Russell Claude Brock, Baron Brock (24 October 1903 – 3 September 1980) was a leading British chest and heart surgeon and one of the pioneers of modern open-heart surgery. His achievements were recognised by a knighthood in 1954, a life peerage in 1965, and a host of other awards.

Biography
He was born in London, 1903, the son of Herbert Brock, a master photographer, and his wife, Elvina (née Carman). He was the second of six sons and fourth of eight children. He was educated at Haselrigge Road School, Clapham, and then at Christ's Hospital, Horsham, where he later became an Almoner (governor). He entered Guy's Hospital Medical School in 1921 at age 17 with an arts scholarship. He qualified LRCP (Lond.) and MRCS (Eng.) 1926, and graduated MB, BS (Lond.) with honours and distinction in medicine, surgery, and anatomy in 1927. He was appointed demonstrator in anatomy and in pathology at Guy's and passed the final FRCS (Eng.) in 1929.

Brock was elected to a Rockefeller travelling fellowship and worked in the surgical department of Evarts Graham at St. Louis, Missouri, 1929–30. There he developed a lifelong interest in thoracic surgery. He returned to Guy's as surgical registrar and tutor in 1932 and was appointed research fellow of the Association of Surgeons of Great Britain and Ireland. He won the Jacksonian prize of the Royal College of Surgeons of England in 1935 and was elected a Hunterian professor in 1938. Appointments included consultant thoracic surgeon to the London County Council, 1935–46; surgeon to the Ministry of Pensions at Roehampton Hospital, 1936–45; surgeon to Guy's and the Brompton hospitals 1936–1968. During World War Two he was also thoracic surgeon and regional adviser in thoracic surgery to the Emergency Medical Service in the Guy's region. Based on this experience, in 1946 he published a book on bronchial anatomy which became a classic.

The end of the war provided opportunities for surgeons with war experience to turn their attention to unsolved civilian problems. In 1947 Thomas Holmes Sellors (1902–1987) of the Middlesex Hospital operated on a Fallot's Tetralogy patient with pulmonary stenosis and successfully divided the stenosed pulmonary valve. In 1948, Brock, probably unaware of Sellor's work, used a specially designed dilator in three cases of  pulmonary stenosis. Later in 1948 he designed a punch to resect the infundibular muscle stenosis which is often associated with Fallot's Tetralogy.

Also in 1948 he was one of four surgeons who carried out successful operations for mitral stenosis resulting from rheumatic fever. Horace Smithy (1914–1948) of Charlotte, revived an operation due to Dr Elliott Cutler of the Peter Bent Brigham Hospital using a punch to remove a portion of the mitral valve. Charles Bailey (1910–1993) at the Hahnemann Hospital, Philadelphia, Dwight Harken in Boston and Russell Brock at Guy's all adopted the finger fracture technique first used by Henry Souttar in 1925. All these men started work independently of each other, within a few months. This latter technique was widely adopted although there were modifications. Souttar had pioneered the method in one patient and the patient did well but his physician colleagues at that time decided it was not justified and he could not continue. Together these men created an entirely new therapeutic tradition. Many thousands of these "blind" operations were performed until the introduction of heart bypass made direct surgery on valves possible.

Inspired by exchange professorships between himself and Dr Alfred Blalock of Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, Brock also introduced new developments, notably hypothermia and the heart-lung machine, as they emerged, enabling operations to be performed directly.

He was an outstanding diagnostician, a conscientious teacher and meticulous in the care of his patients. He was not an easy man to know well. He was strict in handling his juniors but meticulously fair and very support of those who gained his confidence. Likewise he could not tolerate slackness in those who worked with him and suffered fools badly. He was very much an individualist, found his own solutions to problems and was not always good at accepting the solutions of others. On the other hand, John Kirklin said that when he (Kirklin) had just performed his first operation at the Mayo Clinic using the Mayo-Gibbon oxygenator, and was about to do his second, Brock phoned, asking to come and watch. Knowing that Brock was supposed to be a difficult man with a big reputation, Kirklin offered him the chance to scrub up and stand in the theatre but he said, "No, no, no. I don't want to bother you". He sat and watched inconspicuously in the gallery. Perhaps this tells us that Brock felt that he had a mission to serve patients, did not like having precious time wasted but came humbly to learn when he sensed a master at work.

He was awarded the 1966 Lister Medal for his contributions to surgical science. The corresponding Lister Oration, given at the Royal College of Surgeons of England, was delivered on 4 April 1967, and was titled 'Surgery and Lister'.

Brock died in Guy's Hospital on 3 September 1980.

Services, awards and honours
Assistant editor and later editor of Guy's Hospital Reports 1939–1960.

Contributed important papers on cardiac and thoracic surgery to medical and surgical journals and textbooks.

Served on the Council of the Royal College of Surgeons of England, 1949–1967, and as vice-president 1956-8 and President 1963–6, and director of department of surgical sciences established during his presidency.

Delivered the Bradshaw Lecture at the Royal College of Surgeons in 1957 and their Hunterian oration in 1961.

Knighted 6 July 1954

Life peerage Created Baron Brock of Wimbledon in the London Borough of Merton on 5 July 1965.

President Thoracic Society of Great Britain and Ireland in 1952; Society of Cardiovascular and Thoracic Surgeons of Great Britain and Ireland in 1958 ; Medical Society of London in 1958.

Elected fellow: Thoracic Society of Great Britain and Ireland; Royal College of Physicians of London in 1965

Elected Honorary fellow: American College of Surgeons, 1949; the Brazilian College, 1952; the Royal Australasian College of Surgeons, 1958; the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, 1965; the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada; and the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh, 1966.

Awards: Julius Mickle prize of London University (1952), Fothergillian Gold Medal of the Medical Society of London (1953), Cameron Prize for Therapeutics of the University of Edinburgh (1954), Gold Medal of Society of Apothecaries (1955), Gold Medal of West London Medical and Chirurgical Society (1955), International Gairdner award, 1960–1, Lister medallist and orator, 1967.

Honorary degrees from universities:  Hamburg (1962), Leeds (1965), Cambridge (1968), Guelph and Munich (1972).

Other interests
Outside his professional work he had considerable knowledge of old furniture and prints, and history, especially local and medical history. Less well known was his dedication to the complementary interests of private medicine and the NHS, for he served on the governing body of Private Patients Plan and was chairman (1967–77) before becoming its president. He was responsible for the discovery and restoration, on the Guy's site, of an eighteenth-century operating theatre which was formerly part of the old St. Thomas's Hospital

In 1927, he married Germaine Louise Ladavèze (died 1978). They had three daughters. In 1979, he married Chrissie Palmer Jones.

Arms

Publications
 The Anatomy of the Bronchial Tree, with special reference to the surgery of lung abscess (Oxford University Press: London, 1946, Second edition 1954);
 The Life and Work of Astley Cooper (E. & S. Livingstone: Edinburgh & London, 1952);
 Lung Abscess (Blackwell Scientific Publications: Oxford, 1952);
 The Anatomy of Congenital Pulmonary Stenosis (Cassell & Co.: London, 1957);
 John Keats and Joseph Severn, the tragedy of the last illness, 1973.

See also
Wimbledon Manor House

References

External links

People educated at Christ's Hospital
Alumni of King's College London
Fellows of the Royal College of Surgeons of England
Fellows of the Royal College of Physicians
English surgeons
20th-century English medical doctors
People from Clapham
Knights Bachelor
Life peers
1903 births
1980 deaths
Medical doctors from London
20th-century surgeons
Life peers created by Elizabeth II

Russell Brock, Baron Brock


Omiostola basiramula is a species of moth of the family Tortricidae. It is found in Colombia.

The wingspan is about 24 mm for males and 26 mm for females. The forewings are brown, mixed with whitish grey along the median cell and towards the tornus. The apex is browner with a slight purple hue. The hindwings are brown.

Etymology
The species name refers to the presence of a dark forewing marking and is derived from Greek basis (meaning the base) and Latin ramula (meaning a small branch).

References

Moths described in 2011
Olethreutini
Taxa named by Józef Razowski

Omiostola basiramula


In Marxism, alienation is a feeling that people have when they don't feel connected to the society around them and their work.

According to Marx, there are four types of alienation in a capitalist society:

 Alienation from the product of a person's work
 Alienation from the process of work
 Alienation from others
 Alienation from self

Because of alienation, people have no control over their lives or over the things they make. Instead, the products of their labor are exchanged for wages in order to survive.

Types of Alienation

Alienation from the product of a person's work
In this type of alienation, a worker cannot relate to the work he or she is doing. For example, someone can screw parts into a toy without seeing the rest of the toy when it is done. This type of alienation increased after people started doing work in assembly lines. Before then, people would make things from start to finish.

Alienation from the process of work
A worker does not control the means of production. He or she just does the things that is taught to them. For example, a worker might need to make shirts in the same style and cannot experiment with patterns or designs.

Alienation from others
In a capitalist society, a worker will be in competition with other workers for a small number of jobs. Because of this, they cannot cooperate with each other and fight for their shared interests as workers.

Alienation from self
Finally, people are alienated from their identity that they get from doing their work. Marx called this identity Gattungswesen (German for "species-essence" or "human nature"). For example, someone who just screws parts into a toy will not feel like a toymaker because he or she is not really "making" toys.
Marxism
Political science

Alienation (Marxism)


The Intel MCS-296 is a family of microcontrollers (MCU), an improved version of the Intel MCS-96, while remaining compatible. The family is often referred to as the 80296. The MCU has improved math performance making it practical in embedded digital signal processing (DSP) and feedback control systems. It can perform 12.5 DSP MIPS and general performance MIPS.

The main features of the MCS-296 family is 50 MHz operation, MCS-96 compatibility, pipeline architecture, 6 MB addressable space, 2 KB code/data RAM, 40-bit accumulator, fast hardware multiplier and accumulator, and 512 Byte register RAM.

References
 http://www.intel.com/design/support/faq/microcontrollers/supportform.htm

Intel microcontrollers

Intel MCS-296


Sheila Rae, the Brave is a children's picture book written and illustrated by Kevin Henkes and published by HarperCollins and The Living Books Company. It is his seventh book and the second of the Mouse Books series, preceded by A Weekend with Wendell and followed by Chester's Way.

Plot summary
Sheila Rae is a mouse who boastfully claims she is not afraid of anything. She recklessly shows off in front of her friends and classmates acts of bravery such as tying Wendell with her skipping rope for snatching it. In addition, she teases her little sister, Louise, for being afraid of little things. But one day when Sheila Rae wanders down a strange route on her way home from school, Louise gets the better of her and for the first time, Sheila Rae feels afraid, while Louise gains courage and helps Sheila Rae overcome her fear.

Adaptations

Computer game
The book was adapted into an interactive storybook computer game by Living Books in 1996 and tells the story in English and Spanish. The adaption remains faithful to the original story and contains a Sing-a-Long and Map Game.

References

External links

1987 children's books
American children's books
American picture books
Talking animals in fiction
Children's books about mice and rats

Sheila Rae, the Brave


Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) is an international mutual aid fellowship. Its purpose is to help alcoholics quit drinking and help people stay sober. AA gives men and women a place to come together and share their experiences, recover from alcoholism and maintain sobriety. Its concept revolves around that premise that alcoholism is an illness that can be managed, but not controlled.

AA was founded by Bill Wilson and his physician, Doctor Bob Smith in 1935 and eventually grew to include two more groups by 1939. That same year, Wilson published Alcoholics Anonymous, a text which explained its philosophy and methods. We know it today as the 12 Steps of recovery. Over the years, the 12 Steps have been adapted by other self-help and addiction recovery groups, such as Gamblers Anonymous and Narcotics Anonymous, to those struggling with other forms of addiction. Additionally, many groups have changed the explicitly Christian overtones of the original 12 Steps to reflect more secular or agnostic philosophies.

References

Medical and health organizations
Addiction

Alcoholics Anonymous


Dendrology (, dendron, "tree"; and , -logia, science of or study of) or xylology (, ksulon, "wood") is the science and study of woody plants (trees, shrubs, and lianas), specifically, their taxonomic classifications. There is no sharp boundary between plant taxonomy and dendrology; woody plants not only belong to many different plant families, but these families may be made up of both woody and non-woody members. Some families include only a few woody species. Dendrology, as a discipline of industrial forestry, tends to focus on identification of economically useful woody plants and their taxonomic interrelationships.  As an academic course of study, dendrology will include all woody plants, native and non-native, that occur in a region.  A related discipline is the study of sylvics, which focuses on the autecology of genera and species.

Relationship with botany

Dendrology is a branch of botany that specializes in the characterization and identification of woody plants, while botany is the study of all types of general plants.

Noted dendrologists
Mike Baillie, Queen's University of Belfast
Francis A. Bartlett, founder of Bartlett Arboretum and Gardens and the Bartlett Tree Research Laboratory
Ludwig Beissner
William Douglas Cook, founder of Eastwoodhill Arboretum and Pukeiti (New Zealand)
Michael Dirr
Maciej Giertych
 Owen Johnson
Humphry Marshall
Alan Mitchell
 Alfred Rehder
 Viscount Philippe de Spoelberch

Gallery

See also

Dendrochronology
Silviculture
World Forestry Congress

References

External links

Iowa State - Dendrology
Forest Biology and Dendrology Educational Sites at Virginia Tech
Dendrology information and other tree identification resources

Dendrology


James Carter Tessier (1842 – 1900) was an English-born merchant and politician in Newfoundland. He represented St. John's West in the Newfoundland House of Assembly from 1893 to 1894 and from 1897 to 1900 as a Liberal.

The son of Peter G. Tessier and Jane Carter, who was the daughter of Robert Carter, he was born in London and came to Newfoundland in 1853. He worked in the family fishery supply business before establishing a fish exporting business in partnership with Robert Thorburn. The business was forced to close following the 1894 Bank Crash. Tessier was unseated in 1894 after his election was appealed but was reelected in 1897.

He was married twice: first to Ann Jackman Langmead and then to Julia Ann Trotman.

References

Members of the Newfoundland and Labrador House of Assembly
1842 births
1900 deaths
English emigrants to pre-Confederation Newfoundland
Newfoundland Colony people

James C. Tessier


Elizabeth Hill Boone (born September 6, 1948) is an American art historian, ethnohistorian and academic, specializing in the study of Latin American art  and in particular the early colonial and pre-Columbian art, iconography and pictorial codices associated with the Mixtec, Aztec and other Mesoamerican cultures in the central Mexican region. Her extensive published research covers investigations into the nature of Aztec writing, the symbolism and structure of Aztec art and iconography and the interpretation of Mixtec and Aztec codices.

Boone has been a professor of art history at Tulane University since 1994–95, holding the Martha and Donald Robertson Chair in Latin American Art. She is also a research associate at Tulane's Middle American Research Institute (MARI). From 2006 Boone took a sabbatical from lecturing and research at Tulane, to accept a position to pursue independent research as the Andrew W. Mellon Professor at the National Gallery of Art's Center for Advanced Study in the Visual Arts (CASVA), an appointment lasting through 2008. Boone had previously been a Paul Mellon Senior Fellow at CASVA, in 1993–94.

Academic career
Elizabeth Hill Boone commenced her undergraduate studies in fine arts at The College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, obtaining a B.A. in 1970. She then studied art history at California State University, Northridge in 1971–72, and completed her postgraduate degrees at the University of Texas at Austin, obtaining an MA in 1974 and a PhD in pre-Columbian art history, which was awarded in 1977.

After receiving her PhD, Boone secured a research associate position at University of Texas at San Antonio's Research Center for the Arts, where she worked for three years. In 1980 Boone took up a position in pre-Columbian studies at the research institution she would be associated with for the next fifteen years, the Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection located in Washington, D.C. Initially as associate curator (1980–83) and then as Director of Pre-Columbian Studies and Curator of the Pre-Columbian Collection (1983–95), Boone oversaw and held responsibility for Dumbarton Oaks' research and scholarship programs, symposia and colloquia, scheduled publications and the curatorship of the institution's libraries and collection of pre-Columbian artworks. From 2006 onwards Boone has retained a position as one of the six-member Board of Senior Fellows in pre-Columbian Studies at Dumbarton Oaks.

In 1995 Boone relocated to New Orleans, Louisiana to become professor of art history at Tulane University, where she teaches courses on Mesoamerican, Aztec and colonial-era art history, general art interpretation and theory, and continues to publish research papers and books in the field.

In 1990 Boone was awarded the Orden del Águila Azteca (Order of the Aztec Eagle), Mexico's highest decoration awarded to non-citizens.

During 2010 Boone served as president of the American Society for Ethnohistory.

Boone is corresponding fellow of the Academia Mexicana de la Historia.

Published works
Boone's publications include:
authored books—

contributed chapters—

Notes

References

External links
 Faculty page, at the Newcomb Art Dept, Tulane University

American Mesoamericanists
Women Mesoamericanists
Aztec scholars
Mixtec scholars
American art historians
Latin Americanists
Tulane University faculty
College of William & Mary alumni
University of Texas at Austin College of Liberal Arts alumni
1948 births
Living people
Historians of Mesoamerican art
20th-century Mesoamericanists
21st-century Mesoamericanists
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
American women historians
Women art historians
20th-century American women writers

Elizabeth Hill Boone


Boogaloo or bugalú (also: shing-a-ling, Latin boogaloo, Latin R&B) is a genre of Latin music and dance which was popular in the United States in the 1960s. Boogaloo originated in New York City mainly among teenage African Americans and stateside Puerto Ricans. The style was a fusion of popular African American rhythm and blues (R&B) and soul music with mambo and son montuno, with songs in both English and Spanish. The American Bandstand television program introduced the dance and the music to the mainstream American audience. Pete Rodríguez's "I Like It like That" was a famous boogaloo song.

Except for the name, the dance is unrelated to the Boogaloo street dance from Oakland, California and the electric boogaloo, a style of dance which developed decades later under the influence of funk music and hip-hop dance.

History

In the 1950s and 1960s, African Americans in the United States listened to various styles of music, including jump blues, R&B and doo-wop. Latinos in New York City shared these tastes, but they also listened to genres like mambo or cha cha chá. There was a mixing of Puerto Ricans, Cubans and African Americans and others in clubs, whose bands tried to find common musical ground. Boogaloo was a result of this search, a marriage of many styles including Cuban son montuno, guaguancó, guajira, guaracha, mambo, and American R&B and soul. Styles like doo wop also left a sizable influence, through Tony Pabón (of the Pete Rodríguez Band), Bobby Marín, King Nando, and Johnny Colón.

Boogaloo has been called by Izzy Sanabria "the greatest potential that Cuban rhythms had to really cross over in terms of music".

Though boogaloo did not become mainstream nationwide until later in the decade, two early Top 20 hits came in 1963: Mongo Santamaría's cover version of the Herbie Hancock's "Watermelon Man"
and Ray Barretto's "El Watusi". Inspired by these successes, a number of bands began imitating their infectious rhythms (which were Latinized R&B), intense conga rhythms and clever novelty lyrics. Boogaloo was the only Cuban-style rhythm which occasionally acquired English lyrics. Established Cuban-influenced orchestras also recorded the occasional boogaloo, including Tito Rodríguez, Willie Bobo, Tito Puente and arranger, composer Ray Santos and his orchestra, which recorded "Cindy's Boogaloo" in 1968. Most of the other groups were young musicians – some were teenagers – the Latin Souls, the Lat-Teens, the Latinaires, Pucho & His Latin Soul Brothers, and Joe Bataan.

Use of the term boogaloo in referring to a musical style was probably coined in about 1966 by Richie Ray and Bobby Cruz. The biggest boogaloo hit of the 1960s was "Bang Bang" by the Joe Cuba Sextet, which sold over one million copies in 1966. "El Pito" was another hit by this popular combo. Hits by other groups included Johnny Colón's "Boogaloo Blues", Pete Rodríguez's "I Like It like That", and Héctor Rivera's "At the Party".

The same year as Joe Cuba's pop success, 1966, saw the closing of New York City's Palladium Ballroom, when the venue, the home of big band mambo for years, lost its liquor license. The closing marked the end of mainstream mambo, and boogaloo ruled the Latin charts for several years before salsa began to take over. At the same time, several other rhythmical inventions came to notice: the dengue, the jala-jala and the shing-a-ling were all offshoots of the mambo and chachachá.

The older generation of Latin musicians have been accused of using their influence to repress the young movement, for commercial reasons. There was certainly pressure on booking agents by the established bands. The craze was mostly over by 1970, perhaps because of the hostility of established bands and key booking agents; the reason is uncertain. Almost every major and minor Latin dance artist of the time had recorded at least a few boogaloos on their albums. It had been an intense, if brief, musical movement, and the music is still highly regarded today.

The Latin boogaloo bands were mostly led by young, sometimes even teenage musicians from New York's Puerto Rican community. These included, but weren't limited to, Joe Bataan, Johnny Zamot, Joe Cuba, Bobby Valentín, the Latin Souls, the Lat-Teens, Johnny Colón, and the Latinaires. As such, Latin boogaloo can be seen as "the first Nuyorican music" (René López), and has been called "the greatest potential that (Latinos) had to really cross over in terms of music" (Izzy Sanabria). However, Latino musicians and composers also made a big contribution to doo-wop.

Latin boogaloo also spread throughout the wider Latin music world, especially in Puerto Rico, where top band El Gran Combo released many boogaloos. Latin music scenes in Peru, Colombia, Panama and elsewhere also embraced the boogaloo. Though the dance craze only lasted until 1968/69, Latin boogaloo was popular enough that almost every major and minor Latin dance artist of the time recorded at least a few boogaloos on their albums. That included boogaloos by long-time veteran, mambo-era musicians such as Eddie Palmieri and his "Ay Que Rico" or Tito Puente's "Hit the Bongo".

The boogaloo faded from popularity by the end of 1969.p168 What caused the fairly rapid end of the boogaloo's reign is in dispute. According to several sources, jealous older Latin music artists colluded with record labels (in particular, Fania Records), radio DJs, and dance hall promoters to blacklist boogaloo bands from venues and radio. This scenario is explored in the 2016 film We Like It Like That, a documentary on the history of Latin boogaloo. Alternatively, it was a fad that had run out of steam.p168 Its demise allowed older musicians to make a comeback on the New York scene. The explosive success of salsa in the early 1970s saw former giants like Puente and the Palmieri Brothers return to the top, while most Latin boogaloo bands went out of business (Joe Bataan being a notable exception).

In the 2000s, Latin boogaloo has seen a resurgence in popularity, with artists like Bataan experiencing renewed interest in their Latin boogaloo output, and new groups emerging to form a Latin boogaloo revival.

In Cali, Colombia, boogaloo, salsa and pachanga are played by disk jockeys in FM and AM radio stations and dance clubs.

References

 Boggs, Vernon W. (1939-1994) Salsiology (Published by Excelsior Music Pub. Co., 1992)
Flores, Juan. From Bomba to Hip-Hop. Columbia University Press, 2000. ISBN 9780231500166

External links
 Salsaroots.com article: "Boogalu"
 Busca Salsa article
Article in "The Paris Review": "Fania at Fifty: The Rise of a Salsa Empire and the Fall of Boogaloo"
 Bobby Sanabria essay about Latin boogaloo for Ay Que Boogaloo

20th-century music genres
Hispanic and Latino American culture in New York City
Puerto Rican styles of music
Tropical music
Novelty and fad dances
Rhythm and blues music genres
Soul music genres
1960s in Latin music

Boogaloo


Ivan Eland (; born February 23, 1958) is an American defense analyst and writer. He is a Senior Fellow and Director of the Center on Peace and Liberty at the Independent Institute. Eland's writings generally propose libertarian and non-interventionist policies. Books that he has authored include Recarving Rushmore.

Life
Eland received an M.B.A. in Applied Economics and a Ph.D. in National Security Policy from George Washington University. He has previously served as Director of Defense Policy Studies at the Cato Institute, as Principal Defense Analyst at the Congressional Budget Office, as an investigator dealing with national security and intelligence for the Government Accountability Office, and on a House Committee on Foreign Affairs special investigation of allegations that the U.S. sold weapons to Iraq prior to 1991. He has testified before the House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform and the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations.

Ivan Eland is the author of Putting "Defense" Back into U.S. Defense Policy (2001), The Empire Has No Clothes: U.S. Foreign Policy Exposed (2004), Recarving Rushmore: Ranking the Presidents on Peace, Prosperity, and Liberty (2008; updated edition 2014) and Partitioning for Peace: An Exit Strategy for Iraq (2009). He has also written essays, including forty-five in-depth studies on national security issues Ivan Eland, and numerous  popular articles. He addressed the subjects of foreign relations, defense policy, military readiness and threat analysis, Sino-American relations, the Taiwan issue, terrorism and its effects on civil liberties, the lessons of the Vietnam War, WMD proliferation, National Missile Defense, the National Security Agency, the ABM Treaty, submarines, special operations forces, NATO expansion, and U.S. policy towards Iraq and Iran.

Political opinions
Eland is a libertarian, generally supporting non-interventionism and limited government. In his 2008 book Recarving Rushmore, Eland argued that historians' rankings of US presidents fail to reflect presidents' actual services to the country. In the book, he rated 40 US presidents on the basis of whether or not their policies promoted peace, prosperity, and liberty during their tenures; John Tyler and Grover Cleveland were ranked the two strongest, while Harry Truman and Woodrow Wilson came in last.

Eland once named Jimmy Carter "the best modern president," praising Carter's restrained foreign policy and deregulation of several American industries. Eland continues to strongly oppose the 2003 invasion of Iraq, and called George W. Bush's presidency "one of the worst of all time." Eland is the Assistant Editor of the Independent Review, writes a regular column for the website Antiwar.com, contributes frequently at Consortium News Robert Parry's website of investigative journalism. Eland is on the Advisory Council of the Democracy Institute.

Eland supports the National Rifle Association of America (NRA); he is a critic of the Affordable Care Act and race-based affirmative action. Regarding global warming, Eland does not believe in climate change. He argues that the threats posed are sensationalized. Eland has appeared on RT, formerly known as Russia Today, a Russian state-sponsored cable television channel, from 2011 to the present.

See also

Libertarianism in the United States

References

External links
 Bio from the Independent Institute
 Bio from the Cato Institute
 Column archive from The Huffington Post

 The Empire Has No Clothes, Eland's column at Antiwar.com

1958 births
Living people
21st-century American male writers
21st-century American non-fiction writers
American anti–Iraq War activists
American columnists
American foreign policy writers
American gun rights activists
American libertarians
American male bloggers
American bloggers
American male non-fiction writers
American military writers
American political writers
Cato Institute people
George Washington University School of Business alumni
HuffPost writers and columnists
Libertarian theorists
Non-interventionism

Ivan Eland


The Northern Way was a collaboration initiated in February 2004 between the three northern regional development agencies (RDAs), Northwest Development Agency, One NorthEast and Yorkshire Forward at the instigation of the then Deputy Prime Minister John Prescott to focus on issues important for the whole of the North of England with a dimension larger than could be tackled by one region alone — for example, transport infrastructure, or marketing the North internationally.

The body was tasked to address the £30 billion output gap between the North and the average for England as a whole.

Although originally intended to have a twenty-year lifespan, the initiative's activity came to an end in March 2011, when its parent regional development agencies were wound up by the Conservative-Liberal Democrat coalition government.

Themes
To lead the delivery of its objective, an independently chaired steering group was established whose members had a range of different public and private sector interests. The Steering Group launched Moving Forward: The Northern Way Growth Strategy in September 2004, which focused on four themes:

Developing new City Region plans to work across administrative boundaries in the eight major conurbations of the North, namely:
 North East England:
 Tees Valley - (Teesside, Darlington and Hartlepool)
 Tyne and Wear - (Tyneside and Wearside)
 North West England:
 Central Lancashire - (Preston)
 Liverpool City Region - (Liverpool)
 Manchester City Region - (Manchester)
 Yorkshire and the Humber:
 Hull and Humber Ports - (Kingston upon Hull)
 Leeds City Region - (Leeds)
 Sheffield City Region - (Sheffield)

Key investment priorities were chosen that could exploit economic activity across all three northern Development Agency regions.
These investment priorities are:
 bring more people into employment
 strengthen the North's knowledge base innovation
 build a more entrepreneurial North
 capture a larger share of global trade: key clusters
 meet employer skills needs
 the North's connectivity
 create truly sustainable communities
 market the North to the world.

Working together differently and collaborating to make the most of £100 million public sector investment in the North and equivalent private sector investment.
Influencing local, regional and national decision-makers to ensure their policies and programmes support Northern Way goals.

Growth fund
The Growth Fund, worth £100 million, was launched in September 2004, and in June 2005 the Northern Way published its Business plan, setting out how to spend the money. The eight City Region partnerships published their City Region Development Plans to show how they would work together to grow their economies to address the output gap.

References

External links
 The Northern Way official site (Dead link),  internet archive image (2004-11-26) https://web.archive.org/web/20041126015635/http://www.thenorthernway.co.uk/
 Yorkshire Forward Website
 The Northern Way Transport Compact
 The Economic Case for Transport Investment in the North - retrospective review of activities 2006-2011
 Evaluation of The Northern Way 2004-2008 (summary)
 Evaluation of The Northern Way 2008-2011 (summary)

Local government in England
Defunct organisations based in England
Innovation in the United Kingdom
Northern England

The Northern Way


Mogadiscio was the name of Mogadishu, capital of Somalia, when was under Italy's rule from 1905 until 1947. The Italian influence in Mogadishu lasted 80 years, from 1880 until 1960, when the city grew from a small city of just two thousand inhabitants to a metropolis of nearly half a million "mogadiscians" in the metropolitan area.

History

The ancient city of Mogadishu was under Italian colonial rule/influence for nearly seventy years, from the 1880s until after the end of WW2. In 1905 was declared capital of the newly created Somalia Italiana.

The first Italian to write about Mogadiscio was Marco Polo, who knew of the city during his merchant travels in Asia. But only in the late XIX century the commerce company "Filonardi" from Italy took control of facilities in the port of Mogadishu.

By 1882, Mogadishu was under the joint control of the Somali Geledi Sultanate (which was also holding sway over the Shebelle Valley region in the interior called Benadir) and the Omani Sultan of Zanzibar. In 1885, Ali bin Said leased the city to an Italian chartered company owned by Vincenzo Filonardi. This "Compagnia Filonardi" (1893-96) and later the "Società Anonima Commerciale Italiana del Benadir" (1899-1905) was finally taken by the Italian government, that obtained the control of the entire region of Benadir with the port of Mogadishu through an agreement with the British government in 1892. From 3 August 1889 to 15 May 1893 Filonardi was the first Governor of the "Somalia italiana" (he was governor again from 1896 to 1897).

The Kingdom of Italy purchased the city in 1905 and made Mogadishu the capital of the newly established Italian Somaliland. The Italians subsequently referred to the city as Mogadiscio.

The city was soon modernized in the early 1910s with the creation of the first sewage system, the first hospital, the first paved roads and the new electricity facilities. In the 1920s the Italians created the first airport and enlarged the "Port of Mogadishu".

From 5 April 1908 to 5 May 1936, the Royal Corps of Somali Colonial Troops (Regio corpo truppe coloniali della Somalia Italiana), originally called the "Guard Corps of Benadir", served as the territory's formal military corps with headquarters in Mogadiscio. At the start of its establishment, the force had 2,600 Italian officers. Between 1911 and 1912, over 1,000 Somalis from Mogadishu served as combat units along with Eritrean and Italian soldiers in the Italo-Turkish War. Most of the troops stationed never returned home until they were transferred back to Italian Somaliland in preparation for the Second Italo-Ethiopian War in 1935.

1920s
In November 1920, the Banca d'Italia, the first modern bank in Italian Somaliland, was established in Mogadishu.

On December 5, 1923, Cesare Maria De Vecchi was named Governor in charge of the new colonial administration and promoted the process of complete pacification of the Somalia italiana, with the initial integration of the native population. Italian colonial policy followed two principles in Italian Somaliland: preservation of the dominant clan and ethnic configurations and respect for Islam as the territory's religion.

In 1928, the Italian authorities built the Mogadishu Cathedral (Cattedrale di Mogadiscio). It was constructed in a Norman Gothic style, based on the Cefalù Cathedral in Cefalù, Sicily. Following its establishment, Crown Prince Umberto II of Italy made his first publicized visit to Mogadishu. To commemorate the visit, the Arch of Umberto was constructed. The arch was built at the center of Mogadishu Garden. The Mogadishu International Airport was constructed that same year. The facility was regarded as one of the finest in the region.

In the early 1930s, the new Italian Governors, Guido Corni and Maurizio Rava, started a policy of full assimilation of the Somalis. Many Somalis were enrolled in the Italian colonial troops, and thousands of Italian colonists moved to live in Mogadishu. The city grew in size and some small manufacturing companies opened up. The Italians also settled in agricultural areas around the capital, such as Jowhar and Janale (Genale).

It is noteworthy to pinpoint that Mogadiscio was the only name of Mogadishu, the capital of Somalia, when was officially under Italy's rule from 1905 until February 1947. The only official language in those years was the Italian language.

1930s
In 1930, there were 22,000 Italians living in Italian Somaliland, representing 2% of the territory's population. The majority resided in the capital Mogadishu, with other Italian communities concentrated in Jowhar (Villabruzzi), Adale (Itala), Janale (Genale), Jamame and Kismayo. In the mid' 1930s the Italian community of Mogadishu started the first football championships in Somalia: their main team was AC Mogadiscio.

By 1935, Mogadishu began to serve as a major naval base and port for the Italians. Then Prime Minister of Italy Benito Mussolini regarded Greater Somalia (La Grande Somalia) with capital Mogadiscio as the crown jewel in Italy's colonial empire in eastern Africa. Consequently, from 1936 to 1940, new roads were constructed in the region around Mogadiscio, such as the "Imperial Road" from Mogadishu to Addis Abeba. New railways (114 km from Mogadishu to Jowhar) and many schools, hospitals, ports and bridges were also built.

1940s
In March 1941 Mogadiscio was occupied by the British Army. Because of security reasons, nearly all the Italians of Somalia moved to live in Mogadiscio, so consequently in 1942 it was a city where the Italians were nearly half the population and where the Catholicism was the religion of nearly 60% of the inhabitants. According to reports of the British authorities, Mogadiscio in 1942 looked mostly like an european city (nicknamed "the white pearl of the Indian Ocean").

After WW2, in February 1947 the Italian government signed the Peace Treaty (surrendering all colonies) and "Italian Mogadiscio" ceased to exist.

After 1950s
In 1950 the Italians returned to rule the city under mandate of the ONU for another ten years until 1960, when was declared the independence of Somalia. In the 10 years of the Italian mandate the country experience huge improvements, from economy and education to sports (for example with the creation of the first football teams, like the Genio Officina and the AC Mogadiscio. Furthermore, the first university in Somalia was created in the same years, with courses linked to the Italian university of Rome.

Related pages
 Somalia
 AC Mogadiscio
 Lavori Publici FC
 Addis Abeba
 Piccola Roma

References

Bibliography
 Antonicelli, Franco. Trent'anni di storia italiana 1915 - 1945. Mondadori Editore. Torino, 1961.
 Hess, Robert L. Italian Colonialism in Somalia. University of Chicago P. Chicago, 1966.
 Tripodi, Paolo. The Colonial Legacy in Somalia. St. Martin's P Inc. New York, 1999.
 Fitzgerald, Nina J. Somalia. Nova Science, Inc. New York, 2002.

History of Somalia
20th century in Italy

Italian Mogadiscio


Henri Leconte (born 4 July 1963) is a French former professional tennis player. He reached the men's singles final at the French Open in 1988, won the French Open men's doubles title in 1984, and helped France win the Davis Cup in 1991. Leconte's career-high singles ranking was world No. 5.

Biography and career
Leconte first came to the tennis world's attention as an outstanding junior player who won the French Open junior title in 1981.  He turned professional that year and won his first career doubles title at Bologna, and his first top-level singles title the following year, 1982, in Stockholm. Leconte played in the Davis Cup final for the first time in 1982, when France was defeated 4–1 by the United States.

Leconte teamed up with Yannick Noah to win the men's doubles title at the French Open in 1984. In 1985, Leconte and Noah reached a second Grand Slam doubles final at the US Open, where they finished runners-up. Leconte reached his career-high doubles ranking of world No. 6 in 1985. In singles in 1985, Leconte reached the quarterfinals of the French Open and Wimbledon, the latter run of which included a dazzling win over world no. 2, Ivan Lendl, in the fourth round.

1986 saw Leconte reach two Grand Slam singles semi-finals at the French Open and Wimbledon, and attain his career-high singles ranking of world No. 5. Leconte also played on the French team that won the World Team Cup that year.

In 1988, Leconte reached the men's singles final at the French Open beating Simon Youl, Bruno Orešar, Horacio de la Peña, Boris Becker, Andrei Chesnokov and Jonas Svensson. In the final, despite strong support from the French crowd, Leconte could not overcome two-time former champion Mats Wilander who defeated him in straight sets.

In 1991, Leconte was involved in the Davis Cup final for a second time. France again faced the US, and this time Leconte defeated Pete Sampras in straight sets in a critical singles rubber, and also teamed with Guy Forget to win the doubles rubber, as France upset the heavily favoured U.S. team 3–1.

In total, Leconte played for France's Davis Cup team for a total of 13 consecutive years, compiling a 41–25 record. He compiled a doubles record of 17–5 and was undefeated with Guy Forget (11 wins), winning his last 14 doubles matches (from March 1985 to July 1993).

Leconte won his final top-level singles title in 1993 in Halle. He also won his final doubles title that year at Indian Wells.

Leconte retired from the professional tour in 1996, having won a total of nine career singles titles and ten doubles titles. Playing on the ATP Champions Tour for over-35's, he formed a doubles partnership with the Iranian player Mansour Bahrami.

He is now the manager of an event company (HL Event) based in Belgium and opened a tennis academy in Fès, Morocco, in 2006.

Since 2010, Leconte has appeared on Australian television as a commentator on the Seven Network's coverage of the Australian Open. There, he obtained a cult following as a result of a zany exhibition doubles performance, and his passionate and often parochial commentary, especially for compatriot Jo-Wilfried Tsonga, whose winning shots he routinely described as "unbelievable!"

In 2014, Leconte appeared as a commentator for the 2014 Australian Open. One match he commentated was the third-round match between Frenchmen Gilles Simon and Jo-Wilfried Tsonga. He has since appeared regularly as a commentator for matches involving French players in the men's draw.

Grand Slam singles performance timeline

Trivia
He participated in 2005 in the second season of La Ferme Célébrités, a TV reality game show. In 2007, his son Maxime also participated in the TV reality game show Secret Story, the French version of Big Brother.
He also appeared as a contestant on BBC Celebrity Masterchef 2017, reaching the semifinals.

Major finals

Grand Slam finals

Singles: 1 (0–1)

Doubles: 2 (1–1)

Masters Series finals

Doubles: 2 (1–1)

Career finals

Singles: 16 (9–7)

Doubles: 19 (10–9)

References

External links

 H Talent Management Henri Leconte client biography

1963 births
French expatriate sportspeople in Switzerland
French male tennis players
French Open champions
French Open junior champions
Hopman Cup competitors
Living people
Olympic tennis players for France
Tennis players from Geneva
Sportspeople from Pas-de-Calais
Tennis commentators
Tennis players at the 1988 Summer Olympics
Tennis players at the 1992 Summer Olympics
Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's doubles
Grand Slam (tennis) champions in boys' singles

Henri Leconte


Metallo is a name used by multiple supervillains appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics, commonly as an adversary of Superman.

Metallo is usually depicted as a cyborg with a kryptonite power source in his heart, which he uses as a weapon against Superman. In 2009, Metallo was ranked as IGN's 52nd-greatest comic book villain of all time.

DC Comics supervillains

Metallo


Made in America is a 1993 American comedy film starring Whoopi Goldberg and Ted Danson, and featuring Nia Long, Jennifer Tilly and Will Smith. The film was directed by Richard Benjamin. It was shot in various locations in Oakland, California, and at Oakland Technical High School.

"Colors of Love," written by Carole Bayer Sager, James Ingram and Bruce Roberts, and produced by David Foster is a notable song on the soundtrack which alludes to the story line.

Plot

Zora Matthews (Nia Long) takes a blood test and discovers she has a blood group which is not a possible combination of the groups of her deceased father and her mother Sarah (Whoopi Goldberg). She confronts her mother and is told she used a sperm bank after her husband's death, but asked for a smart black guy.

Zora's curiosity gets the better of her and she gets her best friend Tea Cake (Will Smith) to go to the sperm bank and pretend to be a donor while she sneaks in to look at the records. Zora gets into the computer and the records show her mother was matched with a Halbert Jackson and gives his social security number.

In his luxury mansion, Hal finishes a night of lovemaking with his young girlfriend Stacy before setting off to work. As he reverses out of the garage, Zora gets in the way. She gets in his pickup truck and he goes to his work: Jackson's Motors. She is shocked that he is white. Hal is a flamboyant salesman of his own premises and is shooting an advert with a real bear. Zora interrupts and tells him he is her father. He does not behave well and shows no sympathy or empathy.

Her mom goes to confront Hal about how nasty he was. Zora and Tea Cake follow, but Tea Cake is diverted by the car saleswoman. Sarah and Hal are very different in every way. Hal plies her with drink and she cycles off in a drunken state. Hal drives her to her shop "African Queen" with the cycle in the back of the truck. The shop specializes in black authors. Upstairs is a shrine-like room with many pictures of Sarah growing up, plus a black man, Charles, which Sarah had been told was her father.

Back in his mansion Hal gets emotional in regard to a father-daughter scene in a film on TV: Shirley Temple in The Little Princess.

With his penchant for hiring wild animals Hal next hires an Indian elephant but while riding it, the elephant charges off through the streets, ending in a pond. It has been following the sound of the bell on Sarah's bike. Hal takes out his anger on her bike and rips the bell off. News coverage of Hal and the elephant accidentally gives free publicity to his dealership and he has a sales bonanza on the following day.

In apology, Hal later goes to her house with a present: a new bell plus a cycling helmet. He also has a present for Zora: an atlas to encourage her world travel. His assistant Diego arrives to take Zora on a date. This inspires Hal to ask Sarah out for dinner and they go for sushi. Hal isn't used to sushi and eats a whole ball of wasabi. Hal starts flirting heavily and they kiss goodnight. It gets more passionate but just as they get to the bedroom Zora and Diego get home. Zora is upset since she wanted to find her father but doesn't want her mom involved.

Both Hal and Sarah start thinking about each other. When Sarah goes to the dealership, they argue and Sarah cycles off in an emotional state. She gets hit by a car when she runs a red light. She is not wearing her new helmet and is badly injured. Hal and Zora go to the hospital and give blood. They sit by her bedside as she recovers.

Stacy breaks up with Hal because he was out all night.
When he goes back to the hospital a medic inadvertently reveals that a blood test shows that he cannot be Zora's father. Zora runs off. He apologises to Sarah.

Zora and Tea Cake graduate from school. Zora wins a Westinghouse scholarship to MIT. At her speech Zora gives her mother all the credit. Hal arrives. He wants to see his daughter graduate. He helps Sarah up the steps and Zora thanks her Mom and Dad.

Cast
 Whoopi Goldberg as Sarah Matthews
 Ted Danson as Hal Jackson
 Nia Long as Zora Matthews
 Will Smith as Tea Cake Walters
 Jennifer Tilly as Stacy
 Paul Rodriguez as Jose
 Peggy Rea as Alberta, Hal's elderly secretary
 Clyde Kusatsu as Bob Takashima
 David Bowe as Teddy
 Jeff Joseph as James
 Shawn Levy as Dwayne
 Rawley Valverde as Diego
 Charlene Fernetz as Paula the car saleswoman

Production

The story did not originally specify black actors for any of the roles and was rewritten upon Goldberg's casting.

Homage
The character of Hal Jackson is based in part on the real life car dealership owner Cal Worthington. Hal's use of large circus animals in his car commercials are an homage to Cal's famous "My Dog Spot" ads, which were also filmed with live circus animals.

Soundtrack
The soundtrack album was released on May 28, 1993.

 Gloria Estefan – "Go Away" (U.S. #103; UK #13)
 Keith Sweat and Silk – "Does He Do It Good"
 Del Tha Funkee Homosapien – "Made in America"
 Lisa Fischer – "Colors of Love" (U.S. AC #18, R&B #24)
 Sérgio Mendes – "What Is This?"
 Mark Isham – "Made In Love"
 Laura Satterfield and Ephraim Lewis – "I Know I Don't Walk on Water"
 DJ Jazzy Jeff and The Fresh Prince – "Dance or Die"
 Deep Purple – "Smoke on the Water"
 Ben E. King – "If You Need a Miracle"
 Y.T. Style – "Stand"

Reception
The film opened in theaters on May 28, 1993, and grossed over $12 million on its opening weekend, ranking in second place behind Cliffhanger. It was released to over 2,000 theaters and grossed nearly $50 million in the U.S. alone. Worldwide, it earned over $100 million. This was television star and Grammy Award-winning rapper Will Smith's second supporting role in a movie and started his successful career as a major film actor.

Made in America earned mostly negative reviews from critics, holding a 33% rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 30 reviews. However, Roger Ebert praised Goldberg's acting in the film and said "This isn't a great movie, but it sure is a nice one."

References

External links

1993 films
1990s American films
1990s English-language films
1993 comedy films
African-American comedy films
African-American films
Films about automobiles
Films about car dealerships
Films about interracial romance
Films about race and ethnicity
Films about sperm donation
Films directed by Richard Benjamin
Films produced by Arnon Milchan
Films produced by Michael Douglas
Films scored by Mark Isham
Films set in San Francisco
Regency Enterprises films
StudioCanal films

Made in America (1993 film)


Marie Anett (born June 3, 1971, as Marie-Anett Mey) is a French model, entertainer, singer and musician born in Paris, France. She gained popularity success throughout the 1990s as the lead vocal performer of the German eurodance music group Fun Factory.

Life and career

1971–92: Early life
Mey is born on June 3, 1971, as Marie-Anett Mey in Paris, in France. She moved to Hamburg in Germany where she met her future fellow Fun Factory band member Toni Cottura.

1993–94: Joining Fun Factory and Nonstop

Before Fun Factory's third single release "Close to You" in 1993, Mey replaced lead singer Balca Tözün, who left the band and joined surviving founding members Rodney Hardison, Toni Cottura and Stephan Browarczyk. With the second line-up, the band gained massive success, though it has been later revealed, that Tözün kept providing vocals in the background for all their later releases until their disbandment in 1997, with Mey just lip-syncing and performing with the group on stage. "Close to You" became their first chart success peaking #1 at the Canadian Dance chart. Follow-up singles were "Take Your Chance" and "Pain" being chart hits as well, peaking at #18 and #24 in the German Single chart, respectively. Fun Factory released their debut album Nonstop in 1994. Mey started her side project in 1994 with the band Darkness, a group fronted by her and rapper Nana. Their single "In My Dreams" was a hit, whose female vocals were also by Tözün.

1995–97: Fun-Tastic and disbandment
In 1995, Fun Factory released their singles "I Wanna B with U", "Celebration" and the cover version of Manfred Mann's "Doh Wah Diddy", peaking at #11, #12 and #6 in the German Single chart. In 1995, Fun Factory released their second studio album Fun-Tastic. By this time they began to become more popular throughout Europe and even saw some of their songs to chart in the United States and Canada. The follow-up single release was "Don't Go Away", becoming their yet last moderate chart success. "Don't Go Away" was also the last single to be promoted by the band as a quartet, when Cottura left the band. As a trio, the group released a last single, the ballad "I Love You". When Hardison left Fun Factory to join Garcia in 1997, with whom he released three singles, the remaining two members Mey and Browarczyk were joined by the new member Ray Horton and planned to continue with a rebranded band name Fun Affairs, but had no success with it and Fun Factory split up. In 1997, a first Greatest Hits album has been released to end up the chapter.

1998–2000: Other projects and Solo career
In 2000, Mey briefly launched a musical solo career and released her first and only solo single "Be the One". The single also included another song, the B-Side "Light in My Life". A studio album hasn't been realized.

2001–Present: Music retirement and other ventures
Mey became a make-up artist for the worldwide known make-up company MAC Cosmetics.

Discography

with Fun Factory

Singles
 2000 "Be the One"

Notes

Singers from Paris
French dance musicians
1971 births
Living people

Marie-Anett Mey


Historic Mill Creek Discovery Park, formerly known as Historic Mill Creek State Park is a state park, nature preserve, and historic site in the United States state of Michigan.  It is run by Mackinac State Historic Parks, the operating arm of the Mackinac Island State Park.  625 acres (2.5 km2) in size, the park is located 5 miles (8 km) southeast of Mackinaw City, Michigan on U.S. Highway 23.

History
The original sawmill at Mill Creek operated from about 1790 until 1839.  It was originally built by Robert Campbell to supply lumber to the Straits of Mackinac, especially the frontier settlement of Mackinac Island. In 1793 it contracted with Fort Mackinac to make repairs on the soldiers' barracks.  The Mill Creek sawmill enjoyed a dominant market share of the supply of cut timbers in the Straits of Mackinac during the fur trade era, and a millwright's house was built about 1820 near the sawmill to provide a place for the mill operator to live.  In 1819, Michael Dousman purchased the mill site and continued to operate it.  However, global demand for beaver fur declined in the 1830s, and  following Dousman's death in 1839 the sawmill and millwright's house were abandoned.

After the sawmill's abandonment in 1839, the original sawmill complex buildings rotted and disappeared.  However, timbers cut by the original mill survived in buildings on Mackinac Island (Mission Church and Mission House, built in the 1820s and still there today). Saw marks on these timbers could be used to reconstruct the mill machinery so as to closely resemble the original. The marks gave restoration experts information on the rake of the saw's teeth and the saw's operating speed.  The wood is fed into the blade at 1/3 of an inch per stroke, and the infeed motion is powered by the pitman arm that powers the saw's vertical movement.

Archaeological investigations were conducted at the site of the sawmill in the 1970s.  The dig site was variously called  the "Filbert Site," the "Mill Creek Site," or the "Campbell Farm Site," and was designated 20cn8.

Mill Creek today
Mill Creek drains the Dingman Marsh, a perched wetland within Mackinaw State Forest in northwest Cheboygan County.  The Discovery Park includes approximately 1 mile (1.6 km) of the eponymous creek's watercourse as it flows downhill toward Lake Huron, but not the wetland.  The creek dam and sawmill (c. 1790) were rebuilt in 1984; the sawmill was restored in part for the 2007 season.  The British Workshop (c. 1820) was rebuilt around 1994 on the site of the original.  The millwright's house (c. 1820) was rebuilt in 2005.  As of 2008, the park had  of nature trails, with a small portion handicapped-accessible.

In summers, costumed interpreters use antique woodworking tools to make shingles, and demonstrate a variety of other tasks common in the 1820s, and demonstrate the operation of the sawpit and sawmill.  A naturalist conducts talks on the animal and plant species of the nearby forested areas.

The North Central State Trail serves Historic Mill Creek State Park.

References

External links
Historic Mill Creek Discovery Park
Historic Mill Creek Discovery Park - Mackinac Island State Park Commission
Historic Mill Creek Discovery Park - Michigan Department of Natural Resources

Industrial buildings and structures on the National Register of Historic Places in Michigan
Industry museums in Michigan
Living museums in Michigan
Michigan State Historic Sites
Mill museums in the United States
Museums in Cheboygan County, Michigan
National Register of Historic Places in Cheboygan County, Michigan
Protected areas of Cheboygan County, Michigan
State parks of Michigan

Historic Mill Creek Discovery Park


The Cardoen EC-2 mine is a Chilean directional fragmentation anti-personnel mine. It is broadly similar to the United States M18 Claymore mine.

The mine consists of a convex rectangular plastic main body, supported by two pairs of scissor type legs. On the top of the mine is a simple blade type peep sight, on either side of which are two fuze wells that accept Number 8 detonators. The front face of the main is a pre-grooved steel plate, which produces a large number fragments when the mine is detonated. The fragments are projected in a sixty degree arc out to a maximum range of 250 meters, with a lethal range of around sixteen meters.

The mine is in service with the Chilean armed forces.

Specifications
 Height: 140 mm (legs folded)
 Width: 220 mm
 Depth: 55 mm
 Weight: 1.6 kg
 Explosive content: 0.5 kg

References
 Brassey's Essential Guide to Anti-Personnel Mines, Eddie Banks
 Jane's Mines and Mine Clearance 2005-2006

Anti-personnel mines
Land mines of Chile

Cardoen EC-2 mine


The Mukurumudzi Dam is the primary water source for the Kwale Mineral Sands Project which mines titanium and zircon minerals from the dunes in the area south of Mombasa, Kenya.  The Kwale Project is operated by the Australian mining company, Base Resources, and is located 10 kilometres inland from the Kenyan coast and 50 kilometres south of Mombasa, Kenya's principal port facility.

Design and construction management for the dam was undertaken by Wave International Pty Ltd in association with ARQ. Construction of the dam started in January 2012 with completion in August 2013, and was undertaken by a local Kenya Civil Contractor, Hayer Bishan Singh & Sons Ltd.

Design
The Mukurumudzi Dam is a 24m high homogeneous earthfill dam, with a low permeability central core and cut-off key and grout curtain, to limit seepage under the dam. The outlet works comprise a reinforced concrete intake tower and a reinforced concrete draw-off culvert and associated pipe work.

The dam embankment consists of  of silty-sand originating from the local area. Due to a lack of suitable clay materials in the area, an impermeable central bentonite-cement-soil cut-off membrane was constructed successively with the embankment. The spillway discharges into the Mukurumudzi River. It is located on the left flank with a  wide, uncontrolled concrete overflow, ogee spillway crest and spillway channel lined with reinforced concrete for the first . The dam impounds some 8.4 x 106 m³ at full supply level and has a catchment area of 133 km².

The maximum water level is set at  above sea level and the top of the dam embankment wall is at  above sea level which gives a dam wall height of , a wall length of  and a maximum contained volume of . The dam supply is supplemented from the Gongoni borefield when water levels drop below .

References

Dams in Kenya

Mukurumudzi Dam


Ventidius Cumanus (fl. 1st century AD) was the Roman procurator of Iudaea Province from AD 48 to c. AD 52. A disagreement between the surviving sources, the Jewish historian Josephus and the Roman Tacitus, makes it unclear whether his authority was over some or all of the province. Cumanus' time in office was marked by disputes between his troops and the Jewish population. Ventidius Cumanus failed to respond to an anti-Jewish murder in Samaritan territory which led to the violent conflict between Jews and Samaritans. Following an investigation by the governor of Syria, Gaius Ummidius Durmius Quadratus, Cumanus was sent to Rome for a hearing before the Emperor Claudius, who held him responsible for the violence and sentenced him to exile.

Procuratorship of Iudaea

Nothing is known about Cumanus before he was appointed procurator of Iudaea in 48, in succession to Tiberius Julius Alexander.

Scope of Authority

Josephus, the main source for Cumanus' career, presents him as governing the whole of Iudaea until 52, when he was succeeded by Marcus Antonius Felix. However, Tacitus states that Felix was already governing Samaria before 52, while Cumanus had authority over Galilee to the north (see map). Tacitus does not mention who controlled other areas of the province.

This conflict has led historians to take a number of positions on political arrangements in the province. Some have argued that Josephus' greater knowledge of Jewish affairs justifies favouring his account. M. Aberbach believes that there was a division of power, but that Tacitus reversed the governors' areas of authority and that Cumanus actually governed the south and Felix the north; this fits better with Josephus, who describes Cumanus as active in Jerusalem and nearby. Another suggestion is that part of the province was transferred to Felix after disturbances under Cumanus' rule.

Roman-Jewish conflict

Under Alexander, the province of Iudaea had enjoyed a period of relative peace, but that proved to be transient, as Cumanus' governorship was marked by a series of serious public disturbances. Trouble started while Jewish pilgrims were gathered in Jerusalem for the Passover feast. Cumanus, following the precedent set by earlier governors, assembled a detachment of Roman soldiers on the roof of the Temple portico to maintain order among the crowds, but one caused chaos by exposing himself to the Jews in the courtyard while calling out insults. Some of the Jews brought their complaints to Cumanus, but others began to retaliate by hurling stones at the soldiers. Some openly accused Cumanus of being responsible for the provocation – a sign that relations between governor and provincials may already have been poor. Finding himself unable to calm the angry crowd, Cumanus called for fully armed reinforcements, who assembled either in the Temple courtyard or on the roof of the Antonia Fortress, overlooking the Temple. In the ensuing stampede, according to Josephus' estimates, between twenty and thirty thousand people were crushed to death. These numbers may be exaggerated, but the loss of life was substantial; the feast, says Josephus, "became the cause of mourning to the whole nation".

Further unrest was triggered when an Imperial slave named Stephanus was robbed while travelling near Beth-horon. Troops sent by Cumanus to arrest the leading men of the nearby villages began plundering the area. One of them, finding a copy of the Torah, destroyed it in view of the villagers while shouting blasphemies. Angered by this insult to God and to the Jewish religion, a crowd of Jews confronted Cumanus at Caesarea Maritima, demanding that the guilty party should be punished. This time the governor acted decisively and ordered that the soldier responsible should be beheaded in front of his accusers, temporarily restoring the calm.

Jewish-Samaritan conflict

The events that would cost Cumanus his office began with the murder of one or more Galilean pilgrims who had been travelling through Samaria on their way to Jerusalem. A Galilean embassy asked Cumanus to investigate but received little attention; Josephus alleges that he had been bribed by the Samaritans to turn a blind eye. The result was that a crowd of Jews decided to take the law into their own hands. Under the leadership of two Zealots, Eleazar and Alexander, they invaded Samaria and began a massacre. Cumanus led most of his troops against the militants, killing many and taking others prisoner, and the Jewish leaders from Jerusalem were subsequently able to calm most of the others, but a state of guerrilla warfare persisted.

Meanwhile, two separate embassies had been dispatched to Tyre to appeal to Ummidius Caius Quadratus, who as legatus pro praetore or governor of Syria had some authority over the lower-ranking procurator of Iudaea. One, from the Samaritans, protested the Jewish attacks on Samaritan villages. The Jewish counter-embassy held the Samaritans responsible for the violence and accused Cumanus of siding with them. Agreeing to investigate, Quadratus proceeded in 52 to Iudaea, where he had all of Cumanus' Jewish prisoners crucified and ordered the beheading of several other Jews and Samaritans who had been involved in the fighting.

Perhaps after hearing a case against Cumanus in Iudaea, Quadratus sent him, along with several Jewish and Samaritan leaders including the High Priest Ananias, to plead their cases in Rome before the Emperor Claudius. At the hearing, several of Claudius' influential freedmen officials took the side of Cumanus. However, the Jews were supported by Agrippa II, a friend of Claudius whose father, Agrippa I, had been the last king of Iudaea before the province was placed under Roman procurators. Whether influenced by court politics or not, Claudius decided in favour of the Jewish side. The Samaritan leaders were executed and Cumanus was sent into exile. Felix succeeded him as procurator of Iudaea. Cumanus' life and career after his banishment are unknown.

See also
 Prefects, Procurators, and Legates of Roman Judaea

Notes

References

Ancient
 Josephus, War 2.223-247
 Josephus, Antiquities 20.103-137
 Tacitus, Annals 12.54

Modern

Further reading

Ancient Roman equites
Roman governors of Judaea
1st-century Romans
1st-century Roman governors of Judaea
Ventidii
Israelite civil conflicts

Ventidius Cumanus


Ronald Reagan, the 33rd Governor of California, announced his candidacy for President of the United States in New York City on November 13, 1979. On July 17, 1980, he became the nominee of the Republican Party for the 1980 presidential election. William J. Casey managed Reagan's campaign.

The slogan of his campaign were "Are You Better Off Than You Were Four Years Ago?" and "Make America Great Again".

After winning the Republican nomination, he selected one of his opponents in the primary elections, George H. W. Bush, to be his running mate (vice president candidate).

On November 4, 1980, Reagan won 44 states and 489 electoral votes to win the election. Jimmy Carter, the then-current president, carried six states, as well as Washington, D.C., and won 49 electoral votes. Reagan won 50.7 percent of the popular vote, Carter took 41 percent, and Independent John B. Anderson (a liberal Republican) received 6.7 percent.

Reagan's election as President was completed with the meeting of the Electoral College on December 15, 1980, and with the college's vote by the Joint session of Congress on January 6, 1981.

Reagan was inaugurated on January 20, 1981.

References

Ronald Reagan
Reagan 1980

Ronald Reagan 1980 presidential campaign


"You Oughta Know" is a song from Alanis Morissette from her third studio album Jagged Little Pill. It reached the Top 10 in Australia and the United States.

The song was released in the United States on July 7, 1995. It received generally positive reviews by critics.

References

1995 songs
Alanis Morissette songs
Rock songs

You Oughta Know


Morwenna Banks (born 20 September 1961) is a British actress, comedian, writer, and producer. She appeared in the Channel 4 comedy sketch show Absolutely, and wrote, produced, and appeared in the British ensemble film The Announcement. She voices Mummy Pig, Madame Gazelle and Dr Hamster in Peppa Pig and Mo Poppins in Destiny's Side.

Career
One of Banks' early major television roles was as part of the team on the comedy sketch show Absolutely, broadcast on Channel 4 between 1989 and 1993. Her other television appearances include the BBC series The Thick of It, Red Dwarf, Ruddy Hell! It's Harry and Paul and the Steve Coogan comedy Saxondale, in which she played receptionist Vicky. She also appeared as Anthea Stonem in the E4 Teen drama Skins and was a featured player in Fox's In Living Color for fourth and fifth seasons and she was a cast member on NBC's Saturday Night Live, for four episodes of the show's twentieth season. She appeared as Carmen Kenaway in the first two episodes of the ninth series of Shameless.

Her voice roles include Claire Feeble in Stressed Eric; Mummy Pig, Madame Gazelle and Dr Hamster in Peppa Pig; Yma in YoYo Wow Kingdom; Mo Poppins in Destiny's Side; Karen The Raven in Playtime Superstars; the ship's computer in the BBC TV series Hyperdrive; the witches in Meg and Mog, an animated children's series; Guinevere in King Arthur's Disasters (CITV); Miss Truncheon in P5 (CBBC).

1961 births
Living people
British voice actors

Morwenna Banks


Charles-Gaspard Delestre-Poirson, known as Delestre-Poirson (22 August 1790, in Paris – 19 November 1859) was a French playwright and theatre director.

Delestre-Poirson was the director of the Gymnase dramatique, from 1820 to 1844 ; his resistance to the decisions taken by the Société des auteurs dramatiques provoked part of the SACD to boycott using that theatre for 2 years.  This conflict, in which only Narcisse Fournier remained loyal to Delestre-Poirson, led in the end to Delestre-Poirson's retirement.

Delestre-Poirson is to be credited with the discovery of all the parts Rachel could play thanks to her deep and penetrating voice, her noble bearing and heroic fits of anger, thus bringing about a renaissance in French classical tragedy, which had been in decline and which Delestre-Poirson thus rejuvenated.

He wrote several comedies, alone (e.g. Le Fat en province ou Le plan de comédie, a 3-act comedy ; Inès et Pédrille ou La cousine supposée, a 3-act comedy ; Spectacle demandé ou Rien qu'en famille, a one-act divertissement "mêlée de couplets" ; Les Anglais supposés ou Lequel est mon gendre ?, at Théâtre de la Porte Saint-Martin, 1815), or in collaboration with Eugène Scribe and Mélesville (such as La Petite Pinson ou Une nuit à Beaune, a one-act folie-vaudeville, with Mélesville, put on at the Théâtre des Variétés from 20 February 1819).  He also wrote a novel, Un Ladre, récit d'un vieux professeur émérite (Paris, Lenormant, 1859), a touching and moral book whose excellent intentions excuse its implausibility.

Sources
 Gustave Vapereau,  L'Année littéraire et dramatique, Paris, Hachette, 1860, p. 458

External links

Writers from Paris
19th-century French dramatists and playwrights
French theatre directors
French opera librettists
1790 births
1859 deaths
19th-century French novelists

Charles-Gaspard Delestre-Poirson


Theodore Dyke Acland FRCP FRCS (14 November 1851 – 16 April 1931) was an English medical doctor, surgeon and author and was the son-in-law of Sir William Gull, a leading London medical practitioner and one of the Physicians-in-Ordinary to Queen Victoria. For many years Acland was the Medical Adviser to the government of the Sudan.

Early years

Theodore Dyke Acland was born on 14 November 1851 in Killerton, Devon, England.  He was the third son of Sir Henry Wentworth Acland, 1st Baronet, and Sarah Cotton, and the grandson of Sir Thomas Dyke Acland, 10th Baronet.

Acland was educated at Winchester College and Christ Church, the University of Oxford, as well as the University of Leipzig, the University of Berlin  and St. Thomas' Hospital.

He graduated from Oxford University with the degree of Master of Arts (MA).

Medical career
Acland graduated from Oxford University with the degree of Doctor of Medicine (MD) in 1883. He was registered as a Licentiate (LRCP) of the Royal College of Physicians in London. In 1883, he was sent by the Foreign Office to deal with an outbreak of cholera in Egypt. He was then selected for service with the Egyptian Army, of which he became the Principal Medical Officer, and was awarded the Order of the Medjidie for his services. He was registered as a Member of the Royal College of Surgeons (MRCS) and later as a Fellow (FRCS). He gained the rank of Brevet Lieutenant Colonel in the Royal Army Medical Corps (Territorial Army). He was elected a Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians (FRCP) in 1889. In 1893 he was appointed physician to St Thomas' Hospital, London; he later was appointed a Consulting Physician and Governor of St Thomas' and the Royal Brompton Hospital, and was a Consultant to the Commercial Union Assurance Company, as well as numerous other boards, councils and advisory positions.

In 1900 Acland was appointed Medical Adviser to Reginald Wingate, the Sirdar and Governor-General of the Sudan and was asked to select medical personnel for the Sudanese Government. During World War I he served as consulting physician to the London district. In August 1931 Acland was posthumously awarded the Order of the Nile (2nd class) for his services to the Sudan Government.

His publications included The Future of the Tuberculous Soldier and A Collection of the Published Writings of William Withey Gull published by the New Sydenham Society (1894).

Personal life
Acland married Caroline Cameron Gull (1855–1929), the daughter of Sir William Withey Gull and Susan Anne Lacy, on 12 April 1888. They had two children: Aimee Sarah Agnes Dyke Acland was born on 14 May 1889 and died in infancy later that year; and Theodore William Gull Acland was born on 7 November 1890. The family resided in Bryanston Square, London W1, England.

Acland was a governor of Gresham's School, where he sent his son.

Death
Acland died on 16 April 1931 aged 79. His papers were donated to the Wellcome Library.

Jack the Ripper
Acland became posthumously involved in the Jack the Ripper Royal conspiracy theory when Thomas E. A. Stowell suggested in a 1970 article in The Criminologist that Sir William Gull, the Royal doctor, attempted to certify Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence and Avondale, as the Ripper. Stowell claimed that his main source was Gull's daughter Caroline, Acland's wife. Having studied under Acland Stowell referred to him as "one time my beloved Chief". Stowell was an executor of Acland's will.

Stephen Knight, in his 1976 book Jack the Ripper: The Final Solution went even further, claiming that Jack the Ripper was actually a three-man team, with Gull as the actual killer. Knight alleged that Gull was a Freemason and the killings were carried out according to Masonic ritual. Knight claims that Gull afterwards became insane and was certified in an asylum under the name "Thomas Mason" and a sham funeral service carried out in the pretence that he had died. Cited as evidence in support of the theory is the fact that Acland signed his father-in-law's death certificate. While Acland's actions were unusual and were not encouraged, they were not illegal.

Following Stowell's article, Colin Wilson disclosed that ten years before it was published, Stowell invited him to lunch at his club and tried to convince him that they were thinking along the same lines on the Ripper mystery.  He told him, "Jack the Ripper was the Duke of Clarence."  Later, Wilson said that he contacted Stowell to ask him if he might mention the theory in some articles that he was about to write and although Stowell refused, saying "Her Majesty might not approve", Wilson had the distinct impression that Stowell hoped that he would mention it.  He said, "He (Stowell) had been sitting on this thing for 30 years and would have welcomed the chance to test public reaction."

In the 1988 mini-series Jack the Ripper, Acland was played by Richard Morant.

References

External links

Virtual copy of Acland's A Collection of the Published Writings of William Withey Gull
Death notice from Acland's executors in the London Gazette 19 June 1931

1851 births
1931 deaths
Theodore Dyke
English surgeons
English male writers
19th-century English medical doctors
20th-century English medical doctors
Fellows of the Royal College of Physicians
Fellows of the Royal College of Surgeons of England
Physicians-in-Ordinary
People educated at Winchester College
Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford
Alumni of King's College London
Humboldt University of Berlin alumni
Jack the Ripper
Royal Army Medical Corps officers
Leipzig University alumni
Younger sons of baronets
Medical doctors from Devon
People from East Devon District
Nathaniel Cotton family

Theodore Dyke Acland


Gary Stonadge (born 24 November 1962) is a British bass guitarist and DJ. He started playing in Mick Jones' band Big Audio Dynamite in 1989 when he changed the previous lineup completely and renamed it Big Audio Dynamite II. He left in 1995 after recording 5 albums with them. Since then, he concentrated on DJ sets, playing at clubs and bars mainly in New York and London. He is currently playing with Mick Jones in The Rotten Hill Gang. In January 1991, Gary's partner Cheryl Konteh gave birth to their daughter Femi Stonadge-Konteh.

References

Living people
British bass guitarists
Male bass guitarists
British DJs
Big Audio Dynamite members
1962 births

Gary Stonadge


Compartment syndrome is a condition in which increased pressure within one of the body's anatomical compartments results in insufficient blood supply to tissue within that space. There are two main types: acute and chronic. Compartments of the leg or arm are most commonly involved.

Symptoms of acute compartment syndrome (ACS) can include severe pain, poor pulses, decreased ability to move, numbness, or a pale color of the affected limb. It is most commonly due to physical trauma such as a bone fracture (up to 75% of cases) or crush injury, but it can also be caused by acute exertion during sport. It can also occur after blood flow returns following a period of poor blood flow. Diagnosis is generally based upon a person's symptoms and may be supported by measurement of intracompartmental pressure before, during, and after activity. Normal compartment pressure should be within 12-18 mmHg; anything greater than that is considered abnormal and would need treatment. Treatment is by surgery to open the compartment, completed in a timely manner. If not treated within six hours, permanent muscle or nerve damage can result.

In chronic compartment syndrome (aka chronic exertional compartment syndrome), there is generally pain with exercise but the pain dissipates once activity ceases. Other symptoms may include numbness. Symptoms typically resolve with rest. Common activities that trigger chronic compartment syndrome include running and biking. Generally, this condition does not result in permanent damage. Other conditions that may present similarly include stress fractures and tendinitis. Treatment may include physical therapy or—if that is not effective—surgery.

Acute compartment syndrome occurs in about 3% of those who have a midshaft fracture of the forearm. Rates in other areas of the body and for chronic cases are unknown. The condition occurs more often in males and people under the age of 35, in line with the occurrence of trauma. Compartment syndrome was first described in 1881 by German surgeon Richard von Volkmann. Untreated, acute compartment syndrome can result in Volkmann's contracture.

Signs and symptoms
Compartment syndrome usually presents within a few hours of an inciting event, but may present anytime up to 48 hours after. The limb affected by compartment syndrome is often associated with a firm, wooden feeling or a deep palpation, and is usually described as feeling tight. There may also be decrease pulses in the limb along with associated paresthesia. Usually, the pain cannot be relieved by NSAIDs. Range of motion may be limited while the compartment pressure is high. In acute compartment syndrome, the pain will not be relieved with rest. In chronic exertional compartment syndrome the pain will dissipate with rest.

Acute

There are five characteristic signs and symptoms related to acute compartment syndrome: pain, paraesthesia (reduced sensation), paralysis, pallor, and pulselessness. Pain and paresthesia are the early symptoms of compartment syndrome.

Common
Pain – A person may experience pain disproportionate to the findings of the physical examination. This pain may not be relieved by strong analgesic medications and even intravenous opioids (e.g. morphine) not relieve the pain, in part due to its neuopathic origin from ischemia sensory nerves. The pain is aggravated by passively stretching the muscle group within the compartment. However, such pain may disappear in the late stages of the compartment syndrome. The role of local anesthesia in delaying the diagnosis of compartment syndrome is still being debated.
Paresthesia (altered sensation)  – A person may complain of "pins & needles", numbness, and a tingling sensation. This may progress to loss of sensation (anesthesia) if no intervention is made.
Uncommon
Paralysis –  Paralysis of the limb is a rare, late finding. It may indicate both a nerve or muscular lesion.
Pallor and pulselessness – A lack of pulse rarely occurs in patients, as pressures that cause compartment syndrome are often well below arterial pressures. Absent pulses only occur when there is arterial injury or during the late stages of the compartment syndrome, when compartment pressures are very high. Pallor can also result from arterial occlusion.

Chronic
The symptoms of chronic exertional compartment syndrome, CECS, may involve pain, tightness, cramps, weakness, and diminished sensation. This pain can occur for months, and in some cases over a period of years, and may be relieved by rest.  Moderate weakness in the affected region can also be observed. These symptoms are brought on by exercise and consist of a sensation of extreme tightness in the affected muscles followed by a painful burning sensation if exercise is continued. After exercise is ceased, the pressure in the compartment will decrease within a few minutes, relieving painful symptoms. Symptoms will occur at a certain threshold of exercise which varies from person to person but is rather consistent for a given individual.  This threshold can range anywhere from 30 seconds of running to 2–3 miles of running. CECS most commonly occurs in the lower leg, with the anterior compartment being the most frequently affected compartment.  Foot drop is a common symptom of CECS.

Complications
Failure to relieve the pressure can result in the death of tissues (necrosis) in the affected anatomical compartment, since the ability of blood to enter the smallest vessels in the compartment (capillary perfusion pressure) will fall.  This, in turn, leads to progressively increasing oxygen deprivation of the tissues dependent on this blood supply. Without sufficient oxygen, the tissue will die.  On a large scale, this can cause Volkmann's contracture in affected limbs, a permanent and irreversible process.  Other reported complications include neurological deficits of the affected limb, gangrene, and chronic regional pain syndrome.    Rhabdomyolysis and subsequent kidney failure are also possible complications.  In some case series, rhabdomyolysis is reported in 23% of patients with ACS.

Causes

Acute
Acute compartment syndrome (ACS) is a medical emergency that can develop after traumatic injuries, such as in automobile accidents or dynamic sporting activities – for example, a severe crush injury or an open or closed fracture of an extremity. Rarely, ACS can develop after a relatively minor injury, or due to another medical issue.  The lower legs and the forearms are the most frequent sites affected by compartment syndrome. Other areas of the body such as thigh, buttock, hand, abdomen, and foot can also be affected. The most common cause of acute compartment syndrome is fracture of a bone, most commonly the tibia. There is no difference between acute compartment syndrome originating from an open or closed fracture. Leg compartment syndrome is found in 2% to 9% of tibial fractures. It is strongly related to fractures involving the tibial diaphysis as well as other sections of the tibia. Direct injury to blood vessels can lead to compartment syndrome by reducing the downstream blood supply to soft tissues. This reduction in blood supply can cause a series of inflammatory reactions that promote the swelling of the soft tissues. Such inflammation can be further worsened by reperfusion therapy. Because the fascia layer that defines the compartment of the limbs does not stretch, a small amount of bleeding into the compartment, or swelling of the muscles within the compartment, can cause the pressure to rise greatly. Intravenous drug injection, casts, prolonged limb compression, crush injuries, anabolic steroid use, vigorous exercise, and eschar from burns can also cause compartment syndrome. Patients on anticoagulant therapy have an increased risk of bleeding into a closed compartment.

Abdominal compartment syndrome occurs when the intra-abdominal pressure exceeds 20 mmHg and abdominal perfusion pressure is less than 60 mmHg.  This disease process is associated with organ dysfunction and multiple organ failures. There are many causes, which can be broadly grouped into three mechanisms: primary (internal bleeding and swelling); secondary (vigorous fluid replacement as an unintended complication of resuscitative medical treatment, leading to the acute formation of ascites and a rise in intra-abdominal pressure); and recurrent (compartment syndrome that has returned after the initial treatment of secondary compartment syndrome).

Compartment syndrome after snake bite is rare. Its incidence varies from 0.2 to 1.36% as recorded in case reports. Compartment syndrome is more common in children possibly due to inadequate volume of the bodily fluid to dilute the snake venom. Increased white blood cell count of more than 1,650/μL and aspartate transaminase (AST) level of more than 33.5 U/L could increase the risk of developing compartment syndrome. Otherwise, those bitten by venomous snake should be observed for 48 hours to exclude the possibility of compartment syndrome.

Acute compartment syndrome due to severe/uncontrolled hypothyroidism is rare.

Chronic
When compartment syndrome is caused by repetitive use of the muscles, it is known as chronic compartment syndrome (CCS). This is usually not an emergency, but the loss of circulation can cause temporary or permanent damage to nearby nerves and muscles.

A subset of chronic compartment syndrome is chronic exertional compartment syndrome (CECS), often called exercise-induced compartment syndrome (EICS). Oftentimes, CECS is a diagnosis of exclusion. CECS of the leg is a condition caused by exercise which results in increased tissue pressure within an anatomical compartment due to an acute increase in muscle volume – as much as 20% is possible during exercise. When this happens, pressure builds up in the tissues and muscles causing tissue ischemia. An increase in muscle weight will reduce the compartment volume of the surrounding fascial borders and result in an increased compartment pressure. An increase in the pressure of the tissue can force fluid to leak into the interstitial space (extracellular fluid), leading to a disruption of the micro-circulation of the leg. This condition occurs commonly in the lower leg and various other locations within the body, such as the foot or forearm. CECS can be seen in athletes who train rigorously in activities that involve constant repetitive actions or motions.

Pathophysiology
In a normal human body, blood flow from the arterial system (higher pressure) to venous system (lower pressure) requires a pressure gradient. When this pressure gradient is diminished, blood flow from the artery to the vein is reduced. This causes a backup of blood and excessive fluid to leak from the capillary wall into spaces between the soft tissues cells, causing swelling of the extracellular space and a rise in intracompartmental pressure. This swelling of the soft tissues surrounding the blood vessels compresses the blood and lymphatic vessels further, causing more fluid to enter the extracellular spaces, leading to additional compression. The pressure continues to increase due to the non-compliant nature of the fascia containing the compartment.  This worsening cycle can eventually lead to a lack of sufficient oxygen in the soft tissues (tissue ischemia) and tissue death (necrosis). Tingling and abnormal sensation (paraesthesia) can begin as early as 30 minutes from the start of tissue ischemia and permanent damage can occur as early as 12 hours from the onset of the inciting injury.

Diagnosis
Compartment syndrome is a clinical diagnosis, meaning that a medical provider's examination and the patient's history usually give the diagnosis. Apart from the typical signs and symptoms, measurement of intracompartmental pressure can also be important for diagnosis. Using a combination of clinical diagnosis and serial intracompartmental pressure measurements increases both the sensitivity and specificity of diagnosing compartment syndrome. A transducer connected to a catheter is inserted 5 cm into the zone of injury. A compartment pressure no less than 30 mmHg of the diastolic pressure in a conscious or unconscious person is associated with compartment syndrome. Fasciotomy is indicated in that case. For those patients with low blood pressure (hypotension), a pressure of 20 mmHg higher than the intracompartmental pressure is associated with compartmental syndrome. Noninvasive methods of diagnosis such as near-infraredspectroscopy (NIRS) which uses sensors on the skin, shows promise in controlled settings. However, with limited data in uncontrolled settings, clinical presentation and intracompartmental pressure remain the gold standard for diagnosis.

Chronic exertional compartment syndrome is usually a diagnosis of exclusion, with the hallmark finding being absence of symptoms at rest.  Measurement of intracompartmental pressures during symptom reproduction (usually immediately following running) is the most useful test. Imaging studies (X-ray, CT, MRI) can be useful in ruling out other more common diagnoses instead of confirming the diagnosis of compartment syndrome. Additionally, MRI has been shown to be effective in diagnosing chronic exertional compartment syndrome. The average duration of symptoms prior to diagnosis is 28 months.

Treatment

Acute

Any external compression (tourniquet, orthopedic casts or dressings applied on the affected limb) should be removed. Cutting of the cast will reduce the intracompartmental pressure by 65%, followed by 10 to 20% pressure reduction once padding is cut. After removal of the external compression the limb should be placed at the level of the heart. The vital signs of the patient should be closely monitored. If the clinical condition does not improve, then fasciotomy is indicated to decompress the compartments. An incision large enough to decompress all the compartments is necessary. This surgical procedure is performed inside an operating theater under general or local anesthesia. The timing of the fasciotomy wound closure is debated.  Some surgeons suggest wound closure should be done seven days after fasciotomy. Multiple techniques exist for closure of the surgical site including vacuum-assisted and shoelace. Both techniques are acceptable methods for closure, but the vacuum-assisted technique has led to longer hospitalization time. A skin graft may be required to close the wound, which would complicate the treatment with a much longer hospitalization stay.

Fasciotomy is overused and non-therapeutic in many cases of compartment syndrome due to snake bites due to Crotalid (rattlesnake) and related snakes such as lance-head
.  Compartment syndrome due to snake bite should be treated with antivenom, and, unlike more common causes, fasciotomy is rarely indicated.  If the pressure does not reduce after administration of antivenom, the treatment is to administer more antivenom. Compartment pressure should be measured before and after administration of antivenom, and only those patients who fail to respond to additional antivenom should receive a fasciotomy.

Chronic
Treatment for chronic exertional compartment syndrome can include decreasing or subsiding exercise and/or exacerbating activities, massage, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory medication, and physiotherapy. Chronic compartment syndrome in the lower leg can be treated conservatively or surgically. Conservative treatment includes rest, anti-inflammatory medications, and manual decompression. Warming the affected area with a heating pad may help to loosen the fascia prior to exercise. Icing the area may result in further constriction of the fascia and is not recommended before or after exercise. The use of devices that apply external pressure to the area, such as splints, casts, and tight wound dressings, should be avoided. If symptoms persist after conservative treatment or if an individual does not wish to give up the physical activities which bring on symptoms, compartment syndrome can be treated by a surgery known as a fasciotomy.

A US military study conducted in 2012 found that teaching individuals with lower leg chronic exertional compartment syndrome to change their running style to a forefoot running technique abated symptoms in those with symptoms limited to the anterior compartment. Running with a forefoot strike limits use of the tibialis anterior muscle which may explain the relief in symptoms in those with anterior compartment syndrome.

Hyperbaric oxygen therapy has been suggested by case reports – though as of 2011 not proven in randomized control trials – to be an effective adjunctive therapy for crush injury, compartment syndrome, and other acute traumatic ischemias, by improving wound healing and reducing the need for repetitive surgery.

Prognosis
A mortality rate of 47% has been reported for acute compartment syndrome of the thigh. According to one study the rate of fasciotomy for acute compartment syndrome varied from 2% to 24%. This is due to uncertainty and differences in labeling a condition as acute compartment syndrome. The most significant prognostic factor in people with acute compartment syndrome is time to diagnosis and subsequent fasciotomy. In people with a missed or late diagnosis of acute compartment syndrome, limb amputation may be necessary for survival. Following a fasciotomy, some symptoms may be permanent depending on factors such as which compartment, time until fasciotomy, and muscle necrosis. Muscle necrosis can occur quickly, within 3 hours of original injury in some studies. Fasciotomy of the lateral compartment of the leg may lead to symptoms due to the nerves and muscles in that compartment. These may include foot drop, numbness along leg, numbness of big toe, pain, and loss of foot eversion.

Epidemiology
In one case series of 164 people with acute compartment syndrome, 69% of the cases had an associated fracture. The authors of that article also calculated an annual incidence of acute compartment syndrome of 1 to 7.3 per 100,000.  There are significant differences in the incidence of acute compartment syndrome based on age and gender in the setting of trauma.  Men are ten times more likely than women to develop ACS. The mean age for ACS in men is 30 years while the mean age is 44 years for women. Acute compartment syndrome may occur more often in individuals less than 35 years old due to increased muscle mass within the compartments .  The anterior compartment of the leg is the most common site for ACS.

See also
 Abdominal compartment syndrome
 Escharotomy
 Ischemia-reperfusion injury of the appendicular musculoskeletal system

References

External links

Compartment Syndrome of the Forearm – Orthopaedia.com
Chronic Exertional Compartment Syndrome detailed at MayoClinic.com

Compartment syndrome
American Association of Orthopaedic Surgeons Compartment Syndrome

Disorders of fascia
Syndromes
Early complications of trauma
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate
Wikipedia emergency medicine articles ready to translate

Compartment syndrome