Lulu Hunt Peters (1873–1930) was an American medical doctor and writer who wrote a featured newspaper column entitled Diet and Health, which she followed up with a best-selling book, Diet & Health: With Key to the Calories. She was the first person to widely popularize the concept of counting calories as a method of weight loss. It was also the first weight-loss book to become a bestseller.

Early life and education
Lulu E. Hunt was one of three children born to Thomas and Alice Hunt of Milford, Maine. She attended the Maine State Normal School in Castine before moving to California. She married Louis H. Peters in Los Angeles in 1899, and in 1909 graduated as a Doctor of Medicine from the University of California.

Career

For a number of years, Dr. Hunt wrote a featured newspaper column entitled Diet and  Health for the Central Press Association, which supplied content for about 400 newspapers nationwide.

In 1918, she published the diet book Diet & Health: With Key to the Calories, named after and based on her column and with illustrations by her nephew, Dawson Hunt Perkins (1907-1976), son of Henry Addison Perkins, Jr. and Anna Lydia Hunt). It presented the concept of calorie reduction as the best form of weight loss/watching weight to American women, who were wanting to conform to the new-found body image "thin is in". Along with presenting a solution for American women, Peters suggested that weight control was an active form of patriotism in the context of World War I. She suggested that dieting meant having complete self-control and recommended that women organize Watch Your Weight Anti-Kaiser Classes to obtain it. Peters followed her own advice/health regimens and credited them, along with her regular attendance at women's suffragist rallies, for her health and self-sufficiency.

Shortly after her book was published, Peters traveled to Bosnia, where she served with the Red Cross. When she returned to the United States, she was pleasantly surprised to learn that she was a best-selling author. She published a later edition describing her life after the book. Beginning in 1922, Peters became a radio lecturer, giving a series of talks about diet and health over station WJZ, then in Newark NJ. She continued to give radio health talks for the next several years. In addition, she also was a popular public speaker, giving motivational talks all over the United States, including at facilities that specialized in weight loss. And she made informational pamphlets available to the readers of her syndicated columns; those who sent for these pamphlets received Peters's strategies for how to successfully lose weight.

In 1930, while on a trip by steamship to a medical conference in London, she became ill with neuralgia, and her condition worsened during the trip.  She died of pneumonia in late June, 1930. She was survived by her former husband Louis H. Peters.  Her book remains in circulation and is still quoted today.

Diet and Health: With Key to the Calories

Having grown up a hefty child and once weighing 220 lbs, she was extremely conscious of the problems weight presented to her.  Peters's book Diet and Health: With Key to the Calories, targeted specifically to American women, became extremely popular, selling 2 million copies.  People found it witty and entertaining.  The book was the first dieting book to become a bestseller, and it remained in the top ten non-fiction bestselling books from 1922 to 1926, topping the list for two years running, in 1924 and 1925.

In the book, she explained the concept of the calorie as a scientific unit of measurement of the energy potentially available from food.  The concept of the calorie was so new that her book even provides instruction on the word's pronunciation. She explains the importance of balancing food intake and energy used, and suggests a number of exercises, supported with simple cartoons.

She explains in her book that "hereafter you are going to eat calories of food. Instead of saying one slice of bread, or a piece of pie, you will say 100 calories of bread, 350 calories of pie". She shows women how to calculate their ideal weight with a formula. Her book included estimates of food portions that would contain 100 calories, based on research in a variety of technical publications that were not available to the general reader.  She also indicates how many calories someone should eat per pound of ideal body weight, to keep the ideal weight that her system suggests (similar to body mass index). She paid less attention to issues of what sorts of foods a person should eat. Under her system, a person of Peters's height could eat whatever she wanted, as long as she maintained a strict diet of 1,200 calories a day.  However, she warned against eating candy, because she thought that women who ate a little candy would binge on it.

