Limehouse is a district in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets in East London. It is  east of Charing Cross, on the northern bank of the River Thames. Its proximity to the river has given it a strong maritime character, which it retains through its riverside public houses and steps, such as The Grapes and Limehouse Stairs. It is part of the traditional county of Middlesex. It became part of the ceremonial County of London following the passing of the Local Government Act 1888, and then part of Greater London in 1965.

The area gives its name to Limehouse Reach, a section of the Thames which runs south to Millwall after making a right-angled bend at Cuckold's Point, Rotherhithe.  The west-to-east section upstream of Cuckold's Point is properly called the Lower Pool.

History

Etymology

The name relates to the local lime kilns or, more precisely, lime oasts, by the river and operated by the large potteries that served shipping in the London Docks. The name is from Old English līm-āst "lime-oast". The earliest reference is to Les Lymhostes, in 1356.
The place appears in 1473 as "Lymehurst", with the occupation appearing as "lymebrenar"

The name 'Limehouse' is sometimes mistakenly thought to be derived from the nickname for the seamen that disembarked there, who had earned the name Lime-juicers or limeys after the obligatory ration of lime juice the Royal Navy gave their sailors to ward off scurvy.

The name is found used in 1417:Inquisicio capta sup' litus Thomisie apud Lymhosteys pro morte Thome Frank.
("Inquest held on the shore of the Thames by Lymhosteys for the death of Thomas Frank")
17 Aug, 5 Henry V. [A.D. 1417], inquest held before "les Lymehostes" within the liberty and franchise of the City, before Henry Bartone, the Mayor, and the King's Escheator, as to the cause of the death of Thomas Franke, of Herewich, late steersman (conductor) or "lodysman" of a ship called "la Mary Knyght" of Danzsk in Prussia. A jury sworn, viz., John Baille, Matthew Holme, Robert Marle, Henry Mark, Alexander Bryan, John Goby, Richard Hervy, Walter Steel, Peter West, Richard Stowell, John Dyse, and Walter Broun. They find that the said Thomas Franke was killed by falling on the sharp end of an anchor

Administrative history
The area was part of the historic (or ancient) county of Middlesex, but military and most (or all) civil county functions were managed more locally, by the Tower Division (also known as the Tower Hamlets), under the leadership of the Lord-Lieutenant of the Tower Hamlets (the post was always filled by the Constable of the Tower of London).

The role of the Tower Division ended when Limehouse became part of the new County of London in 1889. The County of London was replaced by Greater London in 1965.

Maritime links
From its foundation, Limehouse, like neighbouring Wapping, has enjoyed better links with the river than the land, the land route being across a marsh. Limehouse became a significant port in late medieval times, with extensive docks and wharves. Although most cargoes were discharged in the Pool of London before the establishment of the docks, industries such as shipbuilding, ship chandlering and rope making were established in Limehouse.

Limehouse Basin opened in 1820 as the Regent's Canal Dock. This was an important connection between the Thames and the canal system, where cargoes could be transferred from larger ships to the shallow-draught canal boats. This mix of vessels can still be seen in the Basin: canal narrowboats rubbing shoulders with seagoing yachts.

From the Tudor era until the 20th century, ships crews were employed on a casual basis. New and replacement crews would be found wherever they were available – foreign sailors in their own waters being particularly prized for their knowledge of currents and hazards in ports around the world. Crews would be paid off at the end of their voyages and, inevitably, permanent communities of foreign sailors became established, including colonies of Lascars and Africans from the Guinea Coast. Large Chinese communities developed at Shadwell, Limehouse and the adjoining Pennyfields area of Poplar. These were established by the crews of merchantmen in the opium and tea trades, particularly Han Chinese. The area achieved notoriety for opium dens in the late 19th century, often featured in pulp fiction works by Sax Rohmer and others. Like much of the East End it remained a focus for immigration, but after the devastation of the Second World War many of the Chinese community relocated to Soho.

On 12 February 1832, the first case of cholera was reported in London at Limehouse. First described in India in 1817, it had spread here via Hamburg. Although 800 people died during this epidemic, it was fewer than had died of tuberculosis in the same year.  Unfortunately, cholera visited again in 1848 and 1858.

The use of Limehouse Basin as a major distribution hub declined with the growth of the railways, although the revival of canal traffic during World War I and World War II gave it a brief swansong. Today, Stepney Historical Trust works to advance the public's education in the history of the area.

Modern Limehouse

Limehouse Basin was amongst the first docks to close in the late 1960s. By 1981, Limehouse shared the docklands-wide physical, social and economic decline which led to the setting up of the London Docklands Development Corporation. In November 1982, the LDDC published its Limehouse Area Development Strategy. This built on existing plans for Limehouse Basin, and offered a discussion framework for future development, housing refurbishment and environmental improvements across the whole of Limehouse. It was based on four major projects: Limehouse Basin, Free Trade Wharf, what was then known as the Light Rapid Transit Route (DLR) and the Docklands Northern Relief Road, a road corridor between The Highway and East India Dock across the north of the Isle of Dogs.

In the mid-1980s, developments on the nearby Isle of Dogs (particularly at Canary Wharf), proved to be the catalyst to delivering infrastructure improvements which benefitted Limehouse and some other areas of the London Docklands.

The sheer scale of the Canary Wharf proposals, and, in due course, the rapid implementation of the first phase of development, provided the impetus to the transport improvements which completely altered prospects for Limehouse as well as for the Isle of Dogs. The derelict Regent's Canal Dock was converted into Limehouse Marina.

The Troxy concert venue is located in Limehouse on the Commercial Road.

Politics

On 30 July 1909, the Chancellor of the Exchequer David Lloyd George made a polemical speech in Limehouse attacking the House of Lords for its opposition to his "People's Budget" and speaking of the Budget's social aims.  This was the origin of the verb 'to Limehouse',  "To make fiery (political) speeches such as Mr. Lloyd George made at Limehouse in 1909".

From 1906 to 1909, Clement Attlee worked as manager of Haileybury House, a club for working class boys in Limehouse run by his old school. Before this, Attlee's political views had been conservative, but he was shocked by the poverty and deprivation he saw while working with slum children, and this caused him to become a socialist. He joined the Independent Labour Party in 1908, and became mayor of Stepney in 1919. At the 1922 general election, Attlee became Member of Parliament (MP) for the constituency of Limehouse, which he represented while Deputy Prime Minister. After WWII he moved constituencies to Walthamstow West.

On 25 January 1981, MPs Shirley Williams, Roy Jenkins, William Rodgers and David Owen made the Limehouse Declaration from the bridge over Limehouse Cut in Narrow Street: it announced the formation of the Council for Social Democracy in opposition to the granting of block votes to the trade unions in the Labour Party to which they had previously belonged. They soon became leading politicians in the Social Democratic Party.

Today, Limehouse is part of the constituency of Poplar and Limehouse and has been represented in the House of Commons since 2019 by Apsana Begum MP (Labour), and in the London Assembly since 2016 by Unmesh Desai AM (also Labour).

In popular culture

The area inspired Douglas Furber (lyricist) and Philip Braham (composer) in 1921 to write the popular jazz standard "Limehouse Blues", which was introduced by Jack Buchanan and Gertrude Lawrence in the musical revue "A to Z". Much later, it was reprised in the ballet "Limehouse Blues" featuring Fred Astaire and Lucille Bremer in the musical film Ziegfeld Follies (1946) and by Julie Andrews in Star! (1968). In both instances the actors were in yellowface. Other notable performances on film include those by Hoagy Carmichael in To Have and Have Not (1944) and by Borrah Minevich and His Harmonica Rascals in One in a Million (1936). Limehouse Blues was also the name of a 1934 film, starring George Raft.

Thomas Burke wrote Limehouse Nights (1916), a collection of stories centred around life in the poverty-stricken Limehouse district of London. Many of Burke's books feature the Chinese character Quong Lee as narrator. The area also features in the Fu Manchu books of Sax Rohmer, where a Limehouse opium den serves as the hideout of the Chinese supervillain. The notion of East End opium dens seems to have originated with a description by Charles Dickens of a visit he made to an opium den in nearby Bluegate Fields, which inspired certain scenes in his last, unfinished, novel The Mystery of Edwin Drood (1870). More recently, the popular graphic novels of Alan Moore, From Hell (1989) and The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen (1999) contain a number of references to the notorious criminality of the area in Victorian London. Victorian-era Limehouse was also the setting of the novel Dan Leno and the Limehouse Golem (1995) by Peter Ackroyd, a fictionalized account of the notorious 'Limehouse Golem' serial murders.

The area also appeared in Anna Mae Wong's 1929 film Piccadilly, where, as the toughly alluring Shosho, Wong was said to embody the Limehouse Chinatown mystique. The Limehouse district of London is depicted in the silent film "Broken Blossoms" or "The Yellow Man And The Girl" directed by D.W. Griffith (1919) "where the Orient squats at the portals of the West." Limehouse is also the setting of the 1926 film "The Blackbird," directed by Tod Browning and starring Lon Chaney. The Limehouse district features prominently in the 1942 film Sherlock Holmes and the Voice of Terror, when Holmes enlists the aid of rather unsavory residents to help catch a Nazi agent.

Society

St Anne's Limehouse was built by Nicholas Hawksmoor. A pyramid originally planned to be put atop the tower now stands in the graveyard. The church is next door to Limehouse Town Hall and close to Limehouse Library, both Grade II listed buildings, the former now used as a community centre. Across the road is the Sailors' Mission, where Situationist International held its conference in 1960. The building subsequently became a run-down hostel for the homeless which became notorious for its squalor, although it has since been converted into a luxury apartment block.

Further to the southwest, Narrow Street, Limehouse's historic spine, which runs along the back of the Thames wharves, boasts one of the few surviving early Georgian terraces in London. Next to the terrace is the historic Grapes pub, rebuilt in 1720 and well known to Charles Dickens, featuring as the Six Jolly Fellowship Porters in Our Mutual Friend. A few doors along was Booty's Riverside Bar but this closed down in 2012. Almost every building on the other side of Narrow Street was destroyed by bombing in the Second World War, including hundreds of houses, Taylor Walker & Co's Barley Mow Brewery and a school. One notable exception is a former public house, known locally as 'The House They Left Behind', because it was the only Victorian terrace to survive. It still stands today, with the aid of three large supporting pillars.

Further along the street is 'The Narrow', a gastropub, now run by Gordon Ramsay. It is housed in the Grade II listed, former dockmaster's and customs house, for Limehouse Dock.

