Pillow to Post is a 1945 romantic comedy film directed by Vincent Sherman, starring Ida Lupino, Sydney Greenstreet and William Prince. Based on the play Pillar to Post by Rose Simon Kohn, it is about a tired traveling saleswoman who goes to great lengths to find a place to sleep during the World War II housing shortage.

Plot
Socialite Jean Howard (Ida Lupino) is stirred to patriotism and eager to help the war effort. When she overhears her father, J. R. Howard (an uncredited Paul Harvey), complain that the military has taken all of the salesmen of his oil rig supply company, she volunteers to take their place. J. R. gives in, though he reminds her that she has never worked a day in her life.

On one business trip, she arrives at a town where the only available place to sleep is a bungalow reserved for married couples. When she is mistaken for the war bride of a lieutenant, she goes along. To register at the Colonial Auto Court, however, she has to produce her "husband". She persuades a very reluctant Lieutenant Don Mallory (William Prince) to help her out, promising it will only take a few minutes of his day off. The couple become trapped in their masquerade as newlyweds when they run into Don's commanding officer, Colonel Michael Otley (Sydney Greenstreet), who lives just a few doors down with his wife.

When Jean goes out to see prospective customer Earl "Slim" Clark (Johnny Mitchell), he insists on taking her out to dinner to discuss the deal. To maintain appearances, Don goes along. The dinner does not go well. While trying to restrain a drunk acquaintance, Slim accidentally knocks Don out and is himself rendered unconscious by the drunk man.

When they return to the auto court, Don and Jean have to sleep under the same roof on their "wedding night". He gives her the bed and sleeps first in the kitchen, which proves too uncomfortable, so he goes outdoors.

Complications ensue when Otley takes an interest in the couple and insists that Don make Jean the beneficiary of his insurance policy and allot her part of his pay. Don's mother also arrives for an early unexpected visit.

During a dinner party given by the Otleys for the couple, the colonel mentions to Jean the impending court martial of another lieutenant who lied about being married. Alarmed, she drinks too much sherry to steady her nerves. While drunk, she privately reveals to Don that she has fallen in love with him.

The charade is finally revealed when the colonel and Don's mother meet. Jean's father also joins the festivities. Fortunately, Lucille (Willie Best), a male auto court employee, tells Otley that he did see Don sleep outside, so the colonel does not press charges. Don decides the thing to do is to get married for real, much to Jean's delight.

Cast
 Ida Lupino as Jean Howard
 Sydney Greenstreet as Colonel Michael Otley
 William Prince as Lieutenant Don Mallory
 Stuart Erwin as Captain Jack Ross
 Johnny Mitchell as Earl "Slim" Clark
 Ruth Donnelly as Mrs. Grace Wingate, manager of the auto court
 Barbara Brown as Mrs. Kate Otley, the colonel's wife
 Frank Orth as Taxi Driver
 Regina Wallace as Mrs. Mallory, Don's mother
 Willie Best as Lucille
 Louis Armstrong and His Orchestra as Themselves at the Tavern
 Dorothy Dandridge appeared as the featured performer

Robert Blake has an uncredited role as a brat at the auto court who likes to drop water bombs on unsuspecting passersby.

References

External links

1945 films
1945 romantic comedy films
American romantic comedy films
American black-and-white films
American films based on plays
Films directed by Vincent Sherman
Films scored by Friedrich Hollaender
Films set on the home front during World War II
Military humor in film
Warner Bros. films
World War II films made in wartime
1940s English-language films

Pillow to Post


The Riasg Buidhe Cross is a cross standing in the gardens of Colonsay House on the Inner Hebridean island of Colonsay, Scotland.  It takes its name from the now abandoned and ruined village of Riasg Buidhe, about  southeast of Colonsay House, where it was found in the nineteenth century.

History
Dating from the 7th or 8th century, the cross stood at Riasg Buidhe in what was recorded as an old burial ground until 1870, when it was taken to Colonsay House close to Kiloran () which was built in 1722.  The cross was placed beside Tobar Oran () and in the vicinity of the now lost Chapel of St. Oran.

One side of the cross shows a solemn face with distinctive eyebrows and ears, below which extends a long thin neck.  The arms of the figure - presumably Christ - are represented by two opposite spirals, and the lower part of the body ends in a fishtail, perhaps referring to the ancient Christian tradition of representing Christ as a fish.

The other side of the cross may be intended to represent a penis, as some have suggested.

References
 David M. Wilson: The Art of the Picts - Sculpture and Metalwork in early medieval Scotland, London,  Thames and Hudson 2004, .
Kevin Byrne: Lonely Colonsay - Island at the Edge, Colonsay, House of Lochar 2010,

External links

Archaeological sites in the Southern Inner Hebrides
Colonsay
Buildings and structures in Argyll and Bute
Scotland in the Early Middle Ages
Monuments and memorials in Scotland

Riasg Buidhe Cross


Acquired homosexuality is the discredited idea that homosexuality can be spread, either through sexual seduction or recruitment by homosexuals, or through exposure to media depicting homosexuality. According to this belief, any child or young person could become homosexual if exposed to it; conversely, through conversion therapy, a homosexual person could be made straight.

Scientific evidence
Although there is not yet complete understanding of the causes of sexual orientation, the evidence supporting biological causes is much stronger than that supporting social factors, and there is little or no evidence supporting the theory that homosexuality can be acquired through sexual contact with homosexual adults. In contrast, there is evidence that homosexual attractions precede behavior, usually by a few years, in most cases. Bailey et al. state, "a belief in the recruitment hypothesis has often been associated with strongly negative attitudes toward homosexual people", and those who make this argument generally do not explain an empirical basis for this belief.

History
In her book Epistemology of the Closet, Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick distinguishes between the minoritizing and universalizing view of sexual orientation; according to the former view, homosexuality is a property of a relatively stable minority, while according to latter view, anyone can potentially engage in homosexuality. The original view was a universalizing one, whereas the ideas about homosexuality being a fixed sexual preference developed in the second half of the nineteenth century, proposed independently by gay activist Karl Heinrich Ulrichs, French psychiatrist Claude-François Michéa, and German physician Johann Ludwig Casper. In the early twentieth century, German sexual science showed that many adolescent boys practiced homosexual behaviors (such as kisses, hugs, caresses, and mutual masturbation) for a few years; healthy development was considered to consist of abandoning them when they were older. It was believed that the incidence of adolescent homosexual behavior had increased after World War I, one of the most popular explanations being that adult homosexual men (either in person or via gay-oriented publications) had caused the increase. This theory was popular among the general public, but also among psychologists and psychiatrists who treated youth.

Based on the theories of Karl Bonhoeffer and Emil Kraepelin, the Nazis believed that homosexuals seduced young men and infected them with homosexuality, permanently changing the sexual orientation and preventing the youth from becoming fathers. Rhetoric described homosexuality as a contagious disease, but not in the medical sense. Rather, homosexuality was a disease of the  (national body), a metaphor for the desired national or racial community (). According to Nazi ideology, individuals' lives were to be subordinated to the  like cells in the human body. Homosexuality was seen as a virus or cancer in the  because it was seen as a threat to the German nation. The SS newspaper Das Schwarze Korps argued that forty thousand homosexuals were capable of "poisoning" two million men if left to roam free.

Consequences
Belief that homosexuality was acquired through sexual contact was one of the ideas fueling the persecution of homosexuals in Nazi Germany. Because of the all-male organizations for boys and young men, such as the Hitler Youth, SA, and SS, the Nazis were afraid that homosexuality would spread rapidly in the absence of a harsh crackdown. The murders of the Night of Long Knives were justified by claims of crushing alleged homosexual cliques in the SA. Adolf Hitler stated afterwards that "every mother should be able to send her son to the SA, Party, or Hitler Youth without fear that he would be ethically or morally corrupted there".

A 2018 study in the United States found that exposing participants to scientific information about the causes of homosexuality did not change support for LGBT rights.

Age of consent laws
Belief that it is possible to become homosexual through sexual contact with a person of the same sex has been cited in order to justify setting the age of consent higher for homosexual acts than heterosexual ones. This was the case in Belgium, the United Kingdom, and Germany both in the Weimar era and in West Germany.

In the 2003 European Court of Human Rights case S. L. v. Austria, the court ruled that "modern science had shown that sexual orientation was already established at the beginning of puberty", therefore discrediting the recruitment argument. The court, therefore, found that the different age of consent for male homosexual relationships was discriminatory and violated the applicant's human rights.

Censorship
The belief that homosexuality can be acquired by reading about it in media has been cited in justification for censorship of LGBT-focused media in the Weimar Republic in the United Kingdom with the Section 28 law intended to prevent young people from learning about homosexuality, and in 21st century Hungary (the Hungarian anti-LGBT law) and Russia (the Russian gay propaganda law).

Employment discrimination
Belief that homosexuality can be acquired has been cited to promote direct occupational bans for known homosexuals, e.g. in education, as well as rejection of anti-discrimination laws covering sexual orientation. In 1977, anti-gay activist Anita Bryant claimed during the Save Our Children campaign, "Homosexuals cannot reproduce, so they must recruit."

Public opinion
In the Weimar Republic, there was a widespread belief among Germans that homosexuality was not inborn but instead acquired. In Russia, a survey found that 61 percent of people believe homosexuality is acquired, while 25 percent believe it is innate.

See also
Rapid onset gender dysphoria controversy

References

Works cited

Homosexuality
Adolescent sexuality
Homophobia
LGBT-related conspiracy theories
Male prostitution
Moral panic
Pederasty
Pseudoscience
Psychological theories
Scientific controversies
Seduction
Sexology
Sexual misconduct allegations
Sexual identity models
Sexual orientation and science
Sexual orientation change efforts
Sexuality and age

Acquired homosexuality


Mynydd Bach Trecastell is a hill on the border between the counties of Carmarthenshire and Powys in southwest Wales. It lies within the Black Mountain range  of the Brecon Beacons National Park and Fforest Fawr Geopark. Its summit is plateau-like and reaches a height of 412m at OS grid ref SN 827312 at Y Pigwn. The name signifies the 'little hill of castle town'.

