The Union Européenne de Cyclisme (abbreviation: UEC, English: European Cycling Union) is the European confederation of national cycling bodies; the national federations of the Union Cycliste Internationale form confederations by continent. It is headquartered in Lausanne.

In reaction to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the UEC announced that Russia and Belarus officials will not be able to officiate at any UEC event, or attend or take part in any UEC meeting, committee, or forum.

European Cycling Championships

The federation organizes all the European Cycling Championships (such as the European Road Championships and the European Track Championships) for all cycling disciplines, including road cycling, track cycling, cyclo-cross, BMX, mountain biking and indoor cycling and awards the UEC European Champion jersey to the European Champions.

In 2018, as part of the multi-sport European Championships, the UEC brought its four main European championships  - track, road, mountain bike and BMX - together for the first time as the 2018 European Cycling Championships.

Summary of events
 UEC European Paracycling Championships
 UCI Europe Tour
 European Road Championships
 UEC European Track Championships
 UEC European Track Championships (under-23 & junior)
 UEC European Cyclo-cross Championships
 European Mountain Bike Championships
 European BMX Championships
 European Indoor Cycling Championships (Artistic and Cycleball)
 European Junior Indoor Cycling Championships (Artistic and Cycleball)
 European Masters Cycling Championships
 European Para Cycling Cup

Member Federations

References

External links
 UEC official website

Cycle racing organizations
Union Cycliste Internationale
Sports governing bodies in Europe

1990 establishments in Switzerland

Union Européenne de Cyclisme


Marvin Ray Baxter (born January 9, 1940) is a former Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of California who served from January 1991 to January 5, 2015.

Background
Baxter was born in Fowler, California, and was raised on his family's farm.  He is of Armenian descent; all four of his grandparents were born in Armenia and later moved to the United States.  His paternal grandfather changed the family surname from Bagdasarian to Baxter because of strong anti-Armenian prejudice in the Fresno area during the 1930s.

Baxter graduated from Fowler High School and went on to attend California State University, Fresno, where he earned his undergraduate degree in economics. In November 1961, as Fresno student body president he received a telegram of support from President John F. Kennedy for the Mercy Bowl football game. Upon graduation, Baxter became a Coro Foundation Fellow in Public Affairs (1962–63), then entered UC Hastings College of the Law, from which he earned his law degree in 1966.

In 1967, Baxter began his legal career as a Fresno County deputy district attorney.  Subsequently, he entered private practice in civil law in 1969. It was during this time he was an associate and then a partner in the Fresno law firm of Andrews, Andrews, Thaxter, Jones and Baxter where he practiced civil law.

In 1983, he moved back into public service as Appointments Secretary to Governor George Deukmejian, advising him on judicial and executive appointments.

In December 1988, Governor Deukmejian appointed Baxter as an associate justice of the California Court of Appeal for the Fifth District.  In January 1991, he was appointed Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of California. He was retained by the electorate in November 2002, with 71.5% of the vote, for a 12-year term.

Baxter retired from the court at the end of his term on January 4, 2015.

Judicial philosophy
Baxter preferred not to describe his own judicial philosophy, but a 1993 article in the Los Angeles Times described him as having an "emerging reputation among court observers as cautious, conservative and competent". Observers split between those who considered him a solid part of the Court's conservative majority (led by Malcolm M. Lucas), and others who considered him harder to pin down.

Baxter's notable case opinions include People v. Superior Court (Decker), in which he wrote the majority opinion finding the hiring of a "hit man" to kill constituted attempted murder. Baxter voted with the majority in: Randall v. Orange County Council (1998), concerning the applicability of a civil rights statute to the Boy Scouts of America; Strauss v. Horton (2009), regarding Proposition 8 and same-sex marriage; and People v. Diaz (2011), finding police may search a cell phone obtained during an arrest without a warrant. He joined the concurrence and dissent of Justice Edward A. Panelli in Knight v. Jewett (1992), holding assumption of risk could still bar a claim for negligence. In 2008, he was part of the dissenting minority in In re Marriage Cases, a 4–3 decision legalizing same-sex marriage in California.

Honors and awards
On May 16, 2015, Baxter received an honorary Doctor of laws degree from California State University, Fresno.

See also
 List of justices of the Supreme Court of California
 Armand Arabian

References

External links
 Marvin R. Baxter. California Supreme Court Historical Society.
 Opinions written by Marcus Baxter. Courtlistener.com

 Past & Present Justices. California State Courts.

1940 births
Living people
Justices of the Supreme Court of California
Judges of the California Courts of Appeal
California State University, Fresno alumni
University of California College of the Law, San Francisco alumni
American people of Armenian descent
People from Fowler, California
Lawyers from Fresno, California
20th-century American judges
20th-century American lawyers
21st-century American judges

Marvin R. Baxter


William Wildman Campbell (April 2, 1853 – August 13, 1927) was a U.S. Representative from Ohio.

Born in Rochester, Vermont, Campbell attended the public schools, Goddard Seminary, Barre, Vermont, and Tufts College, Medford, Massachusetts.
He studied law.
He was admitted to the bar in 1878 and commenced practice at Napoleon, Ohio.
He served as prosecuting attorney for Henry County from 1893 to 1896.

Campbell was elected as a Republican to the Fifty-ninth Congress (March 4, 1905 – March 3, 1907).
He was an unsuccessful candidate for reelection in 1906 to the Sixtieth Congress and for election in 1908 to the Sixty-first Congress.
He resumed the practice of law in Napoleon, Ohio.
He served as member of the State constitutional convention of 1911 and 1912.
He died in Napoleon, Ohio, August 13, 1927.
He was interred in Forest Hill Cemetery.

Sources

1853 births
1927 deaths
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives from Ohio
People from Napoleon, Ohio
Ohio Constitutional Convention (1912)
Tufts University alumni
Ohio lawyers
County district attorneys in Ohio
People from Rochester, Vermont
19th-century American lawyers

William Wildman Campbell


The USAS application suite is a series of diverse and relatively complex mainframe applications written for the Unisys 1100-series, 2200-series, and Clearpath IX environments. These applications are generally intended for use in the airline, transportation, and hospitality industries.

Older USAS applications such as USAS*RES (Reservations System) or USAS*FDC (Flight Data Control) were written originally in Fortran, but elements of various applications were also written in COBOL, Unisys 1100/2200 assembly language (ASM or MASM), and the LINC 4GL.

USAS application mainly developed for Airlines business use. There were many applications in USAS suite. Check-In, Reservation, Cargo operations are the main suites. Lufthansa IT systems plays a major role in developing USAS suite.

Most (if not all) USAS applications are written as text-based online transaction systems which are designed for low overhead and fast response times.  The environment most commonly used is HVTIP (short for High-Volume TIP).

The original USAS applications such as USAS*RES (Reservation System), USAS*CGO (Cargo Application) was written in the early 70s and were adapted in different forms in varying degrees of customization.

With recent advancements in computing technology however, the USAS line of products is slowly diminishing and is being replaced (especially in the Airline industry) with other open source front-end products.

"USAS" was originally an acronym for Univac Standard Airline Systems, but the product line is now referred to simply as "USAS".

Current Users
Unisys Cargo Hosting Services, Minneapolis :: Delta Cargo, Air Canada Cargo
Air Iberia
Travel Sky, China
Amadeus
NorthWest (cargo)
Cathay Pacific
Qantas Airways
Air India

See also
List of UNIVAC products
History of computing hardware

Business software
Fortran software
UNIVAC software

USAS (application)


Eugene Salamin is a mathematician who discovered (independently with Richard Brent) the Salamin–Brent algorithm, used in high-precision calculation of pi.

Eugene Salamin worked on alternatives to increase accuracy and minimize computational processes through the use of quaternions.
Benefits may include:
 the design of spatio-temporal databases;
 numerical mathematical methods that traditionally prove unsuccessful due to buildup of computational error;
 therefore, may be applied to applications involving genetic algorithms and evolutionary computation, in general.

Publications

See also
 HAKMEM

References

20th-century American mathematicians
Year of birth missing

Eugene Salamin (mathematician)


Jock Sturges (born 1947) is an American photographer. He is most well known for taking photographs of young people, often in the nude. His work on the nude beaches in France and California has been the subject of disputes.

Sturges was born in New York City. He got his degree in photography at Marlboro College. Sturges caused dispute, as his work is mostly young girls and boys photographed in the nude. In April 1990, he was raided and arrested by the FBI, but the case was thrown out by the Grand Jury, because his photographs were of naturism rather than pornography.

1947 births
Living people

American photographers
People from New York City

Jock Sturges


Hedley Donovan (May 24, 1914 – August 13, 1990) was editor in chief of Time Inc. from 1964 to 1979. In this capacity, he oversaw all of the company's magazine publications, including Time, Life, Fortune, Sports Illustrated, Money, and People. Hand-picked by founder Henry Luce, Donovan redirected the magazine from its historically conservative orientation to a more objective editorial stance, particularly with respect to the Vietnam War. The Hedley Donovan Award was created in 1999 by the Minnesota Magazines and Publications Association to recognize individuals who have shown outstanding lifelong dedication and contributions to Minnesota's magazine industry.

Personal life
Donovan was born May 24, 1914, in Brainerd, Minnesota, the son of Percy Williams Donovan and Alice Dougan Donovan. His father was a mining engineer and his mother was a writer. A member of Delta Upsilon, he graduated magna cum laude and Phi Beta Kappa from the University of Minnesota in 1934. From 1934 to 1937, he attended Hertford College, Oxford as a Rhodes Scholar.  He married Dorothy Hannon in 1941. They had 3 children.

Work
Donovan initially aspired to be an academic and was offered a $600 graduate assistantship from Harvard University after leaving Oxford. Dissatisfied with the offer, he decided to pursue a career in journalism. From 1937 to 1942, he worked as a reporter at The Washington Post. Following the United States's intervention in World War II, he was commissioned in the United States Navy Reserve, ultimately attaining the rank of lieutenant commander after three years of active service. In 1945, he joined Time Inc. as a writer with Fortune.

From 1979 to 1980, he served in the Executive Office of the President as a special adviser to Jimmy Carter.

Donovan wrote several books, including a memoir, Roosevelt to Reagan: A Reporter's Encounters with Nine Presidents, published in 1985 by Harper & Row.

Awards

 1978 Gerald Loeb Memorial Award

References

External links
Booknotes interview with Donovan on Right Places, Right Times, February 27, 1990.

1914 births
1990 deaths
People from Brainerd, Minnesota
American male journalists
20th-century American journalists
American Rhodes Scholars
United States Navy personnel of World War II
Harvard University staff
United States Navy officers
University of Minnesota alumni
Fortune (magazine) people
20th-century American non-fiction writers
20th-century American male writers
Gerald Loeb Memorial Award winners
Military personnel from Minnesota

Hedley Donovan


Acacia ammobia, commonly known as the Mount Connor wattle, is a species of Acacia native to central Australia. It is regarded as rare in both South Australia and the Northern Territory where it is endemic.

