The Bengal Presidency, officially the Presidency of Fort William in Bengal and later Bengal Province, was a province of India and the largest of all the three Presidencies. At the height of its territorial jurisdiction, it covered large parts of what is now South Asia and Southeast Asia. Bengal proper covered the ethno-linguistic region of Bengal (present-day Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal). Calcutta, the city which grew around Fort William, was the capital of the Bengal Presidency. For many years, the Governor of Bengal was concurrently the Governor-General of India and Calcutta was the capital of India until 1911.

The Bengal Presidency emerged from trading posts established in the Bengal province during the reign of Emperor Jahangir in 1612. The East India Company (HEIC), a British monopoly with a Royal Charter, competed with other European companies to gain influence in Bengal. In 1757 and 1764, the Company defeated the Nawab of Bengal, who acted on Mughal sovereignty, at the Battle of Plassey and the Battle of Buxar, and Bengal came under British influence. In 1765, Emperor Shah Alam II granted revenue rights over Bengal to the Company and the judicial rights in 1793. In 1803, the Emperor ceased to be the suzerain of the Company and the "Province of Bengal, Behar and Orissa" of the Mughal Empire was thus formally annexed into the Presidency of Fort William of the East India Company. In 1813, the East India Company Act 1813 transferred sovereignty of the Company's territories to the Crown.

In 1836, the upper territories of the Bengal Presidency were organised into the Agra Division or North-Western Provinces and administered by a lieutenant-governor within the Presidency. The lower territories were organised into the Bengal Division and put in charge of lieutenant-governor as well in 1853. The office of the governor of the Presidency was abolished and the Presidency existed as only a nominal entity under the dual government of the two lieutenant-governors at Agra and Calcutta. The 1887, the Agra Division was separated from the Presidency and merged with the Oudh province, ending the dual government. In 1912, the Governor was restored. In the early 20th century, Bengal emerged as a hotbed of the Indian independence movement and the Bengali Renaissance. as well as education, politics, law, science and the arts. It was home to the largest city in India and the second-largest city in the British Empire.

At its territorial height in the mid nineteenth century, the Bengal Presidency extended from the Khyber Pass to Singapore. In 1853, the Punjab was separated from the Presidency into province. In 1861, the Saugor and Nerbudda Territories of the North-Western Provinces (which was then a division of the Bengal Presidency) were separated from the Presidency and merged with the Nagpur Province to created the Central Provinces. In 1871, the Ajmer and Merwara which were also administered as a part of the North-Western Provinces were separated from the Presidency to form the Ajmer-Merwara Province. In 1874, Assam was separated from Bengal. In 1862, Burma became a separate province. The Straits Settlements became a Crown Colony in 1867. In 1877, the North Western Provinces were finally separated from Bengal and merged with Oudh. Thus, by 1877, the Bengal Presidency included only modern-day Bihar, Jharkhand, Orissa and Bengal. In 1905, the first partition of Bengal resulted in the short-lived province of Eastern Bengal and Assam which existed alongside the Bengal Presidency. In 1912, the province was merged back with the Bengal Presidency while Bihar and Orissa became a separate province.

In 1862, the Bengal Legislative Council became the first legislature in British India with native representation, after a petition from the British Indian Association of Calcutta. As part of efforts towards home rule, the Government of India Act, 1935 created a bicameral legislature, with the Bengal Legislative Assembly becoming the largest provincial assembly in India in 1937. The office of the Prime Minister of Bengal was established as part of growing provincial autonomy. After the 1946 election, rising Hindu-Muslim divisions across India forced the Bengal Assembly to decide on partition, despite calls for a United Bengal. The Partition of British India in 1947 resulted in the second partition of Bengal on religious grounds into East Bengal (present-day Bangladesh) and West Bengal.

History

Background

In 1599, a Royal Charter was granted by Queen Elizabeth I to allow the creation of a trading company in London for the purposes of trade with the East Indies. The governance of the company was placed in the hands of a governor and a 24-member Court of Directors. The corporation became known as the Honourable East India Company (HEIC). It became the most powerful corporation of its time, with control over half of world trade. Edmund Burke described the company as "a state in the guise of a merchant". It was described as a "state within a state", and even "an empire within an empire". The company was given a monopoly for British trade in the Indian Ocean.

In 1608, Mughal Emperor Jahangir allowed the English East India Company to establish a small trading post on the west coast of India. It was followed in 1611 by a factory on the Coromandel Coast in South India, and in 1612 the company joined other already established European trading companies to trade in the wealthy Bengal Subah in the east. However, the power of the Mughal Empire declined from 1707, as the Nawab of Bengal in Murshidabad became financially independent with the help of bankers such as the Jagat Seth. The Nawabs began entering into treaties with numerous European companies, including the French East India Company, the Dutch East India Company, and the Danish East India Company.

The Mughal court in Delhi was weakened by Nader Shah's invasion from Persia (1739) and Ahmed Shah Durrani's invasion from Afghanistan (1761). While the Bengal Subah suffered a decade of Maratha raids, through bands of Bargir-giri light cavalry, directed to pillage the territory, between 1741 and 1751. In 1742 the Company chooses to spend Rs. 25  thousand on the construction of a 3 km Maratha ditch around Calcutta, to protect its facilities from the raiders. The Nawab of Bengal later signed a peace treaty with the Marathas in 1751, and ceded Orrisa and paid Rs. 1.2 million annually as the chauth. The Nawab of Bengal also paid Rs. 3.2 million to the Marathas, towards the arrears of chauth for the preceding years.

In June 1756 the company's factories at Cossimbazar and Calcutta were besieged and captured by the forces of the Nawab of Bengal, with the company's goods, treasure and weapons seized. Calcutta being renamed Alinagar in honour of the Siraj ud-Daulah's predecessor. A Company force, led by Watson and Robert Clive, recaptured Fort William in January 1757, with the Nawab, Siraj ud-Daulah, agreeing the Treaty of Alinagar, reestablishing the company's right to trade in Bengal, and fortify Fort William. In parallel Robert Clive conspired with Jagat Seth, Omichand and Mir Jafar to install the latter on the musnud of Bengal, a plan that they would implement in June 1757.

The East India Company's victories at the Battle of Plassey (1757) and the Battle of Buxar (against the Nawabs of Bengal and Oudh in 1764) led to the abolition of local rule (Nizamat) in Bengal in 1793. The Company gradually began to formally expand its territories across India and Southeast Asia. By the mid-19th century, the East India Company had become the paramount political and military power in the Indian subcontinent. Its territory was held in trust for the British Crown. The company also issued coins in the name of the nominal Mughal Emperor (who was exiled in 1857).

Administrative changes and the Permanent Settlement

Under Warren Hastings, the consolidation of British imperial rule over Bengal was solidified, with the  conversion of a trade area into an occupied territory under a military-civil government, while the formation of a regularised system of legislation was brought in under John Shore. Acting through Lord Cornwallis, then Governor-General, he ascertained and defined the rights of the landholders over the soil. These landholders under the previous system had started, for the most part, as collectors of the revenues, and gradually acquired certain prescriptive rights as quasi-proprietors of the estates entrusted to them by the government. In 1793 Lord Cornwallis declared their rights perpetual, and gave over the land of Bengal to the previous quasi-proprietors or zamindars, on condition of the payment of a fixed land tax. This piece of legislation is known as the Permanent Settlement of the Land Revenue. It was designed to "introduce" ideas of property rights to India, and stimulate a market in land. The former aim misunderstood the nature of landholding in India, and the latter was an abject failure.

The Cornwallis Code, while defining the rights of the proprietors, failed to give adequate recognition to the rights of the under-tenants and the cultivators. This remained a serious problem for the duration of British Rule, as throughout the Bengal Presidency ryots (peasants) found themselves oppressed by rack-renting landlords, who knew that every rupee they could squeeze from their tenants over and above the fixed revenue demanded from the Government represented pure profit. Furthermore, the Permanent Settlement took no account of inflation, meaning that the value of the revenue to Government declined year by year, whilst the heavy burden on the peasantry grew no less. This was compounded in the early 19th century by compulsory schemes for the cultivation of opium and indigo, the former by the state, and the latter by British planters. Peasants were forced to grow a certain area of these crops, which were then purchased at below market rates for export. This added greatly to rural poverty.

Government of India Acts of 1833 and 1853
In 1833, the British Parliament enacted the Government of India Act 1833 abolishing the monopoly rights of the Company and converting it into a purely governing body holding its territories in India in trust of the Crown. The Act relieved the Governor-in-Councils of Bombay and Madras of their legislative duties and consolidated all legislative functions to the Governor-General-in-Council of India at Calcutta and created a Supreme Government of India at Calcutta with the office of Governor-General of India replacing the Governor-General of Fort William. The Act also created for the establishment of a new Presidency of Agra with its own Governor-in-council from the ceded and conquered territories of the Presidency of Fort William and also sought to separate the functions of the Presidency of Fort William from the Government of India and Governor-General of India in Council. This was however never fully implemented and instead another Act of Parliament in 1835 created the North-Western Provinces with a Lieutenant-Governor at Agra and also provided for the creation of a similar arrangement with a Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal. All four provinces, i.e., North-Western Provinces, Bengal Presidency, Madras Presidency and Bombay Presidency were equal in status and independent of each other, subordinate only to the Government of India. New conquests in Punjab (1849), Burma (1826) and Oudh (1856) were constituted as Chief Commissioner's Provinces directly administered by the Government of India. The Government of India Act 1853 finally allocated a Lieutenant-Governor to Bengal, which until now had been administered by the Governor-General of India. The act also allocated Lieutenant-Governors to Punjab and Burma. The Bengal Army and the Bengal Civil Service continued to operate in the three lieutenant governorships, however they were under the control of the Government of India rather than the Bengal Government. The Bengal Civil Service was merged into the Indian Civil Service later along with the other two civil services and the Bengal Army was finally amalgamated into the new Indian Army in 1904–5, after a lengthy struggle over its reform between Lord Kitchener, the Commander-in-Chief, and Lord Curzon, the Viceroy.