Geology
The summit of the hill is formed in sandstones and siltstones of the Cae'r Mynach Formation which like all of the rocks are tilted steeply to the southeast as part of a geological structure called the Myddfai Steep Belt. The flaggy micaceous sandstones of the Tilestones Formation immediately overlies these beds and this is followed in turn by the thick sequence of the Raglan Mudstone Formation.  These latter two formations are assigned as the oldest parts of the Old Red Sandstone though date from the Silurian. To the northwest are the various sandstones, mudstones and siltstones of the Aberedw, Hafod Fawr, Cwm Graig Ddu and Halfway Farm Formations. A series of northwest to southeast aligned faults cut through this succession and give rise to minor features in the landscape.

Archaeology

There are several round barrows and a stone circle on Mynydd Bach Trecastell dating to Bronze Age Britain. The Roman roads from CICVCIVM (Y Gaer) to MORIDVNVM (Moridunum, Carmarthen) via Llandovery ran over the hill and evidence of a couple of castras and a Roman fortlet remains on the hill.

Access
Mynydd Bach Trecastell is largely designated as open country and so freely accessible to walkers. The old Roman road provides access onto the hill from the Trecastle direction.

References

External links
 Images of Mynydd Bach Trecastell and surrounding area on Geograph website

Mountains and hills of Carmarthenshire
Mountains and hills of Powys
Black Mountain (hill)

Mynydd Bach Trecastell


Rena Marlette Lesnar ( Greek, formerly Mero; born August 8, 1967), better known as Sable, is an American former model, actress, and retired professional wrestler. She is primarily known for her time in the WWE. She began working for the WWF in 1996. As Sable, she gained immense popularity during the Attitude Era. After feuding with Luna Vachon, and Jacqueline, Sable became the second WWF Women's Champion after the title was reinstated into the company. After leaving the company in 1999, she filed a $110 million lawsuit against the company, citing allegations of sexual harassment and unsafe working conditions.

In 2003, she returned to WWE and was put into a feud with Torrie Wilson, and another storyline as Vince McMahon's mistress. In 2004, she left the company to spend more time with her family. Outside wrestling, she is considered to be a sex symbol and has been featured on the cover of Playboy three times. The April 1999 issue of the magazine with her on the cover was one of the highest selling issues in Playboy history. She has guest starred on several television series, including Pacific Blue, and appeared in the film Corky Romano.

Early life
Rena Greek was born in Jacksonville, Florida. She was active in her youth and was interested in activities such as gymnastics, horseback riding, and softball. After winning her first beauty pageant when she was twelve, she eventually became a model in 1990, working with companies such as L'Oréal, Pepsi, and Guess?.

Professional wrestling career

World Wrestling Federation

Debut and feud with Marc Mero (1996–1998)
She made her World Wrestling Federation debut as Sable at WrestleMania XII in March 1996, escorting Hunter Hearst Helmsley to the ring as he took on the returning Ultimate Warrior. Sable's first major angle involved her then real-life husband, who debuted at WrestleMania XII as "Wildman" Marc Mero. The storyline started when Marc Mero witnessed Sable being mistreated by Helmsley backstage, so Mero attacked Helmsley and took Sable as his manager, and taking on an appearance of a typical cocky biker thug. She remained Mero's manager until his injury in 1997. Between 1997 and the time he returned from his injury in 1998, Sable became popular on her own. In her next storyline, a returning Marc Mero (now known as "Marvelous" Marc Mero) became jealous, refused to let Sable get any of the spotlight, and mistreated her. The duo entered into a feud with Luna Vachon and The Artist Formerly Known as Goldust, which climaxed in a match at WrestleMania XIV in March 1998. Sable delivered a superkick to Goldust and executed a "Sable Bomb", a release powerbomb, on Luna. She also delivered a TKO and pinned Luna to finish the match, with the crowd chanting Sable's name in the background. At the following pay-per-view event, Unforgiven in April 1998, Sable lost to Luna in an Evening Gown match after being distracted by Marc Mero.

After Marc's interference at Unforgiven, Sable came to the ring and challenged Marc to a match. Sable then kicked him in the groin and delivered a Sable Bomb to get revenge. Sable eventually broke away from "Marvelous" Marc Mero, who debuted Jacqueline as his new manager, resulting in a storyline feud between the two women. The two met in a bikini contest in July 1998 at Fully Loaded. Sable, only wearing impressions of hands painted on her exposed breasts, won the contest after receiving the most cheers from the audience. The next night on Raw however, Vince McMahon disqualified Sable from the previous night's contest since she did not actually wear a bikini, and the trophy was then awarded to Jacqueline. In response, Sable gave McMahon the double finger. At SummerSlam, Sable and her mystery partner, federation newcomer Edge, defeated Marc Mero and Jacqueline in a mixed tag team match.

Women's Champion (1998–1999)

Sable and Jacqueline faced off for the newly reinstated WWF Women's Title on the edition of September 21, 1998 of Raw. Jacqueline claimed the title after Marc Mero interfered. On November 15, 1998, at Survivor Series, she dropped the title to Sable, who won after powerbombing both Marc and Jacqueline during the match. During this time, Rena appeared on an episode of the USA Network show Pacific Blue. Sable then briefly entered a storyline where she was forced to play a subservient role to Vince and Shane McMahon, but the storyline was cut short.

In December 1998, as part of a new storyline, Sable was attacked by a masked villainess named Spider Lady, who turned out to be Luna Vachon. Sable defeated Luna in a Strap match at the Royal Rumble after an assist from a planted female Sable fan, WWF newcomer Tori. Tori's debut signified a change in Sable's persona. After the Rumble, Sable was the cover girl for the April 1999 issue of Playboy, one of the highest selling issues of Playboy ever. Surrounding the release of the issue, the Sable character turned heel by "going Hollywood" and having an inflated ego. She debuted a new catchphrase: "This is for all the women who want to be me and all the men who come to see me" and a dance move called "the grind." Rarely defending her title, Sable continually berated her fan Tori, leading to a feud and a match at WrestleMania XV. During the contest, Nicole Bass debuted as Sable's bodyguard and helped her win the match. Sable also feuded with Luna Vachon, who had turned face.

Sable went on with Bass making Bass do all of her dirty work. Sable continued to hold the championship for almost six months, but on May 10, 1999, Debra won the Women's Championship from Sable in an Evening Gown match. Normally in an Evening Gown match, the winner is the woman who forcibly removes her opponent's dress, which Sable did. As part of the storyline, WWF Commissioner Shawn Michaels, however, ruled that the woman who had lost her dress was the winner, making Debra the new Women's Champion.  Off-screen, Sable was in a dispute with the WWF, which is why she was stripped of the title on-screen. Sable at this time was also very unpopular backstage, to the extent that Sean Waltman has since admitted to playing a nasty practical joke on her last day with the WWF.

Post–WWF (1999–2002)
In June 1999, Sable quit the WWF and filed a $110 million lawsuit against the company, citing allegations of sexual harassment and unsafe working conditions. She claims to have filed the lawsuit after refusing to go topless. During the lawsuit, Vince McMahon counter-sued her over control of the stagename "Sable". Sable reduced the amount she was seeking in damages, and they eventually settled out of court in August 1999. Sable used her real name for her appearance in the September 1999 issue of Playboy. She was the first woman in history to be given two Playboy covers in the same year. After her WWF exit, she made an on-camera appearance as an audience member on World Championship Wrestling's Monday Nitro on June 14, 1999.

During this time, she made appearances on The Howard Stern Show and Late Night with Conan O'Brien. She also made appearances on television shows such as Relic Hunter and First Wave and in the films Corky Romano as a female bouncer and Ariana's Quest. She released her autobiography, entitled Undefeated in August 2000. She also released a comic book entitled The 10th Muse starring herself as a superhero. In May 2001, she was given an advice column on CompuServe. On November 13 and 14, 2001, she appeared as the on-camera "CEO" of the newly formed Xcitement Wrestling Federation (XWF), but these were her only appearances with the company.

Return to WWE

Relationship with Vince McMahon (2003)

Rena Mero returned to the WWF, which is now known as World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) on April 3, 2003, episode of SmackDown!, reprising her role as Sable. Sable continued portraying a villainess and spent several months in a storyline with new Playboy cover girl Torrie Wilson. During their angle, the evil Sable followed Wilson down to her matches, talked with her backstage, and on one occasion, she left Wilson in a tag match alone to fend for herself. Sable eventually challenged Wilson to a showdown bikini contest at Judgment Day. After Sable got the bigger applause, Wilson removed her underwear to reveal an even smaller bikini underneath, and Special Guest Referee Tazz declared Wilson the winner. After the match, Wilson went up to Sable and kissed her before exiting the ring. Sable then had an altercation with the guest judge Tazz, dumping water on him on the following edition of SmackDown!, as a means of gaining revenge for declaring Wilson the winner.

Sable then feuded with Stephanie McMahon in a storyline in which she was Vince McMahon's mistress. Vince appointed Sable as Stephanie's personal assistant against Stephanie's will, sparking the feud between the duo. During the feud, they competed in several catfights, a food fight, a parking lot brawl in which Sable's bra was ripped off, revealing both her breasts on live television, and a match in which Sable smacked a clipboard over Stephanie's head. At Vengeance, Sable defeated Stephanie after interference by her new ally, A-Train. At SummerSlam, Sable accompanied A-Train in his match against The Undertaker, which he lost. After the match, The Undertaker held Sable so that Stephanie could use a Spear attack on her. After SummerSlam, Vince and Sable focused on getting rid of Stephanie for good, so Vince made an "I Quit" match at No Mercy. During the match, Sable slapped Stephanie and was involved in a scuffle with Linda McMahon.

Various storylines (2004)
Sable briefly became a face again when she appeared on the cover of Playboy magazine (March 2004 issue) for the third time in her career. On the cover, she appeared with fellow diva Torrie Wilson, making them the first WWE Divas to pose in Playboy together. Surrounding the release of the cover, the duo feuded with Raw divas Stacy Keibler and Miss Jackie, even though all four women were faces at the time. The two teams squared off at WrestleMania XX in an Interpromotional Tag Team Evening Gown match, but the divas started the match in their underwear, making it more of a lingerie match. Sable and Wilson were victorious. The change was rumored to have occurred because Sable had suffered damage to her breast implants while weightlifting.