Education

The Stepney Greencoat School is a Church of England primary school that was founded in 1710 by leading community members to local children, it has served the area as it transformed from an industrial to the mixed, multicultural settlement that Limehouse  has become today.

Transport

Rail
On 31 July 1987 the Docklands Light Railway, which operated over the old LBR line, commenced operations, with new platforms (platforms 3 and 4) built on the site of the old London and Blackwall Railway platforms; the station had been renamed Limehouse from Stepney East on 11 May that year. It is located in Limehouse, not Stepney and is served by National Rail c2c and DLR services.

Between March and October 2007, West India Quay canopy was replaced in a £1.85m project funded by Transport for London. The distance from West India Quay to Canary Wharf is just , the shortest distance on the entire London Underground and Docklands Light Railway system.

On 22 April 1991, two trains collided at the Delta Junction, in between Limehouse and Poplar on the West India Quay bridge during morning rush hour, requiring a shutdown of the system and evacuation of passengers by ladder.

Buses
A number of London Buses routes serve Limehouse, including routes 15, 115, 135, D3 and night bus routes N15, N550 and N551.

Roads, cycling, walking

Limehouse is connected to the National Road Network by the A13 Commercial Road which passes west–east through Limehouse, while the A1203 Limehouse Link tunnel passes under Limehouse Basin, linking The Highway with the Docklands Northern Relief Road. The northern entrance of the Rotherhithe Tunnel emerges in Limehouse, to the west of the Basin and close to Limehouse railway station.

Narrow Street forms a part of the north bank of the Thames Path and had previously been the principal street in Limehouse, it includes the Cycle Superhighway CS3 between Tower Gateway to Barking and is one of London's first Cycle Superhighways. Some local residents raised a petition calling for CS3 to be moved from Narrow Street onto Commercial Road, arguing that the street was too narrow and that incidents of abuse and aggression had risen sharply since the route was introduced. Transport for London (TfL) said they had no plans to move it. Former  Mayor Boris Johnson defended the choice as a road that was already popular with cyclists to and from the City. The London Cycling Campaign however supported the route but called for improvements. In 2011, TfL agreed to remove logos from the road surface, but not to change the route. Vehicular access is limited, as the area is cut off by the entrance to the Limehouse link tunnel and parking is strictly controlled, however, this makes the area reasonably quiet for cyclists. Public access to the foreshore is prohibited, apparently part of the security arrangements for former Foreign Secretary, David Owen. The National Cycle Route 1 also runs in Limehouse north and south.

Waterways
Though no longer a working dock, Limehouse Basin with its marina remains a working facility. The same is not true of the wharf buildings that have survived, most of which are now highly desirable residential properties. Limehouse Basin connects to the Regent's Canal via the Commercial Road Lock to the north, and the River Thames via Limehouse Basin Lock to the south. The Limehouse Cut connects the Basin to the River Lea in the east.

Notable residents

Sir Humphrey Gilbert lived here, and was an advocate of opening up the Northwest Passage. This inspired Martin Frobisher to sail to Baffin Island, and he returned with a mysterious black rock. Gilbert set up the Society of the New Art with Lord Burghley and the Earl of Leicester, who had their alchemical laboratory in Limehouse; however, their attempts to transmute the black rock into gold proved fruitless. (Humphrey's brother Adrian Gilbert was reputed a great alchemist and worked closely with John Dee.)

Captain Christopher Newport lived in Limehouse for several years up until 1595. He rose through the sailing ranks from a poor cabin boy to a wealthy English privateer and eventually one of the Masters of the Royal Navy. He became rich pirating Spanish treasure vessels in the West Indies. In 1607 he sailed the Susan Constant, followed by the Godspeed and Discovery, as Admiral of the Fleet to Jamestown. He helped secure England's foothold in North America through five voyages to Jamestown. He sailed his entire life, dying on a trading voyage to Bantam, on the island of Java in present-day Indonesia. His sailing experience in Limehouse made him known as Captain Christopher Newport, of Limehouse, Mariner.

Charles Dickens' godfather, Christopher Huffam, ran his sailmaking business from 12 Church Row (Newell Street). Huffam is said to be the inspiration for the Paul Dombey character in Dickens' Dombey and Son.

James McNeill Whistler and Charles Napier Hemy sketched and painted at locations on Narrow Street's river waterfront.

Contemporary residents include the actor Sir Ian McKellen, Matthew Parris, comedy actress Cleo Rocos, actor Steven Berkoff, comedian Lee Hurst , as well as politician Lord David Owen.  Limehouse was also the home of the late film director Sir David Lean.

Gallery

References

External links

Districts of the London Borough of Tower Hamlets
Areas of London
Districts of London on the River Thames
Port of London
Places formerly in Middlesex

Limehouse


The Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen (), informally Transleithania (meaning the lands or region "beyond" the Leitha River), were the Hungarian territories of Austria-Hungary, throughout the latter's entire existence (30 March 1867 – 16 November 1918), and which disintegrated following its dissolution. The name referenced the historic coronation crown of Hungary, known as the Crown of Saint Stephen of Hungary, which had a symbolic importance to the Kingdom of Hungary.

According to the First Article of the Croatian–Hungarian Settlement of 1868, this territory, also called Arch-Kingdom of Hungary (, pursuant to Medieval Latin terminology), was officially defined as "a state union of the Kingdom of Hungary and the Triune Kingdom of Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia". Though Dalmatia actually lay outside the Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen, being part of Cisleithania, the Austrian half of the empire, it was nevertheless included in its name, due to a long political campaign seeking recognition of the Triune Kingdom, which consisted of a united Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia.

Terms
  – Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen,  – Lands of the Holy Crown,  – Lands of the Hungarian Crown,  – Lands of the Hungarian Holy Crown
  – Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen
  – Lands of the Holy Hungarian Crown of (Saint) Stephen
  – Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen
  – Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen,  – Lands of the Hungarian Crown
  – Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen
  – Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen
  – Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen
  – Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen
  – Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen

Transleithania
Transleithania (, , , , , ) was an unofficial term for the Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen.

The Latin name Transleithania referred to the parts of the empire "beyond" () the Leitha (or Lajta) River, as most of its area lay to the east of that river – or "beyond" it, from an Austrian perspective. Cisleithania, the Habsburg lands of the Dual Monarchy that had been part of the Holy Roman Empire, along with Galicia and Dalmatia, lay to the west (on "this" side) of the Leitha River.

The territory reached from the arc of the Carpathian Mountains in present-day Slovakia to the Croatian coast of the Adriatic Sea. The capital of Transleithania was Budapest.

Crown lands
After the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, Transleithania consisted of the Kingdom of Hungary (which included Hungary proper as well as the territories of the former Principality of Transylvania (Erdélyi Fejedelemség) and the former Voivodeship of Serbia and Banat of Temeschwar), the internally self-governed Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia, and the free port of Rijeka (Fiume). The Military Frontier was under separate administration until 1873–1882, when it was abolished and incorporated into the Kingdom of Hungary and the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia.

Kingdoms
  Kingdom of Hungary
  Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia (from 1868)
  Kingdom of Croatia (1527–1868)
  Kingdom of Slavonia (1699–1868)

Free Cities
  Free City of Fiume

Condominium
  Condominium of Bosnia and Herzegovina (governed jointly by Cisleithania and Transleithania)

History

The Compromise of 1867, which created the Dual Monarchy, gave the Hungarian government more control of its domestic affairs than it had possessed at any time since the Battle of Mohács (see fig. 4). However, the new government faced severe economic problems and the growing restiveness of ethnic minorities. The First World War led to the disintegration of Austria-Hungary, and in the aftermath of the war, a series of governments—including a communist regime—assumed power in Buda and Pest (in 1872 the cities of Buda and Pest united to become Budapest).

Constitutional and legal framework
The Transleithanian lands were under the rule of the Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph I as Apostolic King of Hungary and King of Croatia and Slavonia. He was succeeded by his grand-nephew Emperor Charles I (King Charles IV) in 1916.

Once again a Habsburg emperor became king of Hungary, but the compromise strictly limited his power over the country's internal affairs, and the Hungarian government assumed control over its domestic affairs. The Hungarian government consisted of a prime minister and cabinet appointed by the emperor but responsible to the Diet of Hungary, a bicameral parliament elected by a narrow franchise. The Diet was convened by Minister-President Count Gyula Andrássy on 18 February 1867,

Joint Austro-Hungarian affairs were managed through "common" ministries of foreign affairs, defense, and finance. The respective ministers were responsible to delegations representing separate Austrian and Hungarian parliaments. Although the "common" ministry of defense administered the imperial and royal armies, the emperor acted as their commander in chief, and German remained the language of command in the military as a whole. The compromise designated that commercial and monetary policy, tariffs, the railroad, and indirect taxation were "common" concerns to be negotiated every ten years. The compromise also returned Transylvania to Hungary's jurisdiction.

At Franz Joseph's insistence, Hungary and Croatia reached a similar compromise in 1868, the Nagodba, giving Croatia a special status in the Lands of the Holy Hungarian Crown. In fact, this half of Austria-Hungary was officially defined (art. 1) as "a state union of the Kingdom of Hungary and the Triune Kingdom of Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia". The agreement recognized Croatia's distinct identity and granted Croatia autonomy over its internal affairs, exercised by the Sabor (assembly) of the former Kingdom of Croatia. The Sabor gained partial authority to legislate in the areas of justice, education and religious matters, and interior affairs. In practice, however, this autonomy was fairly limited.<ref>Croatia-Slavonia placed under the rule of Hungary...
"Under an 1868 agreement between Croatia and Hungary, known as the Nagodba, Croatian statehood was formally recognized, but Croatia was in fact stripped of all real control over its affairs..."
History of Croatia Encyclopedia Britannica 2009</ref> The Croatian Ban would now be nominated by the Hungarian prime minister and appointed by the king. Areas of common policies included finance, currency matters, commercial policy, the post office, and the railroads. Croatian became the official language of Croatia's government, and Croatian representatives discussing "common" affairs before the Hungarian diet were permitted to speak Croatian.

Transleithania did not have its own flag. According to the Nagodba (art. 62 and 63), in all joint Croatian and Hungarian affairs symbols of both Croatia and Hungary respectively had to be used. For instance, whenever the joint Hungarian-Croatian Parliament held a session, the Croatian flag and Hungarian flag were both hoisted on the parliament building in Budapest. In Vienna, in front of Schönbrunn Palace, a black and yellow flag was flown for Cisleithania, but both Croatian and Hungarian flags were flown for Transleithania. When in 1915 a new small official coat of arms of Austria-Hungary was released, composed of the Austrian and Hungarian coats-of-arms only, the Croatian government protested, since it was a breach of the Nagodba. Vienna responded quickly and included the Croatian coat of arms.