Description
The multi-stemmed shrub or tree typically grows to a height of  and has longitudinally fissured grey to black bark. It has angular flattened glabrous branchlets that eventually become terete. The leaves are thin and erect leaves that are  in length and  wide.

It forms yellow cylindrical spike shaped flowers that are  long followed by clusters of long thin seed pods

Taxonomy
The species was first formally described by the botanist John Maconochie in 1978 as part of the work Notes on the genus Acacia in the Northern Territory as published in the Journal of the Adelaide Botanic Gardens. It was reclassified as Racosperma ammobium by Leslie Pedley in 1986 then transferred back to the genus Acacia in 2001.
The specific epithet is taken from the Latin word ammobia meaning sand dweller in reference to the habitat.

Distribution
The shrub is found in arid parts of inland Australia where it has a limited distribution in the north-western parts of South Australia and southern parts of the Northern Territory where it is often situated on the upper slopes of hills and ranges growing in sandy or gravelly soils on upper slopes of ranges. Also found in the Northern Territory.

See also
List of Acacia species

References

External links
 The Australasian Virtual Herbarium – Distribution of Acacia ammobia
WATTLE Acacias of Australia factsheet: Acacia ammobia

ammobia
Fabales of Australia
Flora of the Northern Territory
Flora of South Australia
Plants described in 1978

Acacia ammobia


Robert Appelbaum (born 2 February 1952) is an academic specializing in early modern writing, food studies, and terrorism studies.  He is a Professor Emeritus from the Department of English at Uppsala University, in Sweden.

Biography
He received a B.A. from the University of Chicago in Tutorial Studies in 1975, an M.A. in English Literature at San Francisco State University in 1989, and a Ph.D. in English from the University of California, Berkeley, where he worked under the supervision of Stephen Greenblatt.

His works include "Terrorism Before the Letter: Literatures of Political Violence in Britain and France, 1559–1642" and the 2011 volume, ''Dishing It Out: In Search of the Restaurant Experience' (London: Reaktion). In 2011, he left his position as a Senior Lecturer In Renaissance Studies at Lancaster University to take up a Chair as Professor of English Literature at Uppsala University.

His most recent book is at once an autobiography and a work of cultural criticism: Working the Aisles: A Life in Consumption (Winchester: Zero Books).

References
http://www.lancs.ac.uk/fass/english/profiles/Robert-Appelbaum/
http://robertappelbaum.com/
http://www.press.uchicago.edu/presssite/metadata.epl?mode=synopsis&bookkey=206065
http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/factual/thinkingallowed/thinkingallowed_20070110.shtml

Further reading
 Robert Appelbaum, Literature and Utopian Politics in Seventeenth-Century England, Cambridge University Press, 2002.
 Robert Appelbaum and John Wood Sweet, editors, Envisioning an English Empire: Jamestown and the Making of the North Atlantic World, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005.
 Robert Appelbaum, Aguecheek's Beef, Belch's Hiccup, and Other Gastronomic Interjections: Literature, Culture, and Food Among the Early Moderns, University of Chicago Press, 2006.
 Robert Appelbaum, Dishing It Out: In Search of the Restaurant Experience, Reaktion Books, 2011.

American literary critics
Living people
1952 births
University of Chicago alumni
San Francisco State University alumni
UC Berkeley College of Letters and Science alumni

Robert Appelbaum


The coat o airms o the Kinrick o Belgium bears a lion, cried the Belgian Lion, or Leo Belgicus. This is in accordance wi airticle 193 (oreeginally airticle 125) o the Belgian Constitution: The Belgian naition takes red, yellow an black as colours, an as state coat o airms the Belgian lion wi the motto UNITY MAKES STRENGTH. The Ryal Decree o 17 Mairch 1837 determines the actual form o the airms bi describin the great an the sma seal o the Kinrick.

Naitional seembols o Belgium
Belgium

Coat o airms o Belgium


In astronomy, a syzygy ( ; ) is a roughly straight-line configuration of three or more celestial bodies in a gravitational system.

The word is often used in reference to the Sun, Earth, and either the Moon or a planet, where the latter is in conjunction or opposition. Solar and lunar eclipses occur at times of syzygy, as do transits and occultations. The term is
often applied when the Sun and Moon are in conjunction (new moon) or opposition (full moon).

When Earth is one of the bodies involved, the other objects appear to be close together (or overlapping) in the sky.

Main types

A syzygy sometimes results in an occultation, transit, or an eclipse.

 An occultation occurs when an apparently larger body passes in front of an apparently smaller one.
 A transit occurs when a smaller body passes in front of a larger one.
 In the combined case where the smaller body regularly transits the larger, an occultation is also termed a secondary eclipse.
 An eclipse occurs when a body totally or partially disappears from view, either by an occultation, as with a solar eclipse, or by passing into the shadow of another body, as with a lunar eclipse (thus both are listed on NASA's eclipse page).

Consequences

Einstein ring

As electromagnetic rays are affected by gravitation, when they pass by a heavy mass they are bent. As a result, the heavy mass acts as a form of gravitational lens. If the light source, the gravitating mass and the observer stand in a line, one sees what is termed an Einstein ring.

Tidal variation

A syzygy causes the fortnightly phenomena of spring and neap tides. At the new and full moon, the Sun and Moon are in syzygy. Their tidal forces act to reinforce each other, and the ocean both rises higher and falls lower than the average. Conversely, at the first and third quarter, the Sun and Moon are at right angles, their tidal forces counteract each other, and the tidal range is smaller than average. Tidal variations can also be measured in the Earth's crust, and these Earth tide influences may affect the frequency of earthquakes.

Extraterrestrial cases
The word syzygy is often used to describe interesting configurations of astronomical objects in general. For example, one such case occurred on March 21, 1894, around 23:00 GMT, when Mercury transited the Sun as would have been seen from Venus, and Mercury and Venus both simultaneously transited the Sun as seen from Saturn.

On June 3, 2014, the Curiosity rover on Mars observed the planet Mercury transiting the Sun, marking the first time a planetary transit has been observed from a celestial body besides Earth.

Other uses

The term is also used to describe situations when all the planets are on the same side of the Sun although they are not necessarily in a straight line, such as on March 10, 1982.

Because the orbits of all the planets in our solar system (as well as our Moon) are inclined by only a few degrees, they will always appear very near the ecliptic in our sky.  Therefore, although an apparent planetary alignment may appear as a line (actually, a great arc) from our point of view, the planets are not necessarily aligned in space.

References

Astrometry
Eclipses
Astronomical events

Syzygy (astronomy)


Amanda Karen Petford-Long  is a Professor of Materials Science and Distinguished Fellow at the Argonne National Laboratory. She is also a Professor of Materials Science at Northwestern University.

Education and early career
Petford-Long studied physics at University College London, graduating in 1981. She earned a Doctor of Philosophy degree from the University of Oxford in 1985 for research on Beta-alumina solid electrolytes supervised by Colin Humphreys. She was a postgraduate student at St. Cross College, Oxford.

Career and research
Petford-Long served as professor at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, from 2002. She worked on spray coated nanocomposite materials and magnetic nanoparticles and used an atom probe. She was the only woman to be elected a Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering (FREng) in 2005. Petford-Long moved to Argonne National Laboratory in 2005.

She served as director of the Center for Nanoscale Materials from 2010 to 2014, developing new techniques for nanoscale characterisation. She delivered a lecture for the Chicago Council on Science and Technology in 2014.

She has explored the microstructure and magnetic field properties in multiferroic tunnel junctions. She works with Jacqueline Johnson on fluorozirconate glass for novel ceramics, using pulsed laser deposition to fabricate thin films. She has demonstrated that nanoparticle crystallisation impacts the optical properties of the glass ceramics. Pulsed laser deposition allows her to control the distribution of europium dopants and the nanocrystalline phase behaviour. The applications include up and down-converters for solar cells. She discussed their work on NPR in 2018.

Petford-Long develops in situ magnetised transmission electron microscopy (TEM) methods for examining magnetic thin film structures. She uses Lorentz transmission electron microscopy to identify the micromagnetic behaviour. She created skyrmions, chiral spin structures with no net charge. They used an ion-beam, allowing them to make skyrmion-like structures at a variety of length scales. She showed that non-repeating patterns in quasicrystals could be used to store information.

She serves as chair of the American Physical Society Division of Materials Physics from 2018 to 2019. She serves on the scientific advisory board of the Centre for Research on Adaptive Nanostructures and Nanodevices at Trinity College Dublin. She is Chair of the Argonne National Laboratory Chief Research Officer Council. She is an advocate for women in engineering and has been involved in initiatives to inspire young girls to choose engineering at college.

Awards and honors
Petford-Long is a Fellow of the American Physical Society, the Royal Microscopical Society and the Royal Academy of Engineering. She was elected a Distinguished Fellow at Argonne National Laboratory.

References

Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
Female Fellows of the Royal Academy of Engineering
Academics of the University of Oxford
Alumni of University College London
British materials scientists
Women materials scientists and engineers
British women physicists
British physicists
Alumni of St Cross College, Oxford
Fellows of the American Physical Society

Amanda Petford-Long


Cary is the second largest city in Wake County, North Carolina, United States.  After January 1, 2008, Cary had a population of 127,640. According to CNN, Cary is the 8th fastest growing city in the United States.

History
Cary began in 1750 as a settlement called Bradford's Ordinary.  About 100 years later, the North Carolina Railroad was built between New Bern and Hillsborough and the railroad went through the settlement.  Allison Francis Page, a farmer and lumberman, and his wife, Catherine Raboteau Page bought 300 acres (1.2 km²) of land surrounding the railroad in 1854 and named it Cary.  Page made the first streets in Cary and built a sawmill, a store and a post office.  In 1868, he built a hotel for railroad passengers coming through Cary. Cary officially became a town on April 6, 1871, and Page became the first mayor.

Education
There are many schools in Cary.  The public schools are run by the Wake County Public School System.  There are also many private schools, both religious and non-religious.  Private schooling and home schooling are popular among many Cary residents.

Transportation

The Town of Cary operates a local bus system called C-Tran .  Cary also has an Amtrak station and is just a few miles away from the Raleigh-Durham International Airport.  Cary has many bike trails and many neighborhoods have sidewalks, so it is a good place to walk or ride a bike.

References

Cities in North Carolina
Wake County, North Carolina

Cary, North Carolina


Koidu Town (or Sefadu) is the capital and largest city of the diamond-rich Kono District in the Eastern Province of Sierra Leone. The population of Koidu Town is 124,662 based on the 2015 Sierra Leone national census. Koidu Town is the fifth largest city in Sierra Leone by population, after Freetown, Kenema, Bo and Makeni. Koidu Town is  a major urban, business, commercial and diamond trade center. Koidu Town lies approximately 280 miles east of Freetown, and about 60 miles north of Kenema.