In the 19th century and the beginnings of the 20th century, the main concern among nutrition experts was that people, especially poor laborers, were undernourished, and the main goal was to find inexpensive ways to supply enough food energy. Especially after World War One, the main concern among women, and the main concern for Peters, was being slender.  Her book reinforced the message that the fashion industry (Vogue, Chanel, etc.) was implying through the design of their clothing: being fat was no longer in style. Peters presented a solution: counting calories as a way to lose weight. The book was written with the mindset that all women wanted to lose weight. According to Peters, who had lost 50-70 lbs with her diet regimen, dieting meant being beautiful and being in total control of the self. Being thin, to Peters, was an issue of self-esteem as well as physical health. She captivated her readers by letting them know that she knew the shame in being fat (having once weighed 200 lbs), and the sacrifice that dieting entailed, first hand. Beyond this, however, Peters saw dieting as having a moral dimension.  She saw people who did not have control over their weight as morally suspect. In order to be thin, women must resist temptations, which she explains with the language of sin, punishment, and redemption.

She also mentions other reasons, beyond self-improvement, that made her diet even more appealing. During World War I, rationing was a regular part of daily life. Peters suggested that her diet would make dealing with rationing easier. For instance, she said that women who count their calories will be able to leave the left-over rations for children during the war. She stated, "that for every pang of hunger we feel we can have a double joy, that of knowing we are saving worse pangs in some little children, and that of knowing that for every pang we feel we lose a pound." The diet would also help prevent food shortages; by counting calories, women would be showing patriotism and improving themselves at the same time.

See also

Robert Hugh Rose

References

External links

 "1922: Counting Calories". (History of Diets, Part 6).Men's Fitness Mar. 2003: 28. Gale Group: Health & Wellness Center
 Women's America: Refocusing the Past. Seventh ed. New York: Oxford UP, 2011.

1873 births
1930 deaths
20th-century American women physicians
20th-century American physicians
American women's rights activists
Deaths from pneumonia in the United States
Diet food advocates
Dietitians
People from Penobscot County, Maine
University of California, Berkeley alumni

Lulu Hunt Peters


The Butterworth Building or Butterworth Block at 1921 First Avenue in Seattle, Washington was originally built as the Butterworth & Sons mortuary, which moved into this location in 1903 and moved to larger quarters in 1923. Located on a steep hill, the building has only three stories on the First Avenue side, but five on Post Alley. The building is listed on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP); adjacent to Pike Place Market, it falls within the NRHP's Pike Place Public Market Historic District and the city's Place Market Historical District.  Now owned by the McAleese Family since 2005.

The building was the city's first purpose-built mortuary building. Jeannie Yandel in 2009 described it as "The city's first place for comprehensive death-related services from corpse retrieval to coffin sales." The building had the first elevator on the West Coast of the United States, used to transport bodies. A Seattle Mail and Herald account from August 1904, shortly after the building opened, calls it "without question of doubt, the most complete establishment of its kind in the United States…" A 2008 Seattle Times article describes the building, still extant, as "[b]eautifully appointed in stained mahogany, art glass, ornamental plaster and specially designed brass and bronze hardware…" The basement, accessible through Post Alley at the rear, is now (as of 2009) home to Kells Irish Restaurant & Pub. Several recent accounts describe the Kells space as the former embalming room and crematorium, but the 1904 account says that the basement housed the building's heating plant, stables, and a storage space for funeral wagons.

The building is associated with several ghost stories. In 2010, the building was featured on an episode of Ghost Adventures.

Original configuration
In the original configuration of the building, the upper floor consisted of three flats for employees of the firm. This floor was accessed by a separate entrance at the south end of the First Avenue façade.  The next floor below contained a showroom for coffins (caskets), a separate showroom of child-sized coffins, a room of women's burial garments, and a private reception and consulting room. The main showroom of coffins had a view out the back to Elliott Bay. The 35 caskets on display in August 1904 were priced from US$25 to $200; garments ranged from a $4 robe to other garments costing as much as $125. These wide ranges of prices were typical of an establishment that intended to serve everyone from the poor to the city's wealthiest families. By policy, those who wished to remain with the bodies of their dead between encoffinment and obsequies were allowed to use the private rooms without additional charge.

The next floor down was the main floor facing onto First Avenue. The floor contained private offices, morgues, an embalming room, and a "utensil room" to store canopies, pedestals, rugs, laying-out beds etc. These rooms were accessed through the main entrance. A separate door to the north led to a vestibule and a funeral chapel with a main floor capacity of 150 and 50 in the balcony, as well as a separate choir balcony. An adjacent room for use of clergy and family had a capacity of about 15, and connected to a "retiring room", basically a full bathroom. The room for the use of clergy and family had a private entrance separate from the entrance to the chapel itself. Also on the first floor was a special "best show room" with particularly fine caskets; even in 1904 some of these ranged in price as high as $890.

