Yamhill County is one of the 36 counties in the U.S. state of Oregon. As of the 2020 census, the population was 107,722. The county seat is McMinnville. Yamhill County was named after the Yamhelas, members of the Kalapuya Tribe.

Yamhill County is part of the Portland-Vancouver-Hillsboro, OR-WA Metropolitan Statistical Area. It is in the Willamette Valley.

History
The earliest known inhabitants of the area were the Yamhill (Yamhelas Indian Tribe, part of the Kalapooian family) Indians, who have inhabited the area for over 8,000 years. They are one of the tribes incorporated into the Confederated Tribes of the Grand Ronde. In 1857 they were forced to migrate to the Grand Ronde Indian Reservation created in Oregon's Coastal Range two years earlier.

The earliest non-native settlers were employees of the various fur companies operating in Oregon Country, who started settling there around 1814. But it was the establishment of the Oregon Trail that led to significant migration to the area.

Yamhill District (later county) was created on July 5, 1843, five years before the Oregon Territory was established. It was one of the original four districts created by Oregon's first Provisional Legislature, along with Twality (later Washington), Clackamas, and Champooick (later Marion) counties. The district was originally spread over , an area that was broken up into twelve present-day counties.

Lafayette, the principal trading center of the western Willamette Valley in early Oregon history, was made the county seat in 1847. The county government was later (1889) moved to McMinnville where it remains today.

The Mount Hebo Air Force Station was a Cold War air defense installation from 1956 to 1980. Located next to Tillamook County, at the top of  high Mount Hebo, Air Force radars operated by the 689th Radar Squadron and the 14th Missile Warning Squadron were essential parts of the nation's integrated air defenses. The large radomes protecting the radars from adverse weather effects could be seen silhouetted against the sky from many parts of Yamhill County.

Lock and dam on the Yamhill River

In 1900 the Yamhill River lock and dam was completed about  downriver from Lafayette, Oregon. The lock was decommissioned in 1954. The dam was demolished in 1963 to allow better passage for salmon on the river. The site of the lock and dam is now a county park.

Geography

According to the United States Census Bureau, the county has a total area of , of which  is land and  (0.3%) is water. It is the fifth-smallest county in Oregon by area.

The tallest mountain in the county is Trask Mountain in the northwest corner of the county.

Adjacent counties
 Washington County (north)
 Clackamas County (east)
 Marion County (southeast)
 Polk County (south)
 Tillamook County (west)

National protected areas
Siuslaw National Forest (part)
Tualatin River National Wildlife Refuge (part)

Demographics

2000 census
As of the census of 2000, there were 84,992 people, 28,732 households, and 21,376 families living in the county. The population density was . There were 30,270 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the county is 88.98% White, 1.47% Native American, 1.07% Asian, 0.85% Black or African American, 0.12% Pacific Islander, 5.08% from other races, and 2.42% from two or more races. 10.61% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 19.6% were of German, 11.4% English, 9.5% American and 8.4% Irish ancestry.

There were 28,732 households, out of which 37.40% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 60.00% were married couples living together, 9.90% had a female householder with no husband present, and 25.60% were non-families. 19.70% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.40% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.78 and the average family size was 3.17.

In the county, the population was spread out, with 26.90% under the age of 18, 11.40% from 18 to 24, 28.50% from 25 to 44, 21.40% from 45 to 64, and 11.70% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 102.20 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 101.30 males.

The median income for a household in the county is $44,111, and the median income for a family was $50,336. Males had a median income of $35,686 versus $25,254 for females. The per capita income for the county was $18,951. About 6.00% of families and 9.20% of the population were below the poverty line, including 10.10% of those under age 18 and 7.50% of those age 65 or over.

2010 census
As of the census of 2010, there were 99,193 people, 34,726 households, and 25,020 families living in the county. The population density was . There were 37,110 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the county was 85.4% white, 1.5% Asian, 1.5% American Indian, 0.9% black or African American, 0.2% Pacific islander, 7.2% from other races, and 3.3% from two or more races. Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 14.7% of the population. In terms of ancestry, 23.6% were German, 13.7% were English, 12.2% were Irish, and 5.0% were American.

Of the 34,726 households, 35.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.0% were married couples living together, 11.1% had a female householder with no husband present, 28.0% were non-families, and 21.7% of all households were made up of individuals. The average household size was 2.70 and the average family size was 3.12. The median age was 36.8 years.

The median income for a household in the county was $52,485 and the median income for a family was $61,524. Males had a median income of $44,946 versus $33,717 for females. The per capita income for the county was $24,017. About 9.0% of families and 12.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 16.8% of those under age 18 and 7.7% of those age 65 or over.

Politics
In the United States House of Representatives, Yamhill County lies in Oregon's 1st congressional district, which also covers Washington County, Clatsop County, Columbia County and a small portion of Multnomah County, and is represented by Democrat Suzanne Bonamici. In the Oregon State Senate, most of Yamhill County is in the 12th Senate District represented by former Republican, now Independent, Brian Boquist, whilst the western "panhandle" is in the 5th Senate District represented by Republican Dick Anderson and Newberg, part of the 13th District, is represented by Republican Kim Thatcher and represented in the Oregon House (District 25) by Bill Post. Within the Oregon House of Representatives, Yamhill County lies chiefly within the 24th District represented by Republican Ron Noble, although the western "panhandle" of the county lies within the 10th District represented by Democrat David Gomberg.

Although located west of the Cascades, Yamhill has remained a Republican-leaning county in Presidential elections at the same time as other Western Oregon counties have become solidly to powerfully Democratic. No Democratic presidential candidate has won Yamhill County since Lyndon Johnson's 1964 landslide, and the only other Democrats to carry the county since Oregon's statehood have been Franklin Roosevelt in 1940, 1936 and 1932, along with Woodrow Wilson in 1912 when the Republican vote was divided. However, the Republican edge has narrowed somewhat in recent years; since 1992, the GOP has only managed to win a majority four times.

Yamhill County is currently one of 11 counties in Oregon in which therapeutic psilocybin is legal.

Economy

In 2019 the Oregon International Air Show switched to the McMinnville Municipal Airport. The Air Show promotes aviation while honoring the military and veterans. In addition to the economic surge provided by the Air Show, the Oregon International Air Show involves the community and provides grants for McMinnville. Since 1988 more than $3 million has donated back throughout McMinnville (Yamhill County), Hillsboro (Washington County), and throughout Oregon. Express Employment Professionals, Stoller Family Estates, and Xenium are the lead sponsors for the upcoming 2020 Air Show.

The major industries of the county are agriculture, forest products, manufacturing, and education.
Yamhill County's economy is supported largely by its many unionized facilities such as Cascade Steel in McMinnville and Decommissioned White Birch Paper now owned by WestRock in Newberg. It boasts a thriving wine industry and was the home of Evergreen Aviation.

Yamhill County ranks seventh out of Oregon's thirty-six counties in annual market value of its agricultural production. This agricultural production includes wheat, barley, horticulture, and dairy farming, with  in 1997 planted in orchards. One-third of the county is covered with commercial timber, and the economic mainstay of the western part of the county is logging and timber products.

Yamhill County is a significant focus of Oregon's wine industry, having the largest area of any Oregon county planted in vineyards. Six of the state's American Viticultural Areas are wholly or partly in the county: Chehalem Mountains AVA, Dundee Hills AVA, Eola-Amity Hills AVA, McMinnville AVA, Ribbon Ridge AVA, and Yamhill-Carlton District AVA. Over 80 wineries and 200 vineyards represent the largest concentration of wine growers and producers in any county in the state. Vineyards often specialize in Pinot noir, but other varieties grown include Pinot gris, Pinot blanc, Chardonnay, Riesling, and Gewürztraminer.

Education
Yamhill County Institutions of Higher Education (IHEs) include Linfield University and Chemeketa Community College McMinnville Campus, along with George Fox University and Portland Community College in Newberg. For private secondary education the county is served by The Delphian School in Sheridan.

Communities

Cities

Amity
Carlton
Dayton
Dundee
Lafayette
McMinnville (county seat)
Newberg
Sheridan
Willamina
Yamhill

Census-designated places
Fort Hill
Grand Ronde

Unincorporated communities

Bellevue
Cove Orchard
Eola Crest
Eola Village
Gopher
Grand Ronde Agency
Hopewell
Lunnville
Midway
Riverside
Saint Joseph
Shipley
Springbrook
Sunnycrest
Unionvale
Wheatland
Whiteson

See also

National Register of Historic Places listings in Yamhill County, Oregon
Yamhill County Courthouse

References

Further reading
 H.O. Lang (ed.), History of the Willamette Valley: Being a Description of the Valley and its Resources, with an Account of its Discovery and Settlement by White Men, and its Subsequent History; Together with Personal Reminiscences of its Early Pioneers. Portland: Himes and Lang, 1885.
 Portrait and Biographical Record of the Willamette Valley, Oregon, Containing Original Sketches of Many Well Known Citizens of the Past and Present. Chicago: Chapman Publishing Co., 1903.

