)
 Cooper, John Milton. "The World War and American Memory." Diplomatic History (2014) 38#4 pp: 727-736.
 Doenecke, Justus D. Nothing Less than War: A New History of America's Entry into World War I  (University Press of Kentucky, 2011)
 DuBois, W.E. Burghardt, "An Essay Toward a History of the Black Man in the Great War," The Crisis, vol. 18, no. 2 (June 1919), pp. 63–87.
  Epstein, Katherine C. "The Conundrum of American Power in the Age of World War I," Modern American History (2019): 1-21.
  Hannigan, Robert E. The Great War and American Foreign Policy, 1914–24 (U of Pennsylvania Press, 2017)
 Kang, Sung Won, and Hugh Rockoff. "Capitalizing patriotism: the Liberty loans of World War I." Financial History Review 22.1 (2015): 45+ online
 Kennedy, David M. Over Here: The First World War and American Society  (2004), comprehensive coverage online
 Malin, James C. The United States After the World War (1930)
 Marrin, Albert. The Yanks Are Coming: The United States in the First World War (1986) online
 May, Ernest R. The World War and American Isolation, 1914-1917 (1959) online at ACLS e-books, highly influential study
 Nash, George H. The Life of Herbert Hoover: Master of Emergencies, 1917-1918 (1996)  excerpt and text search
 Paxson, Frederic L.  Pre-war years, 1913-1917 (1936) wide-ranging scholarly survey
 Paxson, Frederic L. American at War 1917-1918 (1939) online wide-ranging scholarly survey
 Paxson, Frederic L. Post-War Years: Normalcy 1918-1923 (1948) online
 Paxson, Frederic L. ed. War cyclopedia: a handbook for ready reference on the great war (1918) online
 Resch, John P., ed. Americans at War: Society, culture, and the home front: volume 3: 1901-1945 (2005)
 Schaffer, Ronald.  America in the Great War: The Rise of the War-Welfare State (1991)
 Trask, David F. The United States in the Supreme War Council: American War Aims and Inter-Allied Strategy, 1917–1918 (1961)
 Trask, David F. The AEF and Coalition Warmaking, 1917–1918 (1993)online free
 Trask, David F ed. World War I at home; readings on American life, 1914-1920 (1969) primary sources online
 Tucker, Spencer C., and Priscilla Mary Roberts, eds. The Encyclopedia of World War I: A Political, Social, and Military History (5 vol. 2005). worldwide coverage
 Van Ells, Mark D. America and World War I: A Traveler's Guide (2014) excerpt
 Vaughn, Stephen. Holding Fast the Inner Lines: Democracy, Nationalism, and the Committee on Public Information (U of North Carolina Press, 1980) online
 Venzon, Anne ed. The United States in the First World War: An Encyclopedia (1995)
 ;  904pp; full scale scholarly biography; winner of Pulitzer Prize; online free; 2nd ed. 1965

 Woodward, David R. The American Army and the First World War (2014). 484 pp. online review
 Woodward, David R. Trial by Friendship: Anglo-American Relations, 1917-1918 (1993) online
 Young, Ernest William. The Wilson Administration and the Great War (1922) online edition
 Zieger, Robert H. America's Great War: World War I and the American Experience (2000)

Historiography and memory
 Berg, Manfred, and Axel Jansen. "Americans in World War I–World War I in America." Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 17.4 (2018): 599-607. excerpt
 Capozzola, Chris, et al. "Interchange: World War I." Journal of American History 102.2 (2015): 463-499. https://doi.org/10.1093/jahist/jav474
 Cooper, John Milton Jr. "The World War and American Memory," Diplomatic History 38:4 (2014): 727–36.
 Jones, Heather.  "As the Centenary Approaches: The Regeneration of First World War Historiography" Historical Journal 56:3 (2013): 857–78, global perspective
 Keene, Jennifer, "The United States" in John Horne, ed., A Companion to World War I (Wiley-Blackwell, 2012), 508–23.
 Keene, Jennifer D. "Remembering the 'Forgotten War': American Historiography on World War I." Historian 78#3 (2016): 439-468.
 Rubin, Richard. The Last of the Doughboys: The Forgotten Generation and their Forgotten World War (2013)
 Snell, Mark A., ed. Unknown Soldiers: The American Expeditionary Forces in Memory and Remembrance (Kent State UP, 2008).
 Trout, Steven. On the Battlefield of Memory: The First World War and American Remembrance, 1919–1941 (University of Alabama Press, 2010)
 Woodward. David. America and World War I: A Selected Annotated Bibliography of English Language Sources (2nd ed 2007)  excerpt
 Zeiler, Thomas W., Ekbladh, David K., and Montoya, Benjamin C., eds. Beyond 1917: The United States and the Global Legacies of the Great War'' (Oxford University Press, 2017)

External links

 First-hand accounts of World War I veterans, The Library of Congress Veterans History Project.

World War I

United States in World War I


Sa Jordan Taufua (born 29 January 1992) is a professional rugby union player who plays as a flanker for Top 14 club Lyon. Born in New Zealand, he represents Samoa at international level for which he qualifies on ancestry grounds.

Early life
Born in Otahuhu, in the Auckland suburbs, Taufua was educated at Alfriston College before completing his schooling at Sacred Heart College in the city of Auckland.   After finishing high school, he moved south to Christchurch to attend Lincoln University and, while there, he played local club rugby for them.

Senior career
Taufua's senior rugby career began in 2012 when he was loaned to the Tasman Mako by Canterbury before the season's commencement. He displayed fine form in his first year of provincial rugby, playing all 10 of the Mako regular season championship games before being controversially recalled by Canterbury ahead of the competition's play-off phase. Taufua played as a replacement in Canterbury's victories over  and , which saw them crowned ITM Cup Premiership champions, while things didn't work out quite as well for Tasman who went down to  in their Championship play-off semi-final match.