The next floor down—below the First Avenue grade, but still above grade on Post Alley—contained a "stock room" with fireproof vaults in which bodies could be stored more or less indefinitely. The 1904 Seattle Mail and Herald account described these as "so much needed in Seattle when people are undecided as to the disposition of the dead", and up to the time of the construction of this building there was no such thing to be had in the city. The basement, level with Post Alley, housed the building's heating plant, stables, and a storage space for funeral wagons.
Since 1983, the basement and stock room (now private banquet room) has been home to the McAleese family's Kells Irish Restaurant and Pub.

References

External links

1900s architecture in the United States
Commercial buildings completed in 1903
Buildings and structures in Seattle
Commercial buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Washington (state)
Death care companies of the United States
National Register of Historic Places in Seattle
Pike Place Market
Reportedly haunted locations in Washington (state)
1903 establishments in Washington (state)

Butterworth Building


Catholic University of Brasília (, UCB) is a private, non-profit, Roman Catholic university located in Taguatinga, in  the Federal District, in Brazil. As the only private university in the Federal District, it ranks sixth in the list of private institutions in Brazil. It is maintained by the Catholic Archdiocese of Brasília.

History
The Catholic School of Humanities was founded in 1974, and offered courses in business administration, economics, and education, to fulfill the educational needs of the residents settled in the new capital. History of the university is linked to the creation of Brasília during the 1950s, when the capital was moved from Rio de Janeiro to a more central location. Brasília became a major growth hub in the country.

Number of courses being offered at the first private college of the capital (the Catholic School of Humanities) increased over the years, and the university was renamed in 1980 as the Catholic Integrated College of Brasília (FICB). Towards the end of 1994, it was once again renamed as the Catholic University of Brasilia - UCB, by the Federal Education Council through the Ministerial Decree 1.827 of December 28. The Catholic University of Brasília - UCB is the only private university in the Federal District, and ranks sixth in the list of private institutions in Brazil.

Schools, faculties and institutes
UCB has three campuses: Campus I (the main Campus) is located in the Taguatinga. Campus II, namely Asa Norte, and Campus III, or Asa Sul, are located in the Brasília. The university is associated with three units in Asa Sul - Dom Bosco School, CEMA, and Pius XII - which along with Universa Foundation, offer most of the Graduate "Lato Sensu" Courses.The Hospital of the Catholic University of Brasília (HUCB) is also located in Taguatinga.

Main academic units of UCB include the Library System – SIBI - which is responsible for five physical libraries and a virtual library with more than 100,000 titles and 218,000 volumes. It also includes Software Sections (22) of which seven are public, Publisher Universa, 147 laboratories, HUCB – Hospital of the Catholic University of Brasilia - Catholic Online and Distance Education Centre – LCC / EAD. These offer postgraduate "Lato Sensu" degrees, undergraduate (bachelor's and licentiate) degrees, extension programs and feature 25 poles, of which 21 are located in Brazil, 3 are in Japan and 1 is in Angola.

Altogether UCB has an area of about 620.000m² and approximately 116.000m² of its campus is built around the Federal District (Campus I, CAAN, CAAS, HUCB and associated units) area.

The main Campus of UCB features 6 Schools which are:

 School of Health
Offers 16 courses (7 Bachelors, 2 Bachelors / Undergraduate, 1 Technological Distance Course, 3 Master's degrees and 3 Doctorate Degrees)

 Polytechnic School
Offers 13 courses (5 Bachelors, 3 Technological Degrees, 3 Technological Distance Courses and 2 Masters)

 School of Business
Offers 21 courses (6 Bachelors, 3 Bachelors distance courses, 4 Technological Courses, 5 Technological Distance Courses, 2 Masters and 1 PhD)

 School of Education and Humanities
Offers 12 courses (6 Undergraduate Degrees, 1 Bachelor, 3 Distance courses, 1 Masters and 1 Doctorate in Education)

 School of Medicine
Offers 2 courses (one Bachelor and one master's degree)

 School of Law
Offers 4 courses (1 Bachelor, 2 Technological Distance Courses and 1 Master)

Education
In addition to normal classroom courses, the university also offers a distance education program. Number of students enrolled in all distance education courses was 1,869 in 2003, and rose to 3,283 in 2006, a 75% increase. Until 2006, the university offered eight undergraduate courses and seven postgraduate courses as part of its distance-learning module. In the later years, the online course curriculum was expanded with the help of the International Covenants on Centers for Distance Education, or PEADs.