External links

Yamhill County (official website)
County history from the Oregon State Archives
Yamhill County Wineries Association
Yamhill Basin Council
Historical Map of Yamhill County, Oregon* Library of Congress  Map Date: 1879 (hires)

1843 establishments in Oregon Country
Populated places established in 1843
Oregon placenames of Native American origin
Portland metropolitan area

Yamhill County, Oregon


Fabrizio Paolucci (2 April 1651 – 12 June 1726) was an Italian cardinal in the Roman Catholic Church, appointed by Pope Innocent XII.

Biography
Born at Forlì, he went to Rome at the age of eight, in 1659, to be educated by his grand-uncle, Francesco Paolucci. In 1685 he was elected bishop of Macerata and Tolentino, April 9, 1685, and later was appointed Nuncio in Cologne in 1696.

Pope Innocent XII elevated him to the rank of cardinal in the consistory of 19 December 1698, and he became archbishop of Ferrara. He became Cardinal Secretary of State during the pontificate of Pope Clement XI. On Clement's death, at the succeeding conclave of 1721, Paolucci was the strongest candidate to succeed, but was vetoed by Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor as he considered him too close to the French. Instead Michelangelo Conti was elected as Pope Innocent XIII. After the latter's death in 1724 Paolucci was again one of the leading candidates for the papacy, but again the imperial veto played its part. However, with the election of Pope Benedict XIII, he resumed the role of Secretary of State and held the position until his death.

It was Paolucci who ordered the construction of the neoclassical Palazzo Paolucci de Calboli at Forlì.

He died on 12 June 1726 at the age of 75 years.

See also

Sources
Renata Ago, Carriere e clientele nella Roma barocca, Rome-Bari, Laterza, 1990.

1651 births
1726 deaths
People from Forlì
18th-century Italian cardinals
Cardinal Secretaries of State
Apostolic Nuncios to Cologne
Apostolic Nuncios to Germany

Fabrizio Paolucci


In mathematics, in particular in algebraic geometry, a complete algebraic variety is an algebraic variety  , such that for any variety  the projection morphism

is a closed map (i.e. maps closed sets onto closed sets). This can be seen as an analogue of compactness in algebraic geometry: a topological space  is compact if and only if the above projection map is closed with respect to topological products.

The image of a complete variety is closed and is a complete variety. A closed subvariety of a complete variety is complete.

A complex variety is complete if and only if it is compact as a complex-analytic variety.

The most common example of a complete variety is a projective variety, but there do exist complete non-projective varieties in dimensions 2 and higher. While any complete nonsingular surface is projective, there exist nonsingular complete varieties in dimension 3 and higher which are not projective. The first examples of non-projective complete varieties were given by Masayoshi Nagata and Heisuke Hironaka. An affine space of positive dimension is not complete.

The morphism taking a complete variety to a point is a proper morphism, in the sense of scheme theory. An intuitive justification of "complete", in the sense of "no missing points", can be given on the basis of the valuative criterion of properness, which goes back to Claude Chevalley.

See also
Chow's lemma
Theorem of the cube
Fano variety

Notes

References

Sources

Section II.4 of
Chapter 7 of
Section I.9 of

Algebraic varieties

Complete variety


Environmentalism or environmental rights is a broad philosophy, ideology, and social movement about supporting life, habitats, and surroundings. While environmentalism focuses more on the environmental and nature-related aspects of green ideology and politics, ecologism combines the ideology of social ecology and environmentalism. Ecologism is more commonly used in continental European languages, while environmentalism is more commonly used in English but the words have slightly different connotations.

Environmentalism advocates the preservation, restoration and improvement of the natural environment and critical earth system elements or processes such as the climate, and may be referred to as a movement to control pollution or protect plant and animal diversity. For this reason, concepts such as a land ethics, environmental ethics, biodiversity, ecology, and the biophilia hypothesis figure predominantly.

At its crux, environmentalism is an attempt to balance relations between humans and the various natural systems on which they depend in such a way that all the components are accorded a proper degree of sustainability. The exact measures and outcomes of this balance is controversial and there are many different ways for environmental concerns to be expressed in practice. Environmentalism and environmental concerns are often represented by the colour green, but this association has been appropriated by the marketing industries for the tactic known as greenwashing.

Environmentalism is opposed by anti-environmentalism, which says that the Earth is less fragile than some environmentalists maintain, and portrays environmentalism as overreacting to the human contribution to climate change or opposing human advancement.

Definitions
Environmentalism denotes a social movement that seeks to influence the political process by lobbying, activism, and education in order to protect natural resources and ecosystems.

An environmentalist is a person who may speak out about our natural environment and the sustainable management of its resources through changes in public policy or individual behaviour. This may include supporting practices such as informed consumption, conservation initiatives, investment in renewable resources, improved efficiencies in the materials economy, transitioning to new accounting paradigms such as ecological economics, renewing and revitalizing our connections with non-human life or even opting to have one less child to reduce consumption and pressure on resources.

In various ways (for example, grassroots activism and protests), environmentalists and environmental organisations seek to give the natural world a stronger voice in human affairs.

In general terms, environmentalists advocate the sustainable management of resources, and the protection (and restoration, when necessary) of the natural environment through changes in public policy and individual behaviour. In its recognition of humanity as a participant in ecosystems, the movement is centered around ecology, health, and human rights.

History

A concern for environmental protection has recurred in diverse forms, in different parts of the world, throughout history.
The earliest ideas of environmental protectionism can be found in Jainism, a religion from ancient India revived by Mahavira in the 6th century BC. Jainism offers a view that is in many ways compatible with core values associated with environmental activism, such as the protection of life by nonviolence, which could form a strong ecological ethos for global protection of the environment. Mahavira's teachings on the symbiosis between all living beings—as well as the five elements of earth, water, air, fire, and space—are core to environmental thought today.

In the Middle East, the Caliph Abu Bakr in the 630s AD commanded his army to "Bring no harm to the trees, nor burn them with fire," and to "Slay not any of the enemy's flock, save for your food." Various Arabic medical treatises during the 9th to 13th centuries dealt with environmentalism and environmental science, including the issue of pollution. The authors of such treatises included Al-Kindi, Qusta ibn Luqa, Al-Razi, Ibn Al-Jazzar, al-Tamimi, al-Masihi, Avicenna, Ali ibn Ridwan, Ibn Jumay, Isaac Israeli ben Solomon, Abd-el-latif, Ibn al-Quff, and Ibn al-Nafis. Their works covered a number of subjects related to pollution, such as air pollution, water pollution, soil contamination, and the mishandling of municipal solid waste. They also included asessments of certain localities' environmental impact.

In Europe, King Edward I of England banned the burning and sale of "sea-coal" in 1272 by proclamation in London, after its smoke had become a prevalent annoyance throughout the city. This fuel, common in London due to the local scarcity of wood, was given this early name because it could be found washed up on some shores, from where it was carted away on a wheelbarrow.

Early environmental legislation

The origins of the environmental movement lay in the response to increasing levels of smoke pollution in the atmosphere during the Industrial Revolution. The emergence of great factories and the concomitant immense growth in coal consumption gave rise to an unprecedented level of air pollution in industrial centers; after 1900 the large volume of industrial chemical discharges added to the growing load of untreated human waste. The first large-scale, modern environmental laws came in the form of Britain's Alkali Acts, passed in 1863, to regulate the deleterious air pollution (gaseous hydrochloric acid) given off by the Leblanc process, used to produce soda ash. An Alkali inspector and four sub-inspectors were appointed to curb this pollution. The inspectorate's responsibilities were gradually expanded, culminating in the Alkali Order 1958 which placed all major heavy industries that emitted smoke, grit, dust and fumes under supervision.

In industrial cities, local experts and reformers, especially after 1890, took the lead in identifying environmental degradation and pollution, and initiating grass-roots movements to demand and achieve reforms. Typically the highest priority went to water and air pollution. The Coal Smoke Abatement Society was formed in 1898 making it one of the oldest environmental NGOs. It was founded by artist Sir William Blake Richmond, frustrated with the pall cast by coal smoke. Although there were earlier pieces of legislation, the Public Health Act 1875 required all furnaces and fireplaces to consume their own smoke. It also provided for sanctions against factories that emitted large amounts of black smoke. This law's provisions were extended in 1926 with the Smoke Abatement Act to include other emissions, such as soot, ash, and gritty particles, and to empower local authorities to impose their own regulations.

During the Spanish Revolution, anarchist-controlled territories undertook several environmental reforms, which were possibly the largest in the world at the time. Daniel Guerin notes that anarchist territories would diversify crops, extend irrigation, initiate reforestation, start tree nurseries and help to establish naturist communities. Once there was a link discovered between air pollution and tuberculosis, the CNT shut down several metal factories.