A full Canterbury squad member in 2013, he was an ever-present as the men from Christchurch retained their ITM Cup Premiership crown, finishing second in the round-robin stage and going on to defeat  29–13 in the final.

He moved back north in 2014 to play for the Pukekohe-based Counties Manukau Steelers and started every game in his first season for them as they finished in 5th place on the Premiership log, just outside the play-off places. The Steelers were once again agonisingly close to making the play-offs in 2015, but ended up in 5th spot once more with Taufua contributing 3 tries in 9 matches. He bagged a career-high 6 tries in one season as he was again an ever-present in the Counties side that finally did make the Mitre 10 Cup play-offs in 2016, before going down to his former side and eventual champions, Canterbury.

After a four-year absence, Jordan Taufua returned to the Tasman Mako in 2017. The Mako went on to reach the Premiership Final that season, which they lost to Canterbury. After joining Premiership Rugby side Leicester Tigers for the 2019–20 season, he was granted an early release in February 2021.

On 27 January 2021, French club Lyon announced that it had signed Taufua as an injury replacement ("joker médical") for the remainder of the 2020-21 Top 14 season for the injured Mathieu Bastareaud and Gillian Galan. Taufua made his Lyon and Top 14 debut on 5 February 2021 against Clermont.

Super Rugby
An excellent debut season for Tasman and Canterbury in provincial rugby brought him to the attention of Christchurch-based Super Rugby franchise the , who named him in their squad for the 2013 Super Rugby season. Aged just 21 and surrounded by experienced loose forwards such as Richie McCaw, Kieran Read, Matt Todd as well as George and Luke Whitelock it was largely a season of learning for the young Taufua, who made just 5 substitute appearances throughout the year.  A season spent learning from experienced pros proved to be beneficial to him as he became much more of a regular the following year, playing 14 times as the 'Saders finished as the competition's runner-up, losing narrowly 33–32 to the  in the final in Sydney.

He was firmly established as a starting member in the Crusaders line up in 2015, playing in all 16 of their games during a season that ended with them in a disappointing 7th place in the overall standings, just outside the play-off positions. They bounced back in 2016 and reached the quarter-finals before bowing out with a 42–25 loss to the  in Johannesburg. Taufua played in 15 of their 16 games and helped himself to an impressive 4 tries that season.

In May 2016, it was announced that Taufua had extended his contract with the Crusaders and would stay with them until at least the end of the 2018 Super Rugby season. Taufua re-signed with the Crusaders for one more season (2019) in March 2018.

International career
Although born in New Zealand, Taufua opted to represent the land of his ancestors, Samoa, at the 2011 IRB Junior World Championship in Italy before switching his allegiance back to New Zealand in 2012, playing 5 times for them in their run to the tournament final where they went down 22–16 to hosts South Africa in Cape Town.

In June 2015, Taufua was part of a World XV side which lost 46–10 to  in Cape Town, he played the whole game in the number 6 shirt. The following year at Wembley Stadium, on 5 November 2016, he faced the same opposition, but this time in a Barbarians jersey. He was selected as the starting openside flanker in a game that ended up as a 31–31 draw and was replaced by Ruan Ackermann in the 75th minute of the match.

References

External links

1992 births
Living people
New Zealand rugby union players
New Zealand sportspeople of Samoan descent
Canterbury rugby union players
Tasman rugby union players
Crusaders (rugby union) players
Counties Manukau rugby union players
Rugby union number eights
Rugby union flankers
Rugby union players from Auckland
People educated at Sacred Heart College, Auckland
Barbarian F.C. players
Leicester Tigers players
People educated at Alfriston College
Lyon OU Rugby players
New Zealand expatriate sportspeople in England
New Zealand expatriate sportspeople in France
New Zealand expatriate rugby union players
Expatriate rugby union players in England
Expatriate rugby union players in France
2023 Rugby World Cup players

Jordan Taufua


Game theory is the study of how and why people make decisions. (Specifically, it is "the study of mathematical models of conflict and cooperation between intelligent rational decision-makers".) It helps people understand parts of science and politics. An alternative term suggested "as a more descriptive name for the discipline" is interactive decision theory.

In the Cold War period, the strategic decisions of the United States and the Soviet Union were sometimes viewed as an exercise in game theory. In that case the "players" being studied were the United States and the Soviet Union.

Game theory is not just about games, but how and why businesses make decisions, and just about any decision based on valuing likely outcomes.  In game theory, all of these situations are "games" since the people involved make  choices based on how they value the possible outcomes of the choices.  This is true even of cases where the decisions of a single person only affect that one person.

Game theory is found in the financial choices people make, and is found in the study of economics.

Prisoner's Dilemma

One example is the prisoner's dilemma. It gives an example where co-operation  may not be the "best choice" in game theory.

Suppose two people are arrested for a crime, and the police are uncertain which person committed the crime, and which person abetted the crime.  Each is given a choice:  If each remains silent, they are both soon released.  If one betrays the other, the betrayer goes free, and the other is imprisoned for a long time.  If each betrays the other, they both are held for a shorter time.

If you are a prisoner in this situation and you only care about yourself, the way to get the smallest sentence is to betray the other prisoner. No matter what, you get a shorter sentence when you betray than when you do not. Imagine a situation where you are one of the prisoners, if the other prisoner stays silent and does not betray, then betraying means you do not go to jail at all instead of going to jail for 6 months. If the other prisoner betrays, then betraying lets you go to jail for 2 years instead of 10 years. In short, "betrayal" is the best strategy, and is called the "dominant strategy."

Variations

The prisoner's dilemma does not have same result if some of the details are different. If the prisoners (or countries) can talk with each other and plan for the future, they might both decide to cooperate (not betray) because they hope that will make the other country help them in the future. In game theory, this is called a "repeated game." If the players are altruistic (if they care about each other), they might be okay with going to jail so they can help the other person.