Following WrestleMania XX, Sable quickly turned heel again and engaged in another short feud with Torrie Wilson. The feud culminated at The Great American Bash, where Sable defeated Wilson despite the referee not noticing that one of Wilson's shoulders were not down. On the edition of July 1 of SmackDown, Sable was defeated by Wilson in a rematch..In The July 22, 2004 episode Of SmackDown! she was originally competed in a Fatal-4-Way lingerie match, against Wilson, Dawn Marie and Miss Jackie but Kurt Angle appeared fired all four of them (Kayfabe), however all four where re-signed after Angle was fired as General Manager of SmackDown! by Vince McMahon, Sable's final appearance in WWE was on the August 5, 2004 episode of SmackDown! when she, Marie, and Wilson accompanied Eddie Guerrero to the ring in his lowrider and mocking Angle, turning face again. On August 10, 2004, WWE's official website announced that Sable and WWE had parted ways, this time on good terms. Lesnar claimed that she left the company to spend more time with her family.

New Japan Pro-Wrestling (2006–2007)
She made her debut for New Japan Pro-Wrestling on January 4, 2006, at Toukon Shidou Chapter 1, along with Brock Lesnar as special guests, and continued to accompany Lesnar until late June 2007. Sable and Lesnar later departed from the company after Lesnar battled WWE in a lawsuit.

Other media

Playboy and video games
Sable made her video game debut in the WWE game WWF Attitude, and appears in WWE SmackDown! Here Comes the Pain and WWE SmackDown! vs. Raw. She also appeared in the April 1999, September 1999, and March 2004 issues of Playboy, the latter with Torrie Wilson.

Filmography

Personal life
Rena married Wayne W. Richardson in 1987. They had a daughter named Mariah, and remained married until Richardson died in a drunk driving incident in 1991. She met her second husband, professional wrestler and former boxer Marc Mero, in 1993. After marrying Mero in 1994, she broke into the wrestling business through WWE. Before the couple divorced in 2004, Greek began dating professional wrestler Brock Lesnar, to whom she became engaged later that year. Their engagement was called off in early 2005, but they were engaged again in January 2006 and were married on May 6, 2006. They have two sons named Turk (born June 3, 2009) and Duke (born July 21, 2010).

Championships and accomplishments
 World Wrestling Federation
 WWF Women's Championship (1 time)
 Slammy Award (2 time)
 Dressed to Kill (1997)
 Miss Slammy (1997)
 Milton Bradley Karate Fighters Holiday Tournament Champion (December 16, 1996)

References

Notes

External links

 WWE alumni profile
 Online World of Wrestling profile

1967 births
American expatriate sportspeople in Canada
American female professional wrestlers
American film actresses
American television actresses
Living people
People from Jacksonville, Florida
Professional wrestlers from Florida
Professional wrestling managers and valets
Sportspeople from Jacksonville, Florida
WWF/WWE Women's Champions
20th-century female professional wrestlers

Sable (wrestler)


James Van Pelt (born 1954 in Akron, Ohio) is an American science fiction author who began publishing in the mid-90s. He is also a teacher in the language arts department at Fruita Monument High School in Fruita, Colorado. He is also the former advisor of The Catalyst, the student-run monthly magazine of Fruita Monument High School.

Biography

In 1999, Van Pelt was a finalist for the John W. Campbell Award for Best New Writer. "The Last of the O-Forms" (2002), a short story, was a finalist for the Nebula Award. "The Inn at Mount Either," (2005), a short story, was a finalist for the Theodore Sturgeon Award for Best Short Story from 2005.  He has also been nominated for the Analog Anlab Reader's Award, the Asimov's Reader's Poll Award, and the Locus Poll Award.

He has had many short stories published, some of which have been re-published in his three short story collections, Strangers and Beggars, The Last of the O-Forms and Other Stories, and The Radio Magician and Other Stories.  Strangers and Beggars, the first collection, was recognized as a Best Books for Young Adults by the American Library Association. Several of his stories have been reprinted in various Best of the Year anthologies.

His first novel, Summer of the Apocalypse, was released from Fairwood Press in October 2006.

He received his B.A. from Metro State College in Denver, Colorado in 1978 and later  his M.A. from University of California at Davis in 1990. He currently lives in western Colorado, where he teaches English at Fruita Monument High School and Mesa State college

Bibliography

Novels
 Summer of the Apocalypse (Fairwood Press, Oct 2006)
 Pandora's Gun (Fairwood Press, Apr 2015)

Collections
 Strangers and Beggars (Fairwood Press, July 2002)
 The Last of the O-Forms and Other Stories (Fairwood Press, Aug 2005)
 "The Radio Magician and Other Stories" (Fairwood Press, May 2009)

Short fiction
 "Nor a Lender Be" (Analog, Feb 1999)
 "Ark Ascension" (Analog, Dec 1999)
 "The Comeback" (Analog, April 2000)
 "Friday, After the Game" (Analog, Oct 2000)
 "Resurrection" (Analog, Jan 2001)
 "What Weena Knew" (Analog, April 2001)
 "The Infodict" (Asimov's, Aug 2001)
 "The Invisible Empire" (The Children of Cthulhu, Jan 2002)
 "Perceptual Set" (Analog, Jan 2002)
 "The Safety of the Herd" (Asimov's, Jan 2002)
 "A Flock of Birds" (SCI FICTION, Aug 2002)
 "Far From the Emerald Isle" (Analog, Sep 2002)
 "The Last of the O-Forms" (Asimov's, Sep 2002) (Nebula Award finalist)
 "Sacrifice" (Paradox, Summer 2003)
 "The Long Way Home" (Asimov's, Sep 2003)
 "Echoing" (Asimov's, Dec 2004)
 "The Inn at Mount Either" (Analog, May 2005)
 "The Ice-Cream Man" (Asimov's, June 2005)
 Just Before Recess (Flash Fiction Online, Mar 2008)

External links
 James Van Pelt (Author of Summer of the Apocalypse) | Goodreads
 James Van Pelt's Home Page: Writer
 James Van Pelt's Live Journal
 "A Flock of Birds" by James Van Pelt
 "Parallel Highways" by James Van Pelt
 "The Hurt Club" by James Van Pelt
 "Placing "SFWA Member" on Your Cover Letter: Will It Help Sell Your Story?" by James Van Pelt

1954 births
Living people
21st-century American novelists
American male novelists
American science fiction writers
American male short story writers
Asimov's Science Fiction people
University of California, Davis alumni
21st-century American short story writers
21st-century American male writers

James Van Pelt


The Bramble Cay melomys, or Bramble Cay mosaic-tailed rat (Melomys rubicola), is an extinct species of rodent in the family Muridae.  While it was similar to the Cape York melomys it had some protein differences and a coarser tail. It was genetically different to species from Australia and New Guinea. It lived in burrows it had dug among plants, or under branches and leaves on the ground. It was a nocturnal animal, and scientists believe it was a vegetarian.

The Bramble Cay melomys was known only from a small population in Bramble Cay, a vegetated coral cay of . The cay is in the eastern part of Torres Strait, off the northern tip of Australia. It is only 50 km from New Guinea. The melomys were probably trapped on the island by rising sea levels after the last ice age. It is also possible to have come from the Fly River, perhaps floating on branches. Scientists do not know much about the animals that live in the Fly River area.

In the 1800s, there were lots of melomys on the island. A search in 1998 found 42 animals. Another search in 2002 found 10 animals. In 2004 a search found 12, but the melomys have not been seen since. During this time, the sea level has risen, making the island smaller, and turtles and sea birds have eaten most of the plants. Scientists believe the Bramble Cay melomys is extinct. It is possible that the species may be found on nearby islands as many of these have never been searched. However, in June 2016, researchers from  Queensland's Department of Environment and Heritage Protection, and the University of Queensland reported that the species had indeed become extinct.

References

Mammals of Australia
Old World rats and mice

Bramble Cay melomys


The Conservative Science & Technology Forum is a United Kingdom think tank and policy advisory body that consults industry, academia and other key figures on important (often emerging) technological and societal issues and puts these into mainstream political context.

Originally called just the Conservative Technology Forum, it grew out of the Conservative Computer Forum (founded in 1978), was relaunched in May 2011 and is affiliated to the Conservative Party. As the Conservative Technology Forum, its mandate was to research key technology subjects, how these impact society and to inform Conservative Party policy in UK and European contexts.

In October 2017, the forum expanded its remit to cover science and changed its name to the current title.

Governance
The Conservative Science & Technology Forum describes itself as existing to "identify and discuss the industrial, economic and social benefits of recent technological advances in the UK" and to "contribute to shaping the Party's science & technology policies, and provide information and research support to Conservative Ministers or Spokesmen for Technology."

Its predecessor, the Conservative Computer Forum, formed from a merger of the party contact list with senior members of the computer and communications industries and a Bow Group team looking at policy towards the computer industry, was active from 1978 to 1986. During this time it was the source of policies such as Telecoms Liberalisation and Privatisation, the Micros in Schools Programme and IT Year. The publications authored by its members, usually published via CPC or the Bow Group included "Cashing in on the Chips" (CPC), "The Big Steal (Bow Group), "Learning for Change" (Bow Group), "No End of Jobs" (CPC) and "Training for jobs not just jobs for Trainers".

After it was relaunched as the Conservative Technology Forum, with a remit to cover advanced technologies in general, a centre-right, policy "think tank", 'Aediles', chaired by Malcolm Harbour MEP and directed by Simon Moores, was also formed, in 2002. Its main publication to date is "Computerising the Chinese Army" (on the state of computing in the NHS), using expertise from both ICT and Health Care industries.

The Forum has also produced a public "manifesto" in advance of each general election, alongside private submissions to those working on the main party manifesto.

The Forum was restructured after the 2010 election and the formation of a coalition, in the light of lessons learned after the 1979 General Election, when policy work within the party atrophied because those involved were elected or became special advisors and the consequent focus was on influencing or defend short-term "government policy", as opposed to longer-term "party policy". The current focus is on generating ideas and material for the Conservative Manifesto for 2015, on helping the Forum's parliamentary members to get re-elected and on providing expert speakers, bloggers and other inputs to advance and inform political debate. That entails putting technology issues, such as broadband, successful systems delivery, professionalism and skills, smart metering, smart grid, privacy and surveillance, into mainstream political context, including industry and economic policy.