The Nationalities Law enacted in 1868 defined Hungary as a single Hungarian nation'' comprising different nationalities whose members enjoyed equal rights in all areas except language. Although non-Hungarian languages could be used in local government, churches, and schools, Hungarian became the official language of the central government and universities. Many Hungarians thought the act too generous, while minority-group leaders rejected it as inadequate. Slovaks in northern Hungary, Romanians in Transylvania, and Serbs in Vojvodina all wanted more autonomy, and unrest followed the act's passage. The government took no further action concerning nationalities, and discontent about Magyarization fermented.

Anti-Semitism appeared in Hungary early in the century as a result of fear of economic competition. In 1840 a partial emancipation of the Jews allowed them to live anywhere except certain depressed mining cities. The Jewish Emancipation Act of 1868 gave Jews equality before the law and effectively eliminated all bars to their participation in the economy; nevertheless, informal barriers kept Jews from careers in politics and public life.

Rise of the Liberal Party
Franz Joseph appointed Gyula Andrássy—a member of Ferenc Deák's party—prime minister in 1867. His government strongly favored the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and followed a laissez-faire economic policy. Guilds were abolished, workers were permitted to bargain for wages, and the government attempted to improve education and construct roads and railroads. Between 1850 and 1875, Hungary's farms prospered: grain prices were high, and exports tripled. But Hungary's economy accumulated capital too slowly, and the government relied heavily on foreign credits. In addition, the national and local bureaucracies began to grow immediately after the compromise became effective. Soon the cost of the bureaucracy outpaced the country's tax revenues, and the national debt soared. After an economic downturn in the mid-1870s, Deák's party succumbed to charges of financial mismanagement and scandal.

As a result of these economic problems, Kálmán Tisza's Liberal Party, created in 1875, gained power in 1875. Tisza assembled a bureaucratic political machine that maintained control through corruption and manipulation of a woefully unrepresentative electoral system. In addition, Tisza's government had to withstand both dissatisfied nationalities and Hungarians who thought Tisza too submissive to the Austrians. The Liberals argued that the Dual Monarchy improved Hungary's economic position and enhanced its influence in European politics.

Tisza's government raised taxes, balanced the budget within several years of coming to power, and completed large road, railroad, and waterway projects. Commerce and industry expanded quickly. After 1880 the government abandoned its laissez-faire economic policies and encouraged industry with loans, subsidies, government contracts, tax exemptions, and other measures. Between 1890 and 1910, the proportion of Hungarians employed in industry doubled to 24.2%, while the proportion dependent on agriculture dropped from 82% to 62%. However, the 1880s and 1890s were depression years for the peasantry. Rail and steamship transport gave North American farmers access to European markets, and Europe's grain prices fell by 50 percent. Large landowners fought the downturn by seeking trade protection and other political remedies; the lesser nobles, whose farms failed in great numbers, sought positions in the still-burgeoning bureaucracy. By contrast, the peasantry resorted to subsistence farming and worked as laborers to earn money.

Social changes

Hungary's population rose from 13 million to 20 million between 1850 and 1910. After 1867 Hungary's feudal society gave way to a more complex society that included the magnates, lesser nobles, middle class, working class, and peasantry. However, the magnates continued to wield great influence through several conservative parties because of their massive wealth and dominant position in the upper chamber of the diet. They fought modernization and sought both closer ties with Vienna and a restoration of Hungary's traditional social structure and institutions, arguing that agriculture should remain the mission of the nobility. They won protection from the market by reestablishment of a system of entail and also pushed for restriction of middle-class profiteering and restoration of corporal punishment. The Roman Catholic Church was a major ally of the magnates.

Some lesser-noble landowners survived the agrarian depression of the late 19th century and continued farming. Many others turned to the bureaucracy or to the professions.

In the mid-19th century, Hungary's middle class consisted of a small number of German and Jewish merchants and workshop owners who employed a few craftsmen. By the turn of the 20th century, however, the middle class had grown in size and complexity and had become predominantly Jewish. In fact, Jews created the modern economy that supported Tisza's bureaucratic machine. In return, Tisza not only denounced anti-Semitism but also used his political machine to check the growth of an anti-Semitic party. In 1896 his successors passed legislation securing the Jews' final emancipation. By 1910 about 900,000 Jews made up approximately 5 percent of the population and about 23 percent of Hungary's citizenry. Jews accounted for 54 percent of commercial business owners, 85 percent of financial institution directors and owners, and 62 percent of all employees in commerce.

The rise of a working class came naturally with industrial development. By 1900 Hungary's mines and industries employed nearly 1.2 million people, representing 13 percent of the population. The government favored low wages to keep Hungarian products competitive on foreign markets and to prevent impoverished peasants from flocking to the city to find work. The government recognized the right to strike in 1884, but labor came under strong political pressure. In 1890 the Social Democratic Party was established and secretly formed alliances with the trade unions. The party soon enlisted one-third of Budapest's workers. By 1900 the party and union rolls listed more than 200,000 hard-core members, making it the largest secular organization the country had ever known. The diet passed laws to improve the lives of industrial workers, including providing medical and accident insurance, but it refused to extend them voting rights, arguing that broadening the franchise would give too many non-Hungarians the vote and threaten Hungarian domination. After the Compromise of 1867, the Hungarian government also launched an education reform in an effort to create a skilled, literate labor force. As a result, the literacy rate had climbed to 80 percent by 1910. Literacy raised the expectations of workers in agriculture and industry and made them ripe for participation in movements for political and social change.

The plight of the peasantry worsened drastically during the Long Depression at the end of the 19th century. The rural population grew, and the size of the peasants' farm plots shrank as land was divided up by successive generations. By 1900 almost half of the country's landowners were scratching out a living from plots too small to meet basic needs, and many farm workers had no land at all. Many peasants chose to emigrate, and their departure rate reached approximately 50,000 annually in the 1870s and about 200,000 annually by 1907. The peasantry's share of the population dropped from 72.5 percent in 1890 to 68.4 percent in 1900. The countryside also was characterized by unrest, to which the government reacted by sending in troops, banning all farm-labor organizations, and passing other repressive legislation.

In the late 19th century, the Liberal Party passed laws that enhanced the government's power at the expense of the Roman Catholic Church. The parliament won the right to veto clerical appointments, and it reduced the church's nearly total domination of Hungary's education institutions. Additional laws eliminated the church's authority over a number of civil matters and, in the process, introduced civil marriage and divorce procedures.

The Liberal Party also worked with some success to create a unified, Magyarized state. Ignoring the Nationalities Law, they enacted laws that required the Hungarian language to be used in local government and increased the number of school subjects taught in that language. After 1890 the government succeeded in Magyarizing educated Slovaks, Germans, Croats, and Romanians and co-opting them into the bureaucracy, thus robbing the minority nationalities of an educated elite. Most minorities never learned to speak Hungarian, but the education system made them aware of their political rights, and their discontent with Magyarization mounted. Bureaucratic pressures and heightened fears of territorial claims against Hungary after the creation of new nation-states in the Balkans forced Tisza to outlaw "national agitation" and to use electoral legerdemain to deprive the minorities of representation. Nevertheless, in 1901 Romanian and Slovak national parties emerged undaunted by incidents of electoral violence and police repression.

Political and economic situation in 1905–1919

Tisza directed the Liberal government until 1890, and for fourteen years thereafter a number of Liberal prime ministers held office. Agricultural decline continued, and the bureaucracy could no longer absorb all of the pauperized lesser nobles and educated people who could not find work elsewhere. This group gave its political support to the Party of Independence and the Party of Forty-Eight, which became part of the "national" opposition that forced a coalition with the Liberals in 1905. The Party of Independence resigned itself to the existence of the Dual Monarchy and sought to enhance Hungary's position within it; the Party of Forty-Eight, however, deplored the Compromise of 1867, argued that Hungary remained an Austrian colony, and pushed for formation of a Hungarian national bank and an independent customs zone.

Franz Joseph refused to appoint members of the coalition to the government until they renounced their demands for concessions from Austria concerning the military. When the coalition finally gained power in 1906, the leaders retreated from their opposition to the compromise of 1867 and followed the Liberal Party's economic policies. Istvan Tisza—Kalman Tisza's son and prime minister from 1903 to 1905—formed the new National Party of Work, which in 1910 won a large majority in the parliament. Tisza became prime minister for a second time in 1912 after labor strife erupted over an unsuccessful attempt to expand voting rights.

In the Treaty of Bucharest (1918), Austria-Hungary gained its last extensions. Romania ceded 5,513 km2 to Austria-Hungary, of which 3,249 km2 went to Hungary.

Cessation

At the end of the First World War, the existence of Transleithania came to an end. The Croats, with other South Slav nations, had wanted a separate state and status equal to the Austrians and the Hungarians in the monarchy since the beginning of the union in 1867 and 1868. After many attempts which were always vetoed by the Hungarian side, the Hungarian Council of Ministers, led by Hungarian prime minister Sándor Wekerle and Count István Tisza, finally signed the trialist manifest on 22 October 1918, a day after King Charles did so. Since it was too late to reform the Imperial and Royal monarchy, on 29 October 1918 the Croatian Parliament (Sabor) in Zagreb unified the Croatian lands and ended the union and all ties with Austria and Hungary (particularly Article 1 of the Nagodba of 1868) and decided to join the National Council of the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs (on 1 December 1918 it united with the Kingdom of Serbia to form the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes). The city of Fiume became the short-lived Free State of Fiume until 1924, when it was ceded to Italy. The territories of the southern Hungarian counties in Banat, Bácska and Baranya (the west of Temes County, Torontál County, Bács-Bodrog County and Baranya County) as a Province of Banat, Bačka and Baranja became part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes.

In desperation, Charles appointed Mihály Károlyi, who advocated looser ties between Austria and Hungary, as prime minister. Under Károlyi's prodding, the Hungarian parliament terminated the Austro-Hungarian Compromise as of 31 October 1918.

On 13 November, Charles announced that he accepted Hungary's right to determine the form of the state, and relinquished his right to take part in Hungary's politics. He also released the officials in the Hungarian half of the monarchy from their oath of loyalty to him. Although it is sometimes reckoned as an abdication, Charles deliberately avoided using the term in the event the Hungarian people recalled him. However, Károlyi and his government were unwilling to wait; they proclaimed the Hungarian Democratic Republic on 16 November. However, King Charles IV never abdicated, and from 1920 until 1944 the nominally restored Kingdom of Hungary was governed by Miklós Horthy as a regent.