It was only under the impetus of the Great Smog of 1952 in London, which almost brought the city to a standstill and may have caused upward of 6,000 deaths, that the Clean Air Act 1956 was passed and airborne pollution in the city was first tackled. Financial incentives were offered to householders to replace open coal fires with alternatives (such as installing gas fires) or those who preferred, to burn coke instead (a byproduct of town gas production) which produces minimal smoke. 'Smoke control areas' were introduced in some towns and cities where only smokeless fuels could be burnt and power stations were relocated away from cities. The act formed an important impetus to modern environmentalism and caused a rethinking of the dangers of environmental degradation to people's quality of life.

The late 19th century also saw the passage of the first wildlife conservation laws.
The zoologist Alfred Newton published a series of investigations into the Desirability of establishing a 'Close-time' for the preservation of indigenous animals between 1872 and 1903. His advocacy for legislation to protect animals from hunting during the mating season led to the formation of the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds and influenced the passage of the Sea Birds Preservation Act in 1869 as the first nature protection law in the world.

First environmental movements
Early interest in the environment was a feature of the Romantic movement in the early 19th century. One of the earliest modern pronouncements on thinking about human industrial advancement and its influence on the environment was written by Japanese geographer, educator, philosopher and author Tsunesaburo Makiguchi in his 1903 publication Jinsei Chirigaku (A Geography of Human Life). In Britain the poet William Wordsworth travelled extensively in the Lake District and wrote that it is a "sort of national property in which every man has a right and interest who has an eye to perceive and a heart to enjoy".

Systematic efforts on behalf of the environment only began in the late 19th century; it grew out of the amenity movement in Britain in the 1870s, which was a reaction to industrialisation, the growth of cities, and worsening air and water pollution. Starting with the formation of the Commons Preservation Society in 1865, the movement championed rural preservation against the encroachments of industrialisation. Robert Hunter, solicitor for the society, worked with Hardwicke Rawnsley, Octavia Hill, and John Ruskin to lead a successful campaign to prevent the construction of railways to carry slate from the quarries, which would have ruined the unspoiled valleys of Newlands and Ennerdale. This success led to the formation of the Lake District Defence Society (later to become The Friends of the Lake District).

Peter Kropotkin wrote about ecology in economics, agricultural science, conservation, ethology, criminology, urban planning, geography, geology and biology. He observed in Swiss and Siberian glaciers that they had been slowly melting since the dawn of the industrial revolution, possibly making him one of the first predictors for climate change. He also observed the damage done from deforestation and hunting. Kropotkin's writings would become influential in the 1970s and became a major inspiration for the intentional community movement as well as his ideas becoming the basis for the theory of social ecology.

In 1893 Hill, Hunter and Rawnsley agreed to set up a national body to coordinate environmental conservation efforts across the country; the "National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty" was formally inaugurated in 1894. The organisation obtained secure footing through the 1907 National Trust Bill, which gave the trust the status of a statutory corporation. and the bill was passed in August 1907.

An early "Back-to-Nature" movement, which anticipated the romantic ideal of modern environmentalism, was advocated by intellectuals such as John Ruskin, William Morris, George Bernard Shaw and Edward Carpenter, who were all against consumerism, pollution and other activities that were harmful to the natural world. The movement was a reaction to the urban conditions of the industrial towns, where sanitation was awful, pollution levels intolerable and housing terribly cramped. Idealists championed the rural life as a mythical utopia and advocated a return to it. John Ruskin argued that people should return to a "small piece of English ground, beautiful, peaceful, and fruitful. We will have no steam engines upon it ... we will have plenty of flowers and vegetables ... we will have some music and poetry; the children will learn to dance to it and sing it."

Practical ventures in the establishment of small cooperative farms were even attempted and old rural traditions, without the "taint of manufacture or the canker of artificiality", were enthusiastically revived, including the Morris dance and the maypole.

These ideas also inspired various environmental groups in the UK, such as the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, established in 1889 by Emily Williamson as a protest group to campaign for greater protection for the indigenous birds of the island. The Society attracted growing support from the suburban middle-classes as well as support from many other influential figures, such as the ornithologist Professor Alfred Newton. By 1900, public support for the organisation had grown, and it had over 25,000 members. The garden city movement incorporated many environmental concerns into its urban planning manifesto; the Socialist League and The Clarion movement also began to advocate measures of nature conservation.

The movement in the United States began in the late 19th century, out of concerns for protecting the natural resources of the West, with individuals such as John Muir and Henry David Thoreau making key philosophical contributions. Thoreau was interested in peoples' relationship with nature and studied this by living close to nature in a simple life. He published his experiences in the book Walden, which argues that people should become intimately close with nature. Muir came to believe in nature's inherent right, especially after spending time hiking in Yosemite Valley and studying both the ecology and geology. He successfully lobbied congress to form Yosemite National Park and went on to set up the Sierra Club in 1892. The conservationist principles as well as the belief in an inherent right of nature were to become the bedrock of modern environmentalism.

In the 20th century, environmental ideas continued to grow in popularity and recognition. Efforts were starting to be made to save some wildlife, particularly the American bison. The death of the last passenger pigeon as well as the endangerment of the American bison helped to focus the minds of conservationists and to popularise their concerns. In 1916, the National Park Service was founded by US President Woodrow Wilson.

The Forestry Commission was set up in 1919 in Britain to increase the amount of woodland in Britain by buying land for afforestation and reforestation. The commission was also tasked with promoting forestry and the production of timber for trade. During the 1920s the Commission focused on acquiring land to begin planting out new forests; much of the land was previously used for agricultural purposes. By 1939 the Forestry Commission was the largest landowner in Britain.

During the 1930s the Nazis had elements that were supportive of animal rights, zoos and wildlife, and took several measures to ensure their protection. In 1933 the government created a stringent animal-protection law and in 1934,  (The Reich Hunting Law) was enacted which limited hunting. Several Nazis were environmentalists (notably Rudolf Hess), and species protection and animal welfare were significant issues in the regime. In 1935, the regime enacted the "Reich Nature Protection Act" (). The concept of the  (best translated as the "perpetual forest") which included concepts such as forest management and protection was promoted and efforts were also made to curb air pollution.

In 1949, A Sand County Almanac by Aldo Leopold was published. It explained Leopold's belief that humankind should have moral respect for the environment and that it is unethical to harm it. The book is sometimes called the most influential book on conservation.

Throughout the 1950s, 1960s, 1970s and beyond, photography was used to enhance public awareness of the need for protecting land and recruiting members to environmental organisations. David Brower, Ansel Adams and Nancy Newhall created the Sierra Club Exhibit Format Series, which helped raise public environmental awareness and brought a rapidly increasing flood of new members to the Sierra Club and to the environmental movement in general. This Is Dinosaur, edited by Wallace Stegner with photographs by Martin Litton and Philip Hyde, prevented the building of dams within Dinosaur National Monument by becoming part of a new kind of activism called environmentalism that combined the conservationist ideals of Thoreau, Leopold and Muir with hard-hitting advertising, lobbying, book distribution, letter writing campaigns, and more. The powerful use of photography in addition to the written word for conservation dated back to the creation of Yosemite National Park, when photographs persuaded Abraham Lincoln to preserve the beautiful glacier carved landscape for all time. The Sierra Club Exhibit Format Series galvanised public opposition to building dams in the Grand Canyon and protected many other national treasures. The Sierra Club often led a coalition of many environmental groups including the Wilderness Society and many others.

After a focus on preserving wilderness in the 1950s and 1960s, the Sierra Club and other groups broadened their focus to include such issues as air and water pollution, population concern, and curbing the exploitation of natural resources.

Post-war expansion

In 1962, Silent Spring by American biologist Rachel Carson was published. The book cataloged the environmental impacts of the indiscriminate spraying of DDT in the US and questioned the logic of releasing large amounts of chemicals into the environment without fully understanding their effects on human health and ecology. The book suggested that DDT and other pesticides may cause cancer and that their agricultural use was a threat to wildlife, particularly birds. The resulting public concern led to the creation of the United States Environmental Protection Agency in 1970 which subsequently banned the agricultural use of DDT in the US in 1972. The limited use of DDT in disease vector control continues to this day in certain parts of the world and remains controversial. The book's legacy was to produce a far greater awareness of environmental issues and interest into how people affect the environment. With this new interest in environment came interest in problems such as air pollution and petroleum spills, and environmental interest grew. New pressure groups formed, notably Greenpeace and Friends of the Earth (US), as well as notable local organisations such as the Wyoming Outdoor Council, which was founded in 1967.

In the 1970s, the environmental movement gained rapid speed around the world as a productive outgrowth of the counterculture movement.

The world's first political parties to campaign on a predominantly environmental platform were the United Tasmania Group of Tasmania, Australia, and the Values Party of New Zealand. The first green party in Europe was the Popular Movement for the Environment, founded in 1972 in the Swiss canton of Neuchâtel. The first national green party in Europe was PEOPLE, founded in Britain in February 1973, which eventually turned into the Ecology Party, and then the Green Party.