Today, the university offers 34 undergraduate degree courses, 27 graduate courses, 6 MBA programs and 5 Doctoral graduate courses.

According to the Student April Editor's Guide 2013, 80 stars had been awarded to 22 courses at UCB. The Course of Economics received the highest score, with five stars. Twelve courses received four stars: Management, Accounting, Law (CAAS and Campus I), Physical Education (CAAS and Campus I), Pharmacy, Social Communication (journalism, advertising and marketing), Psychology, International Relations and IT Systems. Seven courses earned three stars: Computer Science, Biological Sciences, Environmental Engineering, Physiotherapy, Nutrition, Dentistry and Pedagogy.

In the 2012 release of the RUF - University Ranking Sheet - UCB occupied the 35th position overall and ranked 6th among all private institutions in Brazil. Likewise, in Pro-Rectory of Postgraduate Studies and Research, number of enrolled students increased by 40% in 2013.

Undergraduate programs
UCB currently offers 53 majors. Undergraduate courses are offered by the university under four major categories:

 Social Sciences
 Business administration
 Political Science and Government
 Accounting
 Economics
 Digital Communication
 Social Communication
 Law
 Philosophy
 Languages
 Pedagogy
 Teacher Training Program
 Psychology
 International Relations
 Bilingual Executive Secretary
 Social Service

 Exact Sciences
 Architecture and Urbanism
 Computer Science
 Environmental Engineering
 Civil Engineering
 Physics
 Mathematics
 Chemistry
 IT Systems
 Technology in Logistics

 Biological Sciences
 Bio-medicine
 Biological Sciences
 Physical Education
 Nursing
 Pharmacy
 Physiotherapy
 Gerontology
 Medicine
 Nutrition
 Dentistry

 Distance Courses
 Bachelor of Arts
 Bachelor of Business Administration
 Bachelor of Science in Accounting
 Degree in Tourism
 Degree in Philosophy
 Degree in Pedagogy
 Educational Training Program
 Technology in Foreign Trade
 Technology in IT Management
 Technology in Human Resource Management

References

External links
 Official website (in Portuguese)

Catholic universities and colleges in Brazil
1974 establishments in Brazil
Universities and colleges established in 1974
Universities and colleges in Brasília

Catholic University of Brasília


Johan Barthold Jongkind (3 June 1819 – 9 February 1891) was a Dutch painter and printmaker. He painted marine landscapes in a free manner and is regarded as a forerunner of Impressionism.

Biography

Jongkind was born in the town of Lattrop in the Overijssel province of the Netherlands near the border with Germany. Trained at the art academy in The Hague under Andreas Schelfhout, in 1846 he moved to Montparnasse in Paris, France where he studied under Eugène Isabey and François-Édouard Picot. Two years later, the Paris Salon accepted his work for its exhibition, and he received acclaim from critic Charles Baudelaire and later on from Émile Zola. He was to experience little success, however, and he suffered bouts of depression complicated by alcoholism.

Jongkind returned to live in Rotterdam in 1855, and remained there until 1860. Back in Paris, in 1861 he rented a studio on the rue de Chevreuse in Montparnasse where some of his paintings began to show glimpses of the Impressionist style to come. In 1862 he met in Normandy, in the famous ferme Saint-Siméon in Honfleur, with some of his artist friends, such as Alfred Sisley, Eugène Boudin, and the young Claude Monet, to all of whom Jongkind served as a mentor.  Monet later referred to him as "...a quiet man with such a talent that is beyond words" and credited the "definitive education" of his own eye to Jongkind. In 1863 Jongkind exhibited at the first Salon des Refusés. He was invited to participate in the first exhibition of the Impressionist group in 1874, but he declined.