Straits Settlements

In 1830, the British Straits Settlements on the coast of the Malacca Straits was made a residency of the Presidency of Bengal in Calcutta. The area included the erstwhile Prince of Wales Island and Province Wellesley, as well as the ports of Malacca and Singapore.

Under the administration of the East India Company, the Settlements were used as penal settlements for Indian civilian and military prisoners, earning them the title of the "Botany Bays of India". The years 1852 and 1853 saw minor uprisings by convicts in Singapore and Penang. Upset with East India Company rule, in 1857 the European population of the Settlements sent a petition to the British Parliament asking for direct rule.

Victorian Era
In 1859, under the terms of the Queen's Proclamation issued by Queen Victoria, the Bengal Presidency, along with the rest of British India, came under the direct rule of the British Crown.

1905 Partition of Bengal

The partition of the large province of Bengal, which was decided upon by Lord Curzon, and Cayan Uddin Ahmet, the Chief Secretary of Bengal carried into execution in October 1905. The Chittagong, Dhaka and Rajshahi divisions, the Malda District and the States of Hill Tripura, Sylhet and Comilla were transferred from Bengal to a new province, Eastern Bengal and Assam; the five Hindi-speaking states of Chota Nagpur, namely Changbhakar, Korea, Surguja, Udaipur and Jashpur State, were transferred from Bengal to the Central Provinces; and Sambalpur State and the five Oriya states of Bamra, Rairakhol, Sonepur, Patna and Kalahandi were transferred from the Central Provinces to Bengal.

The remaining province of Bengal then consisted of the thirty-three districts of Burdwan, Birbhum, Bankura, Midnapur, Hughli, Howrah, Twenty-four Parganas, Calcutta, Nadia, Murshidabad, Jessore, Khulna, Patna, Gaya, Shahabad, Saran, Champaran, Muzaffarpur, Darbhanga, Monghyr, Bhagalpur, Purnea, Santhal Parganas, Cuttack, Balasore, Angul and Kandhmal, Puri, Sambalpur, Singhbhum, Hazaribagh, Ranchi, Palamau, and Manbhum. The princely states of Sikkim and the tributary states of Odisha and Chhota Nagpur were not part of Bengal, but British relations with them were managed by its government.

The Indian Councils Act 1909 expanded the legislative councils of Bengal and Eastern Bengal and Assam provinces to include up to 50 nominated and elected members, in addition to three ex officio members from the executive council.

Bengal's legislative council included 22 nominated members, of which not more than 17 could be officials, and two nominated experts. Of the 26 elected members, one was elected by the Corporation of Calcutta, six by municipalities, six by district boards, one by the University of Calcutta, five by landholders, four by Muslims, two by the Bengal Chamber of Commerce, and one by the Calcutta Trades Association. Eastern Bengal and Assam's legislative council included 22 nominated members, of which not more than 17 be officials and one representing Indian commerce, and two nominated experts. Of the 18 elected members, three were elected by municipalities, five by district and local boards, two by landowners, four by Muslims, two by the tea interest, one by the jute interest, and one by the Commissioners of the Port of Chittagong.

The partition of Bengal proved highly controversial, as it resulted in a largely Hindu West Bengal and a largely Muslim East. Serious popular agitation followed the step, partly on the grounds that this was part of a cynical policy of divide and rule, and partly that the Bengali population, the centre of whose interests and prosperity was Calcutta, would now be divided under two governments, instead of being concentrated and numerically dominant under the one, while the bulk would be in the new division. In 1906–1909 the unrest developed to a considerable extent, requiring special attention from the Indian and Home governments, and this led to the decision being reversed in 1911.

Reorganisation of Bengal, 1912

At the Delhi Durbar on 12 December 1911, Emperor George V announced the transfer of the seat of the Government of India from Calcutta to Delhi, the reunification of the five predominantly Bengali-speaking divisions into a unified province of Bengal under a Governor, the creation of a new province of Bihar and Orissa under a lieutenant-governor, and that Assam Province would be reconstituted under a chief commissioner. On 21 March 1912 Thomas Gibson-Carmichael was appointed Governor of Bengal. On 22 March the provinces of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa and Assam were constituted.

The Government of India Act 1919 increased the number of nominated and elected members of the legislative council from 50 to 125, and the franchise was expanded. Bihar and Orissa became separate provinces in 1936. Bengal remained in its 1912 boundaries until Independence in 1947, when it was again partitioned between the dominions of India and Pakistan.

1947 Partition of Bengal
On 8 May 1947, Viceroy Earl Mountbatten cabled the British government with a partition plan that made an exception for Bengal. It was the only province that would be allowed to remain independent should it  choose to do so. On 23 May, the British Cabinet meeting also hoped that Bengal would remain united. British Prime Minister Clement Attlee informed the US Ambassador to the United Kingdom on 2 June 1947 that there was a "distinct possibility that Bengal might decide against partition and against joining either India or Pakistan". On 6 July 1947, the Sylhet referendum gave a mandate for the District of Sylhet to be re-united into Bengal. However, Hindu nationalist leaders in West Bengal and conservative East Bengali Muslim leaders were against the prospect.

On 20 June 1947, the Bengal Legislative Assembly met to vote on partition plans. At the preliminary joint session, the assembly decided by 120 votes to 90 that it should remain united if it joined the new Constituent Assembly of Pakistan. Later, a separate meeting of legislators from West Bengal decided by 58 votes to 21 that the province should be partitioned and that West Bengal should join the existing Constituent Assembly of India. In another separate meeting of legislators from East Bengal, it was decided by 106 votes to 35 that the province should not be partitioned and 107 votes to 34 that East Bengal should join Pakistan in the event of partition. There was no vote held on the proposal for an independent United Bengal.

Government

Initially, Bengal was under the administration of the East India Company, which appointed chief agents/presidents/governors/lieutenant governors in Fort William. The governor of Bengal was concurrently the governor-general of India for many years. The East India Company maintained control with its private armies and administrative machinery. Nevertheless, the East India Company was a quasi-official entity, having received a Royal Charter from Queen Elizabeth I in 1600. The Indian Rebellion of 1857 caused the British government to assume direct control of India's administration under the Government of India Act 1858. The head of state became the British monarch, who was also given the title of Emperor of India/Empress of India. The monarch was represented through a viceroy. The Viceroy of India was based in the Bengal Presidency until 1911. The Secretary of State for India was also an important official. The Bengal Civil Service managed the provincial government. Modern scholars decry the colonial system as bureaucratic authoritarianism.

Executive councils
Established by Charter Act of 1833, the Governor-General in Council was subordinate to the Court of Directors of the East India Company and the British Crown. The Governor-General in Council in Fort William enacted legislation, such as the prohibition of Persian as an official language under Act no. XXIX of 1837 passed by the President of the Council of India in Council on 20 November 1837.

Judiciary

The Calcutta High Court was set up in 1862. The building was designed on the model of Ypres Cloth Hall in Belgium. The Dacca High Court building was built during the early 20th century, with elements of a Roman pantheon. District courts were established in all district headquarters of the Bengal Presidency. At the district level, tax collectors and revenue officers acted with the power of magistrates. In 1829, magisterial power was given to all Collectors and Revenue Officers. The controversy regarding the lack of separation of powers continued until 1921.

Bengal Legislative Council (1862–1947)

The British government began to appoint legislative councils under the Indian Councils Act 1861. The Bengal Legislative Council was established in 1862. It was one of the largest and most important legislative councils in British India. Over the years, the council's powers were gradually expanded from an advisory role to debating government policies and enacting legislation. Under the Government of India Act 1935, the council became the upper chamber of the Bengali legislature.

Dyarchy (1920–1937)
British India's Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms of 1919, enacted in 1921, expanded the Bengal Legislative Council to 140 members to include more elected Indian members. The reforms also introduced the principle of dyarchy, whereby certain responsibilities such as agriculture, health, education, and local government, were transferred to elected ministers. However, the important portfolios like finance, police and irrigation were reserved with members of the Governor's Executive Council. Some of the prominent ministers were Surendranath Banerjee (Local Self-government and Public Health 1921–1923), Sir Provash Chunder Mitter (Education 1921–1924, Local Self-government, Public Health, Agriculture and Public Works 1927–1928), Nawab Saiyid Nawab Ali Chaudhuri (Agriculture and Public Works) and A. K. Fazlul Huq (Education 1924). Bhupendra Nath Bose and Sir Abdur Rahim were Executive Members in the Governor's Council.

Bengal Legislative Assembly (1935–1947)

The Government of India Act, 1935 established the Bengal Legislative Assembly as the lower chamber of the Bengali legislature. It was a 250-seat assembly where most members were elected by either the General Electorate or the Muslim Electorate (under the Communal Award). Other members were nominated. The separate electorate dividing Muslims from the general electorate was deeply controversial. The Prime Minister of Bengal was a member of the assembly.

In the 1937 election, the Congress emerged as the single largest party but short of an absolute majority. The second-largest party was the Bengal Provincial Muslim League (BPML), followed in third place by the Krishak Praja Party. The BPML, Krishak Praja Party and independent legislators formed a coalition government. A. K. Fazlul Huq, a founder of the BPML who later broke away to form the Krishak Praja Party, was elected as parliamentary leader and prime minister. Huq pursued a policy of Hindu–Muslim unity. His cabinet included leading Hindu and Muslim figures, including Nalini Ranjan Sarkar (finance), Bijoy Prasad Singha Roy (revenue), Maharaja Srish Chandra Nandy (communications and public works), Prasanna Deb Raikut (forest and excise), Mukunda Behari Mallick (cooperative credit and rural indebtedness), Sir Khwaja Nazimuddin (home), Nawab Khwaja Habibullah (agriculture and industry), Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy (commerce and labour), Nawab Musharraf Hussain (judicial and legislative affairs), and Syed Nausher Ali (public health and local self-government). Huq promoted financial and land reforms with the Bengal Agricultural Debtors' Act (1938), The Money Lenders' Act (1938), and the Bengal Tenancy (Amendment) Act (1938). He introduced the Primary Education Bill to make primary education free and compulsory. He established schools such as the Lady Brabourne College. In 1941, Prime Minister Huq joined the Viceroy's Defence Council in support of Allied war efforts. In a letter to Governor John Herbert, Huq called for the resurrection of a Bengal Army. He wrote "I want you to consent to the formation of a Bengali Army of a hundred thousand young Bengalis consisting of Hindu and Muslim youths on a fifty-fifty basis. There is an insistent demand for such a step being taken at once, and the people of Bengal will not be satisfied with any excuses. It is a national demand which must be immediately conceded". Huq supported the adoption of the Lahore Resolution in 1940. He envisaged Bengal as one of the "independent states" outlined by the resolution.