Protection of the environment also became important in the developing world; the Chipko movement was formed in India under the influence of Mhatmas Gandhi and they set up peaceful resistance to deforestation by literally hugging trees (leading to the term "tree huggers"). Their peaceful methods of protest and slogan "ecology is permanent economy" were very influential.

Another milestone in the movement was the creation of Earth Day. Earth Day was first observed in San Francisco and other cities on 21 March 1970, the first day of spring. It was created to give awareness to environmental issues. On 21 March 1971, United Nations Secretary-General U Thant spoke of a spaceship Earth on Earth Day, hereby referring to the ecosystem services the earth supplies to us, and hence our obligation to protect it (and with it, ourselves). Earth Day is now coordinated globally by the Earth Day Network, and is celebrated in more than 192 countries every year.

The UN's first major conference on international environmental issues, the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (also known as the Stockholm Conference), was held on 5–16 June 1972. It marked a turning point in the development of international environmental politics.

By the mid-1970s, many felt that people were on the edge of environmental catastrophe. The back-to-the-land movement started to form and ideas of environmental ethics joined with anti-Vietnam War sentiments and other political issues. These individuals lived outside normal society and started to take on some of the more radical environmental theories such as deep ecology. Around this time more mainstream environmentalism was starting to show force with the signing of the Endangered Species Act in 1973 and the formation of CITES in 1975. Significant amendments were also enacted to the United States Clean Air Act and Clean Water Act.

In 1979, James Lovelock, a British scientist, published Gaia: A new look at life on Earth, which put forth the Gaia hypothesis; it proposes that life on earth can be understood as a single organism. This became an important part of the Deep Green ideology. Throughout the rest of the history of environmentalism there has been debate and argument between more radical followers of this Deep Green ideology and more mainstream environmentalists.

21st century and beyond
Environmentalism continues to evolve to face up to new issues such as global warming, overpopulation, genetic engineering, and plastic pollution.

Research demonstrates a precipitous decline in the US public's interest in 19 different areas of environmental concern. Americans are less likely to be actively participating in an environmental movement or organisation and more likely to identify as "unsympathetic" to an environmental movement than in 2000. This is likely a lingering factor of the Great Recession in 2008. Since 2005, the percentage of Americans agreeing that the environment should be given priority over economic growth has dropped 10 points; in contrast, those feeling that growth should be given priority "even if the environment suffers to some extent" has risen 12 percent. Nevertheless, a recent National Geographic survey indicated strong desire for commitment across a dozen countries, indicating a majority were in favour of more than half of the Earth's land surface being protected.

New forms of ecoactivism

Tree sitting is a form of activism in which the protester sits in a tree in an attempt to stop the removal of a tree or to impede the demolition of an area with the longest and most famous tree-sitter being Julia Butterfly Hill, who spent 738 days in a California Redwood, saving a three-acre tract of forest. Also notable is the Yellow Finch tree sit, which was a 932-day blockade of the Mountain Valley Pipeline from 2018 to 2021.

Sit-ins can be used to encourage social change, such as the Greensboro sit-ins, a series of protests in 1960 to stop racial segregation, but can also be used in ecoactivism, as in the Dakota Access Pipeline Protest.

Before the Syrian civil war, Rojava had been ecologically damaged by monoculture, oil extraction, damming of rivers, deforestation, drought, topsoil loss and general pollution. The DFNS launched a campaign titled 'Make Rojava Green Again' (a parody of Make America Great Again) which is attempting to provide renewable energy to communities (especially solar energy), reforestation, protecting water sources, planting gardens, promoting urban agriculture, creating wildlife reserves, water recycling, beekeeping, expanding public transportation and promoting environmental awareness within their communities.

The Rebel Zapatista Autonomous Municipalities are firmly environmentalist and have stopped the extraction of oil, uranium, timber and metal from the Lacandon Jungle and stopped the use of pesticides and chemical fertilisers in farming.

The CIPO-RFM has engaged in sabotage and direct action against wind farms, shrimp farms, eucalyptus plantations and the timber industry. They have also set up corn and coffee worker cooperatives and built schools and hospitals to help the local populations. They have also created a network of autonomous community radio stations to educate people about dangers to the environment and inform the surrounding communities about new industrial projects that would destroy more land. In 2001, the CIPO-RFM defeated the construction of a highway that was part of Plan Puebla Panama.

Environmental movement

The environmental movement (a term that sometimes includes the conservation and green movements) is a diverse scientific, social, and political movement. Though the movement is represented by a range of organisations, because of the inclusion of environmentalism in the classroom curriculum, the environmental movement has a younger demographic than is common in other social movements (see green seniors).

Environmentalism as a movement covers broad areas of institutional oppression, including for example: consumption of ecosystems and natural resources into waste, dumping waste into disadvantaged communities, air pollution, water pollution, weak infrastructure, exposure of organic life to toxins, mono-culture, anti-polythene drive (jhola movement) and various other focuses. Because of these divisions, the environmental movement can be categorized into these primary focuses: environmental science, environmental activism, environmental advocacy, and environmental justice.

Free market environmentalism

Free market environmentalism is a theory that argues that the free market, property rights, and tort law provide the best tools to preserve the health and sustainability of the environment. It considers environmental stewardship to be natural, as well as the expulsion of polluters and other aggressors through individual and class action.

Evangelical environmentalism

Evangelical environmentalism is an environmental movement in the United States in which some Evangelicals have emphasized biblical mandates concerning humanity's role as steward and subsequent responsibility for the care taking of Creation. While the movement has focused on different environmental issues, it is best known for its focus of addressing climate action from a biblically grounded theological perspective. This movement is controversial among some non-Christian environmentalists due to its rooting in a specific religion.

Preservation and conservation

Environmental preservation in the United States and other parts of the world, including Australia, is viewed as the setting aside of natural resources to prevent damage caused by contact with humans or by certain human activities, such as logging, mining, hunting, and fishing, often to replace them with new human activities such as tourism and recreation. Regulations and laws may be enacted for the preservation of natural resources.

Exergy and availability of resources
Thermodynamic derived environmentalism is based on the second law of thermodynamics, minimization of exergy disruption (or entropy generation)and the concept of availability. It moves from he milestone work of Jan Szargut  who emphasized the relation between exergy and availability,
it is necessary to remember "Exergy Ecology and Democracy".
by Goran Wall, a short essay, which evidences the strict relation that relates exergy disruption with environmental and social disruption. More recently it has verified that governmental emissions and impacts balances underestimate the effective GHG production by means of human processes. In fact, they often neglects the impacts of import/export related emissions. In addition they have analyzed the UN SDGs and the methods which are suggested for verifying the advances of the countries. This activity has evidenced that objective and coherent parameters are missing. Therefore, they suggest the introduction of exergy analysis as the most effective method for estimating the environmental degradation.
Therefore a novel fiscal model based on Exergy and availability disruption has been defined as the only possible way for overcoming the problems induced by the globalized markets.

Organisations and conferences

Environmental organisations can be global, regional, national or local; they can be government-run or private (NGO). Environmentalist activity exists in almost every country. Moreover, groups dedicated to community development and social justice also focus on environmental concerns.

Some US environmental organisations, among them the Natural Resources Defense Council and the Environmental Defense Fund, specialise in bringing lawsuits (a tactic seen as particularly useful in that country). Other groups, such as the US-based National Wildlife Federation, Earth Day, National Cleanup Day, the Nature Conservancy, and The Wilderness Society, and global groups like the World Wide Fund for Nature and Friends of the Earth, disseminate information, participate in public hearings, lobby, stage demonstrations, and may purchase land for preservation. Statewide nonprofit organisations such as the Wyoming Outdoor Council often collaborate with these national organisations and employ similar strategies. Smaller groups, including Wildlife Conservation International, conduct research on endangered species and ecosystems. More radical organisations, such as Greenpeace, Earth First!, and the Earth Liberation Front, have more directly opposed actions they regard as environmentally harmful. While Greenpeace is devoted to nonviolent confrontation as a means of bearing witness to environmental wrongs and bringing issues into the public realm for debate, the underground Earth Liberation Front engages in the clandestine destruction of property, the release of caged or penned animals, and other criminal acts. Such tactics are regarded as unusual within the movement, however.

On an international level, concern for the environment was the subject of a United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm in 1972, attended by 114 nations. Out of this meeting developed the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the follow-up United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in 1992. Other international organisations in support of environmental policies development include the Commission for Environmental Cooperation (as part of NAFTA), the European Environment Agency (EEA), and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).