Philosophy

Game theory has also been used in philosophy. Responding to two papers by W.V.O. Quine from 1960 and 1967,  used game theory to develop a philosophical account of convention {norm}. With this, he provided the first analysis of common knowledge and used it to analyze play in coordination games. In addition, he first suggested that it is possible to understand meaning in terms of signaling games. This suggestion has been pursued by several philosophers since Lewis.  Edna Ullmann-Margalit (1977) and Bicchieri (2006) developed theories of social norms. They define them as Nash equilibria which arise from transforming a mixed-motive game into a coordination game.

Game theory has also challenged philosophers to think in terms of interactive Epistemology: what it means for a collective to have common beliefs or knowledge, and what are the consequences of this knowledge for the social outcomes resulting from agents' interactions. Philosophers who have worked in this area include Bicchieri (1989, 1993), Skyrms (1990), and Stalnaker (1999).

Using the ethics part of philosophy pursues Thomas Hobbes' project of deriving morality from self-interest. Since games like the Prisoner's dilemma present an apparent conflict between morality and self-interest, explaining why cooperation is required by self-interest is an important part of this project. This general strategy is a component of the general Social contract view in Political philosophy (for examples, see  and ).

Other authors have attempted to use evolutionary game theory to explain the emergence of human attitudes about morality and corresponding animal behaviors. These authors look at several games including the prisoner's dilemma, Stag hunt, and the Nash bargaining game as providing an explanation for the emergence of attitudes about morality (see, e.g.,  and ).

References

Economic theories
Game theory
Decision theory

Game theory


James Duffield Harding (1798 – 4 December 1863) was a British landscape painter, lithographer and author of drawing manuals. His use of tinted papers and opaque paints in watercolour proved influential.

Life
Harding was born at Deptford in 1798, the son of a drawing-master who had been a pupil of Paul Sandby. He was taught perspective by his father and had lessons from Samuel Prout. At the age of thirteen he exhibited two drawings of buildings in the style of Prout at the Royal Academy.

He was apprenticed to the engraver Charles Pye, but left him after only a year to concentrate on painting watercolours, and when he was 18 he was awarded a silver medal by the Society of Arts. In 1818 he showed with the Society of Painters in Watercolours, (known as the "Old Watercolour Society or OWCS from 1831)  for first time. He was to contribute to its exhibitions for the rest of his life. He was elected an associate of the society in 1820 and a full member in 1821. In 1843 he took up oil painting, and exhibited many landscapes in that medium at the Royal Academy. In 1847 he resigned his membership of the OWCS , hoping to be elected a member of the academy; but, after nine years without success,  he withdrew his candidature, and was re-elected to the OWCS.

From an early on in his career Harding was a successful and popular teacher. When lithography became popular in Britain, he quickly adopted it as a means of reproducing good examples for the use of pupils and students. His first productions were drawing-books, consisting of pencil sketches and studies of trees; they were printed in tints with two stones, allowing the reproduction of more elaborate drawings. His Sketches at Home and Abroad, a series of fifty plates using this method, was published in 1836. In 1841 he published The Park and the Forest, a set of sketches drawn on the stone with a brush instead of the crayon, a technique of his own invention which he called "lithotint". His other lithographic works included A Series of Subjects from the Works of R. P. Bonington (1829–30); Recollections of India  (1847, from drawings by C. S. Hardinge) and Picturesque Selections (1861).

In 1830, Harding exhibited a series of Italian views sketched on papers of various colours and textures, the style of which was widely imitated. His use of opaque body colourin watercolour, following the example set by J. M. W. Turner, also proved influential. His drawings were praised by John Ruskin in Modern Painters. From the 1830s a range of papers was produced under the name of "JDH pure drawing paper", initially for Winsor and Newton. The papers, which proved popular amongst both amateur and professional artists, and which Harding used himself, were produced in white, and in shades of cream, buff and grey. They were marketed until around 1910. Winsor and Newton also produced pencils under Harding's name.

Harding was a prolific author of educational manuals, and his Lessons on Art, Guide and Companion to Lessons on Art, Elementary Art, or the Use of the Chalk and Lead Pencil advocated and explained, and The Principles and Practice of Art, were widely used both in Britain and abroad. His Drawing Models and Their Uses (1854) describes the use of a range of solid forms which he prepared and marketed.

He was described by Gilbert Redgrave in A History of Water Colour Painting in England as "a skilful and rapid draughtsman, though somewhat mannered, and rarely rising above the commonplace."

He died at Barnes, on 4 December 1863, and was buried in Brompton Cemetery.

Bibliography and references

Sources

External links

J D Harding online (ArtCyclopedia – 10 October 2010)
J D Harding's Illustrations (Victorian Web – 10 October 2010)
Paintings by J D Harding (Bridgeman Art Library)

 , engraved by Thomas Higham for Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1837 with a poetical illustration by Letitia Elizabeth Landon.
 , engraved by Frederick James Havell with a poetical illustration by Letitia Elizabeth Landon.

19th-century English painters
English male painters
English watercolourists
English lithographers
Landscape artists
People from Deptford
1798 births
1863 deaths
Burials at Brompton Cemetery
19th-century English male artists

James Duffield Harding


The New Zealand Tramways and Public Passenger Transport Employees Union was founded in 1903. It was founded to represent tramway employees. The union also represented council bus drivers in the areas where these services ran in conjunction with tram services. Since the 1950s and 60s, trams were replaced by trolley and diesel buses and their drivers are who the New Zealand Tramways Union represent today.

The Tramways Union has branches in Auckland, Wellington and Dunedin. The Tramways Union is affiliated to the Council of Trade Unions (CTU) and the Wellington branch has an affiliation with the Manufacturing and Construction Workers Union.