As at April 2018 the leadership consists of:
 President: Adam Afriyie
 Deputy Presidents: Vicky Ford, Ashley Fox
 Vice Presidents: Kit Malthouse, John Stevenson, Ralph Palmer, Jeremy Quin, Chris Holmes, Matt Warman, Nick Wood-Dow, Malcolm Harbour, Philip Virgo, Peter Farmer, Simon Moores
 Chairman: Andrew Henderson
 Deputy Chairman: Chris Francis
 Vice Chairman: Jack Matthews
 Honorary Treasurer: Dominic Connor
 Honorary Auditor: Michael Stern
 Secretary: Will Archdeacon
 Membership: Neil Stinchcombe

References

External links
 Conservative Science & Technology Forum Website

1978 establishments in the United Kingdom
Information technology organisations based in the United Kingdom
Organisations associated with the Conservative Party (UK)
Think tanks based in the United Kingdom
Think tanks established in 1978

Conservative Science & Technology Forum


Cripplegate was a gate in the London Wall which once enclosed the City of London, England.

The Cripplegate gate lent its name to the Cripplegate ward of the City, which encompasses the area where the gate and the former city wall once stood. The ward is divided into two parts: Cripplegate Within and Cripplegate Without, a division that originated from the gate and wall. Each part has a designated  beadle and a deputy (alderman). Following boundary changes in 1994 (City) and 2003 (ward), the majority of the ward now falls within Cripplegate Without, as the ward of Bassishaw has expanded significantly into the Cripplegate Within area.

Until World War II, the area approximating to Cripplegate Without was commonly known as simply Cripplegate.  The area was almost entirely destroyed in the Blitz of World War II, causing the term to fall out of colloquial speech. Cripplegate Without is the site of the Barbican Estate and Barbican Centre, with a small part of these lying in neighbouring Aldersgate Without.

The gate

The origins of the gate's name are unclear. One theory, bolstered by a mentioning of the gate in the fourth law code of Æthelred the Unready and a charter of William the Conqueror from 1068 under the name "Crepelgate", is that it takes its name from the Anglo-Saxon word crepel, meaning a covered or underground passageway.

Another unsubstantiated theory suggests it is named after the cripples who used to beg there.  The name of the nearby medieval church of St Giles-without-Cripplegate lends credence to this suggestion as Saint Giles is the patron saint of cripples and lepers.

History of the gate
It was initially the northern gate to the Roman city walls, built around AD 120 or 150,  eighty years before the rest of the wall was completed. It appeared to have been used as part of the Roman city walls until at least the 10th-11th centuries. Cripplegate was rebuilt during the 1490s and was unhinged and fortified with a portcullis after Charles II became king in 1660. It was eventually demolished in 1760; much of Cripplegate was gone by the 19th century and only small fragments of it survive today.

The ward

Cripplegate is one of the 25 ancient wards of the City of London, each electing an alderman to the Court of Aldermen and commoners (the City equivalent of a councillor) to the Court of Common Council of the City of London Corporation. Only electors who are Freemen of the City are eligible to stand. In the early 12th century, the area was originally referred to as Alwoldii which was probably the name of the current alderman. The early records are unreliable as regards who the Aldermen were, but from 1286 there is a more reliable list of Aldermen available.

The modern City of London spreads across a square mile of land and remains divided into 25 geographic areas, or 'wards'. Four of these wards (Aldersgate, Portsoken, Queenhithe and Cripplegate), are described as 'residential' as they contain the vast majority of all City residents.

Geography
The Ward of Cripplegate provides part of the Northern edge of the City and stretches from just below Old Street, down to London Wall at its southern tip, where it meets the Ward of Bassishaw. To the west is the Ward of Aldersgate and on the Eastern edge is Coleman Street.

The 2003 Ward Boundary Review recommended some significant changes for a number of wards and these were eventually implemented in 2013.

The Cripplegate Ward boundary used to extend a great deal further south, all the way down to Cheapside in fact. The ward was home to the halls of six livery companies and now only one remains (the Barber-Surgeons in Monkwell Square).

Each ward is represented by an assembly called the 'Court of Common Council'. This consists of 100 common councilmen and 25 alderman (one for each Ward). The number of councilmen allocated to each particular ward is based on the size of the electorate and where Cripplegate used to warrant twelve members of council it is now reduced to nine.

The ward is promoted by the Cripplegate Ward Club. Founded in 1878, The Cripplegate Ward Club is a social organisation, encouraging its members to take an interest in the civic affairs of the City, while also supporting appeals and charitable activities. Cripplegate is among the busiest of the 20-plus ward clubs in the City of London, with a varied programme of events throughout the year.

The gate's name is preserved in the church of St Giles-without-Cripplegate which is sited immediately outside the site of the former gate.

A small road named Cripplegate Street lies slightly to the north of the site of the gate between Viscount Street and Bridgewater Street.

History of the ward
The wards of London appear to have taken shape in the 11th century, before the Norman Conquest. Their administrative, judicial and military purpose made them equivalent to Hundreds in the countryside. The primary purpose of wards like Cripplegate, which included a gate, appears to have been the defence of the gate, as gates were the weakest points in any fortification.

Cripplegate Without was, in the 11th, 12th and possibly later centuries, part of an area outside the northern wall called the Soke of Cripplegate, held by the church of St. Martin's Le Grand.

In 1068, a burial site, where Jewin Street now stands, was the only place in England where Jews were permitted to be buried. Those living elsewhere in the country were forced, at great expense and inconvenience, to bring their dead there.

The philosopher Thomas More, writer of Utopia, was born on Milk Street in 1478.

In 1555, John Gresham endowed the new Gresham's School in Norfolk with three tenements in the parish of St. Giles Without Cripplegate, including 'The White Hind' and 'The Peacock'.

During the Second World War, the Cripplegate area, a centre of the rag trade, was virtually destroyed and by 1951 the resident population of the City stood at only 5,324, of whom 48 lived in Cripplegate. Discussions began in 1952 about the future of the area, and the decision to build new residential properties was taken by the Court of Common Council on 19 September 1957. The area was reopened as the Barbican Estate in 1969.

Tranter's Hotel was located at 6–9 Bridgewater Square, in a Georgian building with 60 rooms available, not far from today's Beech Street, before being destroyed by the World War II bombs.

It was advertised in a number of periodicals and magazines between 1887 and 1919 as a very centrally located, family and commercial, temperance-friendly hotel, convenient for St Paul's Cathedral and Aldersgate station, for business and pleasure.

Politics
Current elected representatives in Cripplegate are David Graves (Alderman), Mark Bostock, David Bradshaw, Mary Durcan, Vivienne Littlechild, Susan Pearson, William Pimlott, Stephen Quilter and John Tomlinson.

In the 2017 City-wide Common Council elections, the Labour Party won two seats in Cripplegate ward with local residents Mary Durcan and William Pimlott making Labour gains. The Labour Party won a record total of five seats on the Common Council in March 2017 winning two seats in Portsoken, two seats in Cripplegate ward and one seat in Aldersgate ward.

Following a boundary change in 1994, the Golden Lane Estate was transferred from Islington to the City, and so Cripplegate is today the most populous of the four residential wards of the City, with a population of 2,782 (2011).

Other uses

Cripplegate Foundation
Cripplegate Foundation is a registered charity and local grant-making foundation supporting residents in the London borough of Islington and a small area of the City of London. The Foundation's vision is of a society where everyone can live a rewarding and fulfilled life, free from poverty and inequality.

Cripplegate Foundation works to improve access to opportunities for everyone and to make lasting change. They do this by:

 listening to, and learning from, local people and communities,
 raising funds and making grants, and
 working in partnership with local people and organisations.

As a place-based funder, Cripplegate Foundation's grants and programmes are available to Islington groups and residents based on their respective criteria. These include Islington Council's Community Chest, Islington's Resident Support Scheme (RSS), the Catalyst Programme, and Islington Giving funds.

As well as awarding grants, Cripplegate Foundation offers a range of resources to Islington's residents and voluntary organisations. These include innovative and practical research, advice and support, How Not What, a key outcome of the Development Partner programme, and office space available for booking by Islington voluntary groups.

History of Cripplegate Foundation
The Foundation dates its origins to the donation of £40 "to provide trousers for local people" on 2 April 1500. However it was only in 1891 that various local trusts were consolidated into the Cripplegate Foundation by the London Parochial Charities Act. Between 1896 and 1973 the foundation ran the Cripplegate Institute at the southern end of Golden Lane, a handsome 'peoples palace' designed by architect Sidney Smith which contained a theatre and concert hall, a library free to residents and offices for social workers and from which grants to groups and individuals were given. The building was listed in 1987 but was sold by the Foundation and subsequently completely gutted by Swiss Bank UBS for its own offices.
From 1 April 2008 the area of benefit was expanded to include Islington. John Gilbert is the chair of the foundation, having been on the board of governors since 2005.

Cripplegate Bank
The Cripplegate Savings Bank was established in 1819 as a joint stock bank, then re-registered as Cripplegate Bank Ltd in 1879, and finally renamed London, Commercial & Cripplegate Bank Ltd in 1900.
In between 1876-1906 the Cripplegate Bank was located at 31 and then 1 Whitecross Street, before been incorporated into the Union Bank of London, and finally been liquidated.

In popular culture
The second wedding in the film Four Weddings and a Funeral takes place in the fictional church of St. Mary of the Fields, Cripplegate, EC2. It was filmed in the chapel of the Royal Naval College, Greenwich.

Cripplegate makes an appearance in the 2020 video game, Assassin's Creed: Valhalla as one of the restricted areas in London.

See also
Fortifications of London
London
Morning Exercises
 Grub Street

References

Old and New London and A New History of London — two historical sources on the ward from British History Online
Map of Early Modern London:  Cripplegate Ward - Historical Map and Encyclopedia of Shakespeare's London(Scholarly)

External links
Cripplegate Ward Club - The Social Club and Ward website for the Cripplegate Ward based in the City of London
City of London Corporation Map of Cripplegate ward (2003 —)
The City of London Corporation  - The Official government website for the City of London. This encompasses all 25 Wards including the Cripplegate Ward

Buildings and structures demolished in 1760
London Wall and its gates
Wards of the City of London
Streets in the City of London
Barbican Estate

Cripplegate


Mammoth Cave National Park is a national park in south-central Kentucky, encompassing portions of Mammoth Cave, the longest cave system known in the world. The park's  are located primarily in Edmonson County, with small areas extending eastward into Hart and Barren counties. The Green River runs through the park, with a tributary called the Nolin River feeding into the Green just inside the park.

