Hinglish, a portmanteau of Hindi and English, is the macaronic hybrid use of English and languages of the Indian subcontinent, and especially Hindustani. It involves code-switching or translanguaging between these languages whereby they are freely interchanged within a sentence or between sentences. Hinglish can also refer to Romanized Hindi: Hindi written in Latin script (instead of the traditional Devanagari), often also mixed with English words or phrases.

The word Hinglish was first recorded in 1967. Other colloquial portmanteau words for Hindi-influenced English include: Hindish (recorded from 1972), Hindlish (1985), Henglish (1993) and Hinlish (2013).

While the name is based on the Hindi language, it does not refer exclusively to Hindi, but "is used in India, with English words blending British Asian families to enliven standard English". When Hindi–Urdu is viewed as a single spoken language called Hindustani, the portmanteaus Hinglish and Urdish mean the same code-mixed tongue, where the former term is used predominantly in modern India and the latter term predominantly in Pakistan (although Urdish is a term that was relatively recently coined).

History and evolution
Hindi has an approximately ten-century history. In this period, it has accommodated several linguistic influences. Contact with Sanskrit, Prakrit, Pali, Apabhraṃśa, Persian, Arabic and Turkic languages has led to historical 'mixes' or fusions, e.g., Hindustani, Rekhta. Linguistic fusions were celebrated by Bhakti poets, in approximately the 15th-17th centuries as 'khichdi boli' – or amalgamated speech.

At the turn of the 18th century, with the rising dominion of the East India Company, also called 'Company Raj' (literally, 'Company Rule'), the languages of India were brought into contact with the foreign element of English. In colonized India, English became a symbol of authority and a powerful hegemonic tool to propagate British culture, including Christianity. The political ascendancy of the British extended into social and professional roles; this meant that the legal proceedings, as well as the studies in medicine and science, were conducted in English.

This led to an interest in the promotion of English into the society of Indian natives. Educated Indians, or 'brown sahibs', wished to participate in academia and pursue professional careers. Raja Rammohan Roy, a social and education reformer, advocated that English be taught to Indians by certain British gentlemen for the benefit and instruction of the native Indians. Charles Grant, the president of the East India Company's board of control, championed the cause of English education as a 'cure for darkness' where 'darkness' was 'Hindoo ignorance'. The Charter Act was passed in 1813. This legalized missionary work by the Company, including the introduction of English education. By the beginning of the twentieth century, English had become the unifying language in the Indian struggle for independence against the British.

Meanwhile, English was on its way to becoming the first global lingua franca. By the end of the twentieth century, it had special status in seventy countries, including India. Worldwide, English began to represent modernization and internationalization, with more and more jobs requiring basic fluency in it. In India especially, the language came to acquire a social prestige, 'a class apart of education', which prompted native Indian or South Asian speakers to turn bilingual, speaking their mother tongue at home or in a local context, but English in academic or work environments.

In the late 19th century, Bharatendu Harishchandra, often considered the father of modern Hindi, wrote poems in Hinglish, combining languages and scripts.

The contact of 'South Asian' languages, which is a category that refers inclusively to Hindi and Indian languages, with English, led to the emergence of the linguistic phenomenon now known as Hinglish. Many common Indic words such as 'pyjamas', 'karma', 'guru' and 'yoga' were incorporated into English usage, and vice versa ('road', 'sweater', and 'plate'). This is in parallel with several other similar hybrids around the world, like Spanglish (Spanish + English) and Taglish (Tagalog + English). A fair share of the words borrowed into English from Indian languages were themselves borrowed from Persian or Arabic. An example of this is the widely used English word 'pyjamas' which originates from Persian paejamah, literally "leg clothing," from pae "leg" (from PIE root *ped- "foot") + jamah "clothing, garment."

In recent years, due to an increase in literacy and connectivity, the interchange of languages has reached new heights, especially due to increasing online immersion. English is the most widely used language on the internet, and this is a further impetus to the use of Hinglish online by native Hindi speakers, especially among the youth. Google's Gboard mobile keyboard app gives an option of Hinglish as a typing language where one can type a Hindi sentence in the Roman script and suggestions will be Hindi words but in the Roman script. In 2021, Google rolled out support for Romanized Hindi on its search engine and on the Google Pay app. Phrases such as "Naya Payment" for "New Payment" and "Transaction History Dekhein" for "See Transaction History" are used.

While Hinglish has arisen from the presence of English in India, it is not merely Hindi and English spoken side by side, but a language type in itself, like all linguistic fusions. Aside from the borrowing of vocabulary, there is the phenomenon of switching between languages, called code-switching and code-mixing, direct translations, adapting certain words, and infusing the flavours of each language into each other.

The Indian English variety, or simply Hinglish, is the Indian adaption of English in a very endocentric manner, which is why it is popular among the youth. Like other dynamic language mixes, Hinglish is now thought to 'have a life of its own'.

Hinglish used to be limited to informal contexts and ads, but it is now also used in university classrooms.

Computational analysis
With its widespread use in social media such as blogs, Facebook and Twitter, the analysis of Hinglish using computers has become important in a number of natural language processing applications like machine translation (MT) and speech-to-speech translation.

Dictionary
A dictionary using the term Hinglish in its title has been published. It describes words from Indian languages that are commonly used in urban Britain.

Users
Hinglish is more commonly heard in urban and semi-urban centers of northern India and is spoken by the Indian diaspora. It is also spoken to some extent by South Indians as an easier-to-learn variant of Hindi. Research into the linguistic dynamics of India shows that while the use of English is on the rise, there are more people fluent in Hinglish than in pure English. David Crystal, a British linguist at the University of Wales, projected in 2004 that at about 350 million, the world's Hinglish speakers may soon outnumber native English speakers.

In India, Romanised Hindi is the dominant form of expression online. In an analysis of YouTube comments, Palakodety et al., identified that 52% of comments were in Romanised Hindi, 46% in English, and 1% in Devanagari Hindi. Romanised Hindi is also used by some newspapers such as The Times of India. The first novel written in this format, All We Need Is Love, was published in 2015.

See also

 Creole language
 Hobson-Jobson
 Translanguaging

References

Further reading

External links

Hindi
Macaronic forms of English
Indian English

Hinglish


The Orto Botanico del Monte Baldo (about 20,000 m2), also known as the Orto Botanico di Novezzina or Orto Botanico d'Europa, is a botanical garden located at 1232 meters altitude on Monte Baldo, Via General Graziani 10, Novezzina, Ferrara di Monte Baldo, Province of Verona, Veneto, Italy. It is open daily in the warmer months; an admission fee is charged.

The garden was established in 1989 by the town, recreating natural ecosystems of rocky landscapes, beech forest, pasture, and wetlands. It contains over a thousand species native to Mount Baldo, including the endemic Campanula petraea, Carex baldensis, and Primula spectabilis. All species are indicated by cards indicating family, genus, species, and Italian name.

See also
 List of botanical gardens in Italianoness

References
 Orto Botanico del Monte Baldo
  Comune di Ferrara di Monte Baldo article (Italian)
 Travel Italia article (Italian)

Botanical gardens in Italy
Gardens in Veneto

Orto Botanico del Monte Baldo


U Don't Know Me (Like U Used To) – The Remix EP is the first EP by American R&B singer Brandy Norwood, released in 1999. It was released for promotional use only.

Release
During 1999, her record company, Atlantic Records, released a 9-track remix EP entitled U Don't Know Me... Like U Used To – The Remix EP. The album contains remix versions with Da Brat, Ma$e, Fat Joe, Big Pun, Darkchild, DJ Premier and many other artists and producers. The album is seen as a maxi-single so the peak positions are the same as the peak positions of the single. The songs on U Don't Know Me did not have much success with a peak position of #79 on the U.S. Hot 100, 50 in Canada and 25 in the UK. The album's lead single was "U Don't Know Me (Like U Used To) [Remix]".

References

1999 albums
Brandy Norwood albums

U Don't Know Me (Like U Used To)


El Chicano was an American brown-eyed soul group from Los Angeles, California, whose style incorporated various modern music genres including rock, funk, soul, blues, jazz, and salsa. The group's name was from Chicano, a term for United States citizens of typically Mexican descent.

History
El Chicano, originally formed by Freddie Sanchez under the name The VIP's arose during a period of increasing Chicano consciousness in America. Their initial hit, "Viva Tirado", was a jazzy soul rock rendition of Gerald Wilson's original song about a bullfighter.  The song did very well on Los Angeles radio and remained #1 for thirteen straight weeks. Other notable tracks recorded by El Chicano are the funky "Tell Her She's Lovely" as well as a cover of Van Morrison's 1967 hit, "Brown Eyed Girl".

Original members of El Chicano include Bobby Espinosa, Freddie Sanchez, Mickey Lespron, Andre Baeza, and John De Luna. Ersi Arvisu was lead singer. During the 1970s, new members Rudy Regalado, Max Garduno, Danny Lamonte, Brian Magness, Jerry Salas, Joe Pererria. joined the group.

On their 1970 album, Viva Tirado the group covered Herbie Hancock's jazz standard "Cantaloupe Island". The song was one of nine on the album, which included the hit single "Viva Tirado" that went gold.

El Chicano continues to be active with a combination of original and new members. They performed on the 2009 PBS pledge break special, Trini Lopez Presents 'The Legends of Latin Rock' , along with Thee Midniters, Tierra, and Gregg Rolie (of Santana and Journey fame).

Original keyboardist, Bobby Espinosa ‒ who laid down Hammond organ on some of El Chicano's most recognizable tracks ‒ died on February 27, 2010. Former percussionist, Rudy Regalado, who spent twelve years with the band died on November 4, 2010.  Latin percussionist of former Santana renown, Walfredo Reyes Jr., recorded with the band from 2010 to 2012, and is currently performing with the band Chicago.

Members
 Ersi Arvisu, lead vocals – 1970
 Eddie Avila, drums (2010–present)
 Andre Baeza, congas – 1970
 John De Luna, drums – 1970
 Bobby Espinosa, organ – 1970; died February 27, 2010
 Max Garduno, congas
 Danny Lamonte, drums
 Mickey Lespron, guitar – 1970
 Brian Magness, bass
 Joe Perreria, bass
 Rudy Regalado, timbales – joined c. 1971; died November 4, 2010
 Walfredo "Wally" Reyes, Jr., drums, congas (2010–2012)
 Joseph Baeza, congas (2011–2013); died October 18, 2016
 David "Chango" Chavez, congas (2015–present)
 Jerry Salas, lead vocals, guitar – joined in 1973
 Rudy Salas, vocals – 1970; died December 29, 2020
 Steve Salas, vocals – 1970; died February 10, 2022
 Freddie Sanchez, bass – 1970

Discography

Albums

Main singles

See also
Chicano rock

References

External links

1969 establishments in California
2000 disestablishments in California
Musical groups from Los Angeles
American soul musical groups
Rock music groups from California
Chicano rock musicians
MCA Records artists
Musical groups established in 1969
Musical groups disestablished in 2000

El Chicano


Lloyd Viel Berkner (February 1, 1905 in Milwaukee, Wisconsin – June 4, 1967 in Washington, D.C.) was an American physicist and engineer. He was one of the inventors of the measuring device that since has become standard at ionospheric stations because it measures the height and electron density of the ionosphere. The data obtained in the worldwide net of such instruments  were important for the developing theory of short wave radio propagation to which Berkner himself gave important contributions.

Berkner was elected to the United States National Academy of Sciences in 1948.

Later he investigated the development of the Earth's atmosphere.  Since he needed data from the whole world, he proposed the International Geophysical Year in 1950. At that time, the IGY was the largest cooperative study of the Earth ever undertaken.

Berkner was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1956. The IGY was carried out by the International Council of Scientific Unions while he was president in 1957–1959. He was also a member of the President's Scientific Advisory Committee in 1958 while he was president of Associated Universities Inc.

In 1963, Berkner, with L.C. Marshall, advanced a theory to describe the way in which the atmospheres of the Solar System's inner planets had evolved.

Beginning in 1926, as a naval officer, Berkner assisted in the development of radar and navigation systems, naval aircraft electronics engineering, and studies that led to the construction of the Distant Early Warning system, a chain of radar stations designed to give the United States advance warning in the event of a missile attack across the North Pole. In the 50s and 60s, Berkner held intelligence clearances in the Atomic Energy Commission and other agencies. He worked with the CIA in some capacity as well, but any activities are wholly classified as of 2015.

Berkner worked with Dallas community leaders to establish the Graduate Research Center of the Southwest (later renamed the Southwest Center for Advanced Studies, which would eventually become The University of Texas at Dallas).

He wrote more than 100 papers and several books, including Rockets and Satellites (1958), Science in Space (1961), and The Scientific Age (1964).

In 1961, Berkner was president of the Institute of Radio Engineers.

Legacy
Lloyd V. Berkner High School in Richardson, Texas was named after him in 1969, as was Lloyd V. Berkner Hall at the University of Texas at Dallas. The lunar crater Berkner was named in his honor. Berkner Island in Antarctica was also named for Berkner because of his work as a radio operator on the first Byrd expedition to Antarctica in 1928.

Berkner was married to Lillian Fulks Berkner and had two children.

References

External links
National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoir

1905 births
1967 deaths
University of Minnesota alumni
20th-century American physicists
Scientists from Milwaukee
Engineers from Wisconsin
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
20th-century American engineers
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
Fellows of the American Physical Society
Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
Members of the American Philosophical Society

Lloyd Berkner


Condottieri (singular condottiero) were mercenary leaders employed by Italian city-states and seignories from the late Middle Ages until the mid-17th century. Niccolò Machiavelli listed the "most noted" of the condottieri remembered in his day:
The most noticed among the latter were Carmagnola, Francesco Sforza, Niccolò Piccinino the pupil of Braccio, Agnolo della Pergola, Lorenzo di Micheletto Attendolo, il Tartaglia, Giacopaccio, Cecolini da Perugia, Niccolò da Tolentino, Guido Torello, Antonia dal Ponte ad Era, and many others. (History of Florence, I,vii])

Thirteenth century
 Ruggiero da Flor (c. 1268–1305), was a condottiere active in Aragonese Sicily, Italy, and the Byzantine Empire. He was the commander of the Great Catalan Company and held the title Count of Malta.
Ruggiero da Lauria (c. 1245–1305), admiral in Aragonese service, who was the commander of the fleet of the Crown of Aragon during the War of the Sicilian Vespers.
 Malatesta da Verucchio (1212–1312), founder of the Malatesta dynasty, master of Rimini in 1295. Father of Giovanni Malatesta (d. 1304) who killed his wife Francesca da Rimini, who had taken his handsome brother Piero for a lover, earning them all places in Dante's Inferno.
 Castruccio Castracani (1281–1328), Lord of Lucca, when exiled from Lucca in 1300, fought in Flanders but was welcomed back to Lucca, once it was in the hands of Uguccione della Faggiuola, Lord of Pisa, a fellow soldier of fortune. In 1315 he and his followers took part in the Battle of Montecatini against the Florentine Guelfs, and the following year he was acclaimed Lord of Lucca. Soon he was in possession of Pistoia, which put him in confrontation once more with Florence, whose forces he overcame at Altopascio in 1325. However, at Rome in 1328 for the coronation of the Emperor Ludwig IV, of Bavaria who made him Imperial Vicar General for Lucca and Pistoia, he died under obscure circumstances—perhaps of malaria—just as he was considering a further attack upon Florence.
Uguccione della Faggiuola (c. 1250 –1319) was a condottiero, and Ghibelline magistrate of Pisa, Lucca and Forlì (from 1297).

Fourteenth century
 Walter VI of Brienne (c. 1304–1356), Duke of Athens, a French adventurer, was in command in Florence in 1325 as the representative of the Duke of Calabria, eldest son of the King of Naples, to whom the commune of Florence had turned for protection after their severe defeat at Altopascio, at the hands of Castruccio Castracani
Pier Saccone Tarlati di Pietramala (1261–1356) of Arezzo
 Rolando de' Rossi (c. 1285–1345), lord of Parma, condottiero after 1335
 Cangrande della Scala (1291–1329)
 Galeotto I Malatesta (c. 1305–1385)
 Ridolfo II da Varano di Camerino (1355–1384)
 Luchino dal Verme (c. 1320–1372)
 John Hawkwood, Giovanni Acuto (c. 1320–1394), arrived in Italy c. 1360, hardened in the Hundred Years' War in France, at the head of the White Company served Pisa against Florence, then the Visconti in Milan, then, Gregory XI, and ended his career serving Florence. He was appointed Capitano del popolo, being paid 130,000 golden ducats, married an illegitimate daughter of Bernabò Visconti, duke of Milan. Retired to a villa near Florence, 1378. The city did him a magnificent funeral, still remembered by a fresco monument in The cathedral, Florence.
 Facino Cane (c. 1360–1412) began in the service of Gian Galeazzo Visconti, in his struggles against Mantua. After Visconti's death in 1402 he adventured throughout northern Italy, gained a Byzantine princess for a bride – who brought his lands to Filippo Maria Visconti after the adventurer's demise.
Carlo I Malatesta (1368–1429)
 Braccio da Montone (1368–1384) rival to Muzio 'Sforza', bitter rivals who died within weeks of one another in 1424, leaving their sons to carry on their feud. Braccio was master of Perugia in 1416 and briefly controlled the city of Rome. He was killed laying siege to Aquila on behalf of Ladislas, king of Naples.
 Alberico da Barbiano (1344–1409)
 Angelo Broglio da Lavello (1350 or 1370–1421), known as Tartaglia, long-standing rival of Muzio Sforza. He served the Republic of Florence, then Ladislaus of Naples and the Pope Martin V.
 Jacopo dal Verme (1350–1409)
 Muzio Attendolo (1369–1424), called Sforza ("Strong"). Condottiere from the Romagna serving the Angevin kings of Naples; the most successful dynast of the condottieri after receiving from Joan II of Naples the title of grand connétable (Grand Constable in English?).
 Pippo Spano (1369–1426), served the Empire.
 Giovanni Vitelleschi (d. 1440), the condottiere of Pope Eugene IV, who made him archbishop of Florence and a cardinal, while he commanded the papal armies against René of Anjou in Naples.
 Erasmo da Narni (1370–1443), better known as "Gattamelata", the butcher's boy from Narni immortalized in Donatello's mounted sculpture (1447) the first equestrian bronze since Antiquity. He began with Montone, served Pope and Florence equally, served Venice in 1434 in the battles with the Visconti of Milan, then became dictator of Padua in 1437.
 Ladislaus of Naples the Magnanimous (1377– 1414) was the king of Naples
 Niccolò Piccinino (1380–1444), known as "Tiny Nick", was in arms at the age of 13. In 1424, at the death of his commander, he took charge of the company of mercenaries and sold his services to Florence, then to Milan in 1426. His rapacious ambition made his employer, the duke of Milan, uneasy, who decided instead to hire Francesco Sforza, the personal enemy of Piccinino. The growing rivalry between the two eventually led to a showdown in 1443. Defeated, Piccinino died next year.
 Francesco Bussone da Carmagnola (1390–1432), better known as "Count of Carmagnola", fought for Filippo Maria Visconti of Milan, before taking orders from the republics of Florence and of Venice. Suspected of treasonous actions, he was executed in 1432.

Fifteenth century
Giovanni Giustiniani Longo (1418–1453), Genoese captain and protostrator of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire.
 Scaramuccia da Forlì (d. 1450)
 Francesco Sforza (1401–1466), the last of the great condottiere serving Filippo Maria Visconti; he proceeded to seize the throne of the Duchy of Milan after the latter's death, establishing the Sforza dynasty there.
 Sigismondo Pandolfo Malatesta (1417–1468), lord of Rimini, a capable condottiere in the family tradition, was hired by the Venetians against the Turks (unsuccessfully), 1465, and was patron of Leone Battista Alberti, whose Tempio Malatestiano at Rimini is one of the first entirely classical buildings of the Renaissance.
 Bartolomeo Colleoni (c. 1400–1475), immortalized in Andrea del Verrocchio's equestrian bronze, at Campo dei Santi Giovanni e Paolo, Venice. He began under Braccio da Montone and then under Muzio Sforza. He switched sides between Milan and Venice, before settling his fortunes on Venice, where he was general for many years. A great patron of artists.
 Onorata Rodiani (1403–1452), was a "semi-legendary" Italian painter and condottiere.
 Federico III da Montefeltro (1422–1482), lord of Urbino and humanist intellectual.
 Francesco II of Gonzaga (1466–1519), commanded the Italian armies at the Battle of Fornovo.
 Cesare Borgia (1475–1507), Duke of Valentino, the illegitimate son of Pope Alexander VI (Rodrigo Borgia) and brother to Lucrezia Borgia. Commanded the papal armies.
 Micheletto Corella (d. 1508), served Cesare Borgia and was known as Valentino's executioner.
 Nicolò di Pitigliano (d. 1510), active until 1510; led the defense of Padua against the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I.
 Bartolomeo d'Alviano (1455–1515), active 1494–1515; served under the Spanish at the Battle of the Garigliano; commanded the Venetian forces at the Battle of Agnadello, then fought for the Republic until the end of the War of the League of Cambrai.
 Gian Giacomo Trivulzio (c. 1441–1518), active 1499–1515; betrayed Ludovico Sforza to Louis XII of France and became one of the latter's most experienced commanders during the Italian Wars.
 Prospero Colonna (1452–1523), served Spain during the Italian Wars.
 Lucio Malvezzo (1462–1511), served Venice during the Italian Wars.

Sixteenth century
 Francesco Maria I della Rovere (1490–1538), duke of Urbino, served the Papacy and Venice during the Italian Wars
 Sampieru Corsu (1498–1567), served France in the Italian Wars.
 Giovanni dalle Bande Nere (1498–1526), son of Caterina Sforza and father of Cosimo I de' Medici, fought in the service of Pope Leo X and Pope Clement VII in the Italian Wars.
 Ferrante Gonzaga (1507–1557)
 Piero Strozzi (c. 1510–1558)

Seventeenth century

 Torquato Conti (1591–1636), served the Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire.
 Luigi Mattei (?–1675), served both Pope Urban VIII and Pope Innocent X during the Wars of Castro.
 Mattias de' Medici (1613–1667), commanded the troops of the Republic of Venice, the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, the Duchy of Parma and the Duchy of Modena and Reggio during the Wars of Castro.
Raimondo Montecuccoli (1608/09–1680), served Francesco I d'Este, Duke of Modena during the First War of Castro.
Achille d'Étampes de Valençay (1593–1646), served the papacy during the Wars of Castro.
Cornelio Malvasia (1603–1664), cavalry commander loyal to the papacy during the First War of Castro, later a commander of the French army in Italy and a military advisor to Alfonso IV d'Este, Duke of Modena.

 Lis

it:Condottiero

List of condottieri


Classic Crystal is the second compilation album by American country music singer Crystal Gayle.

Released in October 1979, the album spans Gayle's time on the United Artists Records label, which proved to be the height of her career. It peaked at #8 on the Billboard Country Music Albums chart, and #62 on the Billboard 200. It was certified Gold by the RIAA in 1980.

In the United Kingdom, a 14 track modified version of the album was released in 1980 as The Crystal Gayle Singles Album. It included the recent UK singles 'We Should Be Together' and 'Too Deep For Tears' as well as 'High Time', 'River Road' and  'All I Wanna Do In Life'. 'I'll Do It All Over Again' was omitted. It reached #7 on the UK Album Chart (Gayle's first and only UK Top 10 album) and was certified Gold by the British Phonographic Industry.

Track listing

Crystal Gayle albums
1979 compilation albums
Albums produced by Allen Reynolds
Liberty Records compilation albums

Classic Crystal


RydC is a bacterial non-coding RNA. RydC is thought to regulate a mRNA, yejABEF, which encodes an ABC transporter protein. RydC is known to bind the Hfq protein, which causes a conformational change in the RNA molecule. The Hfq/RydC complex is then thought to bind to the target mRNA and induce its degradation.

See also
RyfA RNA
RydB RNA
RybB RNA

References

Further reading

External links

Non-coding RNA

RydC RNA


A slash (/) is a punctuation mark used for various purposes.

Other names for it are a stroke, virgule, diagonal, right-leaning stroke, oblique dash, solidus, slant, slake and whack, or forward slash. A mark in the reverse direction (\) is called a reverse slash or backslash.

One use is showing how much of something is left. For example, "15/20 boxes remaining" means that there are 15 boxes remaining out of a total 20 boxes.

A slash can also mean "and". For example, "He is a writer/director" means he is both a writer and a director. It can also be interpreted as "or". For example, in the sentence "Each employee must bring his/her Photo ID", the slash (/) means "or".

It is also used in mathematics and coding, commonly to indicate numerical division. It is also used to delineate members of a hierarchical path to locate a file or resource.  Note that some computer systems use the backslash for the same purpose.

Punctuation

Slash (punctuation)


Ingrebourne Marshes are a 74.8 hectare biological Site of Special Scientific Interest in Hornchurch in the London Borough of Havering. Ingrebourne Valley Local Nature Reserve includes a small part of the SSSI west of the River Ingrebourne. The site is managed by the Essex Wildlife Trust

The Marshes run along both sides of the river, the northern portion next to Hornchurch Country Park and stretching south to Rainham. This is almost all closed to the public, but part of it can be viewed from the Park. A long narrow strip stretches east from the river to Berwick Pond Road, incorporating Berwick Pond, a reservoir which is used for fishing. This is open to the public. The site also includes an irrigation reservoir east of Berwick Pond Road.

The site is the largest area of freshwater marsh in Greater London. It is very diverse, with large areas of reed sweet-grass, common reed swamp, wet neutral grassland and tall fen. These habitats have a wide variety of invertebrates and breeding birds. Invertebrates include sixteen nationally scarce fly, beetle dragonfly and cricket species. There are two nationally rare Red Data Book species, the hoverfly Anasimyia interpuncta and the scarce emerald damselfly Lestes dryas. 61 species of bird regularly breed on the site, such as the common redshank and the northern lapwing. Common cuckoos exploit the nests of reed warblers and sedge warblers. Havering Council has raised the water level and reintroduced grazing to protect the wetland.

Access to the site is from Hornchurch Country Park and Berwick Pond Road.

See also
List of Sites of Special Scientific Interest in Greater London
Havering parks and open spaces

References

Sites of Special Scientific Interest in London
Parks and open spaces in the London Borough of Havering
Marshland in London

Ingrebourne Marshes


The Couches de l'Aroley (short: Aroley Formation) are a sedimentary formation deposited during the Early Cretaceous (Barremian to Aptian). They consist of calcitic schists with dolomite clasts interbedded with finegrained conglomerates. The whole sequence is about 100 m thick.

The Couches de l'Aroley are the lowest of the three post-rift sequences deposited in the Valais ocean. It overlies syn-rift sequences of the Brèches du Grand Fond Group.

The Aroley Formation can be found within the following nappes:
External Valais
Moûtiers unit
Roc de l'Enfer unit
Petit St. Bernard unit
Internal Valais
Versoyen unit

The type locality is the Massif de la Pierre Avoi, in Saxon, Valais, Switzerland. The formation is named after a "Plan Aroley" which lies below the Pierre Avoi. It was first described by Rudolf Trümpy 1952.

The Couches de l'Aroley can be correlated with the Klus Formation and the Tristel Formation found in eastern Switzerland, the Engadin window and the Tauern window.

References

Geologic formations of France
Geologic formations of Switzerland
Lower Cretaceous Series of Europe
Cretaceous France
Cretaceous Switzerland
Barremian Stage
Geology of the Alps

Aroley Formation


Dry cleaning (or dry-cleaning) is any cleaning process for clothing and textiles using a solvent (a liquid or gas that can dissolve some materials) without water. The solvent used is usually tetrachloroethylene (perchloroethylene) which is very strong and can dissolve oils. The solvent is called "perc" in the industry and "dry-cleaning fluid" by the public. It is often used instead of hand washing delicate fabrics that cannot be washed by water because water would damage them. People use dry cleaning because it takes less work than hand washing.

History

The ancient Romans used a chemical called ammonia (derived from urine) and fuller's earth (a clay that can absorb grease and oil.) to clean their woolen clothes. Such laundries were very famous, with at least one in every town of any notability, and frequently the largest employer in a district. These laundries got their urine from farm animals, or from special pots situated at public bathrooms. The workforce made so much money that fuller's guilds (a group that works in solely one job, in this case, making fuller's earth, this special clay) were an important political force. Also, the government taxed the collection of urine and sent people to jail for wetting their pants.

Modern dry cleaning uses solvents that do not use water to remove dirt and stains from clothing. Jean Baptiste Jolly discovered that petroleum-based solvents (chemicals like gasoline or kerosene) can be used for dry-cleaning in the mid-19th century.  Jolly was a French dye-works owner. He noticed that his tablecloth became cleaner after his maid spilled kerosene on it. Because of this, he developed a service cleaning people's clothes this way, which became known as "nettoyage à sec" or "dry cleaning".

Early dry cleaners used petroleum-based solvents, such as gasoline (petrol) and kerosene. Fire concerns led William Joseph Stoddard, a dry cleaner from Atlanta, to develop Stoddard solvent as a slightly less flammable alternative to gasoline-based solvents. The government started to control dry cleaners because the highly flammable petroleum solvents caused many fires and explosions.

After World War I, dry cleaners began using chlorinated solvents. These solvents were much less flammable than petroleum solvents and were more powerful. By the mid-1930s, the dry cleaning industry had adopted tetrachloroethylene (perchloroethylene), widely called "perc", as the best solvent. It has excellent cleaning power and is stable, nonflammable, and gentle to most clothing. Some dry cleaners use different chemicals.

Traditionally, the actual cleaning process was carried out at centralized "factories"; high street cleaners shops received garments from customers, sent them to the factory, and then had them returned to the shop after being cleaned, where the customer could collect them. This was due mainly to the risk of fire or dangerous fumes created by the cleaning process. At this time, dry-cleaning was carried out in two different machines — one for the cleaning process itself and the second to dry the clothing.

Machines of this era were called vented; their fumes and drying exhausts were sent into the air, in the same way as with modern tumble dryer exhausts. This added to environmental contamination. Also much potentially reusable perc was lost to the atmosphere. Much stricter controls on solvent emissions have ensured that all dry cleaning machines in the western world are now fully enclosed. No solvent fumes are vented to the atmosphere. In enclosed machines, solvent recovered during the drying process is returned condensed and distilled. So, it can be reused to clean more clothes, or safely thrown away. The majority of modern enclosed machines also incorporate a computer-controlled drying sensor, which automatically feels when most traces of perc have been removed from the load during the drying process. This system ensures that only the smallest amount of perc fumes will be released when opening the door at the end of the cycle.

Process

A dry-cleaning machine is similar to a combination of a domestic washing machine, and clothes dryer. Garments are placed into a washing chamber (referred to as the basket, or drum). The chamber is the core of the machine. The washing chamber contains a horizontal, perforated drum that rotates within an outer shell. The shell holds the solvent while the rotating drum holds the clothing. The basket can hold between about 10 and 40 kg (20 to 80 lb).

During the wash cycle, the chamber is filled approximately one-third full of solvent and begins to rotate, washing the clothing. The solvent temperature is maintained at 30 degrees Celsius (86 degrees Fahrenheit), as a higher temperature may damage it. During the wash cycle, the solvent in the chamber is filtered and then fed back into the chamber. This is known as the cycle and is continued for the wash duration. The solvent is then removed and sent to a distillation (boiled and returned to liquid) unit that has both a boiler and condenser. The condensed solvent is fed into a separator unit where any remaining water is separated from the solvent and then fed into the 'clean solvent' tank.

Operators also check clothing for foreign objects before placing them into the machine. Items such as plastic pens will dissolve in the solvent bath and may damage textiles beyond recovery. Some textile dyes are "loose" (red being the main problem), and will release dye during solvent immersion. Operators will dry clean red clothing separately from lighter-color textiles to avoid color transfer to other clothes. The solvent used must be distilled to remove impurities that may transfer to clothing. Operators checked clothing for dry-cleaning compatibility, including fasteners. Many fasteners that decorate clothing either are not dry cleaning solvent proof or will not withstand the mechanical action of cleaning. Operators will remove them and restitch them after the cleaning. Or, operators will wrap them in a small padded protector. Fragile items, such as feather bedspreads or tasseled rugs or hangings, may be enclosed in a loose mesh bag. The density of perchloroethylene is around 1.7 g/cm³ at room temperature (70% heavier than water), and the sheer weight of absorbed solvent may cause the textile to fail under normal force during the extraction cycle unless the mesh bag provides mechanical support.

Many people believe that all marks or stains can be removed by dry cleaning. Not every stain can be cleaned just by dry cleaning. Some need to be treated with spotting solvents; sometimes by steam jet or by soaking in special stain remover liquids before garments are washed or dry cleaned. Also, garments stored in soiled condition for a long time are difficult to bring back to their original color and texture. Natural fibers such as wool, cotton, and silk of lighter colors should not be left in dirty or soiled condition for long amounts of time as they absorb dirt in their texture and are unlikely to be restored to their original color and finish.

The main reason that washing in water has a different result than dry cleaning is that water is a polar solvent while dry cleaning uses a non-polar solvent.

A typical wash cycle lasts for 8–15 minutes depending on the type of garments and degree of soiling. During the first three minutes, solvent-soluble soils dissolve into the perchloroethylene and loose, insoluble soil comes off. It takes approximately ten to twelve minutes after the loose soil has come off to remove the ground-in insoluble soil from garments. Machines using hydrocarbon solvents require a wash cycle of at least 25 minutes because of the much slower rate of solvation of solvent-soluble soils. A dry-cleaning surfactant "soap" may also be added.

At the end of the wash cycle, the machine starts a rinse cycle wherein the garment load is rinsed with fresh distilled solvent from the pure solvent tank. This pure solvent rinse prevents discoloration caused by soil particles being absorbed back onto the garment surface from the "dirty" working solvent.

After the rinse cycle, the machine begins the extraction process, which recovers dry-cleaning solvent for reuse. Modern machines recover approximately 99.99% of the solvent that was used. The extraction cycle begins by draining the solvent from the washing chamber and accelerating the basket to 350 to 450 rpm, causing much of the solvent to spin free of the fabric. Until this time the cleaning is done in normal temperature, the solvent is never heated in dry cleaning process. When no more solvent can be spun out, the machine starts the drying cycle.

During the drying cycle, the garments are tumbled in a stream of warm air (60-63°C/140-145°F) that circulates through the basket, evaporating any traces of solvent left after the spin cycle. The air temperature is controlled to prevent heat damage to the garments. The exhausted warm air from the machine then passes through a chiller unit where solvent vapors are condensed and returned to the distilled solvent tank. Modern dry cleaning machines use a closed-loop system in which the chilled air is reheated and recirculated. This results in high solvent recovery rates and reduced air pollution. In the early days of dry cleaning, large amounts of perchlorethylene were vented to the atmosphere because it was regarded as cheap and believed to be harmless.

After the drying cycle is complete, a deodorizing (aeration) cycle cools the garments and removes even more of the solvent, by circulating cool outside air over the garments and then through a vapor recovery filter made from activated carbon and polymer resins. After the aeration cycle, the garments are clean and ready for pressing/finishing.

In fact, dry cleaning does not remove all of the solvent. There are no government standards for how much solvent is allowed to remain in the fabric. Detectable amounts of the solvent remain in clothes, with wool clothes retaining the most solvent.

Solvent processing
Working solvent from the washing chamber passes through several filtration steps before it is returned to the washing chamber. The first step is a button trap, which prevents small objects such as lint, fasteners, buttons, and coins from entering the solvent pump.

Over time, a thin layer of filter cake (called muck) accumulates on the lint filter. The muck is removed regularly (commonly once per day) and then processed to recover solvent trapped in the muck. Many machines use "spin disc filters," which remove the muck from the filter by centrifugal force while it is back washed with solvent.

After the lint filter, the solvent passes through an absorptive cartridge filter. This filter is made from activated clays and charcoal and removes fine insoluble soil and non-volatile residues, along with dyes from the solvent. Finally, the solvent passes through a polishing filter, which removes any soil not previously removed. The clean solvent is then returned to the working solvent tank.

To enhance cleaning power, small amounts of detergent (0.5%-1.5%) are added to the working solvent and are essential to its functionality. These detergents help dissolve hydrophilic soils and keep soil from redepositing on garments. Depending on the machine's design, either an anionic or a cationic detergent is used.

Since the solvent recovery is less than 100%, and because dry-cleaning does not remove water-based stains well, entrepreneurs have developed the wet cleaning process, which is, in essence, cold-water washing and air drying, using a computer-controlled washer and dryer. In general, wet cleaning is still being improved and developed, although low-tech versions of it have been used for centuries.

Symbols

People who make clothes have special symbols to say how they should be cleaned. The international GINETEX laundry symbol for dry cleaning is a circle. It may have a letter P inside to indicate perchloroethylene solvent, or a letter F inside to indicate a hydrocarbon solvent. A bar underneath the circle means that only mild cleaning processes should be used. A crossed-out empty circle means the clothes should not be dry cleaned.

Solvents used

Modern
 Perchloroethylene — In use since the 1940s, perc is the most common solvent, the "standard" for cleaning performance, and strongest cleaner. It can cause color loss, especially at higher temperatures, and may destroy special trims, buttons, and beads on some garments. Better for oil-based stains (which account for about 10% of stains) than water-soluble stains (coffee, wine, blood, etc.). Perc is nonflammable and has low toxicity but can be harmful to skin.
 Glycol ethers (dipropylene glycol tertiary-butyl ether)  — In many cases they are more effective than perchloroethylene (perc). In all cases they are better for the environment. Dipropylene glycol tertiary butyl ether (DPTB) has a flashpoint far above current industry standards, so it is not a fire hazzard. DPTB can dissolve water-soluble stains as well as (or better than) perc or the other glycol ether dry cleaning solvents presently in commercial use.
 Hydrocarbon — This is most like standard perc dry cleaning, but the processes use hydrocarbon solvents such as Exxon-Mobil's DF-2000 or Chevron Phillips' EcoSolv. These petroleum-based solvents are less strong than perc and require a longer cleaning cycle. While flammable, these solvents do not present a high risk of fire or explosion when used properly. A hydrocarbon solvent also contains volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that contribute to smog.
 Liquid silicone (decamethylcyclopentasiloxane or D5) — is gentler on garments than perc and does not cause color loss. GreenEarth Cleaning  charges a license fee for using this solvent. Though considerably more environmentally friendly, the price of it is more than double that of perc, and GreenEarth charges an annual affiliation fee. Degrades within days in the environment to silica and trace amounts of water and CO2. D5 produces nontoxic, nonhazardous waste.
 Modified hydrocarbon blends (Pure Dry)

 Liquid CO2 — Consumer Reports rated this method better than conventional methods, but the Drycleaning and Laundry Institute commented on its "fairly low cleaning ability" in a 2007 report. Another industry certification group, America's Best Cleaners, counts CO2 cleaners among its members. Machinery is expensive—up to $90,000 more than a perc machine, making affordability difficult for small businesses. Some cleaners with these machines keep traditional machines on-site for the heavier soiled textiles. Others find plant enzymes to be equally effective and more environmentally sustainable. CO2-cleaned clothing does not off-gas volatile compounds. CO2 cleaning is also used for fire- and water-damage restoration due to its effectiveness in removing toxic residues, soot and associated odors of fire. The environmental impact is very low; Carbon dioxide is almost entirely nontoxic, it does not persist in clothing or in the environment, and its greenhouse gas potential is lower than that of many organic solvents.

Historical
 Carbon tetrachloride — Highly toxic.
 Trichloroethane and trichloroethylene — Overly aggressive and harsh.
 Stoddard solvent — Very flammable and explosive, 100°F/38°C flash point.
 CFC-113 - Freon — Ozone destroying CFC.

References

Other websites
 Difference between cleaning Article about sterilization and disinfection.
 Hazard Summary provided by the United States Environmental Protection Agency.
 How stuff works article on how dry cleaning works.
 How stuff works article on how home dry cleaning works.
 NIOSH Safety and Health Topic: Drycleaning
 Perchloroethylene  (PDF) on PERC and environmental issues.
 Solvents in Europe
 Chemicals used in Dry Cleaning  (PDF)

Physical chemistry
Laundry

Dry cleaning


Victor Simunja (born 23 March 1958) is a Namibian politician. A member of the South West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO), Simunja was appointed to the National Assembly of Namibia in 2000 and served as Deputy Minister of Defense from 2000 to 2009. Simunja rose to the rank of lieutenant colonel in the Namibian Defence Force prior to entering political office. He is a member of the Mafwe ethnic group, indigenous to the Caprivi Strip.

Military career
Born at Linyanti in Zambezi Region, Simunja began his military career in 1975 at the age of 17, fleeing into exile in Zambia. Simunja rose the ranks of the People's Liberation Army of Namibia, the military wing of SWAPO during the Namibian War of Independence. He served in a Cuban artillery regiment in Angola. He trained in both the Soviet Union (Vystrel Military Academy in 1982) and United States (Fort Leavenworth from 1992 to 1993). In 1990, President Sam Nujoma appointed the Caprivi native as captain in the Presidential Guard of Honour. From 1991 to 1992, Simunja served as a second in command of the 21 Ceremonial Guard Battalion. Simunja was an instructor at the Namibian Military School in Okahandja from 1993 to 1994. 1994 and 1995 saw Simunja stationed as staff operating officer at the army headquarters in Grootfontein. He was later promoted to lieutenant colonel and appointed as commanding officer of 46 artillery Regiment

Involvement in the Caprivi conflict
Simunja led Namibian military operations in the Caprivi Region (today called the Zambezi Region) in 1999 and 2000 against UNITA rebels during the final stages of the Angolan Civil War. Simunja came to even greater international prominence in January 2000 when he displayed 81 suspected UNITA rebels to the media at Rundu.

Political career
Simunja was first appointed to the National Assembly as a non-voting member in 2000 by President Nujoma. He was placed at the relatively safe spot of number 24 on SWAPO's National Assembly list prior to the 2004 parliamentary election, which allowed him to return to the National Assembly. In 2002, Simunja came out against private ownership of firearms during a debate in the National Assembly. He was Deputy Minister of Defence from 2000 to 2009, and is currently the managing director of Windhoeker Maschinenfabrik.

On Heroes' Day 2014 he was conferred the Excellent Order of the Eagle, First Class.

References

1958 births
Living people
Members of the National Assembly (Namibia)
People from Zambezi Region
People's Liberation Army of Namibia personnel
Namibian military personnel
SWAPO politicians
Government ministers of Namibia
Namibian expatriates in Zambia

Victor Simunja


Eino Luukkanen (4 June 1909 – 9 April 1964) was a Finnish fighter ace in World War II. He scored 56  confirmed victories, becoming Finland's third highest ranking ace. He flew the Fokker D-21, Brewster B-239 Buffalo, and Bf 109G.

Luukkanen was born in Jaakkima, Finnish Karelia, on 4 June 1909.  His father was a railway employee.  Eino grew up in Sortavala on Lake Ladoga.

Education and flight training
Having completed compulsory military training, Luukkanen became a pilot officer in a cadet school course in 1931.  He graduated in 1933 and received a commission. Luukkanen was posted as an ensign to the 1st Maritime Squadron in Viipuri. He flew both as a pilot and as an observer.  In 1935 Luukkanen was transferred to fighter squadron LeLv 26, equipped with the Bristol Bulldog Mk.IV, a biplane fighter. In 1939 he completed a course of studies in the military academy and was promoted to captain. He was then posted as the commander of the 3rd flight of Fighter Squadron 24 (LeLv24), having been recently equipped with the Fokker D.XXI fighter.

Fighter pilot

Winter War
On 30 November 1939, the Winter War started against the Soviet Union. The next day Luukkanen scored his first victory, a SB-2 bomber.

On 18 December Luukkanen's Fokker was damaged by friendly fire; and he was forced to land on a rough field, damaging his plane.

On Christmas Eve he shared credit with another pilot for shooting down an R-5 over Summa.  Also that day, the 3rd flight was ordered to Värtsilä to provide air cover. During the six weeks at Värtsilä Luukkanen shot down one SB-2 on the 6 January 1940, his last victory in the Winter War. On 4 March, Luukkanen led his flight in a ground strafing attack against Red Army columns on the ice of the Gulf of Finland. The attack was a success, and such ground attacks against enemy columns were the main activity for Squadron 24 up to the end of the war on 13 March 1940.

After the Winter War, Luukkanen had the task of ferrying the newly arrived Brewster 239 fighters from Trollhättan, Sweden to Finland. Squadron 24 was re-equipped with this fighter, and training started immediately.

Continuation War

The air war started again on 25 June 1941. Luukkanen saw combat again on 8 July. Four BWs under Luukkanen's command had taken off from Rantasalmi and were at 1500 meters over Parikkala when they attacked six I-153s flying at low altitude over the front line. They claimed a total of five victories, but Luukkanen could only confirm one.  During 1941 Luukkanen scored five and a half victories and during 1942 claimed nine more. On 11 January 1942, Luukkanen was promoted to the rank of major and posted as the commanding officer of Reconnaissance Squadron 30, flying a mix of Fokker D.XXIs and captured I-153s.
The task of the unit was to monitor enemy shipping movements in the eastern Gulf of Finland and the enemy aircraft on the islands of Seiskari and Lavansaari.

On 27 March 1943 Luukkanen was posted as the commander of the recently created Fighter Squadron 34 and equipped with Messerschmitt Bf 109G-2 fighters. By the end of the war, he had logged 441 missions. Luukkanen scored his last victory on 5 August 1944 as he and his wingman each shot down a Yak-9. Altogether Major Luukkanen's unit claimed 345 victories from 29 March 1943 to 4 September 1944 against 30 Messerschmitts lost, 18 of which were in combat.  Twelve Finnish pilots were killed, and one taken prisoner of war.

Victories

After the war

Luukkanen wrote his memoirs (published in 1956).  These proved a success, with three print runs. His book was translated to English and published in Britain in 1961 and reprinted in the US in 1992 entitled "Fighter over Finland".

After the war, Luukkanen was convicted of spying for Sweden.  He retired in November 1951 after he was found guilty of espionage for having handed over some aerial photographs to a man who worked for the Swedish intelligence service.

Luukkanen was one of Finnish leader Carl Gustav Emil Mannerheim's pallbearers when the Marshal died in 1951.

Luukkanen died on 4 September 1964, survived by his widow and his son Risto Heikki, who also had a military career. With his long-time mistress Aino Aunala, Luukkanen also had another son in 1950, future city court Judge Markku Eino Aunala.

Luukkanen is still well known in many Western countries.

References

Notes

Bibliography

 Keskinen, Kalevi; Stenman, Kari and Niska, Klaus. Hävittäjä-ässät (Finnish Fighter Aces) (in Finnish). Espoo, Finland: Tietoteas, 1978. .
 Luukkanen, Eino. Fighter Over Finland: the Memoirs of a Fighter Pilot. London: Macdonald & Company Ltd.., 1963. (Reprinted 1980 by Arno Press, NY as . and in 1989 by Time-Life, NY as .)
 Stenman, Kari and Keskinen, Kalevi. Finnish Aces of World War 2 (Aircraft of the Aces 23). Botley, Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 1998. .
 Jukka Piipponen. "Hyökkäys auringosta, Koala Kustannus EU 2010 .

External links
 Detailed Biography
 List of World War II aces from Finland

See also

1909 births
1964 deaths
Finnish Air Force personnel
Finnish World War II flying aces
Winter War pilots
Knights of the Mannerheim Cross
People from Lakhdenpokhsky District
Military personnel from Viipuri Province (Grand Duchy of Finland)

Eino Luukkanen


Sun Records is a record label started on March 27, 1952 by Sam Phillips. It is in Memphis, Tennessee. It is where singers like Elvis Presley, Johnny Cash, Roy Orbison, Jerry Lee Lewis, and Carl Perkins started their singing careers. It is a rhythm and blues label. Today, it is a historical museum.

Elvis Presley

Sun Records


Sturgis Elleno Leavitt (1888–1976) was the Kenan Professor of Spanish at the University of North Carolina, the author of many books on Spanish language and literature, the president of several Spanish language teaching organizations, an adviser to the U.S. State Department and for many years the chairman of the Southern Humanities Conference as well as editor of the Hispanic Review.

Early years
Sturgis Leavitt was born on January 24, 1888, in Newhall, Maine, the son of William H. Leavitt and his wife Mary Ellen (Sturgis). After attending high school in nearby Gorham, Maine, Leavitt was educated at Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Maine, and then at Harvard University, where he graduated with a Ph.D. in 1917.

Career
Between stints at Harvard Graduate School, Leavitt taught at Jackson Military Academy in Missouri, Cushing Academy in Massachusetts, Northwestern University and at Harvard College.

Following his graduation from Harvard, where he was awarded the Sheldon Traveling Fellowship, Leavitt embarked on a trip to South America. For the next two years, he traveled between Peru, Bolivia, Chile, Argentina and Uruguay. Following his tour of South America, Leavitt returned to America, where he was offered a junior teaching job at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in 1917. Following his Harvard graduation, Leavitt eventually become full professor and later Kenan Professor of Spanish.

The Maine native's early days in the South as a professor of Spanish studies were not without trials. "In 1930 Southern colleges and universities lagged far behind the great Northern and (some) Western universities", writes professor Clifford Lyons of UNC Chapel Hill. "We had few distinguished scholars and most of them did not have access to a first-class university library." Eventually, because of the efforts of Leavitt and scholars like him, the universities and colleges of the south were able to build modern language departments of stature. "All that has changed, and I think SAMLA  had a lot to do with it", writes Lyons. (In the part of the twentieth century, other notable Southern scholars in other fields also fled northward, including Yale University's Cleanth Brooks, a native of Kentucky, and Robert Penn Warren, writer, Yale professor and fellow Kentucky native.)

In 1935 the young Spanish professor and Maine native helped found and became editor of The South Atlantic Bulletin, a publication addressed to the Southern Hemisphere of North America. The first issue appeared in May 1935 in broadside format, approximately 11x16 inches. The inaugural issue carried a statement of purpose which made clear that the bulletin would examine all aspects of the field, including the treatment of those teaching in it:

"It [the Bulletin] should publish, for example, descriptions of important collections in the libraries of the Southeast, and reviews and notices of scholarly publications by our members", Leavitt wrote. "It should also make known the results of investigations regarding the attitudes of school authorities toward research, sabbatical leaves, and related problems." Leavitt proposed to charge $1 for annual dues – a figure that held for the next 20 years (until 1955). Leavitt remained the Bulletin's editor until 1950, and managed to publish an issue on time each out of readers' annual dues.

In 1956 Leavitt was elected to the board of the national Modern Language Association, on which he served three years. He later served as Director of Inter-America Institute, a school for large groups of teachers and students from Latin American countries. Leavitt served as president of the AATSP from 1945 to 1946, and as member of the editor's advisory council for Hispania magazine for many years. The bibliography that Leavitt maintained of Hispanic literature has been called one of his notable contributions to the field of Spanish language studies.

Awards
Sturgis Leavitt was awarded honorary degrees of Doctor of Letters by Davidson College and by his alma mater Bowdoin. In the citation Bowdoin College called Leavitt "one of the leading scholars and teachers of the Spanish language and literature in the United States", who had helped "bring about a better understanding with our neighbors to the South, showing what the academic world can do to strengthen inter-American ties."

In 1974 he was made a member of the Mexican Academy. The same year he was also installed as one of the first members of the Academy of Spanish Language in the United States. In 1972 he had been named one of the nation's top ten Spanish language scholars by a Madrid literary journal.

The Sturgis Elleno Leavitt Award of the Southeastern Council of Latin American Studies, with which Leavitt was long associated, is named for him.

Professor Leavitt's papers are deposited at the Manuscripts Department of the Library of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.

Personal life
The Maine native was a longtime member of the Mayflower Society.

Leavitt and his wife, the former Alga Webber, long lived at 718 East Franklin Street in Chapel Hill, North Carolina, where they built a New England–style white clapboard home.

Leavitt died on March 3, 1976, at North Carolina Memorial Hospital; his wife Alga had died a decade earlier. Leavitt's teaching career at UNC spanned 43 years (1917–60), and until his death he worked each day at his desk in the university's Dey Hall, center of the language programs he helped nurture.

Leavitt's wife was an editor and writer who was the author of Stories and Poems from the Old South: Edited by Mrs. Sturgis Elleno Leavitt (Alga Leavitt) published by the Seeman Printery at Durham, North Carolina in 1923. An amateur actress, Alga Leavitt had earlier worked with author Thomas Wolfe at the Carolina Playmakers, an amateur theatrical group.

References

External links
 Photo of Sturgis Elleno Leavitt, South Atlantic Studies for Sturgis Elleno Leavitt, Ayer Company Publishers, 1972
 Sturgis Elleno Leavitt Papers, Southern Historical Collection, The Library of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, lib.unc.edu

1888 births
1976 deaths
Leavitt family
Bowdoin College alumni
Harvard University alumni
People from Gorham, Maine
People from Chapel Hill, North Carolina
20th-century American educators
Latin Americanists
Harvard University faculty
Northwestern University faculty
Spanish–English translators
20th-century translators

Sturgis Elleno Leavitt


Dan Botta (; September 26, 1907 – January 13, 1958) was a Romanian poet and essayist.

Life
Born in Adjud, his parents were the physician Theodor Botta and his wife Aglaia (née de Franceschi), an orphanage director; his brother was poet and actor Emil Botta. His father was descended from an old Transylvanian family, the noble status of which was confirmed by Christopher Báthory in 1579, and related to Bishop Ioan Bob. Theodor Botta, caught in the national struggle of Transylvania's Romanians during the rule of Austria-Hungary, took refuge in the Moldavia region of the Romanian Old Kingdom after completing his medical studies at Vienna. A doctor for the Căile Ferate Române state railway, he took part in World War I and died in 1921. Aglaia was the daughter of Francesco Maria de Franceschi, a Corsican who settled in Moldavia in 1872 and worked as a technician at the Sascut sugar factory.

Botta attended primary school in his native town, followed by high school in Focșani (Unirea High School until 1921) and Bucharest (Saint Sava National College, 1921–1923). He attended the University of Bucharest from 1923 to 1927, studying Latin and Greek literature and law. In 1927, he also completed studies at the physical education institute, perhaps reflecting a nostalgia for paideia. While a student, he contributed to Calendarul and L'Indépendance Roumaine magazines, publishing articles about literature, art and music. He later wrote for Rampa, Gândirea, Vremea and La Nation Roumaine; in 1941, together with Emil Giurgiuca and Octavian Codru Tăslăuanu, he founded Dacia magazine. He took part in the Criterion group's symposiums, joining the editing committee in 1943. From 1938, he formed part of the leadership at Dimitrie Gusti's project Enciclopedia României. At one point a member of the Iron Guard, he spent time in prison under the communist regime.

Botta's first book was the poetry volume Eulalii (1931, Romanian Writers' Union prize), the only one published during his lifetime. His other cycles, Rune, Epigrame, Cununa Ariadnei and Poem în curs, appeared posthumously in 1968. His verses are incantational and erudite, anti-Romantic out of principle, full of linguistic invention, in line with European and domestic purism. His essays, which deal with artistic creation in general and the philosophy of Romanian culture in particular, are also full of original ideas, employing a lyrical and imaginative style: Limite (1936, Romanian Writers' Union prize) and Charmion sau Despre muzică (1941). Botta authored the féerie plays Comedia fantasmelor, Alkestis, Deliana, Soarele și luna, and, in 1943, a stage adaptation of Mihai Eminescu's Poor Dionis. He published Balade și alte poeme, a translation of works by François Villon, in 1956. From 1944 until his death, he worked on a philological treatise dealing with the Thracian substrate in the Romanian language, Roma – Threicia.

He died in Bucharest in 1958.

Notes

1907 births
1958 deaths
People from Adjud
Romanian people of French descent
Romanian nobility
Saint Sava National College alumni
University of Bucharest alumni
Romanian poets
Romanian translators
20th-century Romanian dramatists and playwrights
Romanian newspaper editors
Romanian philologists
Members of the Iron Guard
20th-century Romanian politicians
Prisoners and detainees of Romania
Romanian prisoners and detainees
20th-century translators
20th-century philologists
Burials at Bellu Cemetery

Dan Botta


The Loves of Hercules () is a 1960 international co-production film starring Jayne Mansfield and her then husband Mickey Hargitay.  The film was distributed internationally as Hercules vs. the Hydra.

Plot
While Hercules (Hargitay) is away, his village is plundered and his wife is killed by the army of Ecalia, a country ruled by King Eurysteus. Licos (Massimo Serato), chief minister to the king, sees an opportunity to seize the throne himself. Licos knows that Hercules will come to Ecalia for vengeance; as the first part of his plan, he murders the king, planning to claim he died in battle to ensure that he does not bring ruin on Ecalia by resisting Hercules. While consulting an oracle, Hercules learns of the murder of his wife from a survivor and seeks vengeance. The newly-crowned Queen Deianira (Mansfield), daughter of the king, offers her life to Hercules in order to spare Ecalia, as Licos anticipated. Hercules offers mercy, but by law, the Queen and Hercules must participate in a rite to appease the goddess of justice. Deianira is bound to a wall as Hercules throws axes toward her, attempting to sever her bonds. He succeeds, proving her innocence to her people. Licos hatches another scheme to wed Deianira and rule through her.

Hercules admires Deianira and her bravery. While escorting Deianira back to her capital, they come across a band of peasants who have been attacked by a monster. As Hercules seeks the monster, their cattle are stampeded and Hercules kills a wild bull with his dagger. Arriving in the city, Hercules discovers Deinaira is betrothed to a man named Achelous, whom Licos has sent to the couple, expecting Achelous to challenge Hercules and be killed, thereby alienating Hercules from Deianira and removing Achelous as a rival for her hand in marriage. The plan nearly succeeds, but Deinaira successfully begs Hercules to stay his hand. Hercules decides to leave Ecalia and Deinaira behind him.

Licos follows through on the plan anyway, ordering Achelous' murder with the dagger Hercules left behind in the bull; he does not expect Hercules to return to defend himself. Licos is foiled again, however, when one of Hercules' companions finds him on the road and informs him that he is accused of the murder; Hercules decides to clear his name. Licos sends the actual murderer, Philoctetes, into hiding beyond the gates of the Underworld. Licos intends for Hercules to follow Philoctetes to prove his innocence, and for both men to be killed by the monstrous Hydra. Believing that his plan is working, Licos attempts to convince Deianira to marry him, but she is hesitant.

Philoctetes is killed by the Hydra. Hercules kills the Hydra, but their battle weakens him into unconsciousness. He's rescued by Amazons loyal to Queen Hippolyta (Tina Gloriana). Hippolyta turns her lovers into living trees after growing tired of them, but Hercules is only interested in Deinaira. Angered that he is interested in Deinaira but determined to make Hercules her lover, Hippolyta's advisor suggests the only way she can gain the attention of Hercules is to change her face and body through magic to resemble Deianira (Mansfield with red hair). Meanwhile, Deianira discovers Licos' scheming and he has her imprisoned. Hercules manages to escape with his life due to the intervention of the Amazon, Nemea (Moira Orfei), at the cost of her own life, while Hippolyta is crushed to death by one of the trees. Hercules is informed of Licos' treachery and returns to Ecalia at the head of an army to overthrow him.

Defeated in battle, Licos tries to escape Ecalia with Deianira as a hostage, but he is strangled to death by the monster, Alcione, who is in turn killed by Hercules as he rescues Deianira.

Main cast

Production notes
This was one of the earlier movies to follow from Italy in the wake of the success of Hercules (1958) starring Steve Reeves, and marked an attempt to add some star power to the notion of a muscleman movie, not so much in the title role as the female lead.

Filmed on location in Italy during the height of the sword and sandal craze, this was not one of Jayne Mansfield's "loan out" films.  Mansfield was offered the film while she was shooting The Sheriff of Fractured Jaw in Spain; she agreed on the condition that her husband Mickey Hargitay played Hercules.  She received a fee of $75,000 for starring in the movie. Mansfield received permission from her studio 20th Century Fox to film this movie in the early weeks of 1960 whilst she was four months pregnant.  A hit in Italy, it was later broadcast as a movie of the week in 1966 on American television and has since gained a cult following.

The scene where Mickey Hargitay wrestles a bull was prepared by treating the animal with tranquilizers first.

On April 14, 2017, the film was featured in the eleventh season of Mystery Science Theater 3000 as episode 1108.

Release
The film was released in Italy on August 19, 1960 with a 97-minute running time.
 The film was released in the United States in 1966 with a 98-minute running time.

See also
 List of films featuring Hercules

References

Footnotes

Sources

External links

1960 films
1960s fantasy adventure films
Italian fantasy adventure films
Peplum films
CinemaScope films
1960s English-language films
English-language Italian films
English-language French films
1960s Italian-language films
Films about Heracles
Sword and sandal films
1960s multilingual films
Italian multilingual films
French multilingual films
1960s Italian films
Hippolyta

The Loves of Hercules


Zeneca (officially Zeneca Group PLC) was a British multinational pharmaceutical company headquartered in London, United Kingdom. It was formed in June 1993 by the demerger of the pharmaceuticals and agrochemicals businesses of Imperial Chemical Industries into a separate company listed on the London Stock Exchange.

In 1999, Zeneca and the Sweden-based pharmaceutical company Astra AB merged to form AstraZeneca plc.

Zeneca's largest therapeutic area was oncology, in which its key products included Casodex, Nolvadex and Zoladex. Other key products included heart drug Tenormin.

Name
"Zeneca" was an invented name created by the branding consultancy Interbrand. Interbrand had been instructed to find a name which began with a letter from either the top or bottom of the alphabet and was phonetically memorable, of no more than three syllables and did not have an offensive meaning in any language.

History
In December 1994, Zeneca agreed the acquisition of 50% of Salick Health Care, an operator of cancer care centres in the United States, in a transaction which valued Salick at US$440 million. Zeneca announced the sale of its textile colours business to the German group BASF in May 1996. Zeneca announced it would purchase the remaining 50% of Salick Health Care that it did not already own on 28 March 28 1997. In December 1997, Zeneca acquired the US fungicide operations of Ishihara Sangyo Kaisha, along with the international distribution rights to four recently developed fungicides, herbicides and pest control products, for US$500 million.

In May 1998, Zeneca announced that Tom McKillop, then the head of its drugs division, would succeed Sir David Barnes as chief executive, with Barnes becoming non-executive chairman of the company. In November 1998, Zeneca announced that it would sell its Zeneca Specialties division, including its biocides, industrial colours, life science molecules, performance and intermediate chemicals and resins activities. On 11 December 1998, Zeneca and Astra AB announced a £48 billion merger. In February 1999, it was reported that Zeneca would sue the US Food and Drug Administration over its decision to allow Gensia Sicor to produce a generic version of its anaesthetic Diprivan. The merger between Zeneca and Astra AB was completed in April 1999, forming AstraZeneca plc.

See also

 Pharmaceutical industry in the United Kingdom

References

AstraZeneca
Defunct companies based in London
Pharmaceutical companies established in 1993
British companies established in 1993
Multinational companies headquartered in England
Pesticides in the United Kingdom
Pharmaceutical companies of the United Kingdom
Pharmaceutical companies disestablished in 1999
British companies disestablished in 1999
Corporate spin-offs

Zeneca


Julian (Yulian) Grigoryevich Sitkovetsky (7 November 1925 – 23 February 1958) was a Soviet violinist.

Biography
Sitkovetsky was born in Kiev. He started violin lesson at age 4, first with his father, then with David Bertie at the Central School in Kiev. As a child prodigy, he was chosen to play for Jacques Thibaud at age 8. One year later, he played the Mendelssohn concerto with the Kiev Symphony. In 1939, he enrolled in the Moscow Central Music School, class of Abram Yampolsky, whose students included Leonid Kogan, Igor Besrodny and Rotislav Dubinsky.

In 1945 Julian Sitkovetsky won the All Soviet Union Young Performers Competition of piano, cello and violin (Sviatoslav Richter and Mstislav Rostropovich were the winners in piano and cello). In 1947, he shared First Prize at the Prague Festival with Leonid Kogan and Igor Besrodny.

He married pianist Bella Davidovich in 1950 and their son Dmitry Sitkovetsky (who became an eminent violinist and conductor) was born four years later.

In 1952, he shared Second prize in the Henryk Wieniawski Violin Competition with Wanda Wilkomirska (first prize was Igor Oistrakh). In 1955 he won Second Prize at the Queen Elizabeth Music Competition. (Of which Yehudi Menuhin said: "...David Oistrakh and I were on the jury...he should have had First Prize...").

Julian Sitkovetsky never toured much, as he was diagnosed with lung cancer in 1956. He died in Moscow in 1958 at age 32.

Legacy
Joseph Magil, critic (himself a violinist and violist) of the American Record Guide, said of Sitkovetsky : "...David Oistrakh said that, had he lived, Sitkovetsky would have eclipsed him and Kogan…. He had a broad, firm, focused tone in all registers; flawless intonation; a rapid, even trill; a swift, perfectly controlled staccato; strong, immaculate harmonics; an even, clear sautillé..."

Discography

References

American Record Guide, June'July 2006

External links

Russian classical violinists
Male classical violinists
Ukrainian violinists
Musicians from Kyiv
Prize-winners of the Queen Elisabeth Competition
Henryk Wieniawski Violin Competition prize-winners
1925 births
1958 deaths
20th-century classical violinists
20th-century Russian male musicians

Julian Sitkovetsky


Old Wives is an unincorporated community in the Rural Municipality of Hillsborough No. 132, Saskatchewan, Canada.

History
The village that became Old Wives was formed about 1900, but it was not until 1929 that the community officially got the name. Mail delivery began 1911, when Tom Lundrigan began bringing in the mail from the post office in Mortlach. Eventually, a post office was open January 1, 1912, and remained open until it closed on October 10, 1969. The area was home to several schools, with the first opening in 1916. Bay Island School, officially Bay Island School District #4362, was a one-room school on Highway 363 just east of Old Wives, which served the community from 1919 to 1950.  The building still stands today. The first general store in town opened in Mr. Bill Sheldon's house in 1920. In 1930 a new store was built at the town site and it would operate for nearly 40 years, before closing in 1968. In 1931 the CPR laid tracks from Archive to Shamrock and in 1933 a Saskatchewan Wheat Pool elevator was built alongside the tracks. On July 4, 1930, a De Havilland DH.60 Moth crashed on takeoff from Old Wives. The fate of the pilot is unknown but the aircraft was destroyed by the post-crash fire.

Old Wives has been a ghost town for several decades and while the town briefly prospered, The Great Depression and severe droughts in 1937, 1951 and 1959 began an irreversible downward spiral. Many businesses closed in the 1950s and 60s. The final nail in the coffin for the community came in 1973 when the railroad was abandoned, followed by the Pool elevator being moved to Bateman in 1975. Today, very little remains of Old Wives.

Legend
Old Wives and nearby Old Wives Lake were named after a local Cree legend. According to  traditional stories recounted by Métis guides accompanying the North-West Mounted Police in 1874, sometime around 1840 a band of Cree hunters followed a herd of buffalo into Blackfoot territory and made camp near the lake.  Blackfoot scouts discovered this band and attacked.  Although the Cree were able to defend themselves, they anticipated an attack by a larger Blackfoot war party the next morning.  The older women volunteered to stay behind to tend the fires through the night in the hope of fooling the Blackfoot into believing that they were not abandoning their camp to escape.  Using this diversion as cover, the rest of the Cree successfully fled back to their home territory in the Qu'Appelle valley.  When the Blackfoot arrived that morning they found only the old women, whom the Blackfoot killed in vengeance.  This commonly recited version of the lake's naming has been commemorated by a historical marker situated beside Highway 2 near the lake.  A variant telling of this narrative states that the Blackfoot warriors were so impressed by the women's courage that they left them alone and allowed them to rejoin their own people.  Another First Nations oral tradition describes how a band of Assiniboine fleeing from pursuing Blackfoot warriors abandoned the old women in their band who could not keep pace with everyone else.  The women continued their effort to escape by wading across the lake.  However, they misjudged the water's depth and drowned.  An Assiniboine tradition associates the name with a battle which occurred at the lake around the beginning of the 19th century in which Assiniboines vanquished their Blackfoot enemies.  According to some First Nations traditions, the spirits of the dead women continue to haunt a small island in the lake from which their voices can be heard at night.

See also
 List of communities in Saskatchewan

References

Unincorporated communities in Saskatchewan
Ghost towns in Saskatchewan
Hillsborough No. 132, Saskatchewan

Old Wives


A tax holiday is a temporary reduction or elimination of a tax. It is synonymous with tax abatement, tax subsidy or tax reduction. Governments usually create tax holidays as incentives for business investment. Tax relief can be provided in the form of tax concessions to assure the investment of new businesses or the retention of existing ones.  Tax holidays have been granted by governments at national, sub-national, and local levels, and have included income, property, sales, VAT, and other taxes. Some tax holidays are extra-statutory concessions, where governing bodies grant a reduction in tax that is not necessarily authorized within the law. In developing countries, governments sometimes reduce or eliminate corporate taxes for the purpose of attracting foreign direct investment or stimulating growth in selected industries.

A tax holiday may be granted to particular activities, in particular to develop a given area of business, or to particular taxpayers. Researchers found that on sales tax holidays, households increase the quantities of clothing and shoes bought by over 49% and 45%, respectively, relative to what they buy on average.

Sales tax holidays in the United States

In New York, a statewide sales tax holiday was first enacted by the New York legislature in 1996, enabling the first tax-free week in January 1997. Local governments in New York were given the option of whether or not to participate; most declined. Since then, the initiative has been adopted by thirteen states. It commonly takes the form of tax-free weekend lasting Friday through Sunday, usually during a major shopping period for necessities, such as just before school starts. During that period, sales tax is not collected on selected items, such as clothing and school supplies. The items subject to the sales tax exemption may also be restricted by price (e.g., clothing up to $100), but consumers are free to buy unlimited quantities of the included items.

As with other sales taxes, visiting residents of non-participating states who purchase tax-free goods (holiday or not) may still have to pay use tax on the goods they take home.

Five US states (Alaska, Delaware, Montana, New Hampshire, and Oregon) do not impose general sales taxes at all but may have excise taxes on specific categories of goods such as gasoline, E911, cigarettes, alcohol, or meals. See Sales taxes in the United States for details.

Some governments create tax-free weekends as incentives for business investment.

References

External links

 2008 State Sales Tax Holidays  – Federation of Tax Administrators

 Alabama
 Connecticut
 District of Columbia
 Georgia
 Iowa
 Louisiana
 Missouri
 New Mexico
 North Carolina
 Oklahoma
 South Carolina
 Tennessee
 Texas (original holiday)
 Texas (emergency supplies holiday)
 Vermont
 Virginia
 West Virginia

Tax policy

Tax holiday


Aristocles of Messene (; ), in Sicily, was a Peripatetic philosopher, who probably lived in the 1st century AD.

Life
Little is known about the life of Aristocles. He came from Messene in Sicily (Messana, now Messina), not from the then far better known city of Messene in the Peloponnese. There are some indications that he stayed in Alexandria. In earlier research he was wrongly considered to be the teacher of the famous Peripatetic Alexander of Aphrodisias. It was erroneously believed that the philosopher Aristotle of Mytilene whom Alexander mentions as his teacher was actually Aristocles and that the name "Aristotle" was a misspelling. This assumption led to a late dating of Aristocles' lifetime (second half of the 2nd century). In more recent research however, it is assumed that he lived around the turn of the millennium. This is supported both by linguistic evidence and by the fact that he refers to the work of the philosopher Aenesidemus, dating to the first half of the 1st century B.C. in a way the suggests that that work had been published recently.

Works
According to the Suda and Eudokia, Aristocles wrote several works:
Πότερον σπουδαιότερος Ὅμηρος ἢ Πλάτων – Whether Homer or Plato is more Worthy.
Τέχναι ῥητορικαί – Arts of Rhetoric.
A work on the god Serapis.
A work on Ethics, in nine books.
A work on Philosophy, in ten books.

The last of these works appears to have been a history of philosophy in which he wrote about the philosophers, their schools, and doctrines. Although it has been lost, several fragments of it are preserved in Eusebius' work Praeparatio Evangelica.

Philosophy
Aristocles proves to be a faithful follower of Aristotle, whose teachings he intended to promote. Asclepius of Tralles and John Philoponus, in their commentaries on Nicomachus of Gerasa's Introduction to Arithmetic, reproduce five meanings of the word "wise" that were set out in the treatise On Philosophy. Aristocles connected the five uses of the word with a theory of five levels of human culture. According to this teaching, the survivors of natural disasters (plagues and especially great floods like that of the time of Deucalion) were forced to rediscover inventions such as agriculture because of the lack of food. Such devising was considered "wisdom" at the time. In the second phase of development, they devised arts that were no longer just for survival, but also for aesthetic purposes, such as architecture. Such inventions were then considered a sign of wisdom. In the third epoch, people turned to political affairs and introduced laws and rules that served to organize coexistence in cities. Such was the activity of the seven sages who discovered political science. The fourth epoch brought the understanding of bodies (natural things) and the nature (physis) that produces them; this was called contemplation of nature. Those who deal with it are called sages in the field of natural things (natural philosophy). At the fifth level of culture there was a turning to the divine, transcendental and completely unchangeable beings; knowledge of this realm was called wisdom in the highest sense (metaphysics). The research considers the hypothesis that this philosophy of history put forward by Aristocles, with its concept of gradual progress, is at least partly based on a lost writing by the young Aristotle such as his dialogue "On Philosophy" and his Protrepticus.

Aristocles also opposes criticisms of Aristotle and strives to prove them nonsensical. While he shows great respect for Plato, he polemicized against other philosophical tendencies, whose teachings he cleverly tried to refute with the means of an Aristotelian argument, which makes him a valuable doxographical source on other philosophical doctrines in the history of philosophy, especially Pyrrhonism, with which he deals extensively.  However, his descriptions of other philosophical doctrines are sometimes marred by his polemical attitude or a lack of expertise. His account contains information not only about the views of the early Pyrrhonean skeptics, Pyrrho of Elis and Timon of Phlius, but also about later Pyrrhonists including Aenesidemus. He criticizes the tenets of the skeptics and, moreover, tries to show that it is impossible to live consistently according to their principles; through the renunciation of judgments and the resultant abolition of moral concepts, respect for the law is destroyed and the floodgates are wide open to crime. A life according to skeptical principles is contrary to nature; it is impossible for man to have no opinion. Aristocles formulates his arguments polemically, prefers to use rhetorical questions and does not mention important counter-arguments of the skeptics; it is unclear whether he did not know exactly the opponent's position or whether he deliberately withheld counter-arguments.

His confrontation with the views of the Epicureans, about which he was apparently better informed, is on a much higher level. On the one hand he opposes the sensualism and subjective character of experience of the perception based theories of the Epicureans, and on the other hand also against the opposite position, according to which only a cognition of reason that is not dependent on perception deserves trust (Eleatics and, according to Aristocles' understanding, the Megarian school. However, he reproduces the epistemology of the Cyrenaics in a polemically distorted form.

Notes

References

1st-century Greek philosophers
Roman-era Peripatetic philosophers
Philosophers of Roman Italy

Aristocles of Messene


The American School of Correspondence is an American distance education high school in Lansing, Illinois. It was founded in 1897, and is accredited. The school has about 50,000 students.  The American School offers its own high school diploma.

The school was in the Hyde Park, Chicago, neighborhood from 1912 to 1996. Then it moved to south suburban Lansing.

Program
The American School is a non-public secondary school and offers its own diploma. It is not a GED program. High school students can complete four years' worth of credits at their own pace, often taking less time than in a traditional high school. All exams in the more than 70 courses offered are hand graded by a qualified staff of full-time and part-time instructors. Additionally, the school works with thousands of public, private, and parochial schools throughout the United States to offer distance learning courses to students who have fallen behind in credits, or are working at a faster rate. The credits for these correspondence courses are then transferred to the student's high school.

Notable alumni
Selena
Jessica Alba
Tiffany Evans
The Everly Brothers
Marie Osmond
Donny Osmond
Christopher Paolini
Andre Agassi
Bob Feller
Anna Kournikova
Travis Pastrana
Mary Pierce
Deanna Stellato
Shulamit Ran
Jamie Wyeth
Sho Yano
Ellen Muth

References

Other websites
Official website

Schools in the United States
1897 establishments in the United States
1890s establishments in Illinois

The American School of Correspondence


Lance Graye McCullers Jr. (born October 2, 1993) is an American professional baseball pitcher for the Houston Astros of Major League Baseball (MLB). The Astros selected McCullers in the first round of the 2012 MLB draft. He made his MLB debut in 2015, and was an All-Star in 2017.

High school
McCullers graduated from Jesuit High School in Tampa, Florida. He was named the Gatorade National Baseball Player of the Year in 2012.

Professional baseball career

Draft and minor leagues
The Houston Astros selected McCullers in the first round, with the 41st overall selection, of the 2012 Major League Baseball (MLB) draft. He signed with the Astros, receiving a $2.5 million signing bonus.

McCullers pitched for the Quad Cities River Bandits of the Class A Midwest League in 2013, winning the Midwest League championship. For the 2014 season, McCullers was promoted to the Lancaster JetHawks of the Class A-Advanced California League. The JetHawks went on to become the 2014 California League champions after beating the Northern Division champion Visalia Rawhide.

McCullers began the 2015 season with the Corpus Christi Hooks of the Class AA Texas League.  The Astros promoted him to the Fresno Grizzlies of the Triple-A Pacific Coast League on May 14, and, on the following day, announced that he would make his major league debut on May 18.

Houston Astros

2015–16
In his major league debut, McCullers allowed one run, three walks and three hits while striking out five batters in  innings and took a no-decision in the Astros' 2–1 loss to the Oakland Athletics. McCullers threw his first career complete game against the Baltimore Orioles on June 3, 2015. He remained in the Astros rotation and finished with 22 starts.

McCullers began the 2016 season on the disabled list with shoulder soreness. He finished the season 6–5 in 14 starts.

2017
The Astros assigned McCullers to the starting rotation at the outset of 2017 season.  From May 6–23, he delivered 22 scoreless innings, which among Astros pitchers, was the longest scoreless inning streak since Roy Oswalt completed 32 from August 27 through September 11, 2008.  In that same span, McCullers also became the first Astros pitcher since Nolan Ryan in 1984 to allow no earned runs over at least five innings pitched in each of four consecutive appearances.

For the month of May, McCullers won his first American League (AL) Pitcher of the Month Award.  He was credited with a 4–0 record over six starts.  He permitted an AL-leading 0.99 earned run average (ERA), 21 hits, and a .164 batting average against (BAA) with 37 strikeouts.  He also ranked second in wins, third in BAA, and tied for fifth in strikeouts.

The Astros placed McCullers on the disabled list (DL) due to a back injury, and he returned on June 24.  He was selected to the All-Star Game, finishing the first half of the season with a record of 7–2 and 106 strikeouts.  With a recurring back injury, McCullers returned to the DL after July 30, after posting a 7.45 ERA and 1–5 record in between DL stints.

On October 21, 2017, McCullers pitched four scoreless innings in relief and earned his first career save in a 4–0 win over the New York Yankees in Game 7 of the ALCS.  This sent the Astros to their first World Series since 2005 to face the Los Angeles Dodgers. In a key moment in this game, after losing command and walking a batter, he threw 24 consecutive curveballs to retire the last six Yankees in a row. In the World Series, McCullers drew the start in Game 3 and again in Game 7.  The Astros won the Series in the seventh game for the first title in franchise history.

2018–20
McCullers began the 2018 season in the rotation, going 10–6 through 22 starts before landing on the disabled list on August 5 with discomfort in his right elbow. After missing more than a month because of the injury, he returned towards the last two weeks of the regular season in a bullpen role, appearing in three games. He threw a curve 47.4% of the time, tops in MLB.

On November 6, 2018, McCullers underwent Tommy John surgery to repair a torn UCL in his right elbow and was ruled out for the entire 2019 baseball season.  McCullers completed his rehab from Tommy John surgery in early November 2019.

In 2020, McCullers was 3–3 with a 3.93 ERA. He pitched 55 innings with 56 strikeouts in 11 starts.

2021
On March 24, 2021, McCullers and the Astros agreed to a five-year, $85 million contract extension that included a $3.5 million signing bonus. McCullers finished the 2021 season with a 13–5 record, a 3.16 ERA, and 185 strikeouts in  innings over 28 starts.  He led the major leagues with 76 walks and 4.21 walks per 9 innings.  He established new career highs or career bests to that point in his career in numerous categories, including in ERA, games won, games started, strikeouts, innings pitched, batters faced (684), hits per nine innings allowed (H/9, 6.8), and home runs per nine innings (HR/9, 0.7).  Among qualified pitchers, he led the AL in H/9 and HR/9, and ranked second in ERA.

Following the regular season, the Houston chapter of the Baseball Writers' Association of America (BBWAA) named McCullers the Astros' team Pitcher of the Year, his first such award.

During the 2021 ALDS versus the Chicago White Sox, McCullers was removed from Game 4 due to a right forearm injury.  He was unable to participate in the remainder of the playoffs, in the which the Astros reached the World Series, and were defeated by the Atlanta Braves in six games.

2022
Still recovering from the forearm injury, diagnosed a right flexor tendon strain, McCullers was unable to throw in spring training and missed the start of the 2022 season.  On August 13, McCullers made his season debut and earned the win after hurling six shutout innings versus the Oakland Athletics.  He allowed two hits, walked four, and struck out five.  McCullers went  innings on September 2, allowing two runs, six hits, four walks and striking out seven to earn the win in a 4–2 final versus Los Angeles.  He hurled six innings on September 15, issuing four walks, two hits, and two runs as he struck out 11 Athletics, his most since July 29, 2018.  On September 21, McCullers worked seven innings versus his hometown Tampa Bay Rays and was the winning pitcher, allowing two runs to lead the Astros in a 5–2 final score for the series sweep, their first-ever at Tropicana Field.

In 2022, McCullers was 4–2 with a 2.27 ERA in  innings in which he struck out 50 batters in eight starts.

In the third game of the 2022 ALDS, McCullers hurled the first six innings of a major league postseason-record 18-inning shutout and series-clinching sweep of the Mariners.  The game remained scoreless for an unprecedented 17 innings in postseason history—until rookie Jeremy Peña homered in the top of the 18th to eventually win it for the Astros, 1–0.  In Game 3 of the 2022 World Series versus the Philadelphia Phillies, McCullers became the first pitcher in postseason history to allow five home runs in a game.  However, the Astros claimed the championship in six games to give McCullers his second World Series title.

2023
During spring training in 2023, McCullers developed a muscle strain in his right arm, and was shut down from throwing until fully recovered.  As a result, he missed the start of the regular season. On June 14, 2023, McCullers underwent season–ending surgery to repair the flexor tendon in his pitching arm and remove a bone spur.

Personal life
His father, Lance McCullers, played in Major League Baseball from 1985 to 1992. He is of Cuban descent through his mother.

McCullers is a Catholic and spoke about his faith in a video for the Astros' Faith and Family Night in 2015. McCullers married longtime girlfriend Kara Kilfoile in December 2015. Their first child, a daughter, was born in December 2019. In 2016, the Lance McCullers Jr. Foundation, a non-profit organization, was established by McCullers and his family to advocate for stray and homeless animals.

See also

 Houston Astros award winners and league leaders
 List of people from Tampa, Florida
 List of second-generation Major League Baseball players
 List of World Series starting pitchers

References

External links

1993 births
Living people
Major League Baseball pitchers
American League All-Stars
American sportspeople of Cuban descent
Houston Astros players
Gulf Coast Astros players
Greeneville Astros players
Quad Cities River Bandits players
Lancaster JetHawks players
Corpus Christi Hooks players
Fresno Grizzlies players
Sugar Land Skeeters players
Sugar Land Space Cowboys players
Jesuit High School (Tampa) alumni
Baseball players from Tampa, Florida

Lance McCullers Jr.