In 2008, Tramways Union members at GO Wellington were locked out, as were Auckland drivers employed by NZ Bus in 2009. In both cases the union came away with improved wages and conditions at the end of the industrial dispute.

Tramways Union
Road transport trade unions
Trade unions established in 1903
1903 establishments in New Zealand

New Zealand Tramways Union


Hannover 96 is a sports club in Hanover, a city in northern Germany.

The sports club was founded in 1896. Hannover 96 is famous for its football (AE: "Soccer") team that has almost always played in the first or second German football league (Except 1996-1998).

Hannover 96 was German Football Champion in 1938 and 1954 and German Cup winner in 1992. The club played eight seasons in European cup competitions (24 matches).

Home stadium of Hannover 96 is the HDI-Arena (capacity: 49.000).

In 1963 the German national Football League, the Fußball-Bundesliga was founded. Hannover 96 joined the Bundesliga in 1964 and played there for the following ten years. In the 1970s and 1980s the club went down to the second league and up again several times. In the 1990s Hannover 96 played eight seasons in the second Bundesliga and two years in the third league, the Regionalliga Nord (1996-98).

Since 2002, Hannover 96 is (again) a member of the first German Football league, the Bundesliga.

Some famous players who have been in the team for a long time: Altin Lala Albanian national player, Steven Cherundolo, USA-national player, Robert Enke, former German national goalkeeper.

The coach of the football team (August 2014) is Taifun Korkut, the club's president is Martin Kind.

Former Coaches: Dieter Hecking 2009, Andreas Bergmann 2009, Peter Neururer 2006, Ewald Lienen 2005, Ralf Rangnick 2004, Horst Ehrmanntraut 2001, ......

Other websites

Website of Hannover 96

Fußball-Bundesliga
German football clubs
Hanover
Sport in Lower Saxony
1896 establishments in Europe
1890s establishments in Germany

Hannover 96


HMCS Cartier was a commissioned surveying ship of the Royal Canadian Navy and saw service during World War I and World War II.

Pre-naval service

She was built as CGS Cartier for service as a hydrographic survey ship by Swan, Hunter & Wigham Richardson, at Newcastle upon Tyne, between 1908 and 1910.

She saw many duties as a ship belonging to the Dominion government. She was utilized by Canada, France, the United States and England while under the Dominion Flag on the East Coast of Canada, and throughout the Atlantic, charting and taking soundings.  Cartier was used to chart some of the most dangerous coastal waters into Iceland and the Dominion of Newfoundland.  She was also contracted to assist in Marine insurance Investigations.

World War I

During World War I, CGS Cartier supported the Royal Canadian Navy (RCN) and was converted to an armed patrol and training vessel for junior officers.  However, she was not commissioned into the RCN, and maintained her civilian name as she remained a Dominion asset.  The Dominion Government was responsible for her upkeep, as well as arming and manning her.  The RCN provided the personnel, however the Dominion government paid them separately from the naval service's budget.

Inter-war service

CGS Cartier returned to her former service as a hydrographic survey vessel which included work on the Atlantic coast.  Her ability to chart exact locations was used extensively to curb smuggling operations and Dominion law enforcement used her as a platform for anti-smuggling operations, resulting in timely searches of suspected smugglers.  Notwithstanding this role, she was forever a survey vessel first and foremost.

World War II

During World War II, CGS Cartier was formally commissioned into the RCN on 18 September 1939, becoming HMCS Cartier.  HMCS Cartier became a training ship and then an armed coastal patrol ship before returning to training duties.  As a training ship, her hydrographic survey instrumentation saw use in educating officers and crew for Advanced Navigation and Naval Mine Avoidance Navigation.

On 9 December 1941, HMCS Cartier was renamed HMCS Charny, likely to avoid confusion with the French-language naval reserve unit in Montreal, NCSM Cartier.  By special dispensation of the Dominion Government, she was given the rare honour of being allowed to continue to fly her commissioning pennant that she received as HMCS Cartier.  From this time on, Charny was used as a training vessel and research vessel.  She received two Mentioned in Despatches (MID), and was entitled to paint two Oak Leaves on her funnels.  The MIDs were received for her assistance in radar research as a target and tracking vessel.  At various times, she was fitted with temporary Radar Sets and advanced communication gear, but only for testing purposes.

Upon being paid off, Charny was no longer considered viable, and she was deemed surplus. In 1957, she was scuttled as a derelict, offshore of Sydney, Nova Scotia.

See also

 Royal Canadian Sea Cadets

References
 Converted civilian vessels
 Canadian Navy Heritage Project: Ship Technical Information
 Canadian Navy Heritage Project: Photo Archive
 Macpherson, Keneth R. and Burgess, John. (1982) (Second Printing) The Ships of Canada's Naval Forces 1910–1981. Collins Publishers.

Auxiliary ships of the Royal Canadian Navy
Shipwrecks of the Nova Scotia coast
1910 ships
Ships built by Swan Hunter
Ships built on the River Tyne

HMCS Cartier


Howard Crook (born June 15, 1947) is an American lyric tenor who has lived and worked in the Netherlands and France since the early 1980s.

He was born in Rutherford, New Jersey, and educated at Baldwin-Wallace College in Berea, Ohio and then University of Illinois, where he received a master's degree in music, specialising in opera. He worked in theatre and mime for a few years before becoming a professional singer after winning second prizes in the vocal competitions of Paris and 's-Hertogenbosch.

He began to specialize in early music and has performed and recorded with the leading conductors; he has performed Leclair's Scylla et Glaucus, Berlioz's Les nuits d'été and Bach's St Matthew Passion with John Eliot Gardiner; with Trevor Pinnock, Handel's Messiah and with Roger Norrington, Henry Purcell's The Fairy-Queen.