In 1878, Jongkind and his companion Joséphine Fesser moved to live in the small town of La Côte-Saint-André near Grenoble in the Isère département in the southeast of France. He died in 1891 in Saint-Égrève, in the same département. He is buried in the cemetery of La Côte-Saint-André. Streets are named after him in some Dutch town quarters dedicated to 19th- and 20th-century Dutch painters in e.g. Overtoomse Veld-Noord, Amsterdam, and De Vijfhoek, Deventer, as well as in Grenoble.

Commemoration
On 2 June 2019, a statue of Jongkind made by Dutch sculptor Rob Houdijk was revealed in the Duifpolder between Maassluis and Vlaardingen alongside the Vlaardingertrekvaart canal, on the occasion of the 200th anniversary of his birth. At this spot, Jongkind must have made preparatory sketches of the Rechthuis van Zouteveen for one of his later etching 'Les deux barques à voile' from 1862.

Subject and style
Jongkind's most frequent subject was the marine landscape, which he painted both in the Netherlands and in France. Many of his works depict the Seine, particularly the area near Notre-Dame Cathedral. He painted watercolors out-of-doors, and used them as sketches for oil paintings made in his studio. His paintings are characterized by vigorous brushwork and strong contrasts. Like the 17th-century Dutch landscape painters of the Golden Age of Dutch painting, he typically composed his landscapes with a low horizon, allowing the sky to dominate.

Selected paintings

Jongkind's paintings, prints, and sketches are exhibited in museums worldwide including Museum Rotterdam, Rijksmuseum Twenthe, Petit Palais in Paris, Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, Art Institute of Chicago, National Gallery in London, National Museum, Kraków, and .

Bibliographies
 Ankelle, Daniel (2011): Johan Jonkind: 75 Impressionist Paintings - Impressionisme, Angelke Publishing LLC, ASIN: B005VU2H1Y.
 Auffret, François (2003): Jongkind 1819-1891 - Biographie Illustrée, Maisonneuve et Larose, Paris, .
 Czymmek, Götz, Jaques Foucart John Sillevis u. a. (2004): Johan Barthold Jongkind: Ein Wegbereiter des Impressionismus, Ausstellungskatalog Richartz Wallraf Museum, Köln, .
Hefting, Victorine (1975). Jongkind—sa vie, son œuvre, son époque. Paris: Arts et métiers graphiques.
 Patin, Sylvie (2014): Jongkind - une Fascination pour La Lumière, Édition des Falaises, Rouen, .
 Sillevis, John (2003): Jongkind Paintings, Bibliothèque De L'image, Paris, .
Stein, Adolphe. Jongkind—catalogue critique de l'oeuvre. (2003 volume 1) Paris: Brame & Lorenceau. .

Notes

References
Boorsch, Suzanne, and John Marciari (2006). Master Drawings from the Yale University Art Gallery. Yale University Press.
Hefting, Victorine. "Johan Barthold Jongkind", Oxford Art Online
University of California, Riverside, Los Angeles County Museum, & University of California, Riverside. (1974). The Impressionists and the Salon (1874-1886) honoring the centennial of the first impressionist exhibition: California collections. Riverside, Calif.

External links

 Association of the Friends of Jongkind (Société des amis de Jongkind)
 Biography of Johann Jongkind (includes a selection of his paintings)
 In the Steps of Jongkind in the Dauphiné (Dans les pas de Jongkind en Dauphiné)
 Biography notes and dates of Jongkind, in the Dutch R.K.D. Archive, The Hague
 Many free images of paintings, drawings and prints of Jongkind, in the Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam
 Jongkind's painting art in Musee d'Orsay, Paris

1819 births
1891 deaths
19th-century Dutch painters
19th-century printmakers
Dutch expatriates in France
Dutch Impressionist painters
Dutch male painters
Dutch marine artists
Dutch printmakers
People from Lattrop
19th-century Dutch male artists

Johan Jongkind


Norman Palmer (October 7, 1918 – March 23, 2013) was an American television editor for The Walt Disney Company. Palmer worked for Disney for around 45 years and served as a mentor to Roy E. Disney, who was later appointed vice-chairman of Disney productions.

Palmer was born and raised in California and graduated from Hollywood High School in 1937. He joined the editorial division of Disney in 1940. Palmer edited films including The Living Desert, The African Lion, Water Birds, The Shaggy D.A., and The Legend of Lobo.

He died on March 23, 2013, of natural causes. He is also believed to be the inspiration for the fictional character Norman Polk, a projectionist created by game developer theMeatly for his best selling video-game "Bendy And The Ink Machine", released on the 10 February 2017.

References

External links

1918 births
2013 deaths
Disney people
American film editors

Norman R. Palmer


This is an incomplete list of notable faculty at TU Delft .

B
Jan Hendrik de Boer, developer of crystal bar process
Johannes M. Bauer, Austrian communications professor
Johannes Bosscha, Dutch physicist and former director of TU Delft
Jacob B. Bakema, Dutch architect
Frits Bolkestein, Dutch politician and former European Commissioner
Nicolaas Govert de Bruijn, Dutch mathematician, known for De Bruijn graph and De Bruijn index
Martinus Willem Beijerinck, Dutch microbiologist and botanist and founder of virology
Jan Burgers, Dutch physicist, known for Burgers equation and Burgers vector

C
Jo Coenen, Dutch architect
Dirk Coster, Dutch physicist, co-founder of Hafnium

D
Jan Dietz, Dutch computer scientist
David van Dantzig, Dutch mathematician and co-founder of National Research Institute for Mathematics and Computer Science
Cees Dekker, Dutch scientist known for research on carbon nanotubes and molecular biophysics

E
Wiktor Eckhaus, Dutch mathematician known for Eckhaus instability and Eckhaus equation
Berend George Escher, Dutch geologist and former rector magnificus of University of Leiden
Aldo van Eyck, Dutch architect
Bruno Ninaber van Eyben, Dutch jewellery and industrial designer; designed the last series of Dutch guilder coins and the obverse side of all circulating Dutch euro coins

F
Bent Flyvbjerg, Danish urban planner
Tony Fretton, British architect

G
Johannes De Groot, Dutch mathematician
Marinus Jan Granpré Molière, Dutch architect

H
Majid Hassanizadeh, Iranian hydrogeologyst
Wander Johannes de Haas, Discoverer of Einstein–de Haas effect
Francine Houben, Dutch architect, co-founder of Mecanoo architects bureau
Vic Hayes, Dutch policy maker, father of WiFi
Herman Hertzberger, Dutch architect

K
Albert Jan Kluyver, a father of comparative microbiology
Hendrik Anthony Kramers, co-founder of National Research Institute for Mathematics and Computer Science
Gijs Kuenen, Dutch microbiologist
Warner T. Koiter, Dutch mechanical engineer
Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, Dutch Nobel laureate in Physics, a discoverer of superconductivity
Ralph Kronig, German-American physicist and discoverer of particle spin
Alexander Rinnooy Kan, Dutch mathematician and economist
Marc Koehler, Dutch architect
Frederik H. Kreuger, Dutch high voltage scientist and inventor
Alexander Rinnooy Kan, Dutch mathematician and business leader

L
D.G.H. Latzko, Austrian-born Dutch mechanical enigeer
Rehuel Lobatto, Dutch mathematician known for Gauss–Lobatto quadrature method
Harry Lintsen, Dutch professor of history of technology

M
Paul Mijksenaar, industrial designer, developer of visual information systems for John F. Kennedy International, LaGuardia and Schiphol airports
Gustaaf Adolf Frederik Molengraaff, Dutch geologist and discoverer of Bushveld complex
Marinus Jan Granpré Molière, Dutch architect, founder of Traditionalist School
Winy Maas, Dutch architect

O
Wubbo Ockels, Dutch astronaut, STS-61A Challenger crew member
Kas Oosterhuis, Dutch architect
Ootje Oxenaar, Dutch graphic designer

P
Hendrik Jacobus Prins, discoverer of the Prins reaction
Willem van der Poel, Dutch computer scientist
Hans B. Pacejka, Dutch expert in vehicle system dynamics
Balthasar van der Pol, Dutch electrical engineer
Dirk Polder, Dutch physicist known for Casimir-Polder force

R
Carmona Rodrigues, former mayor of Lisbon
Hendrik van Riessen, Dutch philosopher
Bob Van Reeth, Belgian architect
Hendrik van Riessen, Dutch reformational philosopher
Jacob van