Environmental protests

Notable environmental protests and campaigns include:

 2010 Xinfa aluminum plant protest
 Anti-WAAhnsinns Festival
 Car-Free Days
 Camp for Climate Action
 Campaign against Climate Change
 Climate Rush
 Cofán people oil drilling protest (Ecuador)
 Earth Day
 Earth First!
 Earthlife Africa
 Extinction Rebellion
 Global Climate Strikes
 Global Day of Action
 Gurindji Strike
 Hands off our Forest
 Homes before Roads
 Just Stop Oil
 Kupa Piti Kungka Tjuta
 Love Canal protests
 March Against Monsanto
 Nevada Desert Experience
 Plane Mad
 Plane Stupid
 Qidong protest
 Save Manapouri Campaign
 Say Yes demonstrations
 Shifang protest
 Stop Climate Chaos

Environmentalists

Notable advocates for environmental protection and sustainability include:

 Edward Abbey (author)
 David Attenborough (broadcaster, naturalist)
 John James Audubon (naturalist)
 Judi Bari (environmentalist)
 Frances Beinecke (environmentalist and former president of the Natural Resources Defense Council)
 David Bellamy (botanist)
 Wendell Berry (farmer, philosopher)
 Murray Bookchin (anarchist, philosopher, social ecologist)
 Erin Brockovich (environmental lawyer and activist)
 David Brower (writer, activist)
 Lester Brown (environmental analyst, author)
 Carol Browner (lawyer and activist)
 Kevin Buzzacott (Aboriginal activist)
 Berta Caceres (environmental and indigenous rights activist)
 Helen Caldicott (medical doctor)
 Rachel Carson (biologist, writer)
 Majora Carter (urban revitalization strategist)
 Charles III (British Royal Family member)
 Barry Commoner (biologist, politician)
 Jacques-Yves Cousteau (explorer, ecologist)
 Herman Daly (ecological economist and steady-state theorist)
 Peter Dauvergne (political scientist)
 Laurie David (activist and producer)
 Marina DeBris (environmental artist)
 Leonardo DiCaprio (actor and environmentalist)
 Sylvia Earle (marine biologist)
 Paul R. Ehrlich (population biologist)
 Hans-Josef Fell (German Green Party member)
 Jane Fonda (actor)
 Josh Fox (filmmaker, environmental activist)
 Mizuho Fukushima (politician, activist)
 Peter Garrett (musician, politician)
 Jane Goodall (primatologist, anthropologist, and UN Messenger of Peace)
 Lois Gibbs (Founder of the Center for Health, Environment and Justice)
 Al Gore (former Vice President of the United States)
 Daryl Hannah (activist)
 James Hansen (scientist)
 Garrett Hardin (ecologist, ecophilosopher)
 Denis Hayes (environmentalist and solar power advocate)
 Julia Butterfly Hill (activist)
 Robert Hunter (journalist, co-founder and first president of Greenpeace)
 Tetsunari Iida (sustainable energy advocate)
 Lisa P. Jackson (chemical engineer and former administrator of the United States Environmental Protection Agency)
 Naomi Klein (writer, activist)
 Winona LaDuke (environmentalist)
 Aldo Leopold (ecologist)
 A. Carl Leopold (plant physiologist)
 James Lovelock (scientist)
 Amory Lovins (energy policy analyst)
 Hunter Lovins (environmentalist)
 Caroline Lucas (politician)
 Wangari Maathai (activist and Nobel laureate)
 Jarid Manos (CEO of the Great Plains Restoration Council)
 Xiuhtezcatl Martinez (environmental activist, hip-hop artist)
 Bill McKibben (writer, activist)
 David McTaggart (activist)
 Chico Mendes (activist)
 Joni Mitchell (musician, environmental activist)
 George Monbiot (journalist)
 John Muir (naturalist, activist)
 Ralph Nader (activist)
 Gaylord Nelson (politician)
 Alan Pears (environmental consultant and energy efficiency pioneer)
 Gifford Pinchot (first chief of the USFS)
 Jonathon Porritt (politician)
 John Wesley Powell (second director of the USGS)
 Barbara Pyle (documentarian and executive producer of Captain Planet and the Planeteers)
 Phil Radford (environmental, clean energy and democracy advocate, Greenpeace Executive Director)
 Bonnie Raitt (musician)
 Theodore Roosevelt (former President of the United States)
 Habiba Sarobi (politician and activist)
 E. F. Schumacher (author of Small Is Beautiful)
 Vandana Shiva (ecofeminist and activist)
 Marina Silva (politician and activist)
 Alicia Silverstone (activist and author of The Kind Diet)
 Lauren Singer (activist and entrepreneur)
 Swami Sundaranand (Yogi, photographer, and mountaineer)
 Cass Sunstein (environmental lawyer)
 David Suzuki (scientist, broadcaster)
 Henry David Thoreau (writer, philosopher)
 Greta Thunberg (environmentalist)
 Stewart Udall (former United States Secretary of the Interior)
 Jo Valentine (politician and activist)
 Dominique Voynet (politician and environmentalist)
 Christopher O. Ward (water infrastructure expert)
 Alice Waters (activist and restaurateur)
 Gabriel Willow (environmental educator, naturalist)
 Howard Zahniser (author of the 1964 Wilderness Act)

Assassinations

Every year, more than 100 environmental activists are murdered throughout the world. Most recent deaths are in Brazil, where activists combat logging in the Amazon rainforest.

116 environmental activists were assassinated in 2014, and 185 in 2015. This represents more than two environmentalists assassinated every week in 2014 and three every week in 2015. More than 200 environmental activists were assassinated worldwide between 2016 and early 2018. A 2020 incident saw several rangers murdered in the Congo Rainforest by poaching squads. Occurrences like this are relatively common, and account for a large number of deaths.

In popular culture

 The U.S. Forest Service created Smokey the Bear in 1944; he appeared in countless posters, radio and television programs, movies, press releases, and other guises to warn about forest fires.
 The comic strip Mark Trail, by environmentalist Ed Dodd, began in 1946; it still appears weekly in 175 newspapers.
 The children's animated show Captain Planet and the Planeteers, created by Ted Turner and Barbara Pyle in 1989 to inform children about environmental issues. The show aired for six seasons and 113 episodes, in 100 countries worldwide from 1990 to 1996.
 In 1974, Spokane, Washington, became the smallest city ever to host a World's Fair. From Saturday, 4 May, to Sunday, 3 November 1974, Spokane hosted Expo 74, the first world's fair to focus on the environment. The theme of Expo 74 was "Celebrating Tomorrow's Fresh New Environment".
 FernGully: The Last Rainforest is an animated motion picture released in 1992, which focuses exclusively on the environment. The movie is based on a book under the same title by Diana Young. In 1998, a sequel, FernGully 2: The Magical Rescue, was introduced.
 Miss Earth is one of the Big Four international beauty pageants. (The other three are Miss Universe, Miss International, and Miss World.) Out of these four beauty pageants, Miss Earth is the only international beauty pageant that promotes "environmental awareness". The reigning titleholders dedicate their year to promote specific projects and often address issues concerning the environment and other global issues through school tours, tree planting activities, street campaigns, coastal clean ups, speaking engagements, shopping mall tours, media guesting, environmental fair, storytelling programs, eco-fashion shows, and other environmental activities. The Miss Earth winner is the spokesperson for the Miss Earth Foundation, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and other environmental organizations. The Miss Earth Foundation also works with the environmental departments and ministries of participating countries, various private sectors and corporations, as well as Greenpeace and the World Wildlife Foundation (WWF).
 Another area of environmentalism is to use art to raise awareness about misuse of the environment. One example is trashion, using trash to create clothes, jewelry, and other objects for the home. Marina DeBris is one trashion artist, who focuses on ocean and beach trash to design clothes and for fund raising, education.

Criticism and alternative views

When environmentalism first became popular during the early 20th century, the focus was wilderness protection and wildlife preservation. These goals reflected the interests of the movement's initial, primarily white middle and upper class supporters, including through viewing preservation and protection via a lens that failed to appreciate the centuries-long work of indigenous communities who had lived without ushering in the types of environmental devastation these settler colonial "environmentalists" now sought to mitigate. The actions of many mainstream environmental organizations still reflect these early principles. Numerous low-income minorities felt isolated or negatively impacted by the movement, exemplified by the Southwest Organizing Project's (SWOP) Letter to the Group of 10, a letter sent to major environmental organizations by several local environmental justice activists. The letter argued that the environmental movement was so concerned about cleaning up and preserving nature that it ignored the negative side-effects that doing so caused communities nearby, namely less job growth. In addition, the NIMBY movement has transferred locally unwanted land uses (LULUs) from middle-class neighborhoods to poor communities with large minority populations. Therefore, vulnerable communities with fewer political opportunities are more often exposed to hazardous waste and toxins. This has resulted in the PIBBY principle, or at least the PIMBY (Place-in-minorities'-backyard), as supported by the United Church of Christ's study in 1987.

As a result, some minorities have viewed the environmental movement as elitist. Environmental elitism manifested itself in three different forms:

 Compositional – Environmentalists are from the middle and upper class.
 Ideological – The reforms benefit the movement's supporters but impose costs on nonparticipants.
 Impact – The reforms have "regressive social impacts". They disproportionately benefit environmentalists and harm underrepresented populations.