He has sung the solos in the large-scale works of Bach and the major tenor roles in most of the operas of Lully, Rameau, Haydn and Mozart. The high-tenor roles of the French Baroque are his speciality: he has performed Charpentier's Funeral Music for Maria Theresa (H.409 & H.331) and 9 Leçons de Ténèbres; with Louis Devos; Lully's Atys with William Christie; Lully's Armide with Philippe Herreweghe; Lully's Alceste, Rameau's Castor et Pollux and Rameau's Pigmalion, amongst others, with conductors such as Marc Minkowski.

He taught baroque singing at the CNR conservatory in Paris, and regularly gave masterclasses. He is retired.

External links
Bach-cantatas.com: Howard Crook - pictures

1947 births
Living people
American operatic tenors
American performers of early music
People from Rutherford, New Jersey
Singers from New Jersey
20th-century American male opera singers
Baldwin Wallace University alumni
Classical musicians from New Jersey

Howard Crook


Sol de Tentacion is a Venezuelan telenovela written by Vivel Nouel and produced by Venevisión in 1996.  This telenovela lasted 168 episodes and was distributed internationally by Venevisión International.

On July 17, 1996, Venevisión started broadcasting Sol de tentación weekdays at 9:00pm, replacing Quirpa de tres mujeres. The last episode was broadcast on January 21, 1997, with Todo por tu amor replacing it the following day.

Natalia Streignard and Miguel de León starred as the main protagonists with Adolfo Cubas, Ana Karina Manco and Maria Fabiola Colmenares as the main antagonists.

Synopsis
Sol is a poor young girl who lives with her father, Hipolito Romero, on an old ship anchored close to the shore of a small coastal town. Fishing and sailing are her passions, and the sea is her home. When she was a small child, her mother abandoned her to run away with a wealthy tourist. Sol and her father, however, believe that her brother drowned in the ocean that they love so much. Armando de la Torre is handsome, rich and lives in the capital city. He is on vacation on his family's yacht with a group of friends and his arrogant fiancée: Martita Aristigueta. A boating accident initially brings Armando and Sol together, lighting the spark of love. Later, at a street festival in town, they meet again and, consumed by an irresistible attraction, they begin a passionate love affair. Martita, crazy with jealousy, sets out to do everything in her power to destroy Sol and Armando's happiness. Resorting to lies and intrigue, she manages to make Armando distrust Sol and put an end to their relationship. A disillusioned Armando marries Martita; Sol, feeling abandoned and desperate, decides to marry Rildo, a former suitor, in spite of the fact that she is expecting Armando's baby. Fifteen years later, destiny places Sol in the path of her former lover, Armando. Now, they are both filled with anguish upon learning that their respective children have fallen in love with each other. Only the strongest, truest love will be able to reunite Sol and Armando, allowing them to make up for lost time. Meanwhile, their children, Atlanta and Alejandro, are more in love every day... and will fight all impediments in the way of their final happiness.

Cast

Natalia Streignard as Sol Romero
Miguel de León as Jose Armando Santalucia
Aroldo Betancourt as Rildo Castillo. Villain, later good.
Ana Karina Manco as Sandra Rionegro. Villain, killed by Marta.
Julio Pereira as Daniel Romero & Moises Irrazabal
Maria Fabiola Colmenares as Marta Irrazabal Main female villain. Killed by Emilio.
Jorge Palacios as Rogelio Santalucia
Adolfo Cubas as Emilio Berdugo Main male villain. Responsible for death of Arturo, Esther and Marta. Killed by Marta.
Mauricio González as Hipolito Romero
Jennifer Rodriguez as Alina
Vangie Labalan as Fabiola Castilla
Jonathan Montenegro as Luis Alejandro Romero
Albi de Abreu as Ezequiel
Virginia Garcia as Estrella Maria
Fedra Lopez as Katiuska
Marita Capote as Monica de Romero
Rosita Vásquez as Casta
Laura Cerra as María Monitos
Cristina Obin as Lourdes Santalucia
José Torres as Casimiro
Rita de Gois as Esther de Irrazabal
Rodolfo Drago as Arturo Irrazabal. Villain. Killed by Emilio.
Eliseo Perera as Toribio
Julio Capote as Padre Felicio
Yanis Chimaras as Gonzalo Santalucia
Patricia Oliveros as Irene Santalucia
Francisco Ferrari as Francisco
Deyanira Hernández as Alysson
Jhonny Zapata as Reinaldo
Antonio Machuca as Mercurio
Adelaida Mora as Gabriela Dominguez
Jenny Valdez as Mirna
Wilmer Machado as Guallallo
Asdrubal Blanco as Antonio Garcia-Quinto
Jose Vieira as Dr. Enrique Ramos Urdaneta
Niurka Acevedo as Rubi
Nancy Gonzalez as Salome de Rionegro. Villain.
Ana Massimo as Carla
Ivette Dominguez as Jade

References

External links
 Sol de Tentacion at the Internet Movie Database
 Opening Credits

1996 telenovelas
Venevisión telenovelas
1996 Venezuelan television series debuts
1996 Venezuelan television series endings
Spanish-language telenovelas
Television shows set in Venezuela

Sol de tentación


Grandmother Jia (), née Shi, so often also called Dowager Shi () or simply the Dowager, is a major character in the 18th century Chinese novel Dream of the Red Chamber. She is the daughter of Marquis Shi of Jinling. She is also Baoyu and Daiyu's grandmother and the oldest and most respected authority of the Jia Clan. A doting figure, it was she who arranged for Daiyu, her only "outside" (i.e., maternal) grandchild, to come to the Rongguo Mansion. It was with her help that Baoyu and Daiyu became extremely close as childhood playmates, and eventually, kindred spirits and lovers.