Two of the world's ten largest and most famous rough diamonds were found in the Woyie River that flows through Koidu Town.

The city is officially known as Koidu City. The mayor of Koidu City and members of the Koidu-New Sembehun city council are directly elected every four years by the residents of Koidu. The current mayor of Koidu Town is Komba Sam of the Coalition 4 Change  political party . Komba Sam was narrowly elected mayor of Koidu Town with 49.5% of the votes in the 2018 Koidu Mayoral election over his closest rival of the Sierra Leone People's Party  . Politically, Kodu Town is not a stronghold of any political party, as the city is home to a significantly large support of both the Sierra Leone People's Party and the All People's Congress.

Koidu is one of the most ethnically and  religiously diverse cities in Sierra Leone. The city is inhabited by significant numbers of many of Sierra Leone's ethnic groups, with no single ethnic group forming a majority. The Krio language is by far the most widely spoken language in Koidu Town and is the primary language of communication in the city. Koidu Town is the hometown of Sierra Leone's vice president Mohamed Juldeh Jalloh, Sierra Leone"s First Lady Fatima Bio and former Sierra Leone"s vice president Samuel Sam-Sumana; as all three of them were born and raised in the city.

History

In 1995 the government of Sierra Leone signed an agreement with the South African company Branch Energy Limited, a subsidiary of Executive Outcomes (EO), a business that supplied mercenaries to governments across Africa. The agreement, negotiated under the Mines and Minerals Act of 1994, was scheduled to last 25 years. Under it Sierra Leone's military government gave the concession to operate the Koidu diamond mine to the firm in payment for helping to suppress the Revolutionary United Front rebels in the area during the country's civil war. They had been using the diamonds to buy weapons and ammunition from Guinea, Liberia, and the Sierra Leone army. The government of Sierra Leone retained a 60% ownership stake in the Koidu mine.

The Sierra Leone Civil War ended in 2002. Records leaked from the Panamanian law firm Mossack Fonseca show that the family foundation of Beny Steinmetz family paid $1.2 million for half of the mining license issued by the national government for the Koidu mine. In 2003 the government transferred rights, duties, and responsibilities from Branch Energy to Koidu Holdings, a company owned by Octea of the BSGR Resources group, for $28 million.
.

2007 and 2012 protests

The 2007 Koidutown-Sefadu protest was an action by 400 protesters in Koidu-Sefadu which was aimed at the local diamond mine which the residents claimed had lowered local living conditions and environmental conditions in the area. The result of the protest was a clampdown by Sierra Leonean police, who shot two protesters. Two more protesters were shot in 2012, one of them a 12-year-old boy.

Government
Koidu town is one of Sierra Leone's six municipalities and is governed by a directly elected city council, headed by a mayor, in whom executive authority is vested. The mayor is responsible for the general management of the city. The mayor is elected directly by the residents of Koidutown every four years in a municipal elections. The current mayor of Koidu Town is Saa Emerson Lamina of the ruling All Peoples Congress party APC. He was suspended by the national government in 2016, following the release of the Panama Papers and publication of an article quoting him complaining about the diamond mine's operation and failure to pay taxes. The City Council then elected Aiah Bartholomew Baima Komba Acting Mayor of Koidu.

Under Lamina the city had also filed suit in 2015 against Koidu's parent company Octea Limited, claiming that the company owed $684,000 in unpaid property taxes. In April 2016 Justice Bintu Alhadi of the High Court of Sierra Leone ruled that Octea and Koidu Limited were separate entities and that Octea technically did not own the mine, so had no duty to pay its property tax.

Lamina says the suspension was intended to silence him and that he continues to act as mayor because he believes the national government has no authority to remove him from office A 32-page Ministry of Finance and Economic Development audit blamed the finance and procurement officers of the Council for the relatively minor issues, according to Politico.

Ethnicity
Koidu town is one of the most ethnically diverse cities in Sierra Leone. Even though the city is home of the Kono people, members of all the country's other ethnic groups and most of the foreign diamond workers in the Kono District reside in the city.

Health

American aid workers helped rebuild the Koidu Government Hospital, which has improved the previously alarming health situation in the town.  Various other aid organizations, including the UN Refugee Agency, UNHCR and its partners, have helped drill wells, re-build clinics and schools and regenerate livelihoods in the area, as part of a programme to support the reintegration of Sierra Leoneans who returned after living for several years as refugees in neighbouring countries.

Cultural

Media

The local radio station in Koidu Town is the Eastern Radio 96.5. The Sierra Leone Broadcasting Corporation (SLBC) TV, and radio are on the air in the city. The BBC World Service, CNN International, and several other international stations are also on the air in the city on satellite.

Sport
Sierra Leone National Premier League club, the Diamond Stars is based in Koidu. The club represents the Kono District.

Like the rest of Sierra Leone, football (soccer) is by far the most popular sport in Koidu Town. The Sierra Leonean professional football club known as the Diamond Stars of Kono, which is based in Koidu Town, represents the city and the entire Kono District in the Sierra Leone National Premier League. The Diamond Stars Football Club  is overwhelmingly popular in Kono District and is one of the biggest football clubs in Sierra Leone. The Diamond Stars are the champions of the 2012 Sierra Leone National Premier League season, and the first club outside Freetown to ever won the Premier League.

Education

Notable Secondary Schools in Koidutown
Koidu Secondary School - Founded: 1938
Kono Model Academy - Founded: 1950
Koidu Girls Secondary School - Founded: 1952
Ansarul Islamic Boys Secondary School - Founded: 1974
Ansarul Islamic Girls Secondary School - Founded: 1974
Islamic Secondary School Koidu - Founded: 1979
Ak-hom Secondary School - Founded: 2001

Notable people from Koidu town
Mohamed Juldeh Jalloh, current Vice President of Sierra Leone
Fatima Bio, First Lady of Sierra Leone
 Saa Emerson Lamina, former Mayor of Koidu City
 Samuel Sam-Sumana, Former Vice President of Sierra Leone
 Kaifala Marah, former Finance Minister of Sierra Leone
 Sam Bockarie, former RUF rebel leader
 Mary Musa, First Female Mayor of Koidu City
 Francis Koroma, Footballer
 K-Man, Sierra Leonean Musician
 Karamoh Kabba, Politician
 Komba Yomba, Footballer
 Sidique Mansaray, Footballer
 Alimamy Jalloh, Footballer
 Ibrahim Bah, Footballer
 Mohamed Saccoh, Rapper
 Yayah Jalloh, footballer

References

Populated places in Sierra Leone
Eastern Province, Sierra Leone

Koidu


DePace & Juster was an architectural firm established in 1923 by architects Anthony DePace and Samuel Juster, who met while working at the firm of Alfred C. Bossom in the late 1910s. Juster left Bossom and DePace left the firm of Cass Gilbert in 1923 to create the partnership, which had a number of commissions for schools, places of worship, institutions and hospitals from Roman Catholic and Jewish clients. DePace was responsible for the Catholic commissions and Juster worked on those for Jewish clients. The firm ceased activities during the Great Depression in the 1930s. The firm continued in practice until 1947 when the partnership was dissolved. Juster claimed in 1956 that the practice was established in 1925 and disestablished in 1948.

References

Defunct architecture firms based in New York City
Companies based in Manhattan
American ecclesiastical architects
Architects of Roman Catholic churches
Gothic Revival architects
Design companies established in 1923
Design companies disestablished in 1947
1923 establishments in New York (state)
1947 disestablishments in New York (state)

DePace & Juster


Arden Ray Smith (January 4, 1966) is a member of the Elvish Linguistic Fellowship and holds a Ph.D. in Germanic Linguistics from the University of California, Berkeley. He has published numerous articles relating to the languages constructed by J. R. R. Tolkien. He was a columnist and editor of Vinyar Tengwar, for which he wrote the popular column "Transitions in Translations", in which odd elements in translations of Tolkien's work were described and commented upon.

On July 1, 2012, Smith was appointed to the Volapük Academy by the Cifal, Brian R. Bishop, for his work with conlangs in general and provision of internet resources for the constructed language Volapük in particular.

Bibliography
 Vinyar Tengwar
 (various issues)
 Parma Eldalamberon
 (various issues)
1995: Proceedings of the J. R. R. Tolkien Centenary Conference
"A Mythology for England" (with Carl F. Hostetter)
1997: Hands of the Healer
(linguistic contribution)
2000: SEVEN: An Anglo-American Literary Review, Vol. 17
"Tolkien and Esperanto" (with Patrick H. Wynne)
2000: Tolkien's Legendarium: Essays on The History of Middle-earth
"Certhas, Skirditaila, Futhark: A Feigned History of Runic Origins"
2001: Other Hands 31/32
(linguistic contribution)
 2003: Tolkien in Translation
 "The Treatment of Names in Esperanto Translations of Tolkien's Works"
2006: Tolkien Studies: Vol. 3
 "Translating Tolkien: Philological Elements in 'The Lord of the Rings' (review)", a review of Allan Turner's book
2006: J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia: Scholarship and Critical Assessment
 (various entries)
 2006: The Lord of the Rings 1954-2004: Scholarship in Honor of Richard E. Blackwelder
 "Tolkienian Gothic"

References

1966 births
Linguists from the United States
American non-fiction writers
Living people
Writers from California
University of California, Berkeley alumni
Volapükologists
Tolkien studies
Male non-fiction writers

Arden R. Smith


Polar is a 2012 webcomic and series of graphic novels written and illustrated by Spanish cartoonist Victor Santos. Featuring "international hitman Black Kaiser", the webcomic is inspired by a variety of action and noir fiction. Polar is characterized by its highly stylized design and complete lack of dialogue, though speech balloons were added in the graphic novel publications by Dark Horse Comics. A live-action film based on the webcomic premiered on Netflix in January 2019.

Content
Polar depicts the story of international hitman Black Kaiser, the titular character of Santos' 2009 graphic novel Black Kaiser, as he is forced out of retirement after an assassination attempt is made on his life. The story, described as "bleak", features a femme fatale character and a large amount of gore, and it is set in an icy landscape. The webcomic is notable for its lack of dialogue and speech balloons, and features a somewhat minimalistic style in color, being rendered entirely in stark black, white, and orange.

Development

Conception
Víctor Santos was known for creating several graphic novels, such as Filthy Rich and The Mice Templar, before he began uploading Polar as a webcomic in 2012. Santos conceived the protagonist of Polar, Black Kaiser, for an action noir comic he published in 2010. Black Kaiser was inspired by Jim Steranko's S.H.I.E.L.D. comics, and Santos described the creation of this story as "mixing classic Marvel books, Trevanian novels, Bourne movies and manga action." The publisher of Black Kaiser eventually lost interest in the comic, though Santos still had various narratives in mind featuring the character.