See also
 Lands of the Crown of Saint Wenceslaus
 Stephen I of Hungary

References

External links

Lands of the Kingdom of Hungary (1867–1918)
Modern history of Hungary
History of Austria-Hungary
Historical regions in the Kingdom of Hungary
Geographic history of Croatia
1867 establishments in Austria-Hungary
1918 disestablishments in Austria-Hungary
1867 establishments in Hungary
1918 disestablishments in Hungary
Establishments in the Kingdom of Hungary (1867–1918)
Disestablishments in the Kingdom of Hungary (1867–1918)
Leitha

Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen


Legend of Grimrock is a 2012 action role-playing game video game developed and published by Almost Human. The title is a 3D grid-based, real-time dungeon crawler based on the 1987 game Dungeon Master. It was released for Windows in April 2012, OS X and Linux in December 2012, and iOS in May 2015.

Legend of Grimrock was the debut game of Almost Human, a four-man Finnish indie development team formed in February 2011, which self-financed the title's development. A sequel, Legend of Grimrock II, was released in 2014.

Gameplay

Legend of Grimrock is a first-person action role-playing game with tile-based movement and realtime game mechanics. Players control a party of one to four characters which they move through a 3D rendered grid-based dungeon, a style of gameplay popular in RPG games from the 1990s such as Dungeon Master and Eye of the Beholder, from which Legend of Grimrock draws heavy inspiration.

Gameplay consists of a combination of puzzle solving and combat. Characters within the party gain experience for slaying creatures and beasts within the dungeon, allowing them to increase in level and progress skills which enhance combat abilities and allow the casting of new spells, and equipment is obtained through exploration and solving of puzzles throughout the dungeon. Many of the harder puzzles throughout the game are designed as bonuses, being optional to the progression through the dungeon but granting superior items and equipment for solving them.

In reference to its classic roots, the player has the option to switch on "old-school mode" when beginning a new game. In this mode the game's map system is deactivated, leaving navigation through the dungeon's grid down to the player alone; this references the 1990s games which Grimrock is based on, which left remembering routes and paths through the dungeon completely down to the player. The game's digital manual contains a printable grid sheet which encourages players to chart their course through the game to this end.

Plot

On top of Mount Grimrock, an airship carries a group of prisoners escorted by armed knights. The prisoners, for crimes against the King, have been sentenced to be thrown into the pit of Mount Grimrock, at which point their crimes will be absolved. However, no prisoner pardoned in this manner has ever returned.

On being sealed within the mountain, the prisoners make their way downwards through the levels of Grimrock Dungeon, guided by a disembodied voice which comes to them in their sleep promising that a way of escape for both it and the party awaits at the bottom of the dungeon. The party also occasionally finds notes from a previous wanderer of the dungeon named Toorum, who aside from offering clues to certain puzzles and hidden stashes of equipment, talks about his experiences of the dungeon's periodic tremors and the dungeon's design seemingly meant to be "traversed from the top down".

Eventually the party reaches the bottom level, signposted as "Prison". Inside, the source of the voice guides the player to reconstruct a broken machine which will activate a portal out of the dungeon, however upon assembling the parts and repairing it, the voice is revealed to be the machine itself, which manifests as a giant mechanical clockwork cube which attempts to crush the party. Escaping through a portal, the party locates the tomb of the creators of Grimrock Dungeon, who left behind scrolls explaining the dungeon's purpose of containing the machine, which they refer to as "the Undying One", until "the gears of time finally come to rest". The tomb also contains a weapon designed to be used in the event of the Undying One's escape from confinement.

Using the weapon, which temporarily stuns the machine, the party disassemble the parts which they used to repair the Undying One and deal a fatal blow to it using spells of lightning. The Undying One eventually explodes and falls apart, triggering another tremor which shakes the dungeon apart. The last scenes show the party running down a stone hallway of the dungeon, before a beam of pale blue light explodes from Mount Grimrock, ascending to the sky. A gigantic crater is shown to be all that remains of Mount Grimrock, the final fate of the prisoners seemingly unknown.

Development and release
In 2001 LoG began as Dungeon Master clone hobby project called Dungeon Master 2000 by a former Amiga demoscene coder. Later it was renamed Escape from Dragon Mountain and released in its final version in 2004. In early 2011 the developers decided to grow the project beyond being a simple clone and started aiming for commercial game quality. The developers used also other games as inspiration for the game, including Eye of the Beholder and Ultima Underworld. The developers established an indie video game company called "Almost Human" located at Matinkylä, Espoo in Finland. The four founding developers left the Finnish video game industry (Remedy Entertainment, Futuremark) and started working on the game full-time, now named Legend of Grimrock. A forum and development blog was set up and updated frequently.

The game was first released for the Windows platform on 11 April 2012 in DRM-free versions on the developer's website and GOG.com, and also a Steam version. On 4 October 2012, with the release of patch 1.3.1, an editor was included which allowed the creation of user generated dungeons & content and led to the development of a vivid modding community.
On 19 December 2012 the game was released as part of the Humble Indie Bundle 7 including newly developed ports of the game for Mac OS and Linux. While the Mac and Linux port were released in December 2012, the iOS port did not materialize until May 2015.
In 2014 a live-action series, located in the Grimrock universe, from Wayside Creations (the makers of Fallout: Nuka Break) was funded through Kickstarter, but never produced.

An announced sequel, Legend of Grimrock II, was released on 15 October 2014.

Reception

Legend of Grimrock was generally well received by both critics and gamers upon release, garnering an average critic score of 82 from 49 reviews on Metacritic. Reviewers generally praised the game for faithfully recreating the gameplay of old-school action RPGs into the modern era.

GameSpy gave the game a 4.5/5 "Great" rating, saying that "the best aspect of Grimrock is its puzzles, which have been largely abandoned by RPG developers in this age of Internet hints and walkthroughs." Destructoid's Patrick Hancock awarded the game a score of 95/100, claiming "Grimrock takes an old-school feel and injects it seamlessly into the modern era." Edge said that the game wasn't "a love letter to Dungeon Master" but "a near-facsimile", saying that "Legend Of Grimrock replicates a classic faithfully enough to massage the nostalgia glands of anyone who played the original, and it's a test of the timelessness of an almost universally loved game."

Some reviewers commented negatively on the game's combat system. Jon Blyth of PC Gamer praised the game's revival of Dungeon Master's classic gameplay, but commented on the "exploitability" of the enemy AI, as "any single enemy, no matter how tough, can be dominated by a series of cowardly stab-retreats and sidesteps". In their 7.25/10 review, Game Informer also stated that while the game's modern presentation of an old-school game format was a "beautiful marriage", it failed in that "its lazy monster design encourages the worst kind of tedious, mechanically abusive player behavior, though, which is a grave offense in the world of party-based RPGs."

In January 2013, Almost Human announced that the game had sold over 600,000 copies. In October 2014, Almost Human announced that the game has sold 900,000 copies.

In 2017, the game was selected for a collection of 100 Finnish games, which were presented on the opening of the Finnish Museum of Games in Tampere.

See also
Druidstone, a fantasy RPG from the same developers

References

External links

2012 video games
First-person party-based dungeon crawler video games
Fantasy video games
Indie games
IOS games
Linux games
Lua (programming language)-scripted video games
MacOS games
Role-playing video games
Single-player video games
Video games with Steam Workshop support
Video games developed in Finland
Video games with gender-selectable protagonists
Windows games

Legend of Grimrock


Daniel "Erfan" Okechukwu Olerum (born 13 March 1983 in Lagos) is a Nigerian football striker playing for Shabab Al-Ordon Club in the Jordan Premier League.

Club career
He started playing in Nigeria, first with Enugu Rangers and then with Shooting Stars SC.

In August 2004, Olerum signed with Foolad F.C. After making only 11 appearances and scoring no goals for Foolad FC in the IPL 2005/06 season, he decided to go to F.C. Aboomoslem, another Premier League side where he would go on to enjoy great success. He has won the best IPL 2006/07 forward award after having scored 17 goals for Aboomoslem, But in the next two season with Aboomoslem he only 9 goals together and could perform as well as before. He moved to Teraktor Sazi in 2009 and again had couple of unsuccessful seasons with Traktor Sazi where he didn't even score one goal. Finally in the middle of the 2010–2011 season he moved to Gostaresh Foolad in Azadegan League.

On 23 July 2011, he joined Aboomoslem.

In 2013, he joined Serbian SuperLiga side FK Sloboda Užice.

On 22 July 2013, he joined Al-Wehdat for 70,000 dollars comprehensive provider contract and monthly salaries for one season.

Club career

Honours

Individual
Iran's Premier Football League:
Top Goalscorer (2006/07) 17 goals, Aboomoslem, shared with Mehdi Rajabzadeh
Football Iran News & Events
Striker of the year (2006/07)
Foreigner player of the year player (2006/07)

Club
Shabab Al-Ordon
Jordan FA Shield: 2016

Quotes
"All I needed was just a chance to show what I could do, and Iran provided me with that opportunity" – On his move to Iran

"You know the death of my best friend Sam Okoye affected my game a lot, but now I am happy to be in the news for the right reasons, it came against the biggest team in Iran and I am grateful for my teammates' efforts as well. The fact that the three goals came in the space of twenty minutes left everyone stunned."- Talking about his Hat-trick

References

بازیکنی که در ایران مسلمان شد

External links
BBC Sport Article : Olerum Happy to be in Iran
The Nigerian Who Became Iranian(IranSportsPress.com)
Olerum Interview with Vanguard
Olerum Statistics
Nigerian sets Iranian League record
Olerum fires on in Iran
VIDEO : Olerum's Hat trick
PersianFootball.com on olerum

1983 births
Living people
Footballers from Lagos
Nigerian men's footballers
University of Nigeria alumni
Men's association football forwards
Persian Gulf Pro League players
Azadegan League players
Rangers International F.C. players
Shooting Stars S.C. players
Tractor S.C. players
Foolad F.C. players
F.C. Aboomoslem players
Nigerian expatriate men's footballers
Nigerian expatriate sportspeople in Iran
Expatriate men's footballers in Iran
FK Sloboda Užice players
Serbian SuperLiga players
Expatriate men's footballers in Serbia
Nigerian expatriate sportspeople in Serbia
Al-Wehdat SC players
Expatriate men's footballers in Jordan

Daniel Olerum


John Patrick Leo (June 16, 1935 – May 9, 2022) was an American writer and journalist.  He was noted for authoring columns in the National Catholic Reporter and U.S. News & World Report, as well as for his reporting with The New York Times and Time magazine.  He later became editor-in-chief of "Minding the Campus", a conservative-libertarian web site focusing on America's colleges and universities.  After retiring from journalism, he joined the Manhattan Institute as a senior fellow in 2007.

Early life
Leo was born in Hoboken, New Jersey, on June 16, 1935.  His father, Maurice, was a designer of kitchen and hospital equipment; his mother, Mary (Trincellita), was a housewife.  Leo was raised in Teaneck, New Jersey, and attended Regis High School in New York City on scholarship, graduating in 1952. He then studied philosophy and English at the University of Toronto, where he was also the editor of the student newspaper.  After his graduation in 1957, he went back to his home state and covered the criminal courts for the Bergen Record of Hackensack, New Jersey, for three years. He subsequently worked as the editor of the Catholic Messenger, published by the Roman Catholic Diocese of Davenport of Davenport, Iowa, in 1960.

Career
Leo became an associate editor of Commonweal in New York, an independent Catholic magazine, in 1963. In his weekly column for the National Catholic Reporter, titled "Thinking It Over", he pushed hard for free speech and greater openness in the church. In this campaign, he attracted many critics and was disinvited as a speaker several times and banned in the diocese of Allentown.  When Daniel Berrigan, a flamboyant anti-Vietnam-war Jesuit, was exiled to Latin America and put under a vow of silence, Leo broke the story in his column.  Berrigan was soon brought back home.

The New York Times hired Leo in 1967 as its first reporter to cover the intellectual world. After leaving the Times, he was named an assistant administrator in New York City's Environmental Protection Administration. He returned to journalism and inaugurated the Press Clips column in The Village Voice and served as book editor of the sociological magazine Society.  Leo worked at Time from 1974 to 1987, writing the behavior section which covered psychology, psychiatry, feminism and intellectual trends. He also wrote essays and humor, including the Ralph-and-Wanda dialogues between a liberal feminist and her curmudgeonly husband.

From 1988 to 2006, Leo's weekly column for U.S. News & World Report was syndicated to 140 newspapers by Universal Press Syndicate. The column focused mainly on social and cultural issues, most commonly political correctness, but also advertising, movies, language, the news media, higher education, pop psychology and the self-esteem movement. His 1995 column on Time-Warner, terming it America's "leading cultural polluter", sparked the campaign that led to Time-Warner's decision to sell off its 50 percent share in Interscope Records, a heavy producer of gangsta rap.

Leo served on the board of advisers of the Columbia Journalism Review for a decade and on the church-state committee of the American Civil Liberties Union for two years. He taught journalism at St. Ambrose University in Davenport and non-fiction writing at Southampton College on Long Island.  He was a visiting scholar at Ralston College during his later years.  Leo wrote that researchers should not worry about the effects of their findings, noting, "You're just supposed to tell your peers what you found. I don't expect academics to fret about these matters", regarding a study showing that diversity decreases the social capital of a community.

Leo's book of humor, How the Russians Invented Baseball and Other Essays of Enlightenment (), was published in 1989. His other books are Two Steps Ahead of the Thought Police (, 1994) and Incorrect Thoughts (,  2001).

Personal life
Leo's first marriage was to Stephanie Wolf.  Together, they had two children, Kristin and Karen.  They eventually divorced.  He subsequently married Jacqueline Leo in 1978.  She was the former editor-in-chief of The Fiscal Times, Reader's Digest, and other publications, and they remained married until his death.  They had one child together named Alex.

Leo died on May 9, 2022, at a hospital in The Bronx at the age of 86. He had Parkinson's disease and was hospitalized for COVID-19 prior to his death. As of May 11, the cause of death has not been determined.

References

External links
 Columns by Leo in U.S. News
 All of Leo's columns
 Leo's Blog in U.S. News
 Minding the Campus, of which Leo was the editor in chief
 A Father's Day post about Leo

1935 births
2022 deaths
American male journalists
Journalists from New York City
Manhattan Institute for Policy Research
Writers from Manhattan
Regis High School (New York City) alumni
University of Toronto alumni
Writers from Hoboken, New Jersey

John Leo


Bartolo is a former settlement in Los Angeles County, California. It lay at an elevation of 223 feet (68 m). Bartolo still appeared on maps as of 1926. Its original name came from Rancho Paso de Bartolo, the lands of the Mexican governor of California, Pio Pico, which in turn was named for the San Gabriel River ford called Paso de Bartolo Viejo (Old Bartolo's Crossing), near Beverly Road and the San Gabriel River. It was a station on the Union Pacific Railroad at the junction of its branch line to Whittier and its main line.  Today, the area is part of the cities of Whittier and Pico Rivera, which is named for Pio Pico.

Bartolo was the site of an engagement in the Mexican–American War. With 565 men, Commodore Robert F. Stockton and General Stephen Watts Kearny engaged Gen. José María Flores on January 8, 1847, at Bartolo Ford. Advancing across the knee-deep water in a hollow square formation, Kearny's men defeated General Florés and his Californios that had so plagued Lieutenant Gillespie at the siege of Los Angeles.

References

Former settlements in Los Angeles County, California
Pico Rivera, California
Whittier, California

Bartolo, California


The Standard Bank was a British overseas bank, which operated mainly in Africa from 1863 to 1969.  It merged with the Chartered Bank in 1969 to form Standard Chartered.

History
The bank was incorporated in London on 15 October 1862 as Standard Bank of British South Africa. It was formed by a group of South African businessmen led by John Paterson. The bank started operations in 1863 in Port Elizabeth, South Africa, and soon after opening it merged with several other banks including the Commercial Bank of Port Elizabeth, the Colesberg Bank, the British Kaffrarian Bank and the Fauresmith Bank.

It was prominent in financing and development of the diamond fields of Kimberley in 1867.

In reflection to the growth of its branch network and expansion outside British controlled regions, the bank dropped the word "British" from its title and adopted the name Standard Bank of South Africa Limited in 1881.

When gold was discovered on the Witwatersrand, the bank expanded northwards and on 11 October 1886 the bank started doing business in a tent at Ferreira's Camp (later to be called Johannesburg), thus becoming the first bank to open a branch on the Witwatersrand gold fields.  It opened a second Johannesburg branch on 1 November 1901 along Eloff Street.

From the 1890s through the 1910s the bank opened offices across Africa, although some of them were unsustainable and subsequently had to be closed. In 1912 it opened a branch in New York City.  In 1920 it bought out the African Banking Corporation.  By the mid-1950s, Standard Bank had around 600 offices in Africa.

In 1962, the bank was renamed Standard Bank Limited, and a subsidiary was registered in South Africa under the parent bank's previous name, Standard Bank of South Africa.

In 1965, Standard Bank merged with the Bank of West Africa expanding its operations into Cameroon, Gambia, Ghana, Nigeria, and Sierra Leone.

Merger
In 1969 the Standard Bank merged with Chartered Bank of India, Australia and China and the combined bank became known as Standard Chartered Bank.

Subsequent use of name
In South Africa the Standard Bank Investment Corporation (now Standard Bank Group) was established as the holding company of The Standard Bank of South Africa Limited.  Standard Chartered sold its remaining 39% stake in Standard Bank Group in 1987, and the two banking groups are now under quite separate ownership.  Today, the Standard Bank name is used by the South African group, which has expanded outside South Africa, including forming a subsidiary in the United Kingdom known as Standard Bank London.

The original 1862 company changed its name in 1985 from Standard Bank PLC to Standard Chartered Bank Africa PLC, and is now named Standard Chartered Africa Ltd.

References

External links

Standard Bank Group website: History
Standard Chartered website: History

British overseas banks
Standard Chartered
Banks established in 1862
1862 establishments in England
1969 disestablishments in England
Banks disestablished in 1969
British companies established in 1862
British companies disestablished in 1969

Standard Bank (historic)


The Camden New Journal is a free, independent newspaper that covers the London Borough of Camden. It was created because of a strike in the 1980s supported by campaigning journalist Paul Foot, Holborn and St Pancras MP Frank Dobson and the paper's editor Eric Gordon. It has a lot of influence in Camden because of its news content, investigations and high number of readers.

It was named Free Newspaper of The Year at the Press Gazette's national industry awards in 2001, 2003, 2005 and 2010. It was nominated in 2002 and 2004.

Other websites
 Official site

Newspapers published in the United Kingdom
1980s establishments in England

Camden New Journal


Lodewijk De Raet (; Brussels, 17 February 1870 – Forest, 24 November 1914) was a Flemish economist and politician. He played an important role in the Flemish movement. He was co-founder of the Vlaamsche volkspartij (1892), and was a proponent of the use of Dutch instead of French at the University of Ghent in Flanders (north part of Belgium). He believed that the economic development of Flanders was necessary for the political and cultural strengthening of the region. His motto was: taalbelang is stoffelijk belang (English: [the] linguistic concern is [a] material concern).

Already as a teenager in highschool Lodewijk De Raet showed a commitment for the Flemish cause. Together with August Vermeylen he started the illustrated magazine Jong Vlaanderen (E: Young Flanders) and he had been involved in the establishment of De Vlaamsche Wacht (E: Flemish guard), an organization of Flemings in Brussels. In this organization Lodewijk De Raet developed his economic program for the development of Flanders. In the meantime he studied, thanks to the support of Emiel Blauwaert, a friend of its deceased father, at the École polytechnique of the Universite Libre de Bruxelles (ULB). Here he became a member of the student group Geen Taal Geen Vrijheid (E: no language, no freedom), and he was a member of the Femish liberal (agnostic) student organization.

As a student Lodewijk De Raet became convinced that economy and education had a strong link. In order to be able to compete economically with other regions and to acquire a sufficiently strong position to be able preserve their economic independence, the Flemish people must have intellectual tools, such as a Flemish university. Together with its friends of Geen Taal Geen Vrijheid he created a Flemish University Extension. In 1899, he graduated in economic sciences at the Universite Libre de Bruxelles.

In the same period he had been involved in the establishment of the Flemish society Eendracht is Macht and the Flemish publication Schild en Vriend (E: shield and friend). Beside all this he became an employee of the ' Institut of sociology' of Ernest Solvay. In 1903, he started a campaign to introduce Flemish at the University of Ghent, which was accepted in 1906.

On 31 March 1911, the bill for the use of Flemish at the University of Ghent, was submitted to the Belgian parliament by Frans Van Cauwelaert, Louis Franck and Camille Huysmans. In 1912 Lodewijk De Raet obtained a PhD in economic sciences at the Solvay Sociology Institute. Lodewijk De Raet died some months later and he would not witness the introduction of Flemish at the University of Ghent in 1930.

In 1952, the Foundation Lodewijk De Raet was founded, which is a foundation for education of adults.

See also
 Lieven Gevaert

Notes

Sources
 Lodewijk De Raet (Dutch)
 Max Lamberty, Lodewijk De Raet. Een levensbeeld', publ. Heideland, 1961

External links

 Stichting Lodewijk De Raet

1870 births
1914 deaths
Flemish activists
Free University of Brussels (1834–1969) alumni

Lodewijk De Raet


William Prout FRS (; 15 January 1785 – 9 April 1850) was an English chemist, physician, and natural theologian.  He is remembered today mainly for what is called Prout's hypothesis.

Biography
Prout was born in Horton, Gloucestershire in 1785 and educated at 17 years of age by a clergyman, followed by the Redland Academy at Bristol and Edinburgh University, where he graduated in 1811 with an MD. His professional life was spent as a practising physician in London, but he also occupied himself with chemical research.  He was an active worker in biological chemistry and carried out many analyses of the secretions of living organisms, which he believed were produced by the breakdown of bodily tissues.  In 1823, he discovered that stomach juices contain hydrochloric acid, which can be separated from gastric juice by distillation.  In 1827, he proposed the classification of substances in food into sugars and starches, oily bodies, and albumen, which would later become known as carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.

Prout is better remembered, however, for his researches into physical chemistry.  In 1815, based on the tables of atomic weights available at the time, he anonymously hypothesized that the atomic weight of every element is an integer multiple of that of hydrogen, suggesting that the hydrogen atom is the only truly fundamental particle (which he called protyle), and that the atoms of the other elements are made of groupings of various numbers of hydrogen atoms.  While Prout's hypothesis was not borne out by later more-accurate measurements of atomic weights, it was a sufficiently fundamental insight into the structure of the atom that in 1920, Ernest Rutherford chose the name of the newly discovered proton to, among other reasons, give credit to Prout.

Prout contributed to the improvement of the barometer, and the Royal Society of London adopted his design as a national standard.

He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1819. He delivered the Goulstonian Lecture to the Royal College of Physicians in 1831 on the application of chemistry to medicine.

Prout wrote the eighth Bridgewater Treatise, Chemistry, Meteorology, and the Function of Digestion, considered with reference to Natural Theology.  It was in this work that he coined the term "convection" to describe a type of energy transfer.

In 1814, Prout married Agnes Adam, daughter of Alexander Adam, of Edinburgh, Scotland, and together they had six children. Prout died in London in 1850 and was buried in Kensal Green Cemetery.

The "Prout" is a unit of nuclear binding energy, and is 1/12 the binding energy of the deuteron, or 185.5 keV.  It is named after William Prout.  "Proutons" was an early candidate for the name of what are now called protons.

Honours and awards
 Fellow of the Royal Society (1819)
 Copley Medal (1827)
 Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians (1829)

Bibliography

 Prout, William (1834).  Chemistry, Meteorology, and the Function of Digestion Considered with Reference to Natural Theology; Bridgewater Treatises, W. Pickering (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2009; )

See also
 Earl of Bridgewater (for other Bridgewater Treatises)
 Atomic number

Notes

References

Further reading

 The Semiempirical Formula for Atomic Masses

1785 births
1850 deaths
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
People from South Gloucestershire District
English physical chemists
19th-century English medical doctors
Fellows of the Royal Society
Fellows of the Royal College of Physicians
Recipients of the Copley Medal
18th-century English people
Authors of the Bridgewater Treatises

William Prout


The Castello di Punta Pagana is a 17th-century fort located on the homonymous Punta Pagana, within the grounds of Villa Pagana in Rapallo, within the Metropolitan City of Genoa in Italy. It is located west of San Michele di Pagana, close to the boundary with Santa Margherita Ligure. The fort was originally built by the Republic of Genoa, and today it belongs to the Sovereign Military Order of Malta along with the rest of the villa.

Together with the Castello di Santa Margherita Ligure to the west and the  to the east, it formed part of the Genoese coastal defence system for the protection of villages on the western Tigullio gulf.

History
Construction of the fort began in April 1625 by the Republic of Genoa, the capitaneati of Rapallo, Recco, Chiavari and the podesterie of Moneglia and Sestri Levante. Its construction became necessary due to the open hostilities between Genoa and Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy, which raised fears of a Piedmontese land or sea attack.

The fort cost over 50,000 lire, and construction work progressed rapidly thanks to new taxes that allowed for the purchase of the material and paying workers' salaries. Construction was well underway by December 1625, and the moat and drawbridge were ready by 1627. The fort was fully completed and commissioned by the Republic of Genoa on 28 July 1631. It was armed with enough weapons, ammunition and gunpowder for a sudden attack.

Fortunately for the inhabitants of the nearby village of San Michele di Pagana, the area was never attacked by pirates or enemy soldiers and the fort never saw use. In 1644, the Genoese senate ordered the castellan to abandon the fort and send all military equipment inside on a galley to Genoa.

The castle was subsequently garrisoned by local soldiers, and it became the headquarters of the Commissariato di Sanità di Rapallo (Health Commissariat of Rapallo). The Bombardment of Genoa by the French fleet in 1684 caused fears of another attack, so the fort was rearmed. However, no attacks occurred, and the fort was finally abandoned in 1705. It later became private property, forming part of the grounds of the nearby Villa Pagana.

The fort has belonged to the Sovereign Military Order of Malta since 1959, when the last owner of the villa passed on the entire property to the Order.

Sources

External links

Forts in Italy
Buildings and structures in the Province of Genoa
17th-century fortifications
Buildings and structures completed in 1631
1631 establishments in the Republic of Genoa
Castles and fortifications of the Knights Hospitaller
Rapallo

Castello di Punta Pagana


is a short anime film produced in 2002 by Studio 4°C animation studio. The film was directed by Kazuto Nakazawa and featured the music of Franz Schubert's "Ave Maria". The film is noted for drawing its inspiration from Schubert's piece titled "Erlkönig".

Plot
During the Irish War of Independence, a five-year-old girl went out in search of the mysterious Demon's Castle. She hoped to recruit the services of the infamous Black Swordsman, who was portrayed as a dark, albeit skilled, swordsman. She wanted the swordsman to protect her village from an imminent attack by English soldiers; however, the Black Swordsman would only accept a particular genre of books as payment for his services. Upon receiving the book, the swordsman immersed himself in reading the novel, the cover of which shows that its title is "Denny's comedy". The second night in the castle, while reading the book on top of a tree, was the only time that the girl saw him smiling. While she anxiously waited for the Black Swordsman to finish the novel, the English approached the Irish village. As an attack was imminent, the Black Swordsman finished the novel and rushed to intercept the raid and quickly finished off the English soldiers. The bodies disappeared; the girl knew where to, but the swordsman told her not to not tell anybody about it, nor the way he smiled while reading the novel, or he would kill her and devour her. As he's about to leave the village, the girl runs to him to thank him. When turning to her, it is shown that the Swordsman has red stains on the lower part of his face and his neck.

Production
This short film was produced and bundled on the Studio 4°C Region 2 release of Deep Imagination which is a DVD of 5 short OVA films.  This DVD is a collection of films under the Sweat Punch series label by Studio 4°C.

The film uses two pieces of music, both originally composed by Franz Peter Schubert: "Ave Maria" and "Erlkönig".

References

External links

2002 anime OVAs
Action anime and manga
Studio 4°C

Comedy (2002 film)


Theta waves generate the theta rhythm, a neural oscillation in the brain that underlies various aspects of cognition and behavior, including learning, memory, and spatial navigation in many animals. It can be recorded using various electrophysiological methods, such as electroencephalogram (EEG), recorded either from inside the brain or from electrodes attached to the scalp.

At least two types of theta rhythm have been described.  The hippocampal theta rhythm is a strong oscillation that can be observed in the hippocampus and other brain structures in numerous species of mammals including rodents, rabbits, dogs, cats, and marsupials.  "Cortical theta rhythms" are low-frequency components of scalp EEG, usually recorded from humans. Theta rhythms can be quantified using quantitative electroencephalography (qEEG) using freely available toolboxes, such as, EEGLAB or the Neurophysiological Biomarker Toolbox (NBT).

In rats, theta wave rhythmicity is easily observed in the hippocampus, but can also be detected in numerous other cortical and subcortical brain structures.   Hippocampal theta waves, with a frequency range of 6–10 Hz, appear when a rat is engaged in active motor behavior such as walking or exploratory sniffing, and also during REM sleep. Theta waves with a lower frequency range, usually around 6–7 Hz, are sometimes observed when a rat is motionless but alert.  When a rat is eating, grooming, or sleeping, the hippocampal EEG usually shows a non-rhythmic pattern known as large irregular activity or LIA.  The hippocampal theta rhythm depends critically on projections from the medial septal area, which in turn receives input from the hypothalamus and several brainstem areas.  Hippocampal theta rhythms in other species differ in some respects from those in rats.  In cats and rabbits, the frequency range is lower (around 4–6 Hz), and theta is less strongly associated with movement than in rats.  In bats, theta appears in short bursts associated with echolocation.

In humans, hippocampal theta rhythm has been observed and linked to memory formation and navigation. As with rats, humans exhibit hippocampal theta wave activity during REM sleep. Humans also exhibit predominantly cortical theta wave activity during REM sleep. Increased sleepiness is associated with decreased alpha wave power and increased theta wave power. Meditation has been shown to increase theta power.

The function of the hippocampal theta rhythm is not clearly understood.  Green and Arduini, in the first major study of this phenomenon, noted that hippocampal theta usually occurs together with desynchronized EEG in the neocortex, and proposed that it is related to arousal.  Vanderwolf and his colleagues, noting the strong relationship between theta and motor behavior, have argued that it is related to sensorimotor processing.  Another school, led by John O'Keefe, have suggested that theta is part of the mechanism animals use to keep track of their location within the environment.  Another theory links the theta rhythm to mechanisms of learning and memory (Hasselmo, 2005). This theory states that theta waves may act as a switch between encoding and recall mechanisms, and experimental data on rodents  and humans  support this idea. Another study on humans has showed that theta oscillations determine memory function (encoding or recall) when interacting with high frequency gamma ctivity in the hippocampus. These findings support the idea that theta oscillations support memory formation and retrieval in interaction with other oscillatory rhythms. These different theories have since been combined, as it has been shown that the firing patterns can support both navigation and memory.

In human EEG studies, the term theta refers to frequency components in the 4–7 Hz range, regardless of their source.  Cortical theta is observed frequently in young children.  In older children and adults, it tends to appear during meditative, drowsy, hypnotic or sleeping states, but not during the deepest stages of sleep.  Theta from the midfrontal cortex is specifically related to cognitive control and alterations in these theta signals are found in multiple psychiatric and neurodevelopmental disorders.

History
Although there were a few earlier hints, the first clear description of regular slow oscillations in the hippocampal EEG came from a paper written in German by Jung and Kornmüller (1938). They were not able to follow up on these initial observations, and it was not until 1954 that further information became available, in a very thorough study by John D. Green and Arnaldo Arduini that mapped out the basic properties of hippocampal oscillations in cats, rabbits, and monkeys (Green and Arduini, 1954).  Their findings provoked widespread interest, in part because they related hippocampal activity to arousal, which was at that time the hottest topic in neuroscience.  Green and Arduini described an inverse relationship between hippocampal and cortical activity patterns, with hippocampal rhythmicity occurring alongside desynchronized activity in the cortex, whereas an irregular hippocampal activity pattern was correlated with the appearance of large slow waves in the cortical EEG.

Over the following decade came an outpouring of experiments examining the pharmacology and physiology of theta.  By 1965, Charles Stumpf was able to write a lengthy review of "Drug action on the electrical activity of the hippocampus" citing hundreds of publications (Stumpf, 1965), and in 1964 John Green, who served as the leader of the field during this period, was able to write an extensive and detailed review of hippocampal electrophysiology (Green, 1964).  A major contribution came from a group of investigators working in Vienna, including Stumpf and Wolfgang Petsche, who established the critical role of the medial septum in controlling hippocampal electrical activity, and worked out some of the pathways by which it exerts its influence.

Terminology

Because of a historical accident, the term "theta rhythm" is used to refer to two different phenomena, "hippocampal theta" and "human cortical theta".  Both of these are oscillatory EEG patterns, but they may have little in common beyond the name "theta".

In the oldest EEG literature dating back to the 1920s, Greek letters such as alpha, beta, theta, and gamma were used to classify EEG waves falling into specific frequency ranges, with "theta" generally meaning a range of about 4–7 cycles per second (Hz).  In the 1930s–1950s, a very strong rhythmic oscillation pattern was discovered in the hippocampus of cats and rabbits (Green & Arduini, 1954).  In these species, the hippocampal oscillations fell mostly into the 4–6 Hz frequency range, so they were referred to as "theta" oscillations.  Later, hippocampal oscillations of the same type were observed in rats; however, the frequency of rat hippocampal EEG oscillations averaged about 8 Hz and rarely fell below 6 Hz.  Thus the rat hippocampal EEG oscillation should not, strictly speaking, have been called a "theta rhythm".  However the term "theta" had already become so strongly associated with hippocampal oscillations that it continued to be used even for rats. Over the years this association has come to be stronger than the original association with a specific frequency range, but the original meaning also persists.

Thus, "theta" can mean either of two things:
A specific type of regular oscillation seen in the hippocampus and several other brain regions connected to it.
EEG oscillations in the 4–7 Hz frequency range, regardless of where in the brain they occur or what their functional significance is.

The first meaning is usually intended in literature that deals with rats or mice, while the second meaning is usually intended in studies of human EEG recorded using electrodes glued to the scalp.  In general, it is not safe to assume that observations of "theta" in the human EEG have any relationship to the "hippocampal theta rhythm".  Scalp EEG is generated almost entirely by the cerebral cortex, and even if it falls into a certain frequency range, this cannot be taken to indicate that it has any functional dependence on the hippocampus.

Hippocampal

Due to the density of its neural layers, the hippocampus generates some of the largest EEG signals of any brain structure.  In some situations the EEG is dominated by regular waves at 4–10 Hz, often continuing for many seconds.  This EEG pattern is known as the hippocampal theta rhythm.  It has also been called Rhythmic Slow Activity (RSA), to contrast it with the large irregular activity (LIA) that usually dominates the hippocampal EEG when theta is not present.

In rats, hippocampal theta is seen mainly in two conditions:  first, when an animal is running, walking, or in some other way actively interacting with its surroundings; second, during REM sleep. The frequency of the theta waves increases as a function of running speed, starting at about 6.5 Hz on the low end, and increasing to about 9 Hz at the fastest running speeds, although higher frequencies are sometimes seen for brief high-velocity movements such as jumps across wide gaps.  In larger species of animals, theta frequencies are generally lower.  The behavioral dependency also seems to vary by species:  in cats and rabbits, theta is often observed during states of motionless alertness.  This has been reported for rats as well, but only when they are fearful (Sainsbury et al., 1987).

Theta is not just confined to the hippocampus.  In rats, it can be observed in many parts of the brain, including nearly all that interact strongly with the hippocampus.  The generation of the rhythm is dependent on the medial septal area:  this area projects to all of the regions that show theta rhythmicity, and destruction of it eliminates theta throughout the brain (Stewart & Fox, 1990).

Type 1 and type 2

In 1975 Kramis, Bland, and Vanderwolf proposed that in rats there are two distinct types of hippocampal theta rhythm, with different behavioral and pharmacological properties (Kramis et al., 1975).  Type 1 ("atropine resistant") theta, according to them, appears during locomotion and other types of "voluntary" behavior and during REM sleep, has a frequency usually around 8 Hz, and is unaffected by the anticholinergic drug atropine.  Type 2 ("atropine sensitive") theta appears during immobility and during anesthesia induced by urethane, has a frequency in the 4–7 Hz range, and is eliminated by administration of atropine.  Many later investigations have supported the general concept that hippocampal theta can be divided into two types, although there has been dispute about the precise properties of each type.  Type 2 theta is comparatively rare in unanesthetized rats:  it may be seen briefly when an animal is preparing to make a movement but hasn't yet executed it, but has only been reported for extended periods in animals that are in a state of frozen immobility because of the nearby presence of a predator such as a cat or ferret (Sainsbury et al., 1987).

Relationship with behavior

Vanderwolf (1969) made a strong argument that the presence of theta in the hippocampal EEG can be predicted on the basis of what an animal is doing, rather than why the animal is doing it.  Active movements such as running, jumping, bar-pressing, or exploratory sniffing are reliably associated with theta; inactive states such as eating or grooming are associated with LIA.  Later studies showed that theta frequently begins several hundred milliseconds before the onset of movement, and that it is associated with the intention to move rather than with feedback produced by movement (Whishaw & Vanderwolf, 1973).  The faster an animal runs, the higher the theta frequency.  In rats, the slowest movements give rise to frequencies around 6.5 Hz, the fastest to frequencies around 9 Hz, although faster oscillations can be observed briefly during very vigorous movements such as large jumps.

Mechanisms

Numerous studies have shown that the medial septal area plays a central role in generating hippocampal theta (Stewart & Fox, 1990).  Lesioning the medial septal area, or inactivating it with drugs, eliminates both type 1 and type 2 theta.  Under certain conditions, theta-like oscillations can be induced in hippocampal or entorhinal cells in the absence of septal input, but this does not occur in intact, undrugged adult rats.  The critical septal region includes the medial septal nucleus and the vertical limb of the diagonal band of Broca.  The lateral septal nucleus, a major recipient of hippocampal output, probably does not play an essential role in generating theta.

The medial septal area projects to a large number of brain regions that show theta modulation, including all parts of the hippocampus as well as the entorhinal cortex, perirhinal cortex, retrosplenial cortex, medial mamillary and supramammillary nuclei of the hypothalamus, anterior nuclei of the thalamus, amygdala, inferior colliculus, and several brainstem nuclei (Buzsáki, 2002).  Some of the projections from the medial septal area are cholinergic; the rest are GABAergic or glutamatergic.  It is commonly argued that cholinergic receptors do not respond rapidly enough to be involved in generating theta waves, and therefore that GABAergic and/or glutamatergic signals (Ujfalussy and Kiss, 2006)  must play the central role.

A major research problem has been to discover the "pacemaker" for the theta rhythm, that is, the mechanism that determines the oscillation frequency.  The answer is not yet entirely clear, but there is some evidence that type 1 and type 2 theta depend on different pacemakers.  For type 2 theta, the supramammillary nucleus of the hypothalamus appears to exert control (Kirk, 1998).  For type 1 theta, the picture is still unclear, but the most widely accepted hypothesis proposes that the frequency is determined by a feedback loop involving the medial septal area and hippocampus (Wang, 2002).

Several types of hippocampal and entorhinal neurons are capable of generating theta-frequency membrane potential oscillations when stimulated.  Typically these are sodium-dependent voltage-sensitive oscillations in membrane potential at near-action potential voltages (Alonso & Llinás, 1989). Specifically, it appears that in neurons of the CA1 and dentate gyrus, these oscillations result from an interplay of dendritic excitation via a persistent sodium current (INaP) with perisomatic inhibition (Buzsáki, 2002).

Generators

As a rule, EEG signals are generated by synchronized synaptic input to the dendrites of neurons arranged in a layer.  The hippocampus contains multiple layers of very densely packed neurons—the dentate gyrus and the CA3/CA1/subicular layer—and therefore has the potential to generate strong EEG signals.  Basic EEG theory says that when a layer of neurons generates an EEG signal, the signal always phase-reverses at some level.  Thus, theta waves recorded from sites above and below a generating layer have opposite signs.  There are other complications as well:  the hippocampal layers are strongly curved, and theta-modulated inputs impinge on them from multiple pathways, with varying phase relationships.  The outcome of all these factors is that the phase and amplitude of theta oscillations change in a very complex way as a function of position within the hippocampus.  The largest theta waves, however, are generally recorded from the vicinity of the fissure that separates the CA1 molecular layer from the dentate gyrus molecular layer.  In rats, these signals frequently exceed 1 millivolt in amplitude.  Theta waves recorded from above the hippocampus are smaller, and polarity-reversed with respect to the fissure signals.

The strongest theta waves are generated by the CA1 layer, and the most significant input driving them comes from the entorhinal cortex, via the direct EC→CA1 pathway.  Another important driving force comes from the CA3→CA1 projection, which is out of phase with the entorhinal input, leading to a gradual phase shift as a function of depth within CA1 (Brankack, et al. 1993).  The dentate gyrus also generates theta waves, which are difficult to separate from the CA1 waves because they are considerably smaller in amplitude, but there is some evidence that dentate gyrus theta is usually about 90 degrees out of phase from CA1 theta.  Direct projections from the septal area to hippocampal interneurons also play a role in generating theta waves, but their influence is much smaller than that of the entorhinal inputs (which are, however, themselves controlled by the septum).

Research findings

Theta-frequency activity arising from the hippocampus is manifested during some short-term memory tasks (Vertes, 2005). Studies suggest that these rhythms reflect the "on-line" state of the hippocampus; one of readiness to process incoming signals (Buzsáki, 2002). Conversely, theta oscillations have been correlated to various voluntary behaviors (exploration, spatial navigation, etc.) and alert states (goose bumps, etc.) in rats (Vanderwolf, 1969), suggesting that it may reflect the integration of sensory information with motor output (for review, see Bland & Oddie, 2001). A large body of evidence indicates that theta rhythm is likely involved in spatial learning and navigation (Buzsáki, 2005).

Theta rhythms are very strong in rodent hippocampi and entorhinal cortex during learning and memory retrieval, and are believed to be vital to the induction of long-term potentiation, a potential cellular mechanism of learning and memory. Phase precession along the theta wave in the hippocampus permits neural signals representing events that are only expected or those from the recent past to be placed next to the actually ongoing ones along a single theta cycle, and to be repeated over several theta cycles. This mechanism is supposed to allow long term potentiation (LTP) to reinforce the connections between neurons of the hippocampus representing subsequent elements of a memory sequence. Indeed, it has been suggested that stimulation at the theta frequency is optimal for the induction of hippocampal LTP. Based on evidence from electrophysiological studies showing that both synaptic plasticity and strength of inputs to hippocampal region CA1 vary systematically with ongoing theta oscillations (Hyman et al., 2003; Brankack et al., 1993), it has been suggested that the theta rhythm functions to separate periods of encoding of current sensory stimuli and retrieval of episodic memory cued by current stimuli so as to avoid interference that would occur if encoding and retrieval were simultaneous.

Humans and other primates
In non-human animals, EEG signals are usually recorded using electrodes implanted in the brain; the majority of theta studies have involved electrodes implanted in the hippocampus.  In humans, because invasive studies are not ethically permissible except in some neurological patients, the largest number of EEG studies have been conducted using electrodes glued to the scalp.  The signals picked up by scalp electrodes are comparatively small and diffuse and arise almost entirely from the cerebral cortex for the hippocampus is too small and too deeply buried to generate recognizable scalp EEG signals. Human EEG recordings show clear theta rhythmicity in some situations, but because of the technical difficulties, it has been difficult to tell whether these signals have any relationship with the hippocampal theta signals recorded from other species.

In contrast to the situation in rats, where long periods of theta oscillations are easily observed using electrodes implanted at many sites, theta has been difficult to pin down in primates, even when intracortical electrodes have been available.  Green and Arduini (1954), in their pioneering study of theta rhythms, reported only brief bursts of irregular theta in monkeys.  Other investigators have reported similar results, although Stewart and Fox (1991) described a clear 7–9 Hz theta rhythm in the hippocampus of urethane-anesthetized macaques and squirrel monkeys, resembling the type 2 theta observed in urethane-anesthetized rats.

Most of the available information on human hippocampal theta comes from a few small studies of epileptic patients with intracranially implanted electrodes used as part of a treatment plan. In the largest and most systematic of these studies, Cantero et al. (2003) found that  oscillations in the 4–7 Hz frequency range could be recorded from both the hippocampus and neocortex. The hippocampal oscillations were associated with REM sleep and the transition from sleep to waking, and came in brief bursts, usually less than a second long.  Cortical theta oscillations were observed during the transition from sleep and during quiet wakefulness; however, the authors were unable to find any correlation between hippocampal and cortical theta waves, and concluded that the two processes are probably controlled by independent mechanisms.

Studies have shown an association of hypnosis with stronger theta-frequency activity as well as with changes to the gamma-frequency activity (Jensen et al., 2015). Also, increased theta waves have been seen in humans in 'no thought' meditation.

See also
 Epilepsy

Brain waves
 Delta wave – (0.1 – 3 Hz)
 Theta wave – (4 – 8 Hz)
 Alpha wave – (8 – 15 Hz)
 Mu wave – (7.5 – 12.5 Hz)
 SMR wave – (12.5 – 15.5 Hz)
 Beta wave – (16 – 31 Hz)
 Gamma wave – (32 – 100 Hz)

References

External links
 Brain slice models of theta EEG activity

Electroencephalography
Neurophysiology
Electrophysiology
Waves

Theta wave


An eclogue is a poem in a classical style on a pastoral subject.  Poems in the genre are sometimes also called bucolics.

Overview
The form of the word eclogue in contemporary English developed from Middle English , which came from Latin , which came from Greek  () in the sense 'selection, literary product' (which was only one of the meanings it had in Greek). The term was applied metaphorically to short writings in any genre, including parts of a poetic sequence or poetry book. The ancients referred to individual pieces in Virgil's Bucolica as , and the term was used by later Latin poets to refer to their own pastoral poetry, often in imitation of Virgil. The combination of Virgil's influence and the persistence of pastoral poetry through the Renaissance imposed eclogues as the accepted term for the genre. Later Roman poets who wrote eclogues include Calpurnius and Nemesianus.

Variations on a theme
In 1526, the Italian Renaissance poet Jacopo Sannazaro published his Eclogae Piscatoriae (Fishermen's eclogues), replacing the traditional Virgilian shepherds with fishermen from the Bay of Naples. He was imitated shortly after by the English poet Phineas Fletcher in his Spenserian Piscatorie Eclogs (1633), while in the following century William Diaper published Nereides: or Sea-Eclogues in 1712, in which the speakers are sea-gods and sea-nymphs.

By the early 18th century, the pastoral genre was ripe for renewal and an element of parody began to be introduced. John Gay ridiculed the eclogues of Ambrose Philips in the six 'pastorals' of The Shepherd's Week. The impulse to renewal and parody also met in the various "town eclogues" published at this time, transferring their focus from the fields to city preoccupations. The first was a joint publication by Jonathan Swift and his friends in The Tatler for 1710; John Gay wrote three more, as well as The Espousal, "a sober eclogue between two of the people called Quakers"; and Mary Wortley Montagu began writing a further six Town Eclogues from 1715.

In Scotland Allan Ramsay brought the novelty of Scots dialect to his two pastoral dialogues of 1723, "Patie and Roger" and "Jenny and Meggy", before expanding them into the pastoral drama of The Gentle Shepherd in the following year. Later the eclogue was further renewed by being set in exotic lands, first by the Persian Eclogues (1742) of William Collins, a revised version of which titled Oriental Eclogues was published in 1757. It was followed by the three African Eclogues (1770) of Thomas Chatterton, and by Scott of Amwell's three Oriental Eclogues (1782) with settings in Arabia, Bengal and Tang dynasty China.

In 1811 the fortunes of the Peninsular War brought the subject back to Europe in the form of four Spanish Eclogues, including an elegy on the death of the Marquis de la Romana issued under the pseudonym Hispanicus. These were described in a contemporary review as "formed on the model of Collins". In the following decade they were followed by a vernacular "Irish Eclogue", Darby and Teague, a satirical account of a royal visit to Dublin ascribed to William Russell Macdonald (1787–1854).

Modern eclogues
The first English language eclogues were written by Alexander Barclay, in 1514. In English literature, Edmund Spenser's The Shepheardes Calendar (1579) also belongs to the genre (twelve eclogues, one for each month of the year). Alexander Pope produced a series of four eclogues (one for each season of the year) in imitation of Virgil in 1709. The Spanish poet Garcilaso de la Vega also wrote eclogues in the Virgilian style. In French, Pierre de Ronsard wrote a series of eclogues under the title Les Bucoliques, and Clément Marot also wrote in the genre. In the seventeenth century, collections of eclogues were published by the Polish poets Szymon Szymonowic and Józef Bartłomiej Zimorowic. W. H. Auden called his book-length The Age of Anxiety (1944–1946) a "Baroque Eclogue". Miklós Radnóti, the Hungarian Jewish poet, wrote eclogues about the Holocaust. Seamus Heaney's collection Electric Light (2001) includes "Bann Valley Eclogue", "Glanmore Eclogue", and an English version of Virgil's ninth eclogue. The most prolific modern poet writing eclogues was Louis MacNeice.

In music
The term has also been applied to pastoral music, with the first significant examples being piano works by the Czech composer Václav Tomášek. Jan Václav Voříšek, César Franck, Franz Liszt (in the first book of Années de Pèlerinage), Antonín Dvořák,  Jean Sibelius, Gerald Finzi, Vítězslav Novák, and Egon Wellesz are among other composers who used the title in their work. Claude Debussy based his "Prélude à l'après-midi d'un faune" on a famous eclogue by Stéphane Mallarmé. Mel Bonis titled the fourth movement of her 5 Pièces pour Piano (1897) "Églogue". Igor Stravinsky titled the second and third movements of his Duo Concertant (1932) "Eclogue I" and "Eclogue II". The middle movement of his three-movement Ode (1943) is also titled "Eclogue". A work that is believed to be an unfinished piano concerto by Gerald Finzi was posthumously titled "Eclogue" by the publisher.
Additionally, a composition with the title 'Eclogue' is a work by Maurice Blower for horn and strings, dating from the 1950s. CD label Cameo Classics recorded it in 2011, after the score had been discovered by the late composer's son, Thomas.  Another more recent application of the term is a 2006 composition for violin and piano using the Italian spelling 'Egloga' in a work by American composer Justin Rubin and recorded by Erin Aldridge (violin) in 2011.

References

Further reading

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Genres of poetry
Ancient Greek poetry

Eclogue


Fingerlings 3 is the third in Andrew Bird's series of live albums called Fingerlings. Unlike the previous Fingerlings, Fingerlings 3 contains songs not recorded live in front of an audience; "Dear Dirty" is a studio track and "The Water Jet Cilice" and "Ethiobirds" were recorded live (solo) at Andrew's home studio in a barn in rural western Illinois. Tracks "Dark Matter" and "Scythian Empire" are live recordings of songs that were later included on Bird's 2007 album Armchair Apocrypha.

Track listing

References

Andrew Bird albums
2006 live albums

Fingerlings 3