Grandmother Jia is at heart a fun-loving elder who greatly enjoys conversation and the company of her many grandchildren. A Chinese opera fan, despite her great wealth and prestige she is mindful of the rustic poor like Granny Liu, and is pious and generous in almsgiving.

The Dowager's descendants and close relatives include:
two sons, Jia She and Jia Zheng
a daughter, Jia Min
two daughters-in-law, Lady Xing (wife of Jia She) and Lady Wang (wife of Jia Zheng)
many paternal grandchildren, such as Jia Baoyu, Jia Lian, 3 of the 4 "Springs" (Jia Yuanchun, Jia Yingchun, Jia Tanchun)
a maternal grandchild, Lin Daiyu (daughter of Lin Ruhai and Jia Min)
a granddaughter-in-law, Wang Xifeng (wife of Jia Lian)
a son-in-law, Lin Ruhai (husband of Jia Min)
a grandniece, Shi Xiangyun
several great-grandchildren, such as Jia Qiaojie and Jia Lan.

See also
Dream of the Red Chamber

Dream of the Red Chamber characters

Grandmother Jia


Everett Irvine Wood (October 4, 1910 – March 20, 1983) was a farmer and political figure in Saskatchewan, Canada. He represented Swift Current in the Legislative Assembly of Saskatchewan from 1956 to 1975 as a CCF/NDP member.

He was born on a farm near Swift Current, Saskatchewan, the son of William B. Wood and Bertha Yeomans. He was educated there and at the Canadian Pentecostal Bible College in Winnipeg. Wood served on the council for the rural municipality of Saskatchewan Landing from 1947 to 1950 and was reeve from 1952 to 1956. He served as speaker for the Saskatchewan assembly in 1961. Wood was a member of the Saskatchewan cabinet, serving as Minister of Municipal Affairs from 1961 to 1964, as Minister of Public Works from 1971 to 1972 and as Minister of Municipal Affairs from 1971 to 1975. He retired from politics for health reasons in 1975.

In 1955, he married Madelaine McLeod.

References

1910 births
1983 deaths
People from Swift Current
Saskatchewan Co-operative Commonwealth Federation MLAs
20th-century Canadian politicians
Saskatchewan New Democratic Party MLAs
Speakers of the Legislative Assembly of Saskatchewan
Members of the Executive Council of Saskatchewan

Everett Irvine Wood


The wrybill or (in Māori) ngutuparore (Anarhynchus frontalis) is a species of plover endemic to New Zealand. It is the only species of bird in the world with a beak that is bent sideways in one direction, always to the right (in the crossbills, e.g. Loxia pytyopsittacus, the tips of the upper and lower mandibles cross because they are bent sideways in opposite directions, sometimes left over right and sometimes right over left). A 2015 study found it to be within the Charadrius clade, with other New Zealand plovers its closest relatives; the nearest being the New Zealand dotterel or New Zealand plover (Charadrius obscurus), and then the double-banded plover or banded dotterel (Charadrius bicinctus).

It lays its eggs among the rocks along rivers and distracts intruders by pretending to be in distress and moving away from its clutch.

It is rated as vulnerable on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)'s Red List of Threatened Species.

Taxonomy
French naturalists Jean René Constant Quoy and Joseph Paul Gaimard described the wrybill in 1832.

Description

The wrybill is a small, plump plover, measuring  in length and weighing between . The plumage is slightly sexually dimorphic. The male has a white forehead and pale grey crown, nape, back, wings and tail and a white throat, breast, belly and rump, with a thin black band across the breast. This band is thinner in the female, and much less distinct in both sexes in the non-breeding season. The other difference between the sexes is a small black bar between the white forehead and the grey crown, which is present in the males but not the females. As with the breast band it is reduced in the non-breeding season. The most distinctive feature of the bird is the long black bill, which is always curved to the right. The wrybill is the only species of bird with an asymmetrically turned bill.
The eggs are very pale grey and covered with very small brown spots which blend in very well to the surrounding shingle
As well as the eggs being very well camouflaged, the adult birds and chicks are very difficult to see when they are standing still.
Chicks are very pale grey on upper half of body with black speckles and white on lower half of body grey.

The wrybill's voice has been described as a short weet when in flight and used to signal alarm, and a harsher call is used to signal greater alarm. A chirring sound is used to challenge an aggressor. Fledglings and juveniles have a high-pitched short peep.

Distribution and habitat
The wrybill is endemic to New Zealand. It breeds on large braided rivers in Canterbury and Otago, South Island, preferring large dynamic rivers that will not become overgrown with weeds. The main breeding rivers include the Waimakariri, Rakaia, Rangitata, Waitaki and Ashley. It used to occur more frequently on smaller rivers, but has undergone a range contraction, and now only occupies around 60% of its estimated original range.
After breeding, around late December till early February, they leave their breeding sites and migrate to shallow estuaries and sheltered coastal areas in the North Island. These areas include Firth of Thames, Manukau Harbour, Kaipara Harbour and Tauranga Harbour.

Behaviour
Wrybills like to roost in large flocks during winter which differs greatly from breeding time when they become very territorial towards other birds. They usually roost on one leg and hop away when approached too close.

Wrybills are known to perform large aerial displays with their flocks. This usually happens shortly before the migration south.

Breeding

Wrybills form monogamous bonds with their mates and will return to the same territory each year to breed again. If their mate does not return, the bird will move territories. Nesting territories are strongly defended. These can be anywhere between 1 and 11 hectares in size, with an average size of 5 hectares. They show strong philopatry to their territories, and young birds show strong philopatric tendencies towards breeding close to where they were hatched. Many breeding pairs will lay two clutches in a breeding season, especially if the first clutch was destroyed by flooding or predators.

Nesting sites are shallow scrapes in areas of large stones or sand. The clutch size is two eggs, which are incubated by both parents (but more so by the female) for 30 to 36 days. The chicks have downy feathers on hatching, grey to off-white above and white underneath. Both parents attend to the chicks, which fledge after around 35 days and are immediately independent after this. Young birds start breeding when they are two years old.