Santos began working on Polar after finishing his work on Godzilla: Kingdom of Monsters for IDW Publishing in 2011 and while waiting for the script for The Mice Templar. Santos stated that he generally works on his own projects during job breaks, so that he "never [goes] long without drawing."

Santos got the idea of publishing Polar as a webcomic rather than by traditional means after reading Kathryn and Stuart Immonen's Moving Pictures. The format allows him to follow readers' response for each update and correct mistakes more rapidly, and Santos stated that he loves the widescreen layout that is possible on web pages. As a personal project, Polar allowed him to develop storytelling experiments without limitations, though Santos decided to use a minimal style for the webcomic as each page should not take more than a few hours to complete.

Santos has listed a large number of influences on the Polar website. He states that the minimalistic and "direct" style is inspired by films such as Le Samouraï (1967), Tokyo Drifter (1965), and Point Blank (1967), as well as novels like The Killer Inside Me (1952) and The Eiger Sanction (1972). Santos describes Polar as "a tribute to artists like Jim Steranko, José Antonio Muñoz, Alberto Breccia, Alex Toth and Frank Miller." Santos got caught in the "manga explosion of the '80 and '90s" during his teenage years and came in touch with many United States' comic book artists while at university. In an interview with Comic Book Resources, Santos said that he was introduced to many 1960s films by someone from his cinema class, and that they both were big fans of the works of John Woo during his university years.

Production
Santos decided to exclude any dialogue in Polar primarily so he did not have to waste time on translating the webcomic from Spanish to English. This stylistic choice was simple to commit to at the start of the webcomic, as Polar begins with an action sequence. However, Santos noted that leaving out any dialogue became more difficult when Black Kaiser started to do investigations, as he had to depict conversations using solely gestures, facial expressions, and repeated imagery.

The story for Polar is improvised, though Santos does have a direction in mind. Santos sketches the pages for Polar with pencils, using a red marker to indicate which places he wants to depict in red. Sometimes, he makes some changes after scanning a new page in order to reach a certain balance of color. When Santos started working on the third "season" of the webcomic, the story started becoming more complex and he needed more colors and art elements to balance the figures out.

Release and adaptations
The first pages of Polar were originally released online in January 2012, which was the start of the long-running webcomic series. At the 2013 San Diego Comic-Con, Dark Horse Comics announced that they would publish Polar as a 160-page hardcover graphic novel. This version, which was released in November 2013 as Polar: Came From the Cold, featured dialogue presented in speech balloons. Dark Horse' Jim Gibbons suggested the change as it would make the book more commercially attractive, and Santos already had a version with dialogue in mind, but initially refrained from creating it due to the challenge writing in English presented him.

A second volume of Polar was published by Dark Horse Comics in April 2015, titled Eye for an Eye. A third volume was released in August 2016, titled No Mercy for Sister Maria, and a fourth and final volume, The Kaiser Falls, was released in April 2019. Each Polar book covers one webcomic "season", corrected and expanded upon. No Mercy for Sister Maria includes thirty pages that were not originally present in the webcomic.

Publications

Film

In October 2014, Dark Horse Comics announced that Polar: Came From the Cold would be adapted into a live action film, produced as a collaboration between the publisher's entertainment division and Constantin Film. A spec script for the film was written by Jayson Rothwell, and the companies hoped to be able to begin shooting the feature in spring 2015.

In October 2017 it was announced that Mads Mikkelsen would star in the action-thriller Polar. Swedish director Jonas Åkerlund helmed Jayson Rothwell's adaptation of the Dark Horse graphic novel Polar: Came From the Cold by Victor Santos. Mister Smith Entertainment debut the feature film to international buyers at the American Film Market, which was on November 1, 2017, in Santa Monica, California.

Producers are Constantin Film's Robert Kulzer, Bolt Pictures' Jeremy Bolt, Dark Horse Entertainment's Mike Richardson, and Keith Goldberg. Martin Moszkowicz is the executive producer.

Netflix eventually picked up the rights to the film and released it on January 25, 2019.

References

2010s webcomics
Spanish webcomics
Dark Horse Comics titles
2012 webcomic debuts
Dark Horse Comics adapted into films
Neo-noir comics

Polar (webcomic)


Checkpoint kinase 1, commonly referred to as Chk1, is a serine/threonine-specific protein kinase that, in humans, is encoded by the CHEK1 gene. Chk1 coordinates the DNA damage response (DDR) and cell cycle checkpoint response. Activation of Chk1 results in the initiation of cell cycle checkpoints, cell cycle arrest, DNA repair and cell death to prevent damaged cells from progressing through the cell cycle.

Discovery
In 1993, Beach and associates initially identified Chk1 as a serine/threonine kinase which regulates the G2/M phase transition in fission yeast. Constitutive expression of Chk1 in fission yeast was shown to induce cell cycle arrest.  The same gene called Rad27 was identified in budding yeast by Carr and associates. In 1997, homologs were identified in more complex organisms including the fruit fly, human and mouse. Through these findings, it is apparent Chk1 is highly conserved from yeast to humans.

Structure
Human Chk1 is located on chromosome 11 on the cytogenic band 11q22-23. Chk1 has a N-terminal kinase domain, a linker region, a regulatory SQ/TQ domain and a C-terminal domain. Chk1 contains four Ser/Gln residues. Chk 1 activation occurs primarily through the phosphorylation of the conserved sites, Ser-317, Ser-345 and less often at Ser-366.

Function
Checkpoint kinases (Chks) are protein kinases that are involved in cell cycle control. Two checkpoint kinase subtypes have been identified, Chk1 and Chk2. Chk1 is a central component of genome surveillance pathways and is a key regulator of the cell cycle and cell survival. Chk1 is required for the initiation of DNA damage checkpoints and has recently been shown to play a role in the normal (unperturbed) cell cycle. Chk1 impacts various stages of the cell cycle including the S phase, G2/M transition and M phase.

In addition to mediating cell cycle checkpoints, Chk1 also contributes to DNA repair processes, gene transcription, egg production, embryo development, cellular responses to HIV infection and somatic cell viability.

S phase
Chk1 is essential for the maintenance of genomic integrity. Chk1 monitors DNA replication in unperturbed cell cycles and responds to genotoxic stress if present. Chk1 recognizes DNA strand instability during replication and can stall DNA replication in order to allow time for DNA repair mechanisms to restore the genome. Recently, Chk1 has shown to mediate DNA repair mechanisms and does so by activating various repair factors. Furthermore, Chk1 has been associated with three particular aspects of the S-phase, which includes the regulation of late origin firing, controlling the elongation process and maintenance of DNA replication fork stability.

G2/M transition
In response to DNA damage, Chk1 is an important signal transducer for G2/M checkpoint activation. Activation of Chk1 holds the cell in the G2 phase until ready to enter the mitotic phase. This delay allows time for DNA to repair or cell death to occur if DNA damage is irreversible. Chk1 must inactivate in order for the cell to transition from the G2 phase into mitosis, Chk1 expression levels are mediated by regulatory proteins.

M phase
Chk1 has a regulatory role in the spindle checkpoint however the relationship is less clear as compared to checkpoints in other cell cycle stages. During this phase the Chk1 activating element of ssDNA can not be generated suggesting an alternate form of activation.  Studies on Chk1 deficient chicken lymphoma cells have shown increased levels of genomic instability and failure to arrest during the spindle checkpoint phase in mitosis. Furthermore, haploinsufficient mammary epithelial cells illustrated misaligned chromosomes and abnormal segregation. These studies suggest Chk1 depletion can lead to defects in the spindle checkpoint resulting in mitotic abnormalities.

Interactions

DNA damage induces the activation of Chk1 which facilitates the initiation of the DNA damage response (DDR) and cell cycle checkpoints. The DNA damage response is a network of signaling pathways that leads to activation of checkpoints, DNA repair and apoptosis to inhibit damaged cells from progressing through the cell cycle.

Chk1 activation
Chk1 is regulated by ATR through phosphorylation, forming the ATR-Chk1 pathway. This pathway recognizes single strand DNA (ssDNA) which can be a result of UV-induced damage, replication stress and inter-strand cross linking. Often ssDNA can be a result of abnormal replication during S phase through the uncoupling of replication enzymes helicase and DNA polymerase. These ssDNA structures attract ATR and eventually activates the checkpoint pathway.

However, activation of Chk1 is not solely dependent on ATR, intermediate proteins involved in DNA replication are often necessary. Regulatory proteins such as replication protein A, Claspin, Tim/Tipin, Rad 17, TopBP1 may be involved to facilitate Chk1 activation. Additional protein interactions are involved to induce maximal phosphorylation of Chk1. Chk1 activation can also be ATR-independent through interactions with other protein kinases such as PKB/AKT, MAPKAPK and p90/RSK.

Also, Chk1 has been shown to be activated by the Scc1 subunit of the protein cohesin, in zygotes.

Cell cycle arrest
Chk1 interacts with many downstream effectors to induce cell cycle arrest. In response to DNA damage, Chk1 primarily phosphorylates Cdc25 which results in its proteasomal degradation. The degradation has an inhibitory effect on the formation of cyclin-dependent kinase complexes, which are key drivers of the cell cycle. Through targeting Cdc25, cell cycle arrest can occur at multiple time points including the G1/S transition, S phase and G2/M transition. Furthermore, Chk1 can target Cdc25 indirectly through phosphorylating Nek11.

WEE1 kinase and PLK1 are also targeted by Chk1 to induce cell cycle arrest. Phosphorylation of WEE1 kinase inhibits cdk1 which results in cell cycle arrest at the G2 phase.

Chk1 has a role in the spindle checkpoint during mitosis thus interacts with spindle assembly proteins Aurora A kinase and Aurora B kinase.

DNA repair
Recently, Chk1 has shown to mediate DNA repair mechanisms and does so by activating repair factors such as proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), FANCE, Rad51 and TLK. Chk1 facilitates replication fork stabilization during DNA replication and repair however more research is necessary to define the underlying interactions.