Many environmentalists believe that human interference with 'nature' should be restricted or minimised as a matter of urgency (for the sake of life, or the planet, or just for the benefit of the human species), whereas environmental skeptics and anti-environmentalists do not believe that there is such a need. One can also regard oneself as an environmentalist and believe that human 'interference' with 'nature' should be increased. Nevertheless, there is a risk that the shift from emotional environmentalism into the technical management of natural resources and hazards could decrease the touch of humans with nature, leading to less concern with environment preservation. Increasingly, typical conservation rhetoric is being replaced with restoration approaches and larger landscape initiatives that seek to create more holistic impacts.

In the 2000s, American author, film director, medical graduate and intellect Michael Crichton criticized environmentalism as being religiously motivated rather than grounded in empirical evidence, arguing that climate change was a natural part of Earth's history and had been occurring long before humans dominated the planet. Also claiming to argue from his minor education in anthropology, he stated that religion was a part of human social make-up and that if it was suppressed, it would simply re-emerge in another form. With the decline of Christianity and Church attendance in the Western world, environmentalism has become more popular according to him, which he termed as "the religion of urban atheists".

Others seek a balance that involves both caring deeply for the environment while letting science guide human actions affecting it. Such an approach would avoid the emotionalism which, for example, anti-GMO activism has been criticized for, and protect the integrity of science. Planting trees, for another example, can be emotionally satisfying but should also involve being conscious of ecological concerns such as the effect on water cycles and the use of nonnative, potentially invasive species.

See also

 Anti-environmentalism
 Climate movement
 Conservation movement
 Ecomodernism
 Human ecology
 Human impact on the environment
 List of climate scientists
 List of women climate scientists and activists
 Nature conservation
 Outline of environmentalism
 Radical environmentalism
 Religion and environmentalism
 Sustainability
 Tree planting

References

Further reading

 Borowy, Iris. "Before UNEP: who was in charge of the global environment? The struggle for institutional responsibility 1968–72." Journal of Global History 14.1 (2019): 87-106.
 Daynes, Byron W., and Glen Sussman, eds. White House Politics and the Environment: Franklin D. Roosevelt to George W. Bush (Texas A&M University Press; 2010) 300 pages; evaluates how 12 presidents helped or hindered the cause of environmental protection.
 Johnson, Erik W., and Scott Frickel, (2011). "Ecological Threat and the Founding of U.S. National Environmental Movement Organizations, 1962–1998," Social Problems 58 (Aug. 2011), 305–29.

 John McCormick. 1995. The Global Environmental Movement. John Wiley. London. 312 pp.
 de Steiguer, J. Edward. 2006.  The Origins of Modern Environmental Thought. University of Arizona Press. Tucson. 246 pp.
 Tooze, Adam, "Democracy and Its Discontents", The New York Review of Books, vol. LXVI, no. 10 (6 June 2019), pp. 52–53, 56–57.  "Democracy has no clear answer for the mindless operation of bureaucratic and technological power.  We may indeed be witnessing its extension in the form of artificial intelligence and robotics.  Likewise, after decades of dire warning, the environmental problem remains fundamentally unaddressed.... Bureaucratic overreach and environmental catastrophe are precisely the kinds of slow-moving existential challenges that democracies deal with very badly.... Finally, there is the threat du jour:  corporations and the technologies they promote."  (pp. 56–57.)
 Verweij, Marco; Thompson, Michael (eds), 2006, Clumsy Solutions for a Complex World: Governance, Politics and Plural Perceptions, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan,
 Vogel, David. California Greenin': How the Golden State Became an Environmental Leader (2018) 280 pp  online review
 Woodhouse, Keith M. "The Politics of Ecology: Environmentalism and Liberalism in the 1960s," Journal for the Study of Radicalism, Volume 2, Number 2, 2009, pp. 53–84
 World Bank, 2003, "Sustainable Development in a Dynamic World: Transforming Institutions, Growth, and Quality of Life", World Development Report 2003, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and Oxford University Press.

External links

 Westland – A Canadian television series (1984–2007) on a broad range of environmental issues, from the UBC Library Digital Collections
 The Directory of Environmental Websites

Green politics
Habitat
Environmental social science concepts
1920s neologisms

Environmentalism


In an armed conflict, the loser has the possibility to surrender to the winner (or to give up). This usually means that the person will be made a prisoner of war, and that there will be a trial, to determine whether the person is guilty of one of the crimes of war. There's also the promise, that the person who surrenders will be left alive. Certain parts of the military were known for not allowing ennemy fighters to surrender; this was known as no quarter. The Hague Convention of 1899  made this practice illegal, and a war crime. Since then, the practice has become part of customary international law. This means it is also binding for parties who did not sign the Hague Convention.

International law
War crimes

No quarter


APRA AMCOS consists of Australasian Performing Right Association (APRA) and Australasian Mechanical Copyright Owners Society (AMCOS), both copyright management organisations or copyright collectives which jointly represent over 100,000 songwriters, composers and music publishers in Australia and New Zealand. The two organisations work together to license public performances and administer performance, communication and reproduction rights on behalf of their members, who are creators of musical works, aiming to ensure fair payments to members and to defend their rights under the Australian Copyright Act (1968).

APRA, which formed in 1926, represents songwriters, composers, and music publishers, providing businesses with a range of licences to use copyrighted music. This covers music that is communicated or performed publicly including on radio, television, online, live gigs in pubs and clubs etc. APRA distributes the royalties from these licence fees back to their composer, songwriter and music publisher members and overseas affiliates.

AMCOS, which formed in 1979, is responsible for licensing musical works to third parties who reproduce music via CD, DVD, vinyl recording, downloading, streaming or other digital means of reproduction, issuing what are known as mechanical rights and distributing mechanical royalties to writers and publishers of music and overseas affiliates.

In 1997 the two societies formed an alliance; since then, APRA has managed the day-to-day operations of the AMCOS business, but each has its own board of directors, elected from and by their own membership. They jointly present the APRA Awards each year.

Description

The associations' national and NSW/ACT state/territory offices are located in Sydney, and the New Zealand office in Auckland. There are state/territory offices in Melbourne (for Victoria and Tasmania); Brisbane, Queensland; Adelaide, South Australia; Perth, Western Australia; and Darwin, Northern Territory. There are also international representatives in London, UK, Nashville, Tennessee, Los Angeles and New York.

APRA is a member and AMCOS associate member of the International Confederation of Societies of Authors and Composers (CISAC), and AMCOS is a member of the Bureau International de l'Edition Mécanique (BIEM), the international mechanical rights coordinating organisation.

APRA AMCOS adheres to a voluntary Code of Conduct for Collecting Societies which was introduced in 2002.

How it works

It can be difficult or almost impossible to license copyright on an individual basis. The composer of the music, upon joining APRA, assigns their performing and communication right to the organisation. They can also choose whether or not they want AMCOS to administer their reproduction right (excluding print music) including for what purposes. By acting as a link between the users and creators of copyright material, collecting societies like APRA and AMCOS provide a simple means for assisting users to comply with their copyright obligations as well as ensuring that the creators or copyright owners are paid for the use of their work.

History

APRA

APRA was established in 1926 by a number of companies, to represent the interests of Australasian music copyright holders, and to manage the performance and communication rights of its members. According to the Copyright Act, public performances of music include music played in pubs, clubs, fitness clubs, shops, cinemas, or at festivals, whether performed live, from radio or television. Communication of music covers music broadcast by TV or radio broadcasters, or accessed via the internet.

In 1929, commercial radio broadcasters in Sydney and Melbourne paid APRA £7 a week for royalties, with music broadcasts limited to 66 hours a week. This arrangement broke down in 1931, with APRA banning the playing of records on air. The Australian Federation of Commercial Broadcasting Stations was established in that year to resolve royalty and copyright related issues and as a result, member broadcasters agreed to pay a fixed sum for broadcasting rights.

With the introduction of the Australian Copyright Act 1968, APRA extended its services to any Australian business with copyright obligations. Demand for the service increased steadily over the following thirty years and by 2005, APRA represented the interests of 28,000 members within Australasia, and about two million creative artists and publishers from elsewhere in the world,  and gathered $146 million in royalty payments, of which $127 million was distributed to copyright holders.

Today the Association provides businesses with a range of licences to use copyrighted music with APRA monitoring radio and television stations, concert promoters and cinemas in particular.

AMCOS

The Australasian Mechanical Copyright Owners Society Limited (AMCOS) was established in 1979 to manage mechanical royalties, i.e. the reproduction or copying and storage of music in any format. These royalties are generated each time "an original musical work is licensed by a third party and commercially reproduced or sold", whether on CD, DVD or vinyl recordings, music downloads or via streaming services. Thus the licensors include all major and independent record labels as well as digital service providers (DSPs) such as Apple Music and Spotify, and schools.

According to the Copyright Act, reproduction of music entails the making of any type of copy of a work, whether recorded on a CD recording, video or DVD, used as a mobile phone ring tone, digitally downloaded, or used in any audiovisual and broadcast material.