Ecology
Moulting of wrybills happens between December and May. The moulting process advances quickly at the start of the process, when the first feathers are dropped, and slows as the longer outer feathers start to grow.
Migration starts in November with the earliest fledged birds. Adults follow in January–February when breeding is finished with the rest of the fledglings.
Migration back to breeding sites in the South Island happens in August.
The current population is around 5000 individuals.

Diet and foraging

Wrybills are usually found foraging around shallow channels and around the edges of pools on insect larvae, aquatic invertebrates and sometimes small fish. They have evolved in a very distinct way to thrive on braided river beds: their beak is slightly tilted towards the right at an angle of about 12–26 degrees which is speculated to help them get insect larvae and small invertebrates that take refuge under the crevices of rocks; however this has never been conclusively proven.

Predators and threats
Threats are higher during the breeding season when the birds are at their most vulnerable. Threats include predation, flooding during nesting time, habitat degradation and disturbance from vehicles along the river beds. Introduced mammalian predators such as ferrets, stoats, weasels and hedgehogs pose a significant threat to the survival of the remaining population. Wrybills have adapted to bird predators such as raptors, gulls and owls, since mammalian predators have only been a threat since the arrival of people. Their chicks and eggs blend in very well with the surrounding shingle, camouflaging them from the predators flying overhead. Since rabbits are the main diet of introduced mammalian predators, when rabbit numbers are low these predators search further for their food and prey upon the ground nesting birds on the braided rivers. Flooding can destroy nests and disturb whole nesting areas, and can affect the number of chicks to reach fledging. As wrybills prefer an open clear area of shingle on the river bed to nest, introduced plant species such as gorse (Ulex europaeus), willow (Salix spp.), broom (Cytisus scoparius) and lupin (Lupinus spp.), all threaten the wrybill's habitat as they spread over the landscape easily and quickly.

Conservation status
The wrybill is rated as vulnerable on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)'s Red List of Threatened Species,

The population declined during the 1800s as they were collected as museum specimens because of their strange bent bill. In 1940 they were protected and the population has increased from around 2000 birds to 5000 birds today.

References

External links
BirdLife Species Factsheet.
Wrybill, New Zealand Birds Online

Endemic birds of New Zealand
Charadriinae
Birds described in 1830
Taxa named by Jean René Constant Quoy
Taxa named by Joseph Paul Gaimard

Wrybill


The Margin is a live album by Peter Hammill, documenting early nineteen-eighties concerts by his K Group. Hammill used the alias K (on vocals, piano and guitar), Nic Potter was Mozart (on bass guitar), Guy Evans was Brain (on drums), and John Ellis was Fury (on backing vocals and guitar). The album was originally released as a double album on Foundry Records in 1985. It was reissued some years later on CD on Virgin Records in the UK with one track missing in order to make it fit onto a single CD and on Line Records in Germany with two tracks missing. Hammill then reissued it again on his own Fie! record label, as The Margin +. This issue did not restore the track lost from the UK CD edition from the original vinyl release, "The Second Hand", but included an additional disc of material previously released as a live bootleg called The Secret Asteroid Jungle. The liner notes explain that Hammill chose to include a different performance of "The Second Hand".

The original album (and the first disc of The Margin +) is a live-recording without audience sounds ("No applause, no overdubs - This is what happened on stage"), the additional disc of The Margin + does have audience sounds ("Applause, no overdubs - This is what happened out front").

The album cover is a stark black and white photograph of Hammill by the noted Dutch photographer Anton Corbijn. It has become an iconic image of Hammill, often used for live posters and other promotional material.

Track listing

The Margin

 "The Future Now" (3:46)
 "Porton Down" (5:38)
 "Stranger Still" (6:22)
 "Sign" (6:36)
 "Jargon King" (3:15)
 "The Second Hand" (5:57) (missing on the CD reissue)
 "Empress's Clothes" (5:49)
 "The Sphinx In The Face" (5:12)
 "Labour Of Love" (5:48)
 "Sitting Targets" (5:44)
 "Patient" (7:28)
 "Flight" (20:35)

+

 "The Second Hand" (6:03)
 "My Experience" (4:13)
 "Paradox Drive" (4:18)
 "Modern" (7:42)
 "Film Noir" (5:06)
 "The Great Experiment" (5:47)
 "Happy Hour" (9:46)
 "Central Hotel" (5:01)
 "Again" (4:22)
 "If I Could" (5:52)

Personnel
The K Group
 Peter Hammill - vocals, guitar, piano
 John Ellis - lead guitar and backing vocals
 Nic Potter - bass guitar
 Guy Evans - drums, percussion

References

Peter Hammill live albums
1985 live albums

The Margin (album)


Khalif Malik Ibn Shaman Brown (born June 7, 1993), known professionally by his stage name Swae Lee, is an American rapper, singer, and songwriter. Known for his wide vocal range and genre-bending, Lee is one half of the hip hop duo Rae Sremmurd with his brother Slim Jxmmi. As a member of Rae Sremmurd, he achieved success with the singles "No Flex Zone", "No Type", and "Black Beatles", the last of which topped the Billboard Hot 100 chart. In 2017, he was featured on French Montana's single "Unforgettable", which earned him his first top ten on the Billboard Hot 100 as a soloist, and was later certified Diamond (10× Platinum) by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA).