Clinical relevance
Chk1 has a central role in coordinating the DNA damage response and therefore is an area of great interest in oncology and the development of cancer therapeutics. Initially Chk1 was thought to function as a tumor suppressor due to the regulatory role it serves amongst cells with DNA damage. However, there has been no evidence of homozygous loss of function mutants for Chk1 in human tumors. Instead, Chk1 has been shown to be overexpressed in numerous tumors including breast, colon, liver, gastric and nasopharyngeal carcinoma. There is a positive correlation with Chk1 expression and tumor grade and disease recurrence suggesting Chk1 may promote tumor growth. Chk1 is essential for cell survival and through high levels of expressions in tumors the function may be inducing tumor cell proliferation. Further, a study has demonstrated that targeting Chk1 reactivates the tumour suppressive activity of  protein phosphtase 2A (PP2A) complex in cancer cells. Studies have shown complete loss of Chk1 suppresses chemically induce carcinogenesis however Chk1 haploinsufficiency results in tumor progression.
Due to the possibility of Chk1 involvement in tumor promotion, the kinase and related signaling molecules may be potentially effective therapeutic targets. Cancer therapies utilize DNA damaging therapies such as chemotherapies and ionizing radiation to inhibit tumor cell proliferation and induce cell cycle arrest. Tumor cells with increased levels of Chk1 acquire survival advantages due to the ability to tolerate a higher level of DNA damage. Therefore, Chk1 may contribute to chemotherapy resistance. In order to optimize chemotherapies, Chk1 must be inhibited to reduce the survival advantage.   Chk1 gene can be  effectively silenced by siRNA knockdown for further analysis based on an  independent validation. By inhibiting Chk1, cancer cells lose the ability to repair damaged DNA which allows chemotherapeutic agents to work more effectively. Combining DNA damaging therapies such as chemotherapy or radiation treatment with Chk1 inhibition enhances targeted cell death and provides synthetic lethality. Many cancers rely on Chk1 mediated cell cycle arrest heavily especially if cancers are deficient in p53. Approximately 50% of cancers possess p53 mutations illustrating the dependence that many cancers may have on the Chk1 pathway. Inhibition of Chk1 allows selective targeting of p53 mutant cells as Chk1 levels are more likely to highly expressed in tumor cells with p53 deficiencies. Even though this method of inhibition is highly targeted, recent research has shown Chk1 also has a role in the normal cell cycle. Therefore, off-target effects and toxicity associated with combination therapies using Chk1 inhibitors must be considered during development of novel therapies.

In a combined computational approach, a set of in-house plant-based semi-synthetic aminoarylbenzosuberene molecules selected for analysis, from these Bch10 regarded as a potential CHK1 inhibitor compared to the top five co-crystallized inhibitors based on their binding affinity and toxicity profile.

Meiosis
During meiosis in human and mouse, CHEK1 protein kinase is important for integrating DNA damage repair with cell cycle arrest.   CHEK1 is expressed in the testes and associates with meiotic synaptonemal complexes during the zygonema and pachynema stages.   CHEK1 likely acts as an integrator for ATM and ATR signals and may be involved in monitoring meiotic recombination.   In mouse oocytes CHEK1 appears to be indispensable for prophase I arrest and to function at the G2/M checkpoint.

See also
CHEK2
DNA damage checkpoints

References

Further reading

External links

EC 2.7.11

CHEK1


Patrick Bruce Metheny ( ; born August 12, 1954) is an American jazz guitarist and composer.

He was the leader of the Pat Metheny Group (1977–2010) and continues to work in various small-combo, duet, and solo settings, as well as other side projects. His style incorporates elements of progressive and contemporary jazz, latin jazz, and jazz fusion. He has three gold albums and 20 Grammy Awards, and is the only person to have won Grammys in 10 categories.

Biography

Early years and education
Metheny was born in Lee's Summit, Missouri. His father Dave played trumpet, his mother Lois sang, and his maternal grandfather Delmar was a professional trumpeter. Metheny's first instrument was the trumpet, on which he was taught by his brother, Mike. Pat's brother, father, and grandfather played trios together at home. His parents were fans of Glenn Miller and swing music. They took Pat to concerts to hear Clark Terry and Doc Severinsen, but they had little respect for guitar. Pat's interest in guitar increased around 1964 when he saw the Beatles perform on TV. For his 12th birthday, his parents allowed him to buy a guitar, which was a Gibson ES-140 3/4.

Pat Metheny's life changed after hearing the album Four & More by Miles Davis. Soon after, he was captivated by Wes Montgomery's album Smokin' at the Half Note which was released in 1965. He cites the Beatles, Miles Davis, and Montgomery as having the biggest impact on his music.

When he was 15, Metheny won a scholarship from Down Beat magazine to a one-week jazz camp where he was mentored by guitarist Attila Zoller, who then invited him to New York City to meet guitarist Jim Hall and bassist Ron Carter.

While playing at a club in Kansas City, Metheny was approached by Bill Lee, a dean at the University of Miami, and offered a scholarship. After less than a week at college, Metheny realized that playing guitar all day during his teens had left him unprepared for classes. He admitted this to Lee, who offered him a job to teach as a professor, as the school had recently introduced electric guitar as a course of study.

He moved to Boston to teach at the Berklee College of Music with jazz vibraphonist Gary Burton and established a reputation as a prodigy.

Debut album

In 1974, he appeared on an album unofficially titled Jaco with pianist Paul Bley, bassist Jaco Pastorius, and drummer Bruce Ditmas on Carol Goss's Improvising Artists label—but he was unaware that he was being recorded. The next year he joined Gary Burton's band with guitarist Mick Goodrick.

Metheny released his debut album, Bright Size Life (ECM, 1976), with Jaco Pastorius on bass guitar and Bob Moses on drums. His next album, Watercolors (ECM, 1977), was the first time he recorded with pianist Lyle Mays, who became his most frequent collaborator. The album also featured Danny Gottlieb, who became the drummer for the first version of the Pat Metheny Group. With Metheny, Mays, and Gottlieb, the fourth member was bassist Mark Egan when the album Pat Metheny Group (ECM, 1978) was released.

Pat Metheny Group

When Pat Metheny Group (ECM, 1978) was released, the group was a quartet comprising, besides Metheny, Danny Gottlieb on drums, Mark Egan on bass, and Lyle Mays on piano, autoharp, and synthesizer. All but Egan had played on Metheny's album Watercolors (ECM, 1977), recorded a year before the first group album.

The second group album, American Garage (ECM, 1979), reached number 1 on the Billboard jazz chart and crossed over onto the pop charts. From 1982 to 1985, the Pat Metheny Group released Offramp (ECM, 1982), a live album, Travels (ECM, 1983), First Circle (ECM, 1984), and The Falcon and the Snowman (EMI, 1985), a soundtrack album for the movie of the same name for which they collaborated on the single "This Is Not America" with David Bowie. The song reached number 14 in the British Top 40 in 1985 and number 32 in the U.S.

Offramp marked the first appearance of bassist Steve Rodby (replacing Egan) and a Brazilian guest artist, Nana Vasconcelos, on percussion and wordless vocals. On First Circle, Argentinian singer and multi-instrumentalist Pedro Aznar joined the group; as drummer, Paul Wertico replaced Gottlieb. Both Rodby and Wertico were members of the Simon and Bard Group at the time and had played in Simon-Bard in Chicago before joining Metheny.

First Circle was Metheny's last album with ECM; he had been a key artist for the label but left following disagreements with the label's founder, Manfred Eicher.

Still Life (Talking) (Geffen, 1987) featured new group members trumpeter Mark Ledford, vocalist David Blamires, and percussionist Armando Marçal. Aznar returned for vocals and guitar on Letter from Home (Geffen, 1989).

During this period the Steppenwolf Theater Company of Chicago featured compositions by Metheny and Mays for their production of Lyle Kessler's play Orphans, where it has remained special optional music for all productions of the play around the world since.

Metheny then again delved into solo and band projects, and four years went by before the release of the next group record, a live album titled The Road to You (Geffen, 1993), which featured tracks from the two Geffen studio albums among new tunes. The group integrated new instrumentation and technologies into its work, notably Mays' use of synthesizers.

Metheny and Mays themselves refer to the next three Pat Metheny Group releases as a triptych: We Live Here (Geffen, 1995), Quartet (Geffen, 1996), and Imaginary Day (Warner Bros., 1997). Moving away from the Latin style which had dominated the releases of the previous ten years, these albums included experiments with sequenced synthetic drums on one track, free-form improvisation on acoustic instruments, and symphonic signatures, blues, and sonata schemes.

With Speaking of Now (Warner Bros., 2002), new group members were added: drummer Antonio Sánchez from Mexico City, trumpeter Cuong Vu from Vietnam, and bassist, vocalist, guitarist, and percussionist Richard Bona from Cameroon.

The Way Up (Nonesuch, 2005) consists of a single 68-minute-long piece—split into four sections—based on a pair of three-note kernels: the opening B, A, F and the derived B, A, F. On The Way Up, harmonica player Grégoire Maret from Switzerland was introduced as a new group member, while Bona contributed as a guest musician.

Side projects
Outside the Group, Metheny has shown different sides of his musical personality. He made the album Orchestrion (Nonesuch, 2010) with elaborate, custom mechanical instruments which allowed him to compose and perform as a one-person orchestra. By contrast, his album Secret Story (Geffen, 1992) used orchestral arrangements found more often in movie soundtracks, such as his own The Falcon and the Snowman (EMI, 1985) and A Map of the World (Warner Bros., 1999). His solo acoustic guitar albums include New Chautauqua (ECM, 1979), One Quiet Night (Warner Bros., 2003), and What's It All About (Nonesuch, 2011). He explored the fringes of the avant-garde on Zero Tolerance for Silence (Geffen, 1994). This, too, was an album of solo guitar, but it was electric guitar. Metheny had ventured into the avant-garde before on 80/81 (ECM, 1980), Song X (Geffen, 1986) with Ornette Coleman, and The Sign of Four with Derek Bailey (Knitting Factory Works, 1997).

In 1997, Metheny recorded with bassist Marc Johnson on Johnson's release The Sound of Summer Running (Verve, 1998). The next year, he recorded a guitar duet with Jim Hall (Telarc, 1999), whose work has strongly influenced Metheny's. He collaborated with Polish jazz and folk singer Anna Maria Jopek on Upojenie (Warner Poland, 2002) and Bruce Hornsby on Hot House (RCA, 2005).

He recorded on albums by his older brother, Mike Metheny, a jazz trumpeter, among them Day In – Night Out (1986) and Close Enough for Love (2001).

The long list of his collaborators includes Lyle Mays, Bill Frisell, Billy Higgins, Brad Mehldau, Charlie Haden, Chick Corea, Dave Holland, Dewey Redman, Eberhard Weber, Herbie Hancock, Jack DeJohnette, Jaco Pastorius, Jim Hall, John Scofield, Joni Mitchell, David Bowie, Joshua Redman, Marc Johnson, Michael Brecker, Mick Goodrick, Roy Haynes, Steve Swallow, and Tony Williams.

Unity Band
In 2012, he formed the Unity Band with Antonio Sánchez on drums, Ben Williams on bass and Chris Potter on saxophone. This ensemble toured Europe and the U.S. during the latter half of the year. In 2013, as an extension of the Unity Band project, Metheny announced the formation of the Pat Metheny Unity Group, with the addition of the Italian multi-instrumentalist Giulio Carmassi.

Influences
As a young guitarist, Metheny tried to sound like Wes Montgomery, but when he was 14 or 15, he decided it was disrespectful to imitate him. In the liner notes on the 2-disc Montgomery compilation Impressions: The Verve Jazz Sides, Metheny is quoted as saying, "Smokin' at the Half Note is the absolute greatest jazz-guitar album ever made. It is also the record that taught me how to play."