The cave system has formally been known as the Mammoth–Flint Ridge Cave System since 1972, when a connection was discovered between Mammoth Cave and the even-longer system under Flint Ridge to the north. As of 2022, more than  of passageways had been surveyed, over 1.5 times longer than the second-longest cave system, Mexico's Sac Actun underwater cave.

The park was established as a national park on July 1, 1941, after oft-contentious eminent-domain proceedings whose consequences still affect the region. It was named a World Heritage Site on October 27, 1981; an international Biosphere Reserve on September 26, 1990; and an International Dark Sky Park on October 28, 2021.

Park purpose

As stated in the foundation document:

Geology
Mammoth Cave developed in thick Mississippian-aged limestone strata capped by a layer of sandstone, which has made the system remarkably stable. It is known to include more than  of passageway. New discoveries and connections add several miles to this figure each year. Mammoth Cave National Park was established to preserve the cave system.

The upper sandstone member is known as the Big Clifty Sandstone. Thin, sparse layers of limestone interspersed within the sandstone give rise to an epikarstic zone, in which tiny conduits (cave passages too small to enter) are dissolved by the natural acidity of groundwater. The epikarstic zone concentrates local flows of runoff into high-elevation springs which emerge at the edges of ridges. The resurgent water from these springs typically flows briefly on the surface before sinking underground again at elevation of the contact between the sandstone caprock and the underlying massive limestones. It is in these underlying massive limestone layers that the human-explorable caves of the region have naturally developed.

The limestone layers of the stratigraphic column beneath the Big Clifty, in increasing order of depth below the ridgetops, are the Girkin Formation, the Ste. Genevieve Limestone, and the St. Louis Limestone. For example, the large Main Cave passage seen on the Historic Tour is located at the bottom of the Girkin and the top of the Ste. Genevieve Formation.

Each of the primary layers of limestone is divided further into named geological units and sub-units. One area of cave research involves correlating the stratigraphy with the cave survey produced by explorers. This makes it possible to produce  approximate three-dimensional maps of the contours of the various layer boundaries without the necessity for test wells and extracting core samples.

The upper sandstone caprock is relatively hard for water to penetrate: the exceptions are where vertical cracks occur. This protective role means that many of the older, upper passages of the cave system are very dry, with no stalactites, stalagmites, or other formations which require flowing or dripping water to develop.

However, the sandstone caprock layer has been dissolved and eroded at many locations within the park, such as the Frozen Niagara room. The contact between limestone and sandstone can be found by hiking from the valley bottoms to the ridgetops: typically, as one approaches the top of a ridge, one sees the outcrops of exposed rock change in composition from limestone to sandstone at a well-defined elevation.

At one valley bottom in the southern region of the park, a massive sinkhole has developed. Known as Cedar Sink, the sinkhole features a small river entering one side and disappearing back underground at the other side.

Visiting

The National Park Service offers several cave tours to visitors. Some notable features of the cave, such as Grand Avenue, Frozen Niagara, and Fat Man's Misery, can be seen on lighted tours ranging from one to six hours in length. Two tours, lit only by visitor-carried paraffin lamps, are popular alternatives to the electric-lit routes. Several "wild" tours venture away from the developed parts of the cave into muddy crawls and dusty tunnels.

The Echo River Tour, one of the cave's most famous attractions, took visitors on a boat ride along an underground river. The tour was discontinued for logistic and environmental reasons in the early 1990s.

Mammoth Cave headquarters and visitor center is located on Mammoth Cave Parkway. The park can be accessed directly from I-65 at Exit 48. The parkway connects with Kentucky Route 70 from the north and Kentucky Route 255 from the south within the park.

History

Prehistory

The story of human beings in relation to Mammoth Cave spans five thousand years. Several sets of Native American remains have been recovered from Mammoth Cave, or other nearby caves in the region, in both the 19th and 20th centuries. Most mummies found represent examples of intentional burial, with ample evidence of pre-Columbian funerary practice.

An exception to purposeful burial was discovered when in 1935 the remains of an adult male were discovered under a large boulder. The boulder had shifted and settled onto the victim, a pre-Columbian miner, who had disturbed the rubble supporting it. The remains of the ancient victim were named "Lost John" and exhibited to the public into the 1970s, when they were interred in a secret location in Mammoth Cave for reasons of preservation as well as emerging political sensitivities with respect to the public display of Native American remains.

Research beginning in the late 1950s led by Patty Jo Watson, of Washington University in St. Louis has done much to illuminate the lives of the late Archaic and early Woodland peoples who explored and exploited caves in the region. Preserved by the constant cave environment, dietary evidence yielded carbon dates enabling Watson and others to determine the age of the specimens. An analysis of their content, also pioneered by Watson, allows determination of the relative content of plant and meat in the diet of either culture over a period spanning several thousand years. This analysis indicates a timed transition from a hunter-gatherer culture to plant domestication and agriculture.

Another technique employed in archaeological research, at Mammoth Cave, was "experimental archaeology" in which modern explorers were sent into the cave using the same technology as that employed by the ancient cultures whose leftover implements lie discarded in many parts of the cave. The goal was to gain insight into the problems faced by the ancient people who explored the cave, by placing the researchers in a similar physical situation.

Ancient human remains and artifacts within the caves are protected by various federal and state laws. One of the most basic facts to be determined about a newly discovered artifact is its precise location and situation. Even slightly moving a prehistoric artifact contaminates it from a research perspective. Explorers are properly trained not to disturb archaeological evidence, and some areas of the cave remain out-of-bounds for even seasoned explorers, unless the subject of the trip is archaeological research on that area.

Besides the remains that have been discovered in the portion of the cave accessible through the Historic Entrance of Mammoth Cave, the remains of cane torches used by Native Americans, as well as other artifacts such as drawings, gourd fragments, and woven grass moccasin slippers are found in the Salts Cave section of the system in Flint Ridge.

Though there is undeniable proof of their existence and use of the cave, there is no evidence of further use past the archaic period. Experts and scientists have no answer as to why this is, making it one of the greatest mysteries of Mammoth Cave to this day.

Earliest written history
The  tract known as the "Pollard Survey" was sold by indenture on September 10, 1791 in Philadelphia by William Pollard.  of the "Pollard Survey" between the North bank of Bacon Creek and the Green River were purchased by Thomas Lang, Jr., a British American merchant from Yorkshire, England on June 3, 1796, for £4,116/13s/0d (£4,116.65). The land was lost to a local county tax claim during the War of 1812.

Legend has it that the first European to visit Mammoth Cave was either John Houchin or his brother Francis Houchin, in 1797. While hunting, Houchin pursued a wounded bear to the cave's large entrance opening near the Green River. Some Houchin Family tales have John Decatur "Johnny Dick" Houchin as the discoverer of the cave, but this is highly unlikely because Johnny Dick was only 10 years old in 1797 and was unlikely to be out hunting bears at such an age. His father John is the more likely candidate from that branch of the family tree, but the most probable candidate for discoverer of Mammoth Cave is Francis "Frank" Houchin, whose land was much closer to the cave entrance than his brother John's. There is also the argument that their brother Charles Houchin, who was known as a great hunter and trapper, was the man who shot that bear and chased it into the cave. The shadow over Charles's claim is the fact that he was residing in Illinois until 1801. Contrary to this story is Brucker and Watson's The Longest Cave, which asserts that the cave was "certainly known before that time." Caves in the area were known before the discovery of the entrance to Mammoth Cave. Even Francis Houchin had a cave entrance on his land very near the bend in the Green River known as the Turnhole, which is less than a mile from the main entrance of Mammoth Cave.

The land containing this historic entrance was first surveyed and registered in 1798 under the name of Valentine Simons. Simons began exploiting Mammoth Cave for its saltpeter reserves.

According to family records passed down through the Houchin, and later Henderson families, John Houchin was bear hunting and the bear turned and began to chase him. He found the cave entrance when he ran into the cave for protection from the charging bear.

19th century

In partnership with Valentine Simon, various other individuals would own the land through the War of 1812, when Mammoth Cave's saltpeter reserves became significant due to the Jefferson Embargo Act of 1807 which prohibited all foreign trade. The blockade starved the American military of saltpeter and therefore gunpowder. As a result, the domestic price of saltpeter rose and production based on nitrates extracted from caves such as Mammoth Cave became more lucrative.

In July 1812, the cave was purchased from Simon and other owners by Charles Wilkins and an investor from Philadelphia named Hyman Gratz. Soon the cave was being mined for calcium nitrate on an industrial scale, utilizing a labor force of 70 slaves to build and operate the soil leaching apparatus, as well as to haul the raw soil from deep in the cave to the central processing site.

A half-interest in the cave changed hands for ten thousand dollars (equivalent to over $150,000 in 2020). After the war when prices fell, the workings were abandoned and it became a minor tourist attraction centering on a Native American mummy discovered nearby.

When Wilkins died his estate's executors sold his interest in the cave to Gratz. In the spring of 1838, the cave was sold by the Gratz brothers to Franklin Gorin, who intended to operate Mammoth Cave purely as a tourist attraction, the bottom long having since fallen out of the saltpeter market. Gorin was a slave owner, and used his slaves as tour guides. Stephen Bishop was one of these slaves and would make a number of important contributions to human knowledge of the cave, becoming one of Mammoth Cave's most celebrated historical figures.

Stephen Bishop, an African-American slave and a guide to the cave during the 1840s and 1850s, was one of the first people to make extensive maps of the cave, and named many of the cave's features.

Stephen Bishop was introduced to Mammoth Cave in 1838 by Franklin Gorin. Gorin wrote, after Bishop's death: "I placed a guide in the cave – the celebrated and great Stephen, and he aided in making the discoveries. He was the first person who ever crossed the Bottomless Pit, and he, myself and another person whose name I have forgotten were the only persons ever at the bottom of Gorin's Dome to my knowledge."