1997: Alliance
Since 1997 the two societies formed a collaboration representing composers and lyricists, to provide "a one-stop service to music creators and music customers."  The two organisations jointly host their website, named APRA AMCOS.

21st century
In 2004, APRA appointed an Indigenous Project Officer. The Australia Council for the Arts commissioned APRA AMCOS to undertake an audit of support infrastructure for Indigenous music in Australia, which will be used as a guide for the Australia Council and other agencies responsible for policy development and funding of Indigenous music.

In 2008 and 2009, APRA supported aggressive new copyright law in New Zealand, including punishment of persons accused but not proven to be infringing copyright. This position was opposed by artists and APRA members.

In 2009, Sounds Australia was created as a joint initiative of the Australia Council and APRA AMCOS. Sounds Australia is "a joint partnership between the Australian Council of the Arts, APRA AMCOS, the Australian Government, ARIA, the PPCA and state government agencies", which promotes and showcases Australian music around the globe.

In 2019, APRA AMCOS was a partner in the production of a report entitled Born global: Australian music exports, published by the Australia Council. Also in 2019, APRA AMCOS joined the Phonographic Performance Company of Australia (PPCA) to create OneMusic Australia, a  joint licensing initiative.

APRA Awards

In Australia, APRA AMCOS hosts a number of awards to honour achievements by local songwriters, including the APRA Music Awards, the Art Music Awards for classical music (in association with the Australian Music Centre), and the Screen Music Awards (in association with the Australian Guild of Screen Composers).

In New Zealand, the annual Silver Scroll is awarded by an anonymous judging panel to the year's best-written song on commercial release. Also awarded are the songs receiving the most airplay in New Zealand and overseas for the year.

APRA billion streams list

The APRA billion streams list was established in 2019 by APRA AMCOS to acknowledge Australasian songwriters whose works have achieved one billion (1,000,000,000) streams on various services.

Live Music Office

The Live Music Office was set up by the Federal Government and APRA AMCOS in order to develop a coordinated policy response to challenges facing the Australian live music industry. It advocates for better policies, strategies, and regulation. The office is housed within the APRA AMCOS building, and is funded by APRA AMCOS, the federal government, and Creative Australia. It is housed within their Sydney office.

See also
Performing Right Society – the reciprocal society serving the United Kingdom

References

External links
 APRA AMCOS website
APRA AMCOS FAQs

Organizations established in 1926
Organizations established in 1979
1997 mergers and acquisitions
Organisations based in Sydney
Music organisations based in Australia
Music organisations based in New Zealand
Music licensing organizations
Copyright collection societies
Music industry associations
Australian music industry

APRA AMCOS


Francis Nicholson Darke (October 25, 1863 – July 17, 1940) was a leading citizen of Regina, Saskatchewan and served as Mayor of Regina, Member of Parliament and as a prominent businessman.

He was born near Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island on his family's farm, remaining there until his late 20s when he decided to move to Western Canada.
He arrived in Regina in 1891 and settled there permanently after returning to PEI to marry.

He partnered with fellow islander Pople Balderson to raise livestock on a farm outside of Regina. Later, the two men purchased a butcher's shop in town and were soon able to obtain contracts with residential schools and the North-West Mounted Police.

Darke invested his earnings to purchase several blocks of land in town from the Canadian Pacific Railway. His real estate holdings were profitable enough to allow him to sell his cattle business in order to focus on land development.

He was elected to town council in 1895 and served as mayor in 1898 at the age of 35 and remains Regina's youngest ever mayor.

Darke was elected to the House of Commons of Canada in the 1925 federal election as a Liberal MP for Regina electoral district but resigned his seat in early 1926 in order to allow Saskatchewan Premier Charles Avery Dunning to enter the federal parliament in a by-election after he was appointed Finance Minister in the federal cabinet.

Darke donated $85,000 and raised a further $40,000 to help establish Regina College in 1910. The college eventually became the University of Regina. He also donated money in 1929 to build the  Darke Hall for Music and Art which served as the home of the Regina Symphony Orchestra for 41 years.

Darke Crescent, Darke Street, Darke Park and Darke Hall in Regina are named after him.

References

Darke, Francis Nicholson

1863 births
1940 deaths
Liberal Party of Canada MPs
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Saskatchewan
Mayors of Regina, Saskatchewan
Canadian Methodists
Members of the United Church of Canada

Francis Nicholson Darke


DTS-HD Master Audio (DTS-HD MA; known as DTS++ before 2004) is a multi-channel, lossless audio codec developed by DTS as an extension of the lossy DTS Coherent Acoustics codec (DTS CA; usually itself referred to as just DTS). Rather than being an entirely new coding mechanism, DTS-HD MA encodes an audio master in lossy DTS first, then stores a concurrent stream of supplementary data representing whatever the DTS encoder discarded. This gives DTS-HD MA a lossy "core" able to be played back by devices that cannot decode the more complex lossless audio. DTS-HD MA's primary application is audio storage and playback for Blu-ray Disc media; it competes in this respect with Dolby TrueHD, another lossless surround format.

Specifications
DTS-HD MA can store up to 8 discrete channels of audio (7.1 surround) at up to a 24 bit sample depth and 192 kHz sampling frequency (96 kHz for 6.1 or 7.1 surround). Although DTS-HD MA, and the related DTS-HD, allow virtually any number of channels in the abstract, these limits are imposed for practical reasons of limited storage and bitrate availability. A DTS-HD MA bitstream may have a bitrate no greater than 24.5 Mbit/s (instantaneous), of which no greater than 1.5 Mbit/s may be lossy DTS (as per the DTS CA specification).

The Blu-ray specification stipulates DTS-HD MA as an optional codec, which means that some Blu-ray hardware may not decode it. This is the reason for the bifurcated nature of a DTS-HD MA audio stream; DTS CA, unlike its MA extension, is mandatory, so a player that is not MA-capable can automatically default to an MA-encoded disc's base DTS stream and simply ignore the supplementary data. Alternatively, even if a player is MA-capable, the base stream may be needed for backward compatibility with an older AV receiver (for example, one manufactured during the DVD era).

DTS-HD MA is the encoding format for DTS:X, an object-based surround-sound format that competes with Dolby Atmos. A DTS-HD MA bitstream carrying DTS:X can contain up to 9 simultaneous sound objects, which are dynamically mapped to a user's speaker system during playback, unlike the rigid number and placement of speakers required by channel-based surround (a DTS marketing executive referred to DTS:X in an interview as "whatever.1").

Encoding process
DTS-HD MA is encoded in three steps. First, the audio master is fed to a DTS CA encoder, which generates the core (lossy) audio stream. Next, this lossy audio is decoded and compared to the master, with "residual" data being recorded wherever the two differ. Finally, the residual data is compressed losslessly and merged with the core into one bitstream. A DTS-HD MA decoder simply performs this process in reverse.

DTS-HD MA audio, including DTS:X audio, can be created and edited using DTS's DTS:X Encoder Suite. The DTS-HD Master Audio Suite served the same function before the introduction of DTS:X, and can still be used for DTS-HD MA that does not carry DTS:X.

AV transport
DTS-HD Master Audio may be transported to AV receivers in 5.1, 6.1, or 7.1 channels, in full quality, in one of three ways depending on player and/or receiver support:
Over 6, 7 or 8 RCA connectors as analog audio, using the player's internal decoder and digital-to-analog converter (DAC).
Over HDMI 1.1 (or higher) connections as 6-, 7-, or 8-channel linear PCM, using the player's decoder and the AV receiver's DAC.
Over HDMI 1.3 (or higher) connections as the original DTS-HD Master Audio bitstream, with decoding and DAC both done by the AV receiver. (This is the transport mode required for DTS:X playback.)
S/PDIF does not have the bandwidth to carry DTS-HD MA (or PCM in more than 2 channels). A setup using S/PDIF audio may output DTS-HD MA as either lossy DTS (which S/PDIF can carry) or downmixed stereo PCM.

References

Blu-ray Disc
HD DVD
Lossless audio codecs
Surround sound

DTS-HD Master Audio


Manfred R. Köhler born March 8, 1927, in Freiberg, Germany  died 1991 was a German dubbing director who graduated to being a screenwriter and film director specialising in action films and popular entertainment in the 1960s. He was billed with his middle initial to differentiate himself between the cinematographer and actor Manfred Köhler.

Career
Köhler began his film career with Internationalen Film-Union (IFU) synchronising the dubbing into German of various foreign films.  He went to Munich, where he built the Beta Technik dubbing studio then became an independent operator with his own dubbing studio, the Cinesonor.

In the mid-1950s he directed two documentary films for IFU.  In the 1960s he began writing and directing films for the international market with Wolf C. Hartwig's Rapid Film company.

He finished his career by writing the screenplay for two television films based on the German musicals Die Zirkusprinzessin and  Die Blume von Hawaii.