The first Huq cabinet dissolved after the BPML withdrew from his government. Huq then formed a second coalition with the Hindu Mahasabha led by Syama Prasad Mukherjee. This cabinet was known as the Shyama-Huq Coalition. The cabinet included Nawab Bahabur Khwaja Habibullah, Khan Bahadur Abdul Karim, Khan Bahadur Hashem Ali Khan, Shamsuddin Ahmed, Syama Prasad Mukherjee, Santosh Kumar Bose and Upendranath Barman. Huq's government fell in 1943 and a BPML government under Sir Khawaja Nazimuddin as Prime Minister was formed. Nazimuddin's tenure coincided with the Bengal famine of 1943. His government was replaced by Governor's rule. After the end of World War II, elections were held in 1946 in which the BPML won an overwhelming majority of 113 seats in the 250-seat assembly. A government under Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy was formed. Prime Minister Suhrawardy continued with the policy of power-sharing between Hindus and Muslims. He also advocated a plan for a Bengali sovereign state with a multiconfessionalist political system. The breakdown of Hindu-Muslim unity across India eventually upended Bengali power-sharing. Religious violence, including the Noakhali riots and Direct Action Day riots, contributed to the polarization. When the Bengal Assembly met to vote on Partition, most West Bengali legislators held a separate meeting and resolved to partition the province and join the Indian union. Most East Bengali legislators favored an undivided Bengal.

The Bengal Assembly was divided into the West Bengal Legislative Assembly and East Bengal Legislative Assembly during the Partition of British India.

Civil liberties
English common law was applied to Bengal. Local legislation was enacted by the Legislative Council and Legislative Assembly. Case law was also an important source of law. Many laws enacted in British Bengal are still in use today, including the Indian Penal Code. In 1919, the Rowlatt Act extended wartime powers under the Defence of India Act 1915, including arbitrary arrests and trial without juries. Press freedom was muzzled by the Indian Press Act 1910. The Seditious Meetings Act 1908 curtailed freedom of assembly. Regulation III of 1818 was also considered draconian. King George V granted a royal amnesty to free political prisoners. Some draconian laws were repealed, including the Rowlatt Act. Despite being a common law jurisdiction, British India did not enjoy the same level of protection for civil liberties as in the United Kingdom. It was only after independence in 1947 and the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, that human rights were clearly enshrined in law.

Princely states

Princely states were autonomous principalities under the suzerainty of the British Crown in India. Initially, the Bengal Presidency managed the British government's relations with most princely states in the northern subcontinent, extending from Jammu and Kashmir in the north to Manipur in the northeast. An Agency was often formed to be the liaison between the government and the princely states. The largest of these agencies under Bengal once included the Rajputana Agency. Other agencies covered the Chota Nagpur Tributary States and the Orissa Tributary States. Agents were also appointed to deal with tribal chiefs, such as the three tribal kings in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. At the time of the partition of India in 1947, the jurisdiction of the Bengal States Agency included Cooch Behar State and Hill Tipperah.

Himalayan kingdoms
Bengal was strategically important for the Himalayan regions of Nepal, Tibet, Bhutan and Sikkim. The Anglo-Nepalese War between the East India Company and the Kingdom of Nepal was concluded with the Treaty of Sugauli, which ended Gorkha territorial expansion. The Treaty of Titalia was signed in 1817 between the HEIC and the Kingdom of Sikkim to establish British hegemony over Sikkim. The Bhutan War in the 1860s saw the Kingdom of Bhutan lose control of the Bengal Duars to the British. The British expedition to Tibet took place between 1903 and 1904. It resulted in the Treaty of Lhasa which acknowledged Qing China's supremacy over Tibet.

Foreign relations

The United States of America began sending envoys to Fort William in the 18th century. President George Washington nominated Benjamin Joy as the first Consul to Fort William on 19 November 1792. The nomination was supported by the erstwhile Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson and approved by the U. S. Senate on 21 November 1792. Benjamin Joy reached Calcutta in 1794. The HEIC did not recognize Joy as an official consul but allowed him to be a Commercial Agent. The American Consulate General was established during formal British rule. A consular agency for Chittagong was created in the 1860s. Many other countries also set up consulates in Calcutta.

Education

British rule saw the establishment of liberal arts colleges in many districts of Bengal. There were only two full-fledged universities in Bengal during British rule, including the University of Calcutta and the University of Dacca. Both universities were represented in the Bengal Legislative Assembly under the Government of India Act, 1935.

Primary education was mandatory under the Compulsory Education Acts. Despite significant advances and the emergence of a large educated middle class, most of the population did not have access to a proper education. Some of the leading schools included the Oriental Seminary in Calcutta, the St. Gregory's High School in Dacca, the Rajshahi Collegiate School in Rajshahi and the Chittagong Collegiate School in Chittagong. European missionaries, Hindu philanthropists and Muslim aristocrats were influential promoters of education. Ethnic minorities maintained their own institutions, such as the Armenian Pogose School.

Each district of Bengal had a district school, which were the leading secondary institutions. Due to Calcutta being the colonial capital, the city had a large concentration of educational institutions. It was followed by Dacca, which served as a provincial capital between 1905 and 1912. Libraries were established in each district of Bengal by the colonial government and the Zamindars. In 1854, four major public libraries were opened, including the Bogra Woodburn Library, the Rangpur Public Library, the Jessore Institute Public Library and the Barisal Public Library. Northbrook Hall was established in 1882 in honor of Governor-General Lord Northbrook. Other libraries built include the Victoria Public Library, Natore (1901), the Sirajganj Public Library (1882), the Rajshahi Public Library (1884), the Comilla Birchandra Library (1885), the Shah Makhdum Institute Public Library, Rajshahi (1891), the Noakhali Town Hall Public Library (1896), the Prize Memorial Library, Sylhet (1897), the Chittagong Municipality Public Library (1904) and the Varendra Research Library (1910). In 1925, the Great Bengal Library Association was established.

Europeans played an important role in modernizing the Bengali language. The first book on Bengali grammar was compiled by a Portuguese missionary. English was the official language. The use of Persian as an official language was discontinued by Act no. XXIX of 1837 passed by the President of the Council of India in Council on 20 November 1837. However, Persian continued to be taught in some institutions. Several institutions had Sanskrit and Arabic faculties.
The following includes a partial list of notable colleges, universities and learned societies in the Bengal Presidency.

Economy

In Bengal, the British inherited from the Mughals the biggest revenue earnings in the Indian subcontinent. For example, the revenue of pre-colonial Dhaka alone was 1 million rupees in the 18th century (a high amount in that era). Mughal Bengal accounted for 12% of the world's GDP and was a major exporter of silk, cotton, saltpeter, and agricultural produce. With its proto-industrial economy, Bengal contributed to the first Industrial Revolution in Britain (particularly in textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution). After 1757, the British placed Bengal under company rule (which led to Bengali deindustrialization). Other European powers in the region included the French East India Company, the Dutch East India Company, the Ostend Company and the Danish East India Company. Initially, the English East India Company promoted opium cultivation which caused the Opium Wars with Qing China. The East India Company's promotion of indigo farming caused the Indigo revolt. The British were much criticized for favoring textile imports and suppressing local muslin production. The chaos of the Company rule period culminated in the Indian Mutiny in 1857. In 1858, the British government gained direct control of Indian administration. Bengal was plugged into the market-driven economy and trade networks of the British Empire.

The Bengal Presidency had the largest gross domestic product in British India. The first British colonial banks in the Indian subcontinent were founded in Bengal. These included the General Bank of Bengal and Bihar (1733); Bank of Hindostan (1770), Bank of Bengal (1784); and the General Bank of India (1786). Other banks in Bengal included the Bank of Calcutta (1806), Union Bank (1829); Government Savings Bank (1833); The Bank of Mirzapore (); Dacca Bank (1846); Kurigram Bank (1887), Kumarkhali Bank (1896), Mahaluxmi Bank, Chittagong (1910), Dinajpur Bank (1914), Comilla Banking Corporation (1914), Bengal Central Bank (1918), and Comilla Union Bank (1922). Loan offices were established in Faridpur (1865), Bogra (1872), Barisal (1873), Mymensingh (1873), Nasirabad (1875), Jessore (1876), Munshiganj (1876), Dacca (1878), Sylhet (1881), Pabna (1882), Kishoreganj (1883), Noakhali (1885), Khulna (1887), Madaripur (1887), Tangail (1887), Nilphamari (1894) and Rangpur (1894).

The earliest records of securities dealings are the loan securities of the British East India Company. In 1830, bourse activities in Calcutta were conducted in the open air under a tree. The Calcutta Stock Exchange was incorporated in 1908. Some of the leading companies in British Bengal included Messrs. Alexander and Co, Waldies, Martin Burn, M. M. Ispahani Limited, James Finlay and Co., A K Khan & Company, the Calcutta Chemical Company, Bourne & Shepherd, the Indo-Burmah Petroleum Company, Orient Airways, Shaw Wallace, Carew & Co, Aditya Birla Group, Tata Group, Balmer Lawrie, Biecco Lawrie, Braithwaite, Burn & Jessop Construction Company, Braithwaite & Co., Bridge and Roof Company, Britannia Industries, Burn Standard Company and Andrew Yule and Company. Some of these enterprises were nationalized after the Partition of India.

Agricultural products included rice, sugarcane and vegetables. The main cash crops were jute and tea. The jute trade was central to the British Bengali economy. Bengal accounted for the bulk of the world's jute production and export. Raw jute was sourced from the hinterland of Eastern Bengal. The British government declared the Port of Narayanganj as a "Tax Free Port" in 1878. Rally Brothers & Co. was one of the earliest British companies in the jute business of Narayanganj. British firms used middlemen, called beparis, to source raw jute from the hinterland. In 1907, 20 firms were engaged in the jute trade of Narayanganj, including 18 European firms. Hindu merchants opened several cotton mills in the 1920s, including the Dhakeshwari Cotton Mill, the Chittaranjan Cotton Mill and the Laxmi Narayan Cotton Mill. Other goods traded in Narayanganj included timber, salt, textiles, oil, cotton, tobacco, pottery, seeds and betel nut. Raw goods were processed by factories in Calcutta, especially jute mills. The Port of Chittagong was re-organized in 1887 under the Port Commissioners Act. Its busiest trade links were with British Burma, including the ports of Akyab and Rangoon; and other Bengali ports, including Calcutta, Dhaka and Narayanganj. In the fiscal year 1889–90, Chittagong handled exports totalling 125,000 tons. The Strand Road was built beside the port. In 1928, the British government declared Chittagong as a "Major Port" of British India. Chittagong's port was used by Allied Forces of World War II during the Burma Campaign.

The Port of Calcutta was the largest seaport of British India. The port was constructed by the British East India Company. It was one of the busiest ports in the world during the 19th and early 20th centuries. Calcutta was a major trading port with links to ports across the British Empire. Its local hinterland spanned beyond Bengal to include north and northeast India, the Himalayan kingdoms and Tibet. The Bay of Bengal became one of the busiest shipping hubs in the world, rivaling the traffic of ports on the Atlantic. Calcutta was also an important naval base in World War II and was bombed by the Japanese.

Chambers of commerce were established. The Bengal Chamber of Commerce was established in 1853. The Narayanganj Chamber of Commerce was set up in 1904. The textile trade of Bengal enriched many merchants. For example, Panam City in Sonargaon saw many townhouses built for wealthy textile merchants.

Tea became a major export of Bengal. Northwestern Bengal became the center of Darjeeling tea cultivation in the foothills of the Himalayas. Darjeeling tea became one of the most reputed tea varieties in the world. The Darjeeling Himalayan Railway was constructed in the tea plantation zone. In eastern Bengal, the Sylhet and Chittagong hilly regions became hubs of tea production. Assam tea was produced in the northeastern part of the Bengal Presidency.

Aside from the British, the chief beneficiaries of the colonial economy were the Zamindars (landed gentry). The Permanent Settlement enforced a system in which peasants were indebted to the Zamindars. The peasants rented land from the Zamindars and became tenant farmers. Strong control of land by the Zamindars meant the British had few headaches in exploiting trade and business. However, Bengal received little attention for industrialization due to the entrenched peasant-zamindar relationship under the Permanent Settlement. The Zamindars of Bengal built mansions, lodges, modern bungalows, townhouses, and palaces on their estates. Some of the largest mansions include the Hazarduari Palace in Murshidabad, the Ahsan Manzil on the Nawab of Dhaka's estate, the Marble Palace in Calcutta, and the Cooch Behar Palace.

Infrastructure and transport

Railways

After the invention of railways in Britain, British India became the first region in Asia to have a railway. The East Indian Railway Company introduced railways to Bengal. The company was established on 1 June 1845 in London by a deed of settlement with a capital of £4,000,000. Its first line connected Calcutta with towns in northern India. By 1859, there were 77 engines, 228 coaches and 848 freight wagons. Large quantities of sal tree wood were imported from Nepal to design the sleepers. In 1862, railways were introduced to eastern Bengal with the Eastern Bengal Railway. The first line connected Calcutta and Kushtia. By 1865, the railway was extended to Rajbari on the banks of the Padma River. By 1902, the railway was extended to Assam. The Assam Bengal Railway was established to serve the northeastern part of the Bengal Presidency, with its terminus in Chittagong.

The Bengal and North Western Railway was set up in 1882 to link towns in the Oudh region with Calcutta. Several railway bridges, such as the Hardinge Bridge, were built over rivers in Bengal. In 1999, UNESCO recognized the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway as a World Heritage Site.

Roads and highways
In the 1830s the East India Company began to rebuild the ancient Grand Trunk Road into a paved highway. The company required the road for commercial and administrative purposes. It linked Calcutta to Peshawar in the North-West Frontier Province. For the project, the company founded a college to train and employ local surveyors, engineers, and overseers. In the east, the road extended to Sonargaon, Comilla and Chittagong. After the first partition of Bengal in 1905, newly built highways connected the inaccessible areas of Assam and the Chittagong Hill Tracts. All district towns were connected by an inter-district road network.

Waterways

A ghat in Bengal refers to a river port. The busiest river ports included the Port of Calcutta, the Port of Dhaka, the Port of Narayanganj and Goalundo Ghat.

After the first partition of Bengal in 1905, a number of new ferry services were introduced connecting Chittagong, Dhaka, Bogra, Dinajpur, Rangpur, Jalpaiguri, Maldah and Rajshahi. This improved communication network boosted trade and commerce.

Aviation

An early attempt at manned flight in Bengal was by a young female balloonist named Jennette Rumary who at the time was associated with Park Van Tassel and took the stage name Jennette Van Tassell. Invited to perform by the Nawab of Dhaka, at 6.20 pm on 16 March 1892, Jennette set off to fly from the southern bank of the River Buriganga. But a gusting wind carried her off to the gardens of Shahbag, where her balloon became stuck in a tree. During her rescue from the tree she fell and died two days later. Jennette is interred in the Christian graveyard at Narinda in Old Dhaka.

An airfield opened next to a Royal Artillery station on the outskirts of Calcutta. The Governor of Bengal Sir Stanley Jackson opened the Bengal Flying Club in Calcutta's aerodrome in February 1929. In 1930, the airfield was upgraded into a full-fledged airport. It was popularly known as Dum Dum Airport. Imperial Airways began flights from London to Australia via Calcutta in 1933. Air Orient began scheduled stops as part of its Paris to Saigon route. KLM operated a route from Amsterdam to Batavia (Jakarta) via Calcutta. Calcutta emerged as a stopover for many airlines operating routes between Europe, Indochina and Australasia. The flight of Amelia Earhart and Fred Noonan, who attempted to circumnavigate the world, made a stopover in Calcutta in 1937. Local airlines included Tata Air Services and Orient Airways. Bengal played an important role for the air operations of the Allied forces of World War II. The Royal Air Force operated airfields across Bengal during the Burma Campaign. Aircraft of the United States Army Air Forces were also stationed in Bengal.

The following includes a partial list of airports and airfields established during British rule in Bengal. Airfields were used by Allied Forces during World War II.

Military

The Bengal Army was one of the Presidency Armies of British India. It was formed by the East India Company. The Commander-in-Chief of the Bengal Army was concurrently the Commander-in-Chief, India from 1853 to 1895, as the Bengal Army was the largest of the Presidency Armies. Recruits came largely from Bengal, Bihar and Oudh. Regular cavalry regiments included sowars who previously formed the cavalry of the Mughal army. The Gurkhas were also recruited under the Bengal Army. In 1895, the Bengal Army was merged into the British Indian Army. The British Indian Army had a Bengal Command between 1895 and 1908.

Major military engagements affecting British Bengal included the First Anglo-Burmese War, the Anglo-Nepalese War, the First Afghan War, the Opium Wars, the Bhutan War, the Second Anglo-Afghan War, World War I, and the Burma Campaign of World War II. The chief British base in Bengal was Fort William. Across the subcontinent, the British often converted Mughal forts into military bases, such as in Delhi and Dhaka. The British also built cantonments, including Dhaka Cantonment and Chittagong Cantonment. Many Allied soldiers killed in Burma were buried in cemeteries in Chittagong and Comilla. The graveyards include the Commonwealth War Cemetery, Chittagong and Mainamati War Cemetery, which are maintained by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission.

Famines and other natural disasters

Colonial India as well as the Bengal Presidency suffered from the numerous famines and epidemics throughout the British Rule. The Great Bengal famine of 1770 lasted until 1773 and killed approximately 10 million Bengalis. The East India Company was heavily criticized for neglecting the population's food security. The repeated bouts of famine in India, coupled with other abuses against the population, caused the British Parliament to gradually remove the monopoly of the East India Company, curtail the company's powers and eventually replace it with crown rule. Warren Hastings, Governor of Bengal, was censured for the abuses of the company. Ironically, Hastings had set about to reform the company's practices and was later acquitted of any wrongdoing. During the trial of Hastings, Edmund Burke delivered a scathing indictment of malpractice by the company, condemning it for "injustice and treachery against the faith of nations". Burke stated:

In 1876, about 200,000 Bengalis were killed in Barisal as a result of the 1876 Bengal cyclone.

The Bengal Presidency endured a vast famine between 1873 and 1874. The Bengal famine of 1943 killed an estimated 3 million people during World War II. People died of starvation, malaria, or other diseases aggravated by malnutrition, population displacement, and lack of healthcare. Britain's wartime Prime Minister Winston Churchill has been held responsible for the famine by prominent Indians, including politician Shashi Tharoor. When British civil servants sent letters to London regarding the famine situation, Churchill once responded by saying "Why hasn't Gandhi died yet?". Many scholars, however, argue that it is an exaggeration to blame him for the wartime hunger crisis. The real cause was the fall of Burma to the Japanese, which cut off India's major supply of rice imports when domestic sources fell short, which they did in Eastern Bengal following a devastating cyclone in mid-October 1942. Lizzie Collingham holds the massive global dislocations of supplies caused by World War II virtually guaranteed that hunger would occur somewhere in the world, yet Churchill's racism toward the Indians decided the exact location where famine would fall.

Culture

Literary development

The English language replaced Persian as the official language of administration. The use of Persian was prohibited by Act no. XXIX of 1837 passed by the President of the Council of India in Council on 20 November 1837, bringing an end to six centuries of Indo-Persian culture in Bengal. The Bengali language received increased attention. European missionaries produced the first modern books on Bengali grammar. In pre-colonial times, Hindus and Muslims would be highly attached to their liturgical languages, including Sanskrit and Arabic. Under British rule, the use of Bengali widened and it was strengthened as the lingua franca of the native population. Novels began to be written in Bengali. The literary polymath Rabindranath Tagore was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1913. The cultural activist Kazi Nazrul Islam gained popularity as British India's Rebel Poet. Jagadish Chandra Bose pioneered Bengali science fiction. Begum Rokeya, author of Sultana's Dream, became an early feminist science fiction author.

Media

Numerous newspapers were published in British Bengal since the 18th century. Many were in English. Hicky's Bengal Gazette was a major weekly publication. The first Bengali periodicals appeared in the 19th century.  The Calcutta Journal became the first daily newspaper in British India. Other newspapers included the Dacca News and The Bengal Times. Radio channels began transmitting in 1927.

Visual arts

The Company School of Painting in Calcutta, Murshidabad, and Patna saw Mughal miniatures absorb images of British colonial officials in place of Mughal officials. European painters produced numerous works in Bengal since the 18th century. European photographers also worked in the region. The modernist Bengal school of painting evolved in the province. European sculptures were widely imported by wealthy Zamindars. In the 1940s, Zainul Abedin emerged as a modernist painter depicting poverty and the Bengal famine.

Calcutta Time
Calcutta Time was the time zone of the Bengal Presidency. It was established in 1884. It was one of the two time zones of British India. In the latter part of the 19th century, Calcutta Time was the most prevalent time used in the Indian part of the British Empire with records of astronomical and geological events recorded in it.

Cinema

The Royal Bioscope Company began producing Bengali cinema in 1898, producing scenes from the stage productions of a number of popular shows at the Crown Theatre in Dacca and the Star Theater, Minerva Theater, and Classic Theater in Calcutta.

The Madan Theatre started making silent films in Calcutta in 1916. The first Bengali feature film, Billwamangal, was produced and released in 1919 under the banner of the Madan Theatre. The movie was directed by Rustomji Dhotiwala and produced by Priyonath Ganguli. A Bengali film company called the Indo British Film Co was soon formed in Calcutta by Dhirendra Nath Ganguly. Ganguly directed and wrote Bilat Ferat in 1921, which was the first production of the Indo British Film Co. Jamai Shashthi (1931) was one of the earliest Bengali talkies.

In 1927–28, the Dhaka Nawab Family produced a short film named Sukumary (The Good Girl). After the success of Sukumary, the Nawab's family went for a bigger venture. To make a full-length silent film, a temporary studio was made in the gardens of the family's estate, and they produced a full-length silent film titled The Last Kiss, released in 1931. The "East Bengal Cinematograph Society" was later established in Dacca.

Sports

Cricket started being played in the 1790s. The Calcutta Cricket Club was set up in 1792. For horse racing, the Royal Calcutta Turf Club was set up in 1847. It became British India's equivalent of the Jockey Club in England in terms of arbitrating matters related to racing. In addition to horse races, the club also launched polo matches among natives and colonialists. Races at the Calcutta Race Course were once among the most important social events of the calendar, opened by the Viceroy of India. During the 1930s the Calcutta Derby Sweeps was a leading sweepstake game in the world. A racecourse was also set up in Ramna by the Dacca Club. The Bengal Public Gaming (Amendment) Act (Act No. IV of 1913) excluded horse racing from the gambling law.

Bengal renaissance

The Bengal renaissance refers to social reform movements during the 19th and early 20th centuries in the region of Bengal in undivided India during the period of British rule. Historian Nitish Sengupta describes it as having started with reformer and humanitarian Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1775–1833), and ended with Asia's first Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941). This flowering of religious and social reformers, scholars, and writers is described by historian David Kopf as "one of the most creative periods in Indian history". These movements were most prevalent in Bengali Hindu society, such as through the Brahmo Samaj. There was a growing cultural awakening in Bengali Muslim society, including the emergence of Mir Mosharraf Hossain as the first Muslim novelist of Bengal; Kazi Nazrul Islam as a celebrated poet who merged Bengali and Hindustani influences; Begum Rokeya and Nawab Faizunnesa as feminist educators; Kaykobad as an epic poet; and members of the Freedom of Intellect Movement.

Bengal played a major role in the Indian independence movement and the Pakistan movement. The earliest organized anti-colonial groups appeared in Bengal. The region produced many of the subcontinent's political leaders during the early 20th century. Political parties and rebel groups were formed across the region.

Architecture
Civic architecture began following European styles after the advent of the East India Company's authority. The Indo-Saracenic style, merging Gothic and Indo-Islamic architecture, was started by British architects in the late 19th-century. While cities such as Calcutta and Dacca featured more civic architecture, country houses were built in many towns and villages across Bengal. Art deco influences began in the 1930s. Wealthy Bengali families (especially zamindar estates) employed European firms to design houses and palaces.

Society
Bengali society remained deeply conservative during the colonial period with the exception of social reform movements. Historians have argued that the British used a policy of divide and rule among Hindus and Muslims. This meant favoring Hindus over Muslims and vice versa in certain sectors. For example, after the Permanent Settlement, Hindu merchants such as the Tagore family were awarded large land grants that previously belonged to the Mughal aristocracy. In Calcutta, where Hindus formed a majority, wealthy Muslims were often given favors over Hindus. One aspect that benefitted the Hindu community was increased literacy rates. Many Muslims, however, remained alienated from English education after the abolition of Persian. Bengali society continued to experience religious nationalism which led to the partition of Bengal in 1947.

British Bengali cities included a cosmopolitan population, including Armenians and Jews. Anglo-Indians formed a prominent part of the urban population. Several Gentlemen's clubs were established, including the Bengal Club, Calcutta Club, Dacca Club, Chittagong Club, Tollygunge Club and Saturday Club.

See also
 List of governors of Bengal Presidency
 Advocate-General of Bengal
 Bombay Presidency
 Madras Presidency

References

Works cited

 C. A. Bayly Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire (Cambridge) 1988
 C. E. Buckland Bengal under the Lieutenant-Governors (London) 1901
 Sir James Bourdillon, The Partition of Bengal (London: Society of Arts) 1905
 Susil Chaudhury From Prosperity to Decline. Eighteenth Century Bengal (Delhi) 1995
 Sir William Wilson Hunter, Annals of Rural Bengal (London) 1868, and Odisha (London) 1872

 Ray, Indrajit Bengal Industries and the British Industrial Revolution (1757–1857) (Routledge) 2011
 John R. McLane Land and Local Kingship in eighteenth-century Bengal (Cambridge) 1993

External links
 Coins of the Bengal Presidency

History of Assam
History of Bengal
History of Bihar
History of Odisha
Historical Indian regions
1765 establishments in British India
1947 disestablishments in British India
Former British colonies and protectorates in Asia
States and territories disestablished in 1947

Bengal Presidency


Joseph Grundfest (born 1951) is an American academic. He is the William A. Franke Professor of Law and Business at Stanford Law School and co-director of the Rock Center on Corporate Governance at Stanford University. He joined Stanford's faculty in 1990 after having served for more than four years as a Commissioner of the United States Securities and Exchange Commission, a position to which he was appointed by President Ronald Reagan.

Grundfest's scholarship in the areas of corporate law, securities regulation, and litigation has been published in the Harvard, Yale, and Stanford Law Reviews. The National Law Journal lists Grundfest as among the nation's 100 most influential attorneys, and California Lawyer has listed Grundfest as among the top 10 lawyers in California. Prior to joining the SEC, Grundfest served as counsel and senior economist for legal and regulatory matters at the President's Council of Economic Advisors. An attorney and economist, Grundfest has also practiced law with Wilmer, Cutler & Pickering, and has served as an economist with the Brookings Institution and the Rand Corporation.

Grundfest was born in New York City on October 8, 1951. He graduated from Stuyvesant High School in 1969, and holds a bachelor's degree in economics from Yale University (1973) and completed the M.Sc. program in mathematical economics and econometrics at the London School of Economics (1972). His J.D. degree is from Stanford (1978) where he also completed all requirements for a doctorate in economics but for the dissertation (1978).

Grundfest is founder and director of Directors' College at Stanford Law School, and principal investigator for Stanford Law School's Securities Class Action Clearinghouse. He has served on the New York Stock Exchange's Legal Advisory Board, on the NASDAQ Legal Advisory Committee, on a rules committee of the United States District Court for the Northern District of California, and has been elected to membership in the American Law Institute. Grundfest has been selected as a National Fellow by the Hoover Institution, has been awarded a John M. Olin Faculty Fellowship, and is an Adjunct Scholar of the American Enterprise Institute. Grundfest is admitted to practice in California and in the District of Columbia.

In 1996, Grundfest co-founded Financial Engines (NASDAQ: FNGN) with Stanford Professor William F. Sharpe and Silicon Valley lawyer Craig W. Johnson.

Today, Financial Engines has over 200 employees and is the leader in automated retirement plan investment advice and management, with more than $200 Billion in managed retirement accounts, providing advice and managed account services to employees in over 1000 major corporations. In March, 2018, Financial Engines was acquired for $3 Billion in cash

Grundfest has twice received the John Bingham Hurlbut Award for Excellence in Teaching as well as the Associated Students of Stanford University award as the best professor at the Stanford Law, Business, and Medical Schools. Grundfest is chairman of the board nominating committee of the NASDAQ Stock Market, and was formerly a director of Oracle Corporation.

He was a member of the Special Litigation Committee in the 2003 case In Re Oracle Corp. Derivative Litigation, 824 A.2d 917. Grundfest's independence, as a member of the Special Litigation Committee, was particularly scrutinized by the Delaware Chancery Court because of Oracle's ties to Grundfest's alma mater and employer, Stanford University. 824 A.2d 917, 946.

In 2010 Grundfest filed an affidavit with the US District Court in SEC v. Bank of America Corporation (No. 1-09-cv-06829), complaint under cause of action of Securities Fraud. At the onset of the litigation SEC and Bank of America Corporation filed with the Court a proposed settlement for $33 million. Grundfest's affidavit supported the Settlement Agreement then before the Court, which was eventually rejected.

In September 2019, Grundfest put forth a solution to deal with the impact of Cyan, Inc. v. Beaver County Employees Retirement Fund which ruled that plaintiffs could bring Section 11 suits in state courts and not just in federal courts, in which he suggested that companies could add federal forum provisions (FFPs) to their charter documents to the effect that plaintiffs could only bring Section 11 Suits in federal court. However, the Delaware Court of Chancery ruled in December 2018 that FFPs were ineffective under Delaware ruling in Sciabacucchi v Salzberg. Defendants filed appeal with the Delaware Supreme court, supported by Grundfest's detailed paper, and were successful.

References

External sources
Stanford CV dated 2003.
SEC bio 2007.

Living people
Oracle employees
1951 births
Stanford Law School faculty
Yale University alumni
Alumni of the London School of Economics
Stanford Law School alumni
Members of the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission
Wilmer Cutler Pickering Hale and Dorr people
Reagan administration personnel
George H. W. Bush administration personnel

Joseph Grundfest


The Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute, or AARI (, abbreviated as ААНИИ) is the oldest and largest Russian research institute in the field of comprehensive studies of Arctic and Antarctica. It is located in Saint Petersburg.

The AARI has numerous departments, such as those of oceanography, glaciology, meteorology, hydrology or Arctic river mouths and water resources, geophysics, polar geography, and others. It also has a computer center, ice research laboratory, experimental workshops, and a museum (the Arctic and Antarctic Museum).

Scientists, such as Alexander Karpinsky, Alexander Fersman, Yuly Shokalsky, Nikolai Knipovich, Lev Berg, Otto Schmidt, Rudolf Samoylovich, Vladimir Vize, Nikolai Zubov, Pyotr Shirshov, Nikolai Urvantsev, and Yakov Gakkel have all made contributions to the work of the AARI.

Throughout its history, the AARI has organized more than a thousand Arctic expeditions, including dozens of high-latitude aerial expeditions, which transported 34(?) manned drifting ice stations Severniy Polyus ("Северный полюс", or North Pole) to Central Arctic. In 2019-2020 Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute joined a biggest in history Arctic expedition MOSAiC, where its scientists were primarily invlolved into measurements of sea ice mechanics and seismics.

History
The AARI was founded on 3 March 1920 as the Northern Research and Trade Expedition (Северная научно-промысловая экспедиция) under the Scientific and Technical Department of the All-Union Council of State Economy. In 1925, the expedition was reorganized into the Institute of Northern Studies (Институт по изучению Севера) and five years later - into the All-Union Arctic Institute (Всесоюзный арктический институт). In 1932, the institute was integrated into the Chief Directorate of the Northern Sea Route (Главное управление Северного морского пути). In 1948 the Arctic Geology Research Institute (Научно-исследовательский институт геологии Арктики, or НИИГА) was established on the basis of the geology department of the All-Union Arctic Institute, which would subordinate to the Ministry of Geology of the USSR.

In 1955, the AARI participated in the organization of Antarctic research. In 1958, it began to organize and lead all of the Soviet Antarctic expeditions, which would later make geographic discoveries, and in the same year the All-Union Arctic Institute was renamed Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute. In 1963, the AARI was incorporated into the Chief Administration of the Hydrometeorological Service (Главное управление Гидрометеослужбы) under the Council of Ministers of the USSR (now Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring of Russia). In 1967, AARI was awarded the Order of Lenin.

See also

 Arctic and Antarctic Museum
 Arkticheskiy Institut Islands
 Chief Directorate of the Northern Sea Route
 International Ice Charting Working Group
 Russian Hydrographic Service

References

External links
Official website
 Nikolai Zubov Writings at Dartmouth College Library

1920 establishments in Russia
Research institutes in Saint Petersburg
Earth science research institutes
Exploration of Antarctica
Polar exploration by Russia and the Soviet Union
Research institutes in the Soviet Union
Arctic research
Russia and the Antarctic
Soviet Union and the Antarctic
Antarctica research agencies
Antarctic research

Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute


Roseanne Skoke (born September 11, 1954) was the Liberal MP for the riding of Central Nova from 1993 to 1997.

Political career
Central Nova had been considered a safe Progressive Conservative riding, but its popular MP, Elmer MacKay, did not run for reelection in 1993.  Skoke was elected in the gigantic Liberal landslide of that year as the party swept Nova Scotia and won all but one seat in the Atlantic provinces.

She was one of the more socially conservative members of the Liberal caucus, drawing great controversy for her remarks on homosexuality in 1995, calling it "unnatural and immoral."

Due to redistribution prior to the 1997 federal election, Skoke was forced to run against fellow Liberal MP Francis LeBlanc for the Liberal nomination in her riding, which was renamed Pictou—Antigonish—Guysborough. She was defeated due, in part, to controversies surrounding her. She refused to campaign for LeBlanc in the 1997 election leading some Liberals to blame her for LeBlanc's defeat at the hands of Peter MacKay.

Skoke attempted a political comeback by running for the leadership of the Nova Scotia Liberal Party later that year. She placed third.

In 1998, she unsuccessfully attempted to win a seat in the Nova Scotia House of Assembly by running against John Hamm in Pictou Centre during the provincial election.

Legal cases
In the 1980s, she was one of six people charged and convicted for disturbing an act of solemnity during a service of religious worship after she insisted on kneeling for communion at her Catholic church.  Those convictions were later overturned in the Supreme Court of Canada.

In October 2015, she began a private lawsuit against the bishop and Diocese of Antigonish after the diocese announced the coming closure of Our Lady of Lourdes church.

Electoral history

References

External links

1954 births
Women members of the House of Commons of Canada
Liberal Party of Canada MPs
Living people
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Nova Scotia
People from New Glasgow, Nova Scotia
Women in Nova Scotia politics
Canadian people of Croatian descent
Canadian Roman Catholics

Roseanne Skoke


The Windsor Court Historic District is a residential historic district in Southbridge, Massachusetts, United States.  It is a collection of five three-family residences located on Windsor Court and adjacent North Street that were built by the American Optical Company between 1915 and 1917 to provide worker housing.  The district was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1989.

Description and history
Windsor Court is a short spur road on the south side of North Street, which runs east–west north of Southbridge's downtown and south of the Quinebaug River.  Between the road and the river stands part of the former manufacturing facility of the American Optical Company, once Southbridge's leading employer.  Two of the five buildings in the district flank Windsor Court, facing south toward North Street, while the other three stand on the west side of Windsor Court.  They are essentially identical in original construction, 2-1/2 story wood frame structures with gable roofs.  They differ from traditional triple-decker construction in that they have gabled roofs and Colonial Revival styling.  Distinctive features include corner pilasters and recessed porches, some of which have since been enclosed.  Although the roofline starts at the second floor, the houses have dormers that run most of the length of the structure, giving the third floor unit additional space.  These features are similar to those found in another cluster of company housing on Twinehurst Place.

These houses typified the densest form of residential housing built by the American Optical Company to house its workers.  These buildings were built between 1915 and 1917, and were rented to workers at $7 per month for the lower units, and $6 for the third floor.

See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Southbridge, Massachusetts
National Register of Historic Places listings in Worcester County, Massachusetts

References

External links
 MACRIS Listing - 8-10 Windsor Ct

Historic districts in Southbridge, Massachusetts
National Register of Historic Places in Southbridge, Massachusetts
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Massachusetts
Company housing

Windsor Court Historic District


Masaki Suda( February 21, 1993) is a famous Japanese actor and singer. His real name is Taisho Sugo. His debut song is Mita Koto mo Nai Keshiki.

He won numerous awards for film and TV drama.

Career (actor)
In 2008, Suda was elected as one of the finalists of Junon Super Boy Contest, and he started to belong to Top Coat.His first  debut and the lead role was  Kamen Rider  W in 2009.

In 2013, he won the 37th  Japan Academy Film Prize for Newcomer Actor with the movie Tomogui that he played the lead. In 2014, he won the Best Supporting Actor Award of Takasaki Film Festival with Soko nomi nite kagayaku. Also, he won Best Emerging Actor Award at TAMA Film Festival and Best Actor Award at Osaka Cinema Festivaland so on. He appeared on NHK TVseries Gochiso-san, which was his first appearance of that series.

In 2017, his music career started with Mita koto mo Nai Keshiki and he also started radio as a regular personality of  All Night Nippon in the Spring, the same year.

He won the 41th Japan Academy Film Prize for Best Actor with Aa Koya.

In 2019, it's been 10 years since he made his debut as an actor, and he was cast as the lead of a serial TV drama.  In addition, he received many Best Actor Awards such as the Best Actor Award of Tokyo Drama Award.

In 2020, Ito, a movie starring Suda and Nana Komatsu was released.

Career (music)
In 2017, it was announced that  Suda would  debut with Mita Koto mo Nai Keshiki. In the same year, his second single, Kokyu was released.

In 2018, he released his third single Sayonara Elegy, and the fourth single Long Hope Philia.

In 2019, he appeared at the Red and White singing Festival of NHK, and he sang Machigai sagashi.

Personal life
Suda's grandfather was a dressmaker. Therefore, Suda was influenced by his `grandfather, started to be interested in clothes, and  usually makes clothing.

He respects Comedians ,and his best Comedians are Downtown, who are famous Japanese Comedians.

He used to belong to a soccer team in Minowa, Osaka in his childhood.

Also, he used to take piano and swimming lessons when he was a junior high school student, and belonged to an  American football club in high school.

On November 15, 2021, he announced that he married Nana Komatsu, a famous Japanese actress.

Discography

Albums
Play-March 21, 2018
Love-July 10, 2019

Singles
Kiseki-2016
Mita Koto mo Nai Keshiki-2017
Kokyu-2017
Sayonara Elegy-2018
Long Hope Philia-2018
Machigai Sagashi-May 14, 2019
Niji-2020

Extended play

Green Boys- January 24, 2017

References

 オーディション落選が転機だった菅田将暉. (2014, November 20). 芸能ニュース. Retrieved January 13, 2022, from https://npn.co.jp/article/detail/30297097/
 Japan Academy Academy. (2022, January 13). Japan Academy Academy. Retrieved January 13, 2022, from https://www.japan-academy-prize.jp/prizes/37.html
 映画ナタリー. (2021,  November 21). 菅田将暉がTAMA映画賞で最優秀男優賞を獲得、役所広司は西川美和からのオファー喜ぶ(映画ナタリー). Yahoo!ニュース. Retrieved January 13, 2022, from https://news.yahoo.co.jp/articles/390008d23611f96602d35e2dafcced6570f43543
 菅田将暉|SUDA MASAKI MUSIC OFFICIAL. (n.d.). SUDA MASAKI MUSIC OFFICIAL. Retrieved January 13, 2022, from https://sudamasaki-music.com/sp/
 菅田将暉 と 高崎映画祭. (2022,  January 11). エルペディア【Wikipedia】. Retrieved January 13,  2022,  from https://rubese.net/lpedia001/target.php?name=%E8%8F%85%E7%94%B0%E5%B0%86%E6%9A%89&id=212190
 L. (2019,  December 16).
 俳優菅田将暉の幼少期からの才能溢れる逸話集!アメフトにサッカー!?好きなタイプは?.  芸能界の掟. Retrieved January 17, 2022, from https://geinoukainookite.net/masaki-suda-epi/M. (2021, July 14).
 菅田将暉がダウンタウンに宛てた手紙が泣ける!内容紹介!【動画あり】 | Life With Topics. Coco'sCareNote. Retrieved January 17,  2022, from
 https://news.mynavi.jp/article/20160514-a040/(2014, May 14)
 菅田将暉が小松菜奈との結婚発表「4年越しの片思いを実らせた」(NEWSポストセブン). Yahoo!ニュース. Retrieved January 17, 2022, from https://news.yahoo.co.jp/articles/1cd11194c83f7eabde3dca808fe5535684df2231
 糸 : 作品情報. (2022,  January 17). 映画.com. Retrieved January 13, 2022, from https://eiga.com/movie/91361/
 菅田将暉のオールナイトニッポン. (n.d.). オールナイトニッポン.com ニッポン放送. Retrieved January 13, 2022, from https://www.allnightnippon.com/suda/

1993 births
Living people
Japanese actors

Masaki Suda


Tropical Cyclone Yasi was a tropical cyclone that caused a lot of damage when it reached the Australian coast at about midnight on Wednesday 2 February 2011. The storm which started in the Coral Sea, destroyed hundreds of homes in the northern Queensland towns of Tully, Mission Beach, Innisfail and Cardwell. Yasi was a Category Five storm, the highest level, with winds of about 300 km/h. It was the biggest storm in Queensland's history, with more than 10,000 people moved from their homes. The storm passed between the two big cities of Cairns and Townsville which only suffered minor damage. Early estimates of damage put the cost at about AU$100 million.

Cyclone Yasi did not cause the damage that government expected as it missed major cities. It did however destroy 30% of the houses in Tully. At least 75% of the banana crop was destroyed, and damage to the sugar cane farms is expected to cost about AU$500 million. One person died when they were poisoned by fumes from a portable generator. Damage to power lines left 150,000 homes without electricity.

The rainforest around Mission Beach was flattened by the cyclone. This meant that most of the food and shelter needed for the wildlife has been destroyed. The Southern Cassowary, a large endangered bird, will need help to survive in the forest. After Cyclone Larry in 2006 it is thought that about one third of the cassowaries at Mission Beach died from starvation. A group, called Rainforest Rescue, is going to set up feeding areas in the forest for the birds.

References

Other websites
 Photos of damage from Cyclone Yasi
 Rainforest Rescue

2011 in weather
2011 in Australia
February 2011 events
Disasters in Queensland
Tropical cyclones in Oceania
Retired tropical cyclone names

Cyclone Yasi


Kazakh wine is wine made in Kazakhstan. The roots of the Kazakh wine industry can be traced to the 7th century AD when grapevines were brought to the region from neighboring Uzbekistan and China. While only around 4% of the land in Kazakhstan is ideally situated for viticulture, the country does manage to produce over 6.2 million gallons (236,000 hl) of wine annually from . Buoyed by its mineral wealth, the country is an enthusiastic consumer of wine but must import 80% of the 30 m bottles it drinks.

History

The earliest evidence of viticulture in Kazakhstan appear during the 7th century AD around Shymkent and in the foothills of Tian Shan in Almaty Province near the Kazakh-Kyrgyzstan border. Vines were believed to have been introduced to the area by traders from the Xinjiang province of China and the Fergana and Samarqand regions of Uzbekistan. Throughout most of Kazakhstan's history, commercial winemaking was conducted on a small scale. In the early 20th century, state-run vineyards in Almaty, Shymkent and Taraz were the largest producers. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, there has been renewed interest in the Kazakhstan wine industry with Russia becoming a leading trading partner in Kazakh wine.

In general the emphasis will be on inexpensive table wine, although the UN thinks that the continental climate may allow the production of high-value ice wine.

Climate and geography

As an inland country, Kazakhstan has a very typical continental climate. Most of the region's vineyards are located in the southern half of the country near the borders of China, Uzbekistan, and Kyrgyzstan with a few smaller regions along the Caspian Sea in the west. Average annual rainfall varies throughout the country ranging from 4-6 inches (100–150 mm) in the wine regions around Atyrau and Aktobe to 27-39 inches (700–1000 mm) in the regions around the Talas River.

Grape varieties
Currently the Kazakhstan winemaking has largely focused on dessert wine production. More than 40 grape varieties are grown in the country though more than half are currently used for table grape production rather than winemaking. Popular wine grape varieties include Aligote, Aleatico, Cabernet Franc, Cabernet Sauvignon, Pinot noir, Riesling, Rkatsiteli, Saperavi, Muscat Ottonel, Bayan Shirey, Kuljinski, Maiski Cherny and Rubinovy Magaracha. In general the grapes are the Georgian ones, such as Rkatsiteli and Saperavi, found in other parts of the former Soviet Union. More recently there has been interest in planting international varieties such as Sauvignon blanc. However local tastes would appear to prefer the traditional sweet red wines.

Classification
At present there is no appellation system in Kazakhstan.

Wine regions
About 80% of the country's wines are produced at the Issyk Winery  in Issyk, some  east of Almaty. Bought by the Swiss-based Consulting Group in 1996 and recently sold back to local company Dostar, it has gone under considerable changes with the help of Italian-based winery Marcato Vini and an Australian consultant. Major reconstruction has been undertaken, with the importation of "New World" technologies including sweeping arm fermenters, air bag presses, cross flow filtration and nitrogen production. It benefits from being 850 m up in the Tian Shan mountains of the southeast of the country. Other wineries include Bakhus and the Turgen Winery. There are 210 hectares of vineyards in the Zailiyskiy region of the Almaty Oblast. In Soviet times there were vineyards and wineries in the Sarkand and Alakol regions of Dzhungar Alatau, in the Almaty Oblast, but these were hit hard by the breakup of the Soviet Union.

See also

 Winemaking
 Agriculture in Kazakhstan

References

Kazakh drinks

Agriculture in Kazakhstan
Kazakh cuisine
Wine by country

Kazakh wine


Hurricane Genevieve, also known as Typhoon Genevieve, was a strong and long-lived tropical cyclone that became the fourth-strongest tropical cyclone of the 2014 Pacific typhoon season. It was also the first tropical cyclone to exist in all the three North Pacific tropical cyclone basins since Dora in 1999. Genevieve formed from a tropical wave well to the south-east of Hawaii on July 25, but weakened quickly into a remnant low due to high wind shear on July 28. The system briefly reformed in July to the south of Hawaii before dissipating once again on July 31.

Several days later, on August 2, Genevieve regenerated. Owing to better conditions for intensification, Genevieve began to rapidly intensify, reaching hurricane strength on August 6 and major hurricane strength on August 7 shortly before crossing the International Date Line into the Western Pacific basin, where Genevieve was reclassified as a typhoon by the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA).

After reaching peak intensity as a Category 5 typhoon on August 7 and 8 to the west-southwest, Genevieve began to weaken as conditions worsened. The storm rapidly weakened to severe tropical storm strength on August 10. On August 12, the JMA downgraded Genevieve to a tropical depression, and Genevieve dissipated on August 14.

Meteorological history

Origin and regeneration

The National Hurricane Center (NHC) began to track a tropical wave associated with a few showers and thunderstorms, moving westward off the coast of northern Central America on July 17. Four days later, thunderstorm activity became stronger; by July 22, the area of low pressure became better organized. On July 23, the NHC noted that the system could become a tropical depression within the next two days; however, they also noted that wind shear could increase within a couple of days. After an ASCAT pass and an increase in convection, the NHC upgraded the storm to Tropical Storm Genevieve on July 25. A few hours later, the system attained its initial peak strength of 45 mph (75 km/h).

Shortly afterwards, increased wind shear took its toll on the system, causing Genevieve to lose its organization as it continued westward, under the influence of a subtropical ridge and the Intertropical Convergence Zone. After the low-level circulation center was exposed and became separated from the deep convection, the NHC downgraded Genevieve to a tropical depression on July 26. Although deep convection increased near the center early on the next day, Genevieve continued to fight westerly shear when crossing 140°W, moving into the waters monitored by the Central Pacific Hurricane Center (CPHC). Due to the lack of deep convection, the CPHC indicated that Genevieve had become a post-tropical remnant low early on July 28, as only a low-level cloud swirl remained. However, the CPHC noted the possibility of re-development since shear was forecast to decrease.

Roughly 36 hours later, the remnants of Genevieve regenerated into a tropical depression to the southeast of the main Hawaiian Islands. The system briefly became better organized on July 30, prompting the CPHC to forecast the storm would re-intensify into a tropical storm. However, by the end of the day, the low-level circulation center had become displaced to the east of the deep convection due to increased southeasterly shear and infiltration of dry air. By 21:00 UTC July 31, the CPHC reported that Genevieve had once again weakened into a remnant low, as only an isolated area of deep convection remained west of the center.

Intensification and peak intensity
The remnants of Genevieve continued to travel in a generally westward direction, moving into an environment more conducive for tropical development, and on the afternoon of August 2, Genevieve regenerated into a tropical depression, as the storm reacquired deep convection and its outflow improved. By 21:00 UTC the same day, Genevieve reacquired tropical storm intensity, continuing to travel westward around the subtropical ridge to its north, but only six hours later, the CPHC downgraded Genevieve into a tropical depression. Deep convection near the center increased and decreased several times, but Genevieve failed to re-intensify. After moving south-southwest, Genevieve turned west-northwest on August 4 as it continued to track around the ridge to its north.

Despite moderate wind shear, convection soon wrapped around the southeastern side of the low-level circulation.  By 21:00 UTC on August 5, the CPHC upgraded the system to a tropical storm, despite continued wind shear. Wind shear quickly decreased, triggering a period of rapid intensification. By the afternoon of August 6, Genevieve intensified to a low-end Category 1 hurricane; the system also developed a central dense overcast and well-organized banding around the newly-developed eye. Passing over very warm ocean temperatures, Genevieve rapidly intensified accelerated that evening. Based on advanced Dvorak technique estimates of  as well as the presence of a very well-defined eye surrounded by very cold cloud tops, the CPHC upgraded the hurricane into Category 4 intensity on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale early on the next day.

Genevieve crossed the International Date Line at 06:00 UTC on August 7, entering the area of responsibility of the RSMC Tokyo operated by the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA). The JMA recognized Genevieve as a typhoon with ten-minute maximum sustained winds at 115 mph (185 km/h). The Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) also upgraded Genevieve to a super typhoon. Only six hours later, the JTWC reported that Genevieve had reached Category 5 status with one-minute sustained winds at 160 mph (260 km/h), with a microwave imagery revealing a  diameter eyewall with a convective band over the south quadrant. As Genevieve continued to remain in a favorable environment with radial outflow and low vertical wind shear, the JMA indicated that the typhoon about 760 mi (1220 km) east-southeast of Wake Island had reached its peak intensity late on August 7, with ten-minute maximum sustained winds at 125 mph (205 km/h).

Weakening and dissipation
During the morning of August 8, Genevieve started to track northward along the western edge of a subtropical ridge to the east and northeast.That noon, more fragmented deep convective banding revealed that Genevieve had begun a weakening trend. As the result, the JTWC downgraded Genevieve to a typhoon late on the same day, as convection surrounding the system warmed. Early on August 9, Genevieve accelerated north-northeastward, and it began to encounter increasing vertical wind shear of 35 mph (55 km/h) with subsidence along the western side and weakening outflow into the TUTT cell. The eye of the typhoon became cloud-filled, while the deepest convection around the core was also became warmer. The system began to track north-northwestward in the afternoon, when the cold dense overcast has decreased in size and become less symmetric.

Genevieve reformed a  eye with more symmetric and organized convection for short time early on August 10, but the eye disappeared very soon as the system elongated further. Upper-level analysis indicated a complex environment— an anticyclone located to the southeast, a TUTT cell to the west, and a second anticyclone to the north. The TUTT cell and the first anticyclone caused strong upper-level southwestern flow and moderate vertical wind shear over the system, but the issues were offset by the quick speed of the typhoon. Tracking northwestward, Genevieve crossed 30°N at noon and began to encounter cold sea surface temperatures less than 79 °F (26 °C) which do not support tropical cyclones. At the same time, a trough expanded the region of subsidence, isolating the core from the tropical moisture along the equatorward periphery. Later, deep convection along the tightly-wrapped low-level circulation center of the typhoon diminished fast as dry air surrounded the system.

Late on August 10, the JMA downgraded Genevieve to a severe tropical storm about 670 mi (1,080 km) west-northwest of Midway Atoll, and the JTWC downgraded it to a tropical storm early on the next day. Dry air, cool ocean temperatures, and weakening link to tropical moisture caused deep convection to nearly completely dissipate. This process was hastened by the disintegration of the TUTT cell which had helped to increase equatorward outflow. Under the combination of many unfavorable
environmental factors, Genevieve weakened to a tropical storm at noon according to the JMA as it started to move west-northwestward and slowed down. As convection had largely dissipated, the JTWC downgraded Genevieve to a tropical depression and stopped warnings late on the same day.

After the JMA downgraded Genevieve to a tropical depression at 06:00 UTC on August 12, the system drifted westward and then northwestward very slowly until it accelerated northeastward late on August 13. The JMA reported that Genevieve had dissipated as a tropical depression before noon on August 14; however, the Ocean Prediction Center indicated that the remnants of Genevieve crossed the International Date Line and entered the Central North Pacific Ocean again late on the same day. They were eventually absorbed by another extratropical cyclone before noon on August 15.

Related pages
 Hurricane John (1994)
 Hurricane Ioke (2006)

References

Other websites

NHC Advisory Archive of Hurricane Genevieve
CPHC Product Archive of Hurricane Genevieve
JMA General Information of Typhoon Genevieve (1413) from Digital Typhoon
JMA Best Track Data of Typhoon Genevieve (1413)
07E.GENEVIEVE from the U.S. Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center

July 2014 events
August 2014 events
Pacific typhoons

Hurricane Genevieve (2014)


Charlotte Helene Frederikke Bournonville (1832–1911) was a Danish opera singer and actress. Daughter of the celebrated Danish ballet master, August Bournonville, she first sang in Stockholm in 1857 before joining the Royal Danish Theatre in Copenhagen two years later. She is also remembered for giving singing lessons to the daughters of King Christian IX. In appreciation of her services, the king elevated her to the status of Kongelig Kammersanger (Royal Chamber Singer) in 1863.

Biography
Born on 29 November 1832 in Copenhagen, Charlotte Bournonville was the daughter of August Bournonville and Helena Fredrika Håkansson. She received singing lessons from Carl Helsted in Copenhagen, Arlet in Vienna and Giovanni Battista Lamperti in Milan. In early 1857, she appeared in concerts in Paris before being engaged by the Royal Theatre in Stockholm in July where she appeared in several concerts and played Fides in Meyerbeer's opera Profeten. She performed in Hamburg and Frankfurt in the winter of 1858-59. She then settled in Copenhagen where she was engaged by the Royal Danish Theatre, receiving a permanent appointment until 1884. There she first appeared in Vaudeville operettas before taking mezzo-soprano parts in opera. Her roles included Azucena in Il trovatore, Diana in Les diamants de la couronne, Mme Bertrand in Le maçon, fru Ragnhild in Ivar Hallström's Den bergtagna, Marthe in Faust and Marguerite in La dame blanche.

Although she performed well, Bournonville was rivalled by the mezzo-soprano Josephine Zinck whose good looks she lacked, causing her to appear increasingly less frequently. She finally retired from the theatre in 1884.

Charlotte Bournonville died in Copenhagen on 22 March 1911. She is buried in Asminderød Churchyard near Fredensborg.

References

19th-century Danish actresses
Danish stage actresses
19th-century Danish women opera singers
Danish sopranos
Danish operatic mezzo-sopranos
1832 births
1911 deaths
Actresses from Copenhagen
Singers from Copenhagen

Charlotte Bournonville


"Do That Stuff" is a song by the funk band Parliament. It was the first single released from their 1976 album The Clones of Dr. Funkenstein. It peaked at number 22 on the U.S. R&B chart.

Sampling
Actress and R&B singer Tatyana Ali sampled part of the song in her song, "Getting Closer" from the Wild Wild West soundtrack.
Electronic duo Röyksopp sampled a part of the song in their single, "Happy Up Here", off their album Junior.
Hip-hop duo Nice & Smooth sampled a part of the song in their song "Funky for You" off their album Nice and Smooth.
Berlin-based duo Stereo Total sampled a part of the song in their song "Beauty Case" off their album My Melody.
Russian electropop band Diskoteka Avariya sampled a part of the song in their track "Рэп для моей девчонки" ("Rjep dlja moej devchonki", Rap for my chick) off their debut album  "Танцуй со мной" ("Tancuj so mnoj", Dance with Me) in 1997

References

Parliament (band) songs
1976 singles
Songs written by George Clinton (funk musician)
Casablanca Records singles
Songs written by Bernie Worrell
1976 songs
Songs written by Garry Shider

Do That Stuff


A satchel is a bag with a strap, traditionally used for carrying books. The strap is often worn so that it diagonally crosses the body, with the bag hanging on the opposite hip, rather than hanging directly down from the shoulder. The back of a satchel extends to form a flap that folds over to cover the top and fastens in the front.  Unlike a briefcase, a satchel is soft-sided.

School bag

The satchel has been a typical accessory of English students for centuries, as attested in Shakespeare's famous monologue, "All the world's a stage." The traditional Oxford and Cambridge style satchel features a simple pouch with a front flap. Variations include designs with a single or double pocket on the front and sometimes a handle on the top of the bag.  The classic school bag satchel often had two straps, so that it could be worn like a backpack, with the design having the straps coming in a V from the centre of the back of the bag, rather than separate straps on each side.  This style is sometimes called a satchel backpack.

In Japan the term for a school bag satchel is randoseru.

In the United States, satchels of various designs and materials, classically were the Bookbags of choice for Elementary students into the 1970s. Beginning in the 1950s into the 1970s, the use of bags by schoolchildren declined in favour of carrying books by hand, until backpacks being popular.

In fashion

The satchel has become a fashion accessory in the last couple of decades, with the proliferation of satchel-shaped handbags and other accessories from various brands such as the Cambridge Satchel Company.

See also
 Briefcase
 Messenger bag
 Backpack
 Handbag
 Carriel, a leather satchel used in Colombia
 Loculus, a satchel carried by Roman legionaries
 Mail satchel

References

Bags (fashion)
Luggage

et:Ranits

Satchel