He was also nominated for a Grammy Award for Song of the Year in 2017 for co-writing Beyoncé's single "Formation". In 2018, Lee released his debut solo studio album Swaecation as part of Rae Sremmurd's third album, SR3MM (2018), which was a triple album. In the same year, his song "Sunflower" with Post Malone was the lead single to the soundtrack for the film Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse (2018). The song peaked atop the Billboard Hot 100, was nominated for two Grammy Awards, and reached Diamond status, being certified 18× Platinum by the RIAA.  He was also featured on the single "Close to Me" by Ellie Goulding and Diplo, which reached number one on the US Adult Top 40 airplay chart; and made an uncredited guest appearance on "Sicko Mode" by Travis Scott, which also topped the Billboard Hot 100. In 2020, he released the hit single "Be Like That" with Kane Brown and Khalid.

Early life
Khalif Malik Ibn Shaman Brown was born on June 7, 1993, in Inglewood, California, to a single mother who worked on tanks in the United States Army. Lee was raised in Tupelo, Mississippi, and began to make music in high school with his brother Slim Jxmmi and local rapper Lil Pantz as "Dem Outta St8 Boyz". After graduating high school, Lee, alongside his brother, had a period of homelessness in which they squatted in an abandoned house.

Career
In 2013, he and Slim Jxmmi signed to Mike Will Made It's label EarDrummers Entertainment as Rae Sremmurd. They have since released three studio albums under EarDrummers, SremmLife, SremmLife 2, and SR3MM.In March 2015, Lee was featured on Mike Will Made It's "Drinks on Us", which also featured artists Future and The Weeknd, and became his first single as solo artist. In September 2015, he was featured on Wiz Khalifa's "Burn Slow", which peaked at number 83 on the Billboard Hot 100, making it Lee's first solo entry on the chart.

In April 2017, Lee was featured on French Montana's "Unforgettable". The song peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot 100, making it Lee's first top ten single on the chart as a solo artist. In September 2018, Jhené Aiko featured Lee on her track "Sativa". Two months later, Lee released a song titled "TR666" alongside Trippie Redd. On May 4, 2018, almost two years after its initial announcement in August 2016, Lee released his debut solo album, Swaecation as a part of a triple album set, which also contained Rae Sremmurd's third studio album, SR3MM and Slim Jxmmi's debut studio album as a solo artist, Jxmtro. In October 2018, he featured on the song "Close to Me" by Ellie Goulding and Diplo. Lee also collaborated on XXXTentacion's song "Arms Around You" after his death, along with Lil Pump and Maluma. On October 18, 2018, Lee featured on Post Malone's song "Sunflower" for Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse, which became Malone's third and Lee's first song as a soloist to top the Billboard Hot 100. He appeared on Nicki Minaj's 2018 album Queen.

In May 2019, he collaborated on the song "Crave" with Madonna on her album Madame X. In August 2019, Lee released "Won't Be Late" featuring Canadian rapper Drake, produced by Tekno and Mike Will Made It. In October 2019, he was featured on 88rising's "Walking", alongside Joji, Jackson Wang, and Major Lazer.
In  2020, he released the single "Someone Said", based on his feature on Travis Scott's "Sicko Mode". He also collaborated with Chloe x Halle on the Mike Will Made It-produced "Catch Up", from the former's album Ungodly Hour. He was featured on the remix to Arizona Zervas' hit song "Roxanne". On June 18, 2020, Lee released the single, "Reality Check".

Lee invested in esports organization XSET in October 2020. Lee has been working on his upcoming album Human Nature since 2020. In the same year, he appeared on Pop Smoke's posthumous album Shoot for the Stars, Aim for the Moon. In 2021, he collaborated with Alicia Keys on the single "Lala" at the 2021 MTV Video Music Awards.

Artistry
Lee has become known for his hooks and melodies, as demonstrated in collaborations with the likes of Madonna, Ellie Goulding, Anitta, French Montana, and Post Malone, among other artists. He has been described as 'the songbird of our generation', with several of his peers and critics praising his vocal ability. According to a 2017 interview with A Polaroid Story, Lee describes himself more as a singer than a rapper.

Personal life
Lee has a daughter, who was born in 2020, with Brazilian model Aline Martins. In 2022, he filed for joint custody. He also has a son, who was born in 2022, with girlfriend Victoria Kristine.

Lee has ADHD and made the Rae Sremmurd song "ADHD Anthem (Too Many Emotions)" about his neurotype.

Discography

 Swaecation (2018)
 Human Nature (TBA)

Awards and nominations

Grammy Awards

!
|-
| 2017
|"Formation" (as songwriter)
| Song of the Year
|
| style="text-align:center;"|

|-
|  style="text-align:center;" rowspan="2"|2019
|rowspan="2"|"Sicko Mode" (with Travis Scott, Drake, and Big Hawk)
| Best Rap Performance
|
| style="text-align:center;" rowspan="2"|

|-
| Best Rap Song
|
|-
|  style="text-align:center;" rowspan="2"|2020
|rowspan="2"|"Sunflower" (with Post Malone)
| Record of the Year
|
| style="text-align:center;" rowspan="2"|

|-
| Best Pop Duo/Group Performance
|
|-

MTVU Woodie Awards

!
|-
| 2017
| Swae Lee
| Songwriter of the Year
|
| style="text-align:center;"|

Soul Train Music Awards

!
|-
| 2016
| "Formation" (as songwriter)
| The Ashford & Simpson Songwriter's Award
|
| style="text-align:center;"|

Teen Choice Awards

!
|-
| 2019
| "Sunflower"
| Choice R&B/Hip-Hop Song
|
| style="text-align:center;"|

References

1993 births
Living people
21st-century American rappers
21st-century African-American male singers
African-American male rappers
American male rappers
Interscope Records artists
People from Tupelo, Mississippi
Rappers from Mississippi
Singer-songwriters from Mississippi
Southern hip hop musicians
American hip hop singers
Actors from Inglewood, California
Musicians from Inglewood, California
Rappers from California
Singer-songwriters from California
African-American male singer-songwriters
Trap musicians
OnlyFans creators
Pop rappers

Swae Lee