Ornette Coleman's 1968 album New York Is Now! inspired Metheny to find his own direction. He has recorded Coleman's compositions on a number of albums, starting with a medley of "Round Trip" and "Broadway Blues" on his debut album, Bright Size Life (1976). He worked extensively with Coleman's collaborators, such as Charlie Haden, Dewey Redman, and Billy Higgins, and he recorded the album Song X (1986) with Coleman and toured with him.

Metheny made three albums on ECM with Brazilian vocalist and percussionist Naná Vasconcelos. He lived in Brazil from the late 1980s to the early 1990s and performed with several local musicians, such as Milton Nascimento and Toninho Horta. He played with Antônio Carlos Jobim as a tribute, in a live performance in Carnegie Hall Salutes The Jazz Masters: Verve 50th Anniversary.

He is also a fan of several pop music artists, especially singer/songwriters including James Taylor (after whom he named the song "James" on Offramp); Bruce Hornsby, Cheap Trick, and Joni Mitchell, with whom he performed on her Shadows and Light (Asylum/Elektra, 1980) live tour. Metheny is also fond of Buckethead's music. He also worked with, sponsored or helped to make recordings of singer/songwriters from all over the world, such as Pedro Aznar (Argentina), Akiko Yano (Japan), David Bowie (UK), Silje Nergaard (Norway), Noa (Israel), and Anna Maria Jopek (Poland).

Two of Metheny's albums, The Way Up (2005) and Orchestrion (2010), show the influence of American minimalist composer Steve Reich and use similar rhythmic figures structured around pulse. Metheny recorded Reich's composition Electric Counterpoint on Reich's album Different Trains (Nonesuch, 1987).

Guitars

Pikasso

Metheny plays a custom-made 42-string Pikasso I created by Canadian luthier Linda Manzer. He plays it on "Into the Dream" and on the albums Quartet (1996), Imaginary Day (1997), Jim Hall & Pat Metheny (1999), Trio → Live (Warner Bros., 2000), and the Speaking of Now Live and Imaginary Day Live DVDs. Metheny has used the guitar in his guest appearances on other artists' albums. He used the Pikasso on Metheny/Mehldau Quartet (Nonesuch, 2007), his second collaboration with pianist Brad Mehldau and his trio sidemen Larry Grenadier and Jeff Ballard; the Pikasso is featured on Metheny's composition "The Sound of Water". Manzer has made many acoustic guitars for Metheny, including a mini guitar, an acoustic sitar guitar, and the baritone guitar, which Metheny used for the recording of One Quiet Night (2003).

Guitar synthesizer

Metheny was one of the first jazz guitarists to use the Roland GR-300 Guitar Synthesizer. He commented, "you have to stop thinking about it as a guitar, because it no longer is a guitar." He approaches it as if he were a horn player, and he prefers the "high trumpet" sound of the instrument. One of the patches that he has often used is on Roland's JV-80 "Vintage Synth" expansion card, titled "Pat's GR-300". In addition to the Roland, he uses a Synclavier controller.

Six-string and twelve-string electric
Metheny was an early proponent of the twelve-string guitar in jazz. During his 1975 tour with the Gary Burton "Quartet" (five people, including Metheny), he primarily played electric twelve-string guitar against the six-string work of resident guitarist Mick Goodrick.

Prior to Metheny, Pat Martino had used the electric twelve-string guitar on a studio album, Desperado, and John McLaughlin had used a double-neck electric guitar with the Mahavishnu Orchestra. Ralph Towner was perhaps the first to use acoustic twelve-string guitar extensively in jazz ("The Moors", from Weather Report's I Sing the Body Electric, Columbia, 1972), and Larry Coryell and Philip Catherine made extensive use of acoustic twelve string in alternate tunings at the 1975 Montreux Jazz Festival, later releasing some of the material on their 1976 Twin House album.

Metheny used a twelve-string guitar on his debut album, Bright Size Life (1976), including alternate tuning on "Sirabhorn", and on later albums ("San Lorenzo", from Pat Metheny Group and Travels).

Use of hollow-body electric guitars

At the age of 12, Metheny bought a natural finish Gibson ES-175 that he played throughout his early career, until it was retired in 1995. After his first tour of Japan in 1978, he began an association with Ibanez guitars, who have since produced a range of PM signature models.

Personal life
Metheny is the younger brother of jazz flugelhornist Mike Metheny. He lives in New York City with his wife, Latifa (née Azhar), and three children. Latifa has been credited for album photography. Metheny was in a relationship with Sônia Braga.

Awards and honors

 Only artist to win Grammy Awards in ten different categories
 DownBeat Hall of Fame, 2013
 Miles Davis Award, Montreal International Jazz Festival, 1995
 Orville H. Gibson Award, 1996
 Honorary Doctorate of Music from Berklee College of Music, 1996
 Guitarist of the Year, DownBeat Readers' Poll, 1983, 1986–1991, 2007–2016
 Best Jazz Guitarist, Guitar Player magazine, 1982, 1983, 1986
 Best Jazz Guitarist, Guitar Player magazine Readers' Poll, 1984, 1985, 2009
 Best Acoustic Guitarist, Acoustic Guitar magazine Readers' Poll, 2009
 Echo Award for Best Guitar Instrumentalist – International for TAP: John Zorn's Book of Angels Vol. 20, 2014
 Echo Award, International Ensemble of the Year, Kin, 2015
 Missouri Music Hall of Fame, 2016
 Lifetime Achievement Award, JazzFM, 2018
 Elected into Royal Swedish Academy of Music, 2018
 2018 NEA Jazz Masters, 2017
 Honorary Doctorate of Music from McGill University, 2019

Grammy Awards

Source:

Discography

 Bright Size Life (ECM, 1976) – rec. 1975
 Watercolors (ECM, 1977)
 Pat Metheny Group (ECM, 1978)
 New Chautauqua (ECM, 1979) – rec. 1978
 American Garage (ECM, 1979)
 80/81 (ECM, 1980)
 As Falls Wichita, So Falls Wichita Falls with Lyle Mays (ECM, 1981) – rec. 1980
 Offramp (ECM, 1982) – rec. 1981
 Travels (ECM, 1983) – live rec. 1982
 Rejoicing (ECM, 1984) – rec. 1983
 First Circle (ECM, 1984)
 The Falcon and the Snowman (EMI, 1985) – soundtrack rec. 1984
 Song X with Ornette Coleman (Geffen, 1986) – rec. 1985
 Still Life (Talking) (Geffen, 1987)
 Letter from Home (Geffen, 1989)
 Question and Answer (Geffen, 1990) – rec. 1989
 Secret Story (Geffen, 1992)
 The Road to You (Geffen, 1993) – live rec. 1991
 Zero Tolerance for Silence (Geffen, 1994) – rec. 1992
 I Can See Your House from Here with John Scofield (Blue Note, 1994)
 Dream Teams with Sonny Rollins trio (Bugsy, 1994) – live rec. 1983, 86
 We Live Here (Geffen, 1995) – rec. 1994
 Quartet (Geffen, 1996)
 Passaggio per il paradiso (MCA, 1996) – soundtrack
 Beyond the Missouri Sky (Short Stories) with Charlie Haden (Verve, 1997)
 Imaginary Day (Warner Bros., 1997)
 Like Minds (Concord Jazz, 1998) – rec. 1997
 Jim Hall & Pat Metheny (Telarc, 1999) – rec. 1998
 A Map of the World (Warner Bros., 1999) – soundtrack
 Trio 99 → 00 (Warner Bros., 2000)
 Trio → Live (Warner Bros., 2000)
 Speaking of Now (Warner Bros., 2002)
 One Quiet Night (Warner Bros., 2003)
 The Way Up (Nonesuch, 2005) – rec. 2003–04
 Metheny/Mehldau (Nonesuch, 2006)
 Metheny Mehldau Quartet (Nonesuch, 2007)
 Day Trip(Nonesuch, 2008)
 Tokyo Day Trip (Nonesuch, 2008)
 Upojenie with Anna Maria Jopek (Nonesuch, 2008)
 Quartet Live with Gary Burton (Concord Jazz, 2009)
 Orchestrion (Nonesuch, 2010)
 What's It All About (Nonesuch, 2011)
 Unity Band with Chris Potter (Nonesuch, 2012)
 The Orchestrion Project (Nonesuch, 2013)
 Tap: Book of Angels Volume 20 (Tzadik/Nonesuch, 2013)
 KIN (←→) (Nonesuch, 2014)
 Hommage à Eberhard Weber (ECM, 2015)
 The Unity Sessions (Nonesuch, 2016)
 Cuong Vu Trio Meets Pat Metheny (Nonesuch, 2016)
 From This Place (Nonesuch, 2020)
 Road to the Sun (Modern Recordings, 2021)
 Side-Eye NYC (V1.IV) (Modern Recordings, 2021)
 Dream Box (Modern Recordings, 2023)

References

Further reading
 Florin, Ludovic, and Ségala, Pascal. Pat Metheny, Artiste multiplunique (in French). Éditions du Layeur, 2017. ()
 Goins, Wayne E. Emotional Response to Music: Pat Metheny's Secret Story. Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press, 2001.

External links

 Official site

 Pat Metheny's guitar rig
 Pat Metheny's artist file at the Montreal International Jazz Festival's website

1954 births
Living people
People from Lee's Summit, Missouri
20th-century American guitarists
21st-century American guitarists
Lead guitarists
American jazz guitarists
Jazz fusion guitarists
Berklee College of Music faculty
Grammy Award winners
University of Miami alumni
University of Miami faculty
Guitarists from Missouri
ECM Records artists
Geffen Records artists
Nonesuch Records artists
Pat Metheny Group members
Jazz musicians from Missouri
Improvising Artists Records artists

Pat Metheny


Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is an Internet Standard protocol for collecting and organizing information about managed devices on IP networks and for modifying that information to change device behaviour. Devices that typically support SNMP include cable modems, routers, switches, servers, workstations, printers, and more.

SNMP is widely used in network management for network monitoring.  SNMP exposes management data in the form of variables on the managed systems organized in a management information base (MIB), which describes the system status and configuration. These variables can then be remotely queried (and, in some circumstances, manipulated) by managing applications.

Three significant versions of SNMP have been developed and deployed. SNMPv1 is the original version of the protocol. More recent versions, SNMPv2c and SNMPv3, feature improvements in performance, flexibility and security.

SNMP is a component of the Internet Protocol Suite as defined by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). It consists of a set of standards for network management, including an application layer protocol, a database schema, and a set of data objects.

Overview and basic concepts

In typical uses of SNMP, one or more administrative computers called managers have the task of monitoring or managing a group of hosts or devices on a computer network. Each managed system executes a software component called an agent which reports information via SNMP to the manager.