Filmography
(director and screenwriter unless otherwise indicated)
 Wenn es Sonntag ist (1955)
 Land aus Feuer und Schnee (1955)
 Coffin from Hong Kong (1964)
 13 Days to Die (1965)
 Target for Killing (1966)
 Agent 505: Death Trap in Beirut (1966)
 Murderers Club of Brooklyn (dialogue only) (1967)
 The Blood Demon (screenplay only) (1967)
 The Blood of Fu Manchu  (story and screenplay only) (1968)
 The Last Mercenary (screenplay only) (1968)
 Rebus (screenplay only ) (1969)
 Island of Lost Girls (screenplay only) (1969)
 Die Zirkusprinzessin (1970) (TV Movie)
 Die Blume von Hawaii (1971) (TV movie)
 Daughters of Darkness (screenplay only) (1971)
 Dead Pigeon on Beethoven Street (German dialogue only) (1974)

Notes

External links

1927 births
1991 deaths
People from Oberbergischer Kreis
Film people from Saxony

Manfred R. Köhler


Stanley Ira Kutler (August 10, 1934 – April 7, 2015) was an American historian, best known for his lawsuit against the National Archives and Richard Nixon that won the release of tape recordings Nixon made during his White House years, particularly those in relation to the Watergate scandal.

Early life and education
Kutler was born in 1934 in Cleveland, Ohio, the son of Robert (a printer) and Zelda (Coffman) Kutler. He married Sandra J. Sachs in 1956, and they had four children. He attended Bowling Green State University (B.A., 1956) and Ohio State University (Ph.D., 1960). He was also a William Green fellow at Ohio State University, 1959-1960.

Academic career
He was an instructor in history at Pennsylvania State University (1960–1962) and then taught at San Diego State University (assistant professor 1962–1964); In 1964, he was hired in the Department of History at the University of Wisconsin—Madison associate professor 1964-1970, professor of history 1970–1994 and thereafter as professor emeritus).

He has written widely in a number of fields of American history, concentrating on American constitutional history and the twentieth century. His earliest book was Judicial Power and Reconstruction Politics (University of Chicago Press, 1968). His other major books include The Wars of Watergate (Knopf, 1990); The American Inquisition (Hill & Wang, 1982), winner of the Silver Gavel Award, American Bar Association, 1983; Privilege and Creative Destruction: The Charles River Bridge Case (Norton, 1978; revised edition, 1989).

He has authored or edited more than half a dozen textbooks in various fields of American history. His scholarly articles have appeared in leading history and legal periodicals. Prominent among his published works are editing the new edition of the Dictionary of American History, a ten-volume work (Scribner's 2002), which was awarded the American Library Association Best Reference Book Award. He also edited the four-volume Encyclopedia of Twentieth-Century America (Scribner's, 1995) and The Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War (Scribner's, 1995). The Vietnam volume received the A.L.A.'s Best Reference Prize in 1996, and the 20th Century work was awarded the prize for the best reference work by the Association of Book Publishers.

Kutler's book Abuse of Power: The New Nixon Tapes (Free Press, 1997) stemmed from his successful lawsuit against the National Archives and Nixon to force the release of the long-suppressed audio recordings of many conversations that Nixon had secretly recorded during his time in the White House. In 2009, Kutler was accused of errors in editing and transcribing the tapes, which resulted in White House counsel John Dean being portrayed in a more favorable light than was warranted. Kutler denied the charges.

Kutler founded Reviews in American History and edited it from 1972 to 1997.

Kutler wrote op-ed pieces and reviews for many publications and appeared as an occasional commentator on National Public Radio, as well as Today, Nightline, and many other television programs. He also worked as a consultant on a number of film projects, including historical advisor for the Emmy-winning BBC documentary Watergate, and he was advisor for the Showtime film The Day Ronald Reagan Was Shot.

Honors
Kutler has been a Guggenheim Fellow, holder of the Garibaldi Chair in Political Science, University of Bologna, 1991, Distinguished Exchange Scholar (National Science Foundation) for China in 1982, and Fulbright 40th Anniversary Distinguished Lecturer, Peru, in 1987, Bicentennial Professor, Tel Aviv University, Israel, in 1984, and Fulbright Lecturer, Japan, 1977.

Death
In 2015, Kutler died in Fitchburg, Wisconsin aged 80. He is survived by his wife, his three children and seven grandchildren.

References

External links
 Stanley Kutler - Professor Emeritus. University of Wisconsin (archived 2013)

 Stanley Kutler. University of Wisconsin Law School. Accessed 2010-12-22.
 Centennial Alumni Awards -Stanley Kutler '56. Bowling Green State University. Accessed 2010-12-22.

1934 births
2015 deaths
Academic staff of Tel Aviv University
American historians
Jewish American historians
American male non-fiction writers
Bowling Green State University alumni
Ohio State University alumni
21st-century American Jews

Stanley Kutler


In mathematics, the nonmetricity tensor in differential geometry is the covariant derivative of the metric tensor. It is therefore a tensor field of order three. It vanishes for the case of Riemannian geometry and can be
used to study non-Riemannian spacetimes.

Definition
By components, it is defined as follows.

It measures the rate of change of the components of the metric tensor along the flow of a given vector field, since

where  is the coordinate basis of vector fields of the tangent bundle, in the case of having a 4-dimensional manifold.

Relation to connection
We say that a connection  is compatible with the metric when its associated covariant derivative of the metric tensor (call it , for example) is zero, i.e.

If the connection is also torsion-free (i.e. totally symmetric) then it is known as the Levi-Civita connection, which is the only one without torsion and compatible with the metric tensor. If we see it from a geometrical point of view, a non-vanishing nonmetricity tensor for a metric tensor  implies that the modulus of a vector defined on the tangent bundle to a certain point  of the manifold, changes when it is evaluated along the direction (flow) of another arbitrary vector.

References

External links

Differential geometry

Nonmetricity tensor


The Forever Hero is a trilogy of science fiction novels by American writer L. E. Modesitt, Jr. These books were some of the first novels L. E. Modesitt ever published. Like most of his early work, the books are characterised by heavy usage of onomatopoeia, and a tendency to describe the characters by their physical appearance rather than name. The books have been published as both an omnibus and separately. The three novels are Dawn for a Distant Earth (1987), The Silent Warrior (1987), and In Endless Twilight (1988).

In this series, Earth has been destroyed almost totally by overpopulation and the ensuing ecological collapse. Only a fragment of its population survive, and those that survive live in the most primitive conditions. The protagonist, Gerswin, is a primitive, a 'devilkid' who is (inadvertently) captured by the interstellar government and trained in the military. Unique genetic mutations, and the effects of hundreds of years of Natural selection in an exceptionally harsh environment have left Gerswin with exceptional reflexes, enormous physical stamina, as well as, at least initially, a superb memory and incisive intelligence. He is also almost immortal.
His goal is to salvage Earth and return it to its primeval state. He eventually does, and in the process, he destroys an interstellar empire, creates the greatest mercantile empire in history, and instigates the development of biological technology.

Science fiction book series
Novels by L. E. Modesitt Jr.

The Forever Hero


Ceiron Thomas (born 23 October 1983) is a Welsh former rugby union footballer who played for the Scarlets, Leeds Carnegie, Cornish Pirates, and St Ives RFC. His regular position was at fly-half, though he often played at fullback.

Thomas began his rugby career with the Llanelli-based Scarlets, and made his debut for the region in 2003 when he played in a friendly against the Slovenia national team. Llanelli won the game 95–0, scoring 14 tries, with Thomas converting eleven of them. He also scored one penalty, bringing his points total for the game to 25. In the 2003–04 season, Thomas made five appearances for Llanelli, including three in the 2003-04 Celtic League.

However, Thomas did not play for the regional side again until April 2005, almost 18 months after his last appearance. He made three more appearances in the 2004–05 season, before falling out of favour and not making another appearance until April 2006. Again, he only made two more appearances in the 2005–06 season but managed to hold down a place in the side for the 2006–07 Magners League, sharing duties at fullback with Barry Davies and Morgan Stoddart. He made 25 appearances that season, and scored 110 points.

Thomas began the 2007–08 Magners League as the Scarlets' starting fly-half, while regular number 10 Stephen Jones was on Wales duty at the 2007 Rugby World Cup in France, but lost the berth to rival fly-half Rhys Priestland before Jones' return. In the 2008–09 Magners League, Thomas spent much of his time on the bench, playing second-fiddle to Jones and Priestland at fly-half, and the majority of his playing time was spent in other positions, including two starts on the wing in December 2008. Thomas only made six appearances for the Scarlets in 2009, resulting in a transfer to Leeds Carnegie in June 2009.

References

External links

Scarlets profile
Cornish Pirates profile

1983 births
Rugby union players from Swansea
Living people
Welsh rugby union players
Rugby union fly-halves
Scarlets players
Leeds Tykes players
Cornish Pirates players
People educated at Ysgol y Strade

Ceiron Thomas