"After Stephen crossed the Bottomless Pit, we discovered all that part of the cave now known beyond that point. Previous to those discoveries, all interest centered in what is known as the 'Old Cave' ... but now many of the points are but little known, although as Stephen was wont to say, they were 'grand, gloomy and peculiar'."

In 1839, John Croghan of Louisville bought the Mammoth Cave Estate, including Bishop and its other slaves from their previous owner, Franklin Gorin. Croghan briefly ran an ill-fated tuberculosis hospital in the cave in 1842–43, the vapors of which he believed would cure his patients. A widespread epidemic of the period, tuberculosis would ultimately claim the life of Dr. Croghan in 1849.

In 1866, the first photos from within the Mammoth Cave were taken by Charles Waldack, a photographer from Cincinnati, Ohio, using a very dangerous method of flash photography called magnesium flash photography.

Throughout the 19th century, the fame of Mammoth Cave would grow so that the cave became an international sensation. At the same time, the cave attracted the attention of 19th century writers such as Robert Montgomery Bird, the Rev. Robert Davidson, the Rev. Horace Martin, Alexander Clark Bullitt, Nathaniel Parker Willis (who visited in June 1852), Bayard Taylor (in May 1855), William Stump Forwood (in spring 1867), the naturalist John Muir (early September 1867), the Rev. Horace Carter Hovey, and others. As a result of the growing renown of Mammoth Cave, the cave boasted famous visitors such as actor Edwin Booth (his brother, John Wilkes Booth, assassinated Abraham Lincoln in 1865), singer Jenny Lind (who visited the cave on April 5, 1851), and violinist Ole Bull who together gave a concert in one of the caves. Two chambers in the caves have since been known as "Booth's Amphitheatre" and "Ole Bull's Concert Hall".

Early 20th century: The Kentucky Cave Wars

The difficulties of farming life in the hardscrabble, poor soil of the cave-country influenced local owners of smaller nearby caves to see opportunities for commercial exploitation, particularly given the success of Mammoth Cave as a tourist attraction. The "Kentucky Cave Wars" was a period of bitter competition between local cave owners for tourist money. Broad tactics of deception were used to lure visitors away from their intended destination to other private show caves. Misleading signs were placed along the roads leading to the Mammoth Cave. A typical strategy during the early days of automobile travel involved representatives (known as "cappers") of other private show caves hopping aboard a tourist's car's running board, and leading the passengers to believe that Mammoth Cave was closed, quarantined, caved in or otherwise inaccessible.

In 1906, Mammoth Cave became accessible by steamboat with the construction of a lock and dam at Brownsville, Kentucky.

In 1908, Max Kämper, a young German mining engineer, arrived at the cave by way of New York. Kämper had just graduated from technical college and his family had sent him on a trip abroad as a graduation present. Originally intending to spend two weeks at Mammoth Cave, Kämper spent several months. With the assistance of Ed Bishop, a Mammoth Cave Guide, Kämper produced a remarkably accurate instrumental survey of many kilometers of Mammoth Cave, including many new discoveries. Reportedly, Kämper also produced a corresponding survey of the land surface overlying the cave: this information was to be useful in the opening of other entrances to the cave, as soon happened with the Violet City entrance.

The Croghan family suppressed the topographic element of Kämper's map, and it is not known to survive today, although the cave map portion of Kämper's work stands as a triumph of accurate cave cartography: not until the early 1960s and the advent of the modern exploration period would these passages be surveyed and mapped with greater accuracy. Kämper returned to Berlin, and from the point of the 1906 construction of the dam at Brownsville, pointing out that this made a full hydrologic study of the cave impossible. Among his precise descriptions of the hydrogeologic setting of Mammoth Cave, Martel offered the speculative conclusion that Mammoth Cave was connected to Salts and Colossal Caves: this would not be proven correct until 60 years after Martel's visit.

In the early 1920s, George Morrison created, via blasting, a number of entrances to Mammoth Cave on land not owned by the Croghan Estate. Absent the data from the Croghan's secretive surveys, performed by Kämper, Bishop, and others, which had not been published in a form suitable for determining the geographic extent of the cave, it was now conclusively shown that the Croghans had been for years exhibiting portions of Mammoth Cave which were not under land they owned. Lawsuits were filed and, for a time, different entrances to the cave were operated in direct competition with each other.

In the early 20th century, Floyd Collins spent ten years exploring the Flint Ridge Cave System (the most important legacy of these explorations was the discovery of Floyd Collins' Crystal Cave and exploration in Salts Cave) before dying at Sand Cave, Kentucky, in 1925. While exploring Sand Cave, he dislodged a rock onto his leg while in a tight crawlway and was unable to be rescued before dying of starvation. Attempts to rescue Collins created a mass media sensation; the resulting publicity would draw prominent Kentuckians to initiate a movement which would soon result in the formation of Mammoth Cave National Park.

The national park movement (1926–1941)

As the last of the Croghan heirs died, advocacy grew among wealthy citizens of Kentucky for the establishment of Mammoth Cave National Park. Private citizens formed the Mammoth Cave National Park Association in 1924. The park was authorized May 25, 1926.

Donated funds were used to purchase some farmsteads in the region, while other tracts within the proposed national park boundary were acquired by right of eminent domain. Unlike national parks in the sparsely populated American West, thousands of people were forced to move to form Mammoth Cave National Park. Eminent domain proceedings were often bitter, with landowners paid what were considered to be inadequate sums. The resulting acrimony still resonates within the region.

For legal reasons, the federal government was prohibited from restoring or developing the cleared farmsteads while the private Association held the land: this regulation was evaded by the operation of "a maximum of four" CCC camps from May 22, 1933 to July 1942.

According to the National Park Service, "By May 22, 1936, 27,402 acres of land had been acquired and accepted by the Secretary of the Interior. The area was declared a national park on July 1, 1941, when the minimum of 45,310 acres (over 600 parcels) had been assembled."

Superintendent Hoskins later wrote of a summer tanager named Pete who arrived at the guide house on or around every April 20, starting in 1938. The bird ate from food held in the hands of the guides, to the delight of visitors, and provided food to his less-tame mate.

Birth of the national park (1941)

Mammoth Cave National Park was dedicated on July 1, 1941. The same year saw the incorporation of the National Speleological Society. R. Taylor Hoskins, the second Acting Superintendent under the old Association, became the first official Superintendent, a position he held until 1951.

The New Entrance, closed to visitors since 1941, was reopened on December 26, 1951, becoming the entrance used for the beginning of the Frozen Niagara tour.

The longest cave (1954–1972)

By 1954, Mammoth Cave National Park's land holdings encompassed all lands within its outer boundary with the exception of two privately held tracts. One of these, the old Lee Collins farm, had been sold to Harry Thomas of Horse Cave, Kentucky, whose grandson, William "Bill" Austin, operated Collins Crystal Cave as a show cave in direct competition with the national park, which was forced to maintain roads leading to the property.

In February 1954, a two-week expedition under the auspices of the National Speleological Society was organized at the invitation of Austin: this expedition became known as C-3, or the Collins Crystal Cave Expedition.

The C-3 expedition drew public interest, first from a photo essay published by Robert Halmi in the July 1954 issue of True Magazine and later from the publication of a double first-person account of the expedition, The Caves Beyond: The Story of the Collins Crystal Cave Expedition by Joe Lawrence, Jr. (then president of the National Speleological Society) and Roger Brucker. The expedition proved conclusively that passages in Crystal Cave extended toward Mammoth Cave proper, at least exceeding the Crystal Cave property boundaries. However, this information was closely held by the explorers: it was feared that the National Park Service might forbid exploration were this known.

In 1955, Crystal Cave was connected by survey with Unknown Cave, the first connection in the Flint Ridge system.

Some of the participants in the C-3 expedition wished to continue their explorations past the conclusion of the C-3 Expedition, and organized as the Flint Ridge Reconnaissance under the guidance of Austin, Jim Dyer, John J. Lehrberger and E. Robert Pohl. This organization was incorporated in 1957 as the Cave Research Foundation. The organization sought to legitimize the cave explorers' activity through the support of original academic and scientific research. Notable scientists who studied Mammoth Cave during this period include Patty Jo Watson (see section on prehistory).

In March 1961, the Crystal Cave property was sold to the National Park Service for $285,000. At the same time, the Great Onyx Cave property, the only other remaining private inholding, was purchased for $365,000. The Cave Research Foundation was permitted to continue their exploration through a Memorandum of Understanding with the National Park Service.

Colossal Cave was connected by survey to Salts Cave in 1960 and in 1961 Colossal-Salts cave was similarly connected to Crystal-Unknown cave, creating a single cave system under much of Flint Ridge. By 1972, the Flint Ridge Cave System had been surveyed to a length of , making it the longest cave in the world.

Flint–Mammoth connection (1972)

During the 1960s, Cave Research Foundation (CRF) exploration and mapping teams had found passageways in the Flint Ridge Cave System that penetrated under Houchins Valley and came within  of known passages in Mammoth Cave. In 1972, CRF Chief Cartographer John Wilcox pursued an aggressive program to finally connect the caves, fielding several expeditions from the Flint Ridge side as well as exploring leads in Mammoth Cave.

On a July 1972 trip, deep in the Flint Ridge Cave System, Patricia Crowther—with her slight frame of —crawled through a narrow canyon later dubbed the "Tight Spot", which acted as a filter for larger cavers. A subsequent trip past the Tight Spot on August 30, 1972, by Wilcox, Crowther, Richard Zopf, and Tom Brucker discovered the name "Pete H" inscribed on the wall of a river passage with an arrow pointing in the direction of Mammoth Cave. The name is believed to have been carved by Warner P. "Pete" Hanson, who was active in exploring the cave in the 1930s. Hanson had been killed in World War II. The passage was named Hanson's Lost River by the explorers.

Finally, on September 9, 1972, a six-person CRF team of Wilcox, Crowther, Zopf, Gary Eller, Stephen Wells, and Cleveland Pinnix (a National Park Service ranger) followed Hanson's Lost River downstream to discover its connection with Echo River in Cascade Hall of Mammoth Cave. With this linking of the Flint Ridge and Mammoth Cave systems, the "Everest of speleology" had been climbed. The integrated cave system contained  of surveyed passages and had fourteen entrances.

Recent discoveries

Further connections between Mammoth Cave and smaller caves or cave systems have followed, notably to Proctor/Morrison Cave beneath nearby Joppa Ridge in 1979. Proctor Cave was discovered by Jonathan Doyle, a Union Army deserter during the Civil War, and was later owned by the Mammoth Cave Railroad, before being explored by the CRF. Morrison cave was discovered by George Morrison in the 1920s. This connection pushed the frontier of Mammoth exploration southeastward.

At the same time, discoveries made outside the park by an independent group called the Central Kentucky Karst Coalition or CKKC resulted in the survey of tens of miles in Roppel Cave east of the park. Discovered in 1976, Roppel Cave was briefly on the list of the nation's longest caves before it was connected to the Proctor/Morrison's section of the Mammoth Cave System on September 10, 1983. The connection was made by two mixed parties of CRF and CKKC explorers. Each party entered through a separate entrance and met in the middle before continuing in the same direction to exit at the opposite entrance. The resulting total surveyed length was near .

On March 19, 2005, a connection into the Roppel Cave portion of the system was surveyed from a small cave under Eudora Ridge, adding approximately three miles to the known length of the Mammoth Cave System. The newly found entrance to the cave, now termed the "Hoover Entrance", had been discovered in September 2003, by Alan Canon and James Wells. Incremental discoveries since then have pushed the total to more than .

It is certain that many more miles of cave passages await discovery in the region. Discovery of new natural entrances is a rare event: the primary mode of discovery involves the pursuit of side passages identified during routine systematic exploration of cave passages entered from known entrances.

Related and nearby caves
At least two other massive cave systems lie short distances from Mammoth Cave: the Fisher Ridge Cave System and the Martin Ridge Cave System. The Fisher Ridge Cave System was discovered in January 1981 by a group of Michigan cavers associated with the Detroit Urban Grotto of the National Speleological Society. So far, the Fisher Ridge Cave System has been mapped to . In 1976, Rick Schwartz discovered a large cave south of the Mammoth Cave park boundary. This cave became known as the Martin Ridge Cave System in 1996, as new exploration connected the 3 nearby caves of Whigpistle Cave (Schwartz's original entrance), Martin Ridge Cave, and Jackpot Cave. As of 2018, the Martin Ridge Cave System had been mapped to a length of , and exploration continued.

Located 7 miles from the visitors center is Diamond Caverns. On display there is a stagecoach used to ferry visitors from the nearby Bells Tavern train stop in Park City, Kentucky to both Diamond Caverns and Mammoth Cave.

Climate

According to the Köppen climate classification system, Mammoth Cave National Park has a Humid subtropical climate (Cfa). According to the United States Department of Agriculture, the Plant Hardiness zone at Mammoth Cave National Park Visitor Center at 722 ft (220 m) elevation is 6b with an average annual extreme minimum temperature of -3.2 °F (-19.6 °C).

Biology and ecosystem
The following species of bats inhabit the caverns: Indiana bat (Myotis sodalis), gray bat (Myotis grisescens), little brown bat (Myotis lucifugus), big brown bat (Eptesicus fuscus), and the tricolored bat (Perimyotis subflavus).

All together, these and more rare bat species such as the eastern small-footed bat had estimated populations of 9–12 million just in the Historic Section. While these species still exist in Mammoth Cave, their numbers are now no more than a few thousand at best. Ecological restoration of this portion of Mammoth Cave, and facilitating the return of bats, is an ongoing effort. Not all bat species here inhabit the cave; the red bat (Lasiurus borealis) is a forest-dweller, as found underground only rarely.

Other animals which inhabit the caves include:
two genera of crickets (Hadenoecus subterraneus) and (Ceuthophilus stygius) (Ceuthophilus latens), a cave salamander (Eurycea lucifuga), two genera of eyeless cave fish (Typhlichthys subterraneus) and (Amblyopsis spelaea), a cave crayfish (Orconectes pellucidus), and a cave shrimp (Palaemonias ganteri).

In addition, some surface animals may take refuge in the entrances of the caves but do not generally venture into the deep portions of the cavern system.

The section of the Green River that flows through the park is legally designated as "Kentucky Wild River" by the Kentucky General Assembly, through the Office of Kentucky Nature Preserves' Wild Rivers Program.

According to the A. W. Kuchler U.S. Potential natural vegetation Types, Mammoth Cave National Park has an Oak/Hickory (100) potential vegetation type with an Eastern Hardwood Temperate broadleaf and mixed forest (25) potential vegetation form.

Common fossils of the cave include crinoids, blastoids, and gastropods. The Mississippian limestone has yielded fossils of more than a dozen species of shark. In 2020, scientists reported the discovery of part of a Saivodus striatus, a species comparable in size to a modern great white shark.

Name
The cave's name refers to the large width and length of the passages connecting to the Rotunda just inside the entrance.  The name was used long before the extensive cave system was more fully explored and mapped, to reveal a mammoth length of passageways. No fossils of the woolly mammoth have ever been found in Mammoth Cave, and the name of the cave has nothing to do with this extinct mammal.

Cultural references
A significant amount of the work of American poet Donald Finkel stems from his experiences caving in Mammoth Cave National Park. Examples include "Answer Back" from 1968, and the book-length Going Under, published in 1978.
The layout for one of the earliest computer games, Will Crowther's 1976 Colossal Cave Adventure, was based partly on the Mammoth Cave system.
The video game Kentucky Route Zero has a standalone expansion, set between its Acts III and IV, called Here And There Along The Echo, which is a fictionalized hotline number providing information about the Echo River for "drifters" and "pilgrims". The game's third act itself also partially takes place within the Mammoth Cave system, and has references to Colossal Cave Adventure.
H. P. Lovecraft's 1918 short story "The Beast in the Cave" is set in "the Mammoth Cave".
American rock band Guided by Voices referenced the cave in the 1990 song "Mammoth Cave" from their album Same Place the Fly Got Smashed.
The "Kentucky Mammoth Cave" is used as a metaphor for a sperm whale's stomach in chapter 75 of Herman Melville's 1851 novel Moby-Dick.
Fiction writer Lillie Devereux Blake writing for The Knickerbocker magazine in 1858 told a fictional story of a woman, Melissa, who murdered her tutor who did not return her love, by abandoning him in the cave without a lamp. According to the story, Melissa goes back into the cave fifteen years later to end her misery. Researcher Joe Nickell writing for Skeptical Inquirer magazine explains that this gives "Credulous believers in ghosts...  confirmation of their superstitious beliefs" who tell of hearing Melissa weeping and calling out for her murdered tutor. Nickell states that it is common to hear sounds in caves which "the brain interprets (as words and weeping)... it's called pareidolia". Melissa is pure fiction, but author Blake did visit Mammoth Cave with her husband Frank Umsted, "traveling by train, steamer, and stagecoach".

Park superintendents

 Robert P. Holland; September 2, 1936 – June 21, 1938; acting
 R. Taylor Hoskins; June 22, 1938 – June 30, 1941; acting
 R. Taylor Hoskins; July 1, 1941 – March 31, 1951
 Thomas C. Miller; April 1, 1951 – June 30, 1954
 Perry E. Brown; July 1, 1954 – September 14, 1963
 Paul McG. Miller; September 15, 1963 – December 30, 1965
 John A. Aubuchon; January 2, 1966 – September 7, 1968
 Robert H. Bendt; September 8, 1968 – January 23, 1971; assigned line supervision of Abraham Lincoln Birthplace National Historic Site, September 2, 1970 – April 27, 1975
 Joseph Kulesza; February 21, 1971 – May 31, 1976
 Albert A. Hawkins; July 4, 1976 – August 11, 1979
 Robert L. Deskins; August 12, 1979 – September 1, 1984
 Richard N. Strange; September 2, 1984 – December 8, 1984; acting
 Franklin D. Pridemore; December 9, 1984 – January 2, 1988
 David A. Mihalic; January 3, 1988 – July 1994
 Ronald R. Switzer; March 1995 – January 2005
 Bruce Powell; January 2005 – January 2006; acting
 Patrick Reed; January 2006 – 2012
 Sarah J. Craighead; November 2012 – July 2017
 Barclay Trimble; July 2017 – Present

The list is incomplete.

See also

 Carlsbad Caverns National Park
 Colossal Cavern
 Green River Ferry Road
 Karst topography
 List of longest caves
 List of caves
 List of Biosphere Reserves in the United States
 List of caves in the United States
 List of longest caves in the United States
 List of national parks of the United States
 Index of conservation articles
 Speleology

References

Bibliography

General references
 Bridwell, Margaret M. (Bridwell 1952) The Story of Mammoth Cave National Park Kentucky: A Brief History 11th Edition 1971. (First edition copyright 1952.) No ISBN.
 Hoskins, R. Taylor Faithful Visitor First Park Superintendent R. Taylor Hoskins describes the yearly visits of "Pete" a tame summer tanager (Piranga rubra). In The Regional Review, Vol VII, 1 and 2 (July–August 1941)
 Hovey, Horace Carter (Hovey 1880) One Hundred Miles in Mammoth Cave in 1880: an early exploration of America's most famous cavern. with introductory note by William R. Jones. Golden, Colorado: Outbooks. (Copyright 1982)
 Hovey, Horace Carter Hovey's Handbook of The Mammoth Cave of Kentucky: A Practical Guide to the Regulation Routes. (John P. Morton & Company, Louisville, Kentucky, 1909). Full text transcription.

 Watson, Richard A., ed. (Watson 1981) The Cave Research Foundation: Origins and the First Twelve Years 1957–1968 Mammoth Cave, Kentucky: Cave Research Foundation.

Brucker series
Roger W. Brucker has co-authored four nonfiction books and authored one historical novel on the history and exploration of the Mammoth Cave System. They are presented here not in the order of publication, but in the order in which the events of the books' major narratives took place:

 Brucker, Roger W. (2009) Grand, Gloomy, and Peculiar: Stephen Bishop at Mammoth Cave. Cave Books.  (hbk)  (pbk). Based on the true story of Stephen Bishop, the slave who gained fame as a guide and explorer at Mammoth Cave from 1838 until his death in 1857, this historical novel is written from the perspective of Bishop's wife, Charlotte. Although it is a novel, Brucker has claimed the book does not alter any known historical facts.
 Brucker, Roger W. and Murray, Robert K. (Brucker and Murray 1983) Trapped: The Story of Floyd Collins. University of Kentucky Press. Told by a scholar of early 20th century journalism and a veteran of the modern period of Mammoth Cave exploration, this book details the events of the entrapment and attempted rescue of Floyd Collins, who was trapped in a cave near Mammoth Cave in January 1925.
 Lawrence, Jr, Joe and Brucker, Roger W. (Lawrence and Brucker 1955) The Caves Beyond: The story of the Floyd Collins' Crystal Cave Expedition New York: Funk and Wagnalls. Reprinted, with new introduction, by Zephyrus Press  (pbk.) Details the story of the 1954 week-long C3 expedition from the separate points of view of the leader and an ordinary participant in the expedition, who went on to become one of the leaders of the then-nascent modern period of exploration.
 Brucker, Roger W. and Watson, Richard A. "Red" (Brucker and Watson 1976) The Longest Cave. New York : Knopf (reprinted 1987, with afterword: Carbondale, Illinois: Southern Illinois University Press)  (pbk.) A comprehensive story of the exploration of Mammoth Cave told by two of the founders of the Cave Research Foundation. An invaluable appendix, "Historical Beginnings", outlines the story of the cave from prehistory to the mid-1950s, where the main narrative begins. The formation of the Cave Research Foundation is described from an insider perspective. A highly personal telling, this work is sometimes jokingly or with irony referred to by cavers as Roger and Red Go Caving, though its revered status in the literature and the reputations of the authors are hardly in doubt. The 1989 reprint includes an Afterword by the authors referring to the 1983 Roppel–Mammoth connection and other subsequent events.
 Borden, James D. and Brucker, Roger W. (Borden and Brucker 2000) Beyond Mammoth Cave: A Tale of Obsession in the World's Longest Cave. Carbondale and Edwardsville, Illinois: Southern Illinois University Press. . Taking up where The Longest Cave leaves off, carries the story of Mammoth Cave Exploration from September 10, 1972, to September 10, 1983, when a connection was surveyed between Roppel Cave and the southern reaches of Mammoth Cave. Details the origins of the Central Kentucky Karst Coalition (CKKC).

Archaeology
 Meloy, Harold (Meloy 1968) Mummies of Mammoth Cave: An account of the Indian mummies discovered in Short Cave, Salts Cave, and Mammoth Cave, Kentucky Shelbyville, Indiana: Micron Publishing Co., 1990 (Original copyright 1968, 1977).
 Watson, Patty Jo (ed.) (Watson 1974) Archaeology of the Mammoth Cave Area. Reprinted 1997 by St. Louis: Cave Books . 31 chapters by the foremost worker in the field of Mammoth Cave archaeology and several of her colleagues. The reprinted edition includes a brief new introduction and a brief updated bibliography.
Carstens, Kenneth C (1980) Archaeological Investigations in the Central Kentucky Karst, 2 vols., Doctoral dissertation, Dep't of Anthropology, Washington University in St. Louis.
Carstens, Kenneth C (1973) Archaeological Reconnaissance in Mammoth Cave National Park.  Master's thesis, Department of Anthropology, Washington University in St. Louis.

Geology
 Brown, Richmond F. (Brown 1966).  Hydrology of the Cavernous Limestones of the Mammoth Cave Area, Kentucky [Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 1837]. Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office.
 Livesay, Ann, and McGrain, Preston (revised) (Livesay and McGrain 1962). Geology of the Mammoth Cave National Park Area. Kentucky Geological Survey, Series X, 1962. Special Publication 7, College of Arts and Sciences, University of Kentucky. Lexington, Kentucky: University of Kentucky.
 Palmer, Arthur N. (Palmer 1981) A Geological Guide to Mammoth Cave National Park. Teaneck, New Jersey: Zephyrus Press. . 196 pp. From the "blurb" on the back cover: "How did Mammoth Cave form? How old is it? Why does it look the way it does? What do the rocks tell us? These and many other questions are answered in this book about America's most popular cave." Written for the lay reader, but with much technical information of interest to those with greater scientific literacy, by a retired professor of geology at SUNY Oneonta.
 White, William B. and Elizabeth L., eds. (White and White 1989) Karst Hydrology: Concepts from the Mammoth Cave Area. New York: Van Nostrand Rheinhold. .

External links

 Mammoth Cave National Park website
 Mammoth Cave National Park Association website

 Mammoth Cave: Its Explorers, Miners, Archeologists, and Visitors, a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan

Caves of Kentucky
Historic American Engineering Record in Kentucky
Limestone caves
National parks in Kentucky
Archaeological sites in Kentucky
Show caves in the United States
Civilian Conservation Corps in Kentucky
Protected areas of Edmonson County, Kentucky
Protected areas of Hart County, Kentucky
Protected areas of Barren County, Kentucky
Protected areas established in 1941
1941 establishments in Kentucky
Biosphere reserves of the United States
World Heritage Sites in the United States
Landforms of Edmonson County, Kentucky
Landforms of Hart County, Kentucky
Landforms of Barren County, Kentucky

Mammoth Cave National Park


The Dogra are an Indo-Aryan ethnic group in South Asia. Dogras are mostly believed to be of Rajput origins. They are largely settled in the hilly areas of Jammu, in India. In terms of religion, they are mostly Hindus, with some Sikhs and Muslims too.

Ethnic groups in India

Dogras


Michael J. Bakalis (born March 23, 1938) is an American academic and politician.  He was the Democratic nominee for Governor of Illinois in 1978, losing to incumbent Republican Governor James R. Thompson.

Bakalis received his bachelor's, master's, and doctoral degrees from Northwestern University in 1959, 1962, and 1966, respectively. His academic career includes service as assistant dean at Northern Illinois University, dean of the School of Education at Loyola University Chicago, and as the President of Triton College. He has also been a member of the faculty at the Kellogg Graduate School of Management at Northwestern University since 1994, where he teaches public and non-profit management, policy, and strategy.

In government and politics, Bakalis served as the Illinois State Superintendent of Education from 1971 to 1975 and as Illinois Comptroller from 1977 to 1979.  Having built a reputation as a staunch advocate of education, in 1978, he won the Democratic nomination for governor. During the election, Bakalis was critical of Thompson's education and tax policies and aggressively courted voters. However, because Thompson was serving an unusual two-year term as governor and so had been in office only nine months when Bakalis began his campaign, Bakalis had difficulty challenging the incumbent's record. Bakalis lost the election with 40% of the vote, as opposed to Thompson's 59%.

After his unsuccessful bid for governorship, Bakalis served as a Deputy Undersecretary in the United States Department of Education of the Jimmy Carter administration from 1980 to 1982, where he administered ten regional offices.

In 1988, he managed the Illinois campaign of Michael Dukakis's bid for the US President. In 2002, Bakalis made another run for governor but had to drop out before the Democratic primary because of a lack of money.

Bakalis is also the founder, President and CEO of American Quality Schools, an education management organization that operates charter schools in the Midwestern United States.

References

Northwestern University faculty
Northern Illinois University faculty
Loyola University Chicago faculty
American school administrators
American people of Greek descent
Northwestern University School of Education and Social Policy alumni
Comptrollers of Illinois
Illinois Democrats
People from Darien, Illinois
1938 births
Living people
People from Berwyn, Illinois
Politicians from Cook County, Illinois
Illinois State Superintendents
American chief executives of education-related organizations

Michael Bakalis


Wiguleus Fröschl of Marzoll (4 April 1445, in Marzoll (today part of Bad Reichenhall) – 6 November 1517, in Passau) was a German nobleman.  From 1500 until his death, he was Prince-archbishop of Passau.

Life
Fröschl descended from a wealthy patrician family from the Bavarian salt-mining town of Reichenhall.  His father was the salt magnate Ludwig Frösch; (d. before 1481).

He studied law at the University of Vienna, then went to the papal court in Rome, where he was ordained as priest in 1467.  From 1478, he worked in Passau as a canon.  He travelled to Rome several times as a mediator in the "third Bishop of Passau" dispute.

From 1480 to 1485, he resided in Vienna, where he held the office of vicar general of Lower Austria.  From 1486 to 1490, he was vicar general of Upper Austria.  In those days, Upper and Lower Austria belonged to the diocese of Passau.

In 1490, he took over the position of dean of the Passau Cathedral from Christopher of Schachner, who had succeeded as Prince-bishop of Passau.  After Christopher died, Fröschl was elected as the 56th Bishop of Passau on 14 January 1500.

Passau was an economically prosperous city.  However, the city suffered a serious setback from the devastating floods of 1501.  In response, Fröschl introduced a number of legislative reforms, including a reduction of the tax burden on his citizens.  In 1503, he called a s diocesan synod to improve the church discipline in his diocese, which had sunk deeply.  His goal was to renew the clergy from within.  With this attempt, he showed that he was quite open to solving the problems the Catholic church sufferend from on the eve of the Reformation.

He died on 6 November 1517, and was buried in Passau Cathedral.

References
 August Leidl: Die Bischöfe von Passau in Kurzbiographien, 1978

External links

16th-century Roman Catholic bishops in Bavaria
Roman Catholic bishops of Passau
People from Bad Reichenhall
Bavarian nobility
1445 births
1517 deaths
15th-century German people
16th-century German people

Wiguleus Fröschl of Marzoll


Luis Felipe Ramón y Rivera (August 23, 1913 - October 22, 1993)  was a Venezuelan musician, composer and writer. Director of several orchestras and the founder of The National Typical Orchestra, he was also for twenty years the director of the National Institute of Folklore. He founded the International Foundation of Ethnomusicology and Folklore (now Centro de La Diversidad Cultural) in 1988 and donated the bulk of his estate to it when he died. He authored more than 20 works of Venezuelan folklore.

Sources
Luis Felipe Ramón y Rivera Biography

See also
Music of Venezuela

1913 births
1993 deaths
Venezuelan folklorists
People from San Cristóbal, Táchira
Venezuelan composers
Male composers
Venezuelan male poets
20th-century Venezuelan poets
20th-century composers
20th-century male writers
20th-century male musicians

Luis Felipe Ramón y Rivera