An SNMP-managed network consists of three key components:
Managed devices
Agentsoftware which runs on managed devices
Network management station (NMS)software which runs on the manager

A managed device is a network node that implements an SNMP interface that allows unidirectional (read-only) or bidirectional (read and write) access to node-specific information. Managed devices exchange node-specific information with the NMSs. Sometimes called network elements, the managed devices can be any type of device, including, but not limited to, routers, access servers, switches, cable modems, bridges, hubs, IP telephones, IP video cameras, computer hosts, and printers.

An agent is a network-management software module that resides on a managed device. An agent has local knowledge of management information and translates that information to or from an SNMP-specific form.

A network management station executes applications that monitor and control managed devices. NMSs provide the bulk of the processing and memory resources required for network management. One or more NMSs may exist on any managed network.

Management information base

SNMP agents expose management data on the managed systems as variables. The protocol also permits active management tasks, such as configuration changes, through remote modification of these variables. The variables accessible via SNMP are organized in hierarchies. SNMP itself does not define which variables a managed system should offer. Rather, SNMP uses an extensible design that allows applications to define their own hierarchies. These hierarchies are described as a management information base (MIB). MIBs describe the structure of the management data of a device subsystem; they use a hierarchical namespace containing object identifiers (OID). Each OID identifies a variable that can be read or set via SNMP. MIBs use the notation defined by Structure of Management Information Version 2.0 (SMIv2, ), a subset of ASN.1.

Protocol details
SNMP operates in the application layer of the Internet protocol suite. All SNMP messages are transported via User Datagram Protocol (UDP). The SNMP agent receives requests on UDP port 161. The manager may send requests from any available source port to port 161 in the agent. The agent response is sent back to the source port on the manager. The manager receives notifications (Traps and InformRequests) on port 162. The agent may generate notifications from any available port. When used with Transport Layer Security or Datagram Transport Layer Security, requests are received on port 10161 and notifications are sent to port 10162.

SNMPv1 specifies five core protocol data units (PDUs). Two other PDUs, GetBulkRequest and InformRequest were added in SNMPv2 and the Report PDU was added in SNMPv3. All SNMP PDUs are constructed as follows:

The seven SNMP PDU types as identified by the PDU-type field are as follows:

 GetRequest A manager-to-agent request to retrieve the value of a variable or list of variables. Desired variables are specified in variable bindings (the value field is not used). Retrieval of the specified variable values is to be done as an atomic operation by the agent. A Response with current values is returned.
 SetRequest A manager-to-agent request to change the value of a variable or list of variables. Variable bindings are specified in the body of the request. Changes to all specified variables are to be made as an atomic operation by the agent. A Response with (current) new values for the variables is returned.
 GetNextRequest A manager-to-agent request to discover available variables and their values. Returns a Response with variable binding for the lexicographically next variable in the MIB. The entire MIB of an agent can be walked by iterative application of GetNextRequest starting at OID 0. Rows of a table can be read by specifying column OIDs in the variable bindings of the request.
 GetBulkRequest A manager-to-agent request for multiple iterations of GetNextRequest. An optimized version of GetNextRequest. Returns a Response with multiple variable bindings walked from the variable binding or bindings in the request. PDU specific non-repeaters and max-repetitions fields are used to control response behavior. GetBulkRequest was introduced in SNMPv2.
 Response Returns variable bindings and acknowledgement from agent to manager for GetRequest, SetRequest, GetNextRequest, GetBulkRequest and InformRequest. Error reporting is provided by error-status and error-index fields. Although it was used as a response to both gets and sets, this PDU was called GetResponse in SNMPv1.
  Asynchronous notification from agent to manager. While in other SNMP communication, the manager actively requests information from the agent, these are PDUs that are sent from the agent to the manager without being explicitly requested. SNMP traps enable an agent to notify the management station of significant events by way of an unsolicited SNMP message. Trap PDUs include current sysUpTime value, an OID identifying the type of trap and optional variable bindings. Destination addressing for traps is determined in an application-specific manner typically through trap configuration variables in the MIB. The format of the trap message was changed in SNMPv2 and the PDU was renamed SNMPv2-Trap.
  Acknowledged asynchronous notification. This PDU was introduced in SNMPv2 and was originally defined as manager to manager communication. Later implementations have loosened the original definition to allow agent to manager communications. Manager-to-manager notifications were already possible in SNMPv1 using a Trap, but as SNMP commonly runs over UDP where delivery is not assured and dropped packets are not reported, delivery of a Trap was not guaranteed. InformRequest fixes this as an acknowledgement is returned on receipt.

 specifies that an SNMP implementation must accept a message of at least 484 bytes in length. In practice, SNMP implementations accept longer messages. If implemented correctly, an SNMP message is discarded if the decoding of the message fails and thus malformed SNMP requests are ignored. A successfully decoded SNMP request is then authenticated using the community string. If the authentication fails, a trap is generated indicating an authentication failure and the message is dropped.

SNMPv1 and SNMPv2 use communities to establish trust between managers and agents. Most agents support three community names, one each for read-only, read-write and trap. These three community strings control different types of activities. The read-only community applies to get requests. The read-write community string applies to set requests. The trap community string applies to receipt of traps. SNMPv3 also uses community strings, but allows for secure authentication and communication between SNMP manager and agent.

Protocol versions
In practice, SNMP implementations often support multiple versions: typically SNMPv1, SNMPv2c, and SNMPv3.

Version 1
SNMP version 1 (SNMPv1) is the initial implementation of the SNMP protocol. The design of SNMPv1 was done in the 1980s by a group of collaborators who viewed the officially sponsored OSI/IETF/NSF (National Science Foundation) effort (HEMS/CMIS/CMIP) as both unimplementable in the computing platforms of the time as well as potentially unworkable. SNMP was approved based on a belief that it was an interim protocol needed for taking steps towards large-scale deployment of the Internet and its commercialization.

The first Request for Comments (RFCs) for SNMP, now known as SNMPv1, appeared in 1988:
  — Structure and identification of management information for TCP/IP-based internets
  — Management information base for network management of TCP/IP-based internets
  — A simple network management protocol

In 1990, these documents were superseded by:
  — Structure and identification of management information for TCP/IP-based internets
  — Management information base for network management of TCP/IP-based internets
  — A simple network management protocol

In 1991,  (MIB-1) was replaced by the more often used:
  — Version 2 of management information base (MIB-2) for network management of TCP/IP-based internets

SNMPv1 is widely used and is the de facto network management protocol in the Internet community.

SNMPv1 may be carried by transport layer protocols such as User Datagram Protocol (UDP), OSI Connectionless-mode Network Service (CLNS), AppleTalk Datagram Delivery Protocol (DDP), and Novell Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX).

Version 1 has been criticized for its poor security. The specification does, in fact, allow room for custom authentication to be used, but widely used implementations "support only a trivial authentication service that identifies all SNMP messages as authentic SNMP messages." The security of the messages, therefore, becomes dependent on the security of the channels over which the messages are sent. For example, an organization may consider their internal network to be sufficiently secure that no encryption is necessary for its SNMP messages. In such cases, the community name, which is transmitted in cleartext, tends to be viewed as a de facto password, in spite of the original specification.

Version 2
SNMPv2, defined by  and , revises version 1 and includes improvements in the areas of performance, security and manager-to-manager communications. It introduced GetBulkRequest, an alternative to iterative GetNextRequests for retrieving large amounts of management data in a single request. The new party-based security system introduced in SNMPv2, viewed by many as overly complex, was not widely adopted.  This version of SNMP reached the Proposed Standard level of maturity, but was deemed obsolete by later versions.

Community-Based Simple Network Management Protocol version 2, or SNMPv2c, is defined in –.  SNMPv2c comprises SNMPv2 without the controversial new SNMP v2 security model, using instead the simple community-based security scheme of SNMPv1. This version is one of relatively few standards to meet the IETF's Draft Standard maturity level, and was widely considered the de facto SNMPv2 standard.  It was later restated as part of SNMPv3.

User-Based Simple Network Management Protocol version 2, or SNMPv2u, is defined in –. This is a compromise that attempts to offer greater security than SNMPv1, but without incurring the high complexity of SNMPv2. A variant of this was commercialized as SNMP v2*, and the mechanism was eventually adopted as one of two security frameworks in SNMP v3.

64-bit counters
SNMP version 2 introduces the option for 64-bit data counters. Version 1 was designed only with 32-bit counters which can store integer values from zero to 4.29 billion (precisely 4,294,967,295). A 32-bit version 1 counter cannot store the maximum speed of a 10 gigabit or larger interface, expressed in bits per second. Similarly, a 32-bit counter tracking statistics for a 10 gigabit or larger interface can roll over back to zero again in less than one minute, which may be a shorter time interval than a counter is polled to read its current state. This would result in lost or invalid data due to the undetected value rollover, and corruption of trend-tracking data.

The 64-bit version 2 counter can store values from zero to 18.4 quintillion (precisely 18,446,744,073,709,551,615) and so is currently unlikely to experience a counter rollover between polling events. For example, 1.6 terabit Ethernet is predicted to become available by 2025. A 64-bit counter incrementing at a rate of 1.6 trillion bits per second would be able to retain information for such an interface without rolling over for 133 days.

SNMPv1 and SNMPv2c interoperability
SNMPv2c is incompatible with SNMPv1 in two key areas: message formats and protocol operations. SNMPv2c messages use different header and protocol data unit (PDU) formats than SNMPv1 messages. SNMPv2c also uses two protocol operations that are not specified in SNMPv1. To overcome incompatibility,  defines two SNMPv1/v2c coexistence strategies: proxy agents and bilingual network-management systems.

Proxy agents
An SNMPv2 agent can act as a proxy agent on behalf of SNMPv1-managed devices. When an SNMPv2 NMS issues a command intended for an SNMPv1 agent it sends it to the SNMPv2 proxy agent instead. The proxy agent forwards Get, GetNext, and Set messages to the SNMPv1 agent unchanged. GetBulk messages are converted by the proxy agent to GetNext messages and then are forwarded to the SNMPv1 agent. Additionally, the proxy agent receives and maps SNMPv1 trap messages to SNMPv2 trap messages and then forwards them to the NMS.

Bilingual network-management system
Bilingual SNMPv2 network-management systems support both SNMPv1 and SNMPv2. To support this dual-management environment, a management application examines information stored in a local database to determine whether the agent supports SNMPv1 or SNMPv2. Based on the information in the database, the NMS communicates with the agent using the appropriate version of SNMP.

Version 3

Although SNMPv3 makes no changes to the protocol aside from the addition of cryptographic security, it looks very different due to new textual conventions, concepts, and terminology. The most visible change was to define a secure version of SNMP, by adding security and remote configuration enhancements to SNMP. The security aspect is addressed by offering both strong authentication and data encryption for privacy. For the administration aspect, SNMPv3 focuses on two parts, namely notification originators and proxy forwarders. The changes also facilitate remote configuration and administration of the SNMP entities, as well as addressing issues related to the large-scale deployment, accounting, and fault management.

Features and enhancements included:
 Identification of SNMP entities to facilitate communication only between known SNMP entities – Each SNMP entity has an identifier called the SNMPEngineID, and SNMP communication is possible only if an SNMP entity knows the identity of its peer. Traps and Notifications are exceptions to this rule.
 Support for security models – A security model may define the security policy within an administrative domain or an intranet. SNMPv3 contains the specifications for a user-based security model (USM).
 Definition of security goals where the goals of message authentication service include protection against the following:
 Modification of Information – Protection against some unauthorized SNMP entity altering in-transit messages generated by an authorized principal.
 Masquerade – Protection against attempting management operations not authorized for some principal by assuming the identity of another principal that has the appropriate authorizations.
 Message stream modification – Protection against messages getting maliciously re-ordered, delayed, or replayed to affect unauthorized management operations.
 Disclosure – Protection against eavesdropping on the exchanges between SNMP engines.
Specification for USM – USM consists of the general definition of the following communication mechanisms available:
 Communication without authentication and privacy (NoAuthNoPriv).
 Communication with authentication and without privacy (AuthNoPriv).
 Communication with authentication and privacy (AuthPriv).
 Definition of different authentication and privacy protocols – MD5, SHA and HMAC-SHA-2 authentication protocols and the CBC_DES and CFB_AES_128 privacy protocols are supported in the USM.
 Definition of a discovery procedure – To find the SNMPEngineID of an SNMP entity for a given transport address and transport endpoint address.
 Definition of the time synchronization procedure – To facilitate authenticated communication between the SNMP entities.
 Definition of the SNMP framework MIB – To facilitate remote configuration and administration of the SNMP entity.
 Definition of the USM MIBs – To facilitate remote configuration and administration of the security module.
 Definition of the view-based access control model (VACM) MIBs – To facilitate remote configuration and administration of the access control module.

Security was one of the biggest weaknesses of SNMP until v3. Authentication in SNMP Versions 1 and 2 amounts to nothing more than a password (community string) sent in clear text between a manager and agent. Each SNMPv3 message contains security parameters which are encoded as an octet string. The meaning of these security parameters depends on the security model being used. The security approach in v3 targets:
 Confidentiality – Encryption of packets to prevent snooping by an unauthorized source.
 Integrity – Message integrity to ensure that a packet has not been tampered while in transit including an optional packet replay protection mechanism.
 Authentication – to verify that the message is from a valid source.

v3 also defines the USM and VACM, which were later followed by a transport security model (TSM) that provided support for SNMPv3 over SSH and SNMPv3 over TLS and DTLS.
 USM (User-based Security Model) provides authentication and privacy (encryption) functions and operates at the message level.
 VACM (View-based Access Control Model) determines whether a given principal is allowed access to a particular MIB object to perform specific functions and operates at the PDU level.
 TSM (Transport Security Model) provides a method for authenticating and encrypting messages over external security channels.  Two transports, SSH and TLS/DTLS, have been defined that make use of the TSM specification.

 the IETF recognizes Simple Network Management Protocol version 3 as defined by – (also known as STD0062) as the current standard version of SNMP. The IETF has designated SNMPv3 a full Internet standard, the highest maturity level for an RFC. It considers earlier versions to be obsolete (designating them variously Historic or Obsolete).

Implementation issues
SNMP's powerful write capabilities, which would allow the configuration of network devices, are not being fully utilized by many vendors, partly because of a lack of security in SNMP versions before SNMPv3, and partly because many devices simply are not capable of being configured via individual MIB object changes.

Some SNMP values (especially tabular values) require specific knowledge of table indexing schemes, and these index values are not necessarily consistent across platforms. This can cause correlation issues when fetching information from multiple devices that may not employ the same table indexing scheme (for example fetching disk utilization metrics, where a specific disk identifier is different across platforms.)

Some major equipment vendors tend to over-extend their proprietary command line interface (CLI) centric configuration and control systems.

In February 2002 the Carnegie Mellon Software Engineering Institute (CM-SEI) Computer Emergency Response Team Coordination Center (CERT-CC) issued an Advisory on SNMPv1, after the Oulu University Secure Programming Group conducted a thorough analysis of SNMP message handling. Most SNMP implementations, regardless of which version of the protocol they support, use the same program code for decoding protocol data units (PDU) and problems were identified in this code. Other problems were found with decoding SNMP trap messages received by the SNMP management station or requests received by the SNMP agent on the network device. Many vendors had to issue patches for their SNMP implementations.

Security implications

Using SNMP to attack a network
Because SNMP is designed to allow administrators to monitor and configure network devices remotely it can also be used to penetrate a network. A significant number of software tools can scan the entire network using SNMP, therefore mistakes in the configuration of the read-write mode can make a network susceptible to attacks.

In 2001, Cisco released information that indicated that, even in read-only mode, the SNMP implementation of Cisco IOS is vulnerable to certain denial of service attacks. These security issues can be fixed through an IOS upgrade.

If SNMP is not used in a network it should be disabled in network devices. When configuring SNMP read-only mode, close attention should be paid to the configuration of the access control and from which IP addresses SNMP messages are accepted. If the SNMP servers are identified by their IP, SNMP is only allowed to respond to these IPs and SNMP messages from other IP addresses would be denied. However, IP address spoofing remains a security concern.

Authentication
SNMP is available in different versions, each has its own security issues. SNMP v1 sends passwords in plaintext over the network. Therefore, passwords can be read with packet sniffing. SNMP v2 allows password hashing with MD5, but this has to be configured. Virtually all network management software support SNMP v1, but not necessarily SNMP v2 or v3. SNMP v2 was specifically developed to provide data security, that is authentication, privacy and authorization, but only SNMP version 2c gained the endorsement of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), while versions 2u and 2* failed to gain IETF approval due to security issues. SNMP v3 uses MD5, Secure Hash Algorithm (SHA) and keyed algorithms to offer protection against unauthorized data modification and spoofing attacks. If a higher level of security is needed the Data Encryption Standard (DES) can be optionally used in the cipher block chaining mode. SNMP v3 is implemented on Cisco IOS since release 12.0(3)T.

SNMPv3 may be subject to brute force and dictionary attacks for guessing the authentication keys, or encryption keys, if these keys are generated from short (weak) passwords or passwords that can be found in a dictionary. SNMPv3 allows both providing random uniformly distributed cryptographic keys and generating cryptographic keys from a password supplied by the user. The risk of guessing authentication strings from hash values transmitted over the network depends on the cryptographic hash function used and the length of the hash value. SNMPv3 uses the HMAC-SHA-2 authentication protocol for the User-based Security Model (USM). SNMP does not use a more secure challenge-handshake authentication protocol. SNMPv3 (like other SNMP protocol versions) is a stateless protocol, and it has been designed with a minimal amount of interactions between the agent and the manager. Thus introducing a challenge-response handshake for each command would impose a burden on the agent (and possibly on the network itself) that the protocol designers deemed excessive and unacceptable.

The security deficiencies of all SNMP versions can be mitigated by IPsec authentication and confidentiality mechanisms. SNMP also may be carried securely over Datagram Transport Layer Security (DTLS).

Many SNMP implementations include a type of automatic discovery where a new network component, such as a switch or router, is discovered and polled automatically. In SNMPv1 and SNMPv2c this is done through a community string that is transmitted in clear-text to other devices. Clear-text passwords are a significant security risk. Once the community string is known outside the organization it could become the target for an attack. To alert administrators of other attempts to glean community strings, SNMP can be configured to pass community-name authentication failure traps. If SNMPv2 is used, the issue can be avoided by enabling password encryption on the SNMP agents of network devices.

The common default configuration for community strings are "public" for read-only access and "private" for read-write. Because of the well-known defaults, SNMP topped the list of the SANS Institute's Common Default Configuration Issues and was number ten on the SANS Top 10 Most Critical Internet Security Threats for the year 2000. System and network administrators frequently do not change these configurations.

Whether it runs over TCP or UDP, SNMPv1 and v2 are vulnerable to IP spoofing attacks. With spoofing, attackers may bypass device access lists in agents that are implemented to restrict SNMP access. SNMPv3 security mechanisms such as USM or TSM can prevent spoofing attacks.

RFC references
  (STD 16) — Structure and Identification of Management Information for the TCP/IP-based Internets
  (Historic) — Management Information Base for Network Management of TCP/IP-based internets
  (Historic) — A Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
  (STD 17) — Management Information Base for Network Management of TCP/IP-based internets: MIB-II
  (Informational) — Coexistence between version 1 and version 2 of the Internet-standard Network Management Framework (Obsoleted by )
  (Experimental) — Introduction to Community-based SNMPv2
  (Draft Standard) — Structure of Management Information for SNMPv2 (Obsoleted by )
  (Standards Track) — Coexistence between Version 1 and Version 2 of the Internet-standard Network Management Framework
  (Informational) — Introduction to Version 3 of the Internet-standard Network Management Framework  (Obsoleted by )
  (STD 58) — Structure of Management Information Version 2 (SMIv2)
  (Informational) — Introduction and Applicability Statements for Internet Standard Management Framework
 STD 62 contains the following RFCs:
  — An Architecture for Describing Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) Management Frameworks
  — Message Processing and Dispatching for the Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
  — Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) Applications
  — User-based Security Model (USM) for version 3 of the Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMPv3)
  — View-based Access Control Model (VACM) for the Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
  — Version 2 of the Protocol Operations for the Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
  — Transport Mappings for the Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
  — Management Information Base (MIB) for the Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
  (Experimental) — Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) over Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) Transport Mapping
  (BCP 74) — Coexistence between Version 1, Version 2, and Version 3 of the Internet-standard Network Management Framework
  (Proposed) — The Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) Cipher Algorithm in the SNMP User-based Security Model
  (Proposed) — Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) over IEEE 802 Networks
  (STD 78) — Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) Context EngineID Discovery
  (STD 78) — Transport Subsystem for the Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
  (STD 78) — Transport Security Model for the Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
  (Proposed) — Secure Shell Transport Model for the Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
  (Proposed) —  Remote Authentication Dial-In User Service (RADIUS) Usage for Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) Transport Models.
  (STD 78) — Transport Layer Security (TLS) Transport Model for the Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
  (Proposed) — HMAC-SHA-2 Authentication Protocols in the User-based Security Model (USM) for SNMPv3

See also
 Agent Extensibility Protocol (AgentX) – Subagent protocol for SNMP
 Common Management Information Protocol (CMIP) – Management protocol by ISO/OSI used by telecommunications devices
 Common Management Information Service (CMIS)
 Comparison of network monitoring systems

 Net-SNMP – Open source reference implementation of SNMP
 NETCONF – Protocol which is an XML-based configuration protocol for network equipment
 Remote Network Monitoring (RMON)
 Simple Gateway Monitoring Protocol (SGMP) – Obsolete protocol replaced by SNMP

References

Further reading

External links

Application layer protocols
Internet protocols
Internet Standards
Agent communications languages
Network management
System administration
Management frameworks

Simple Network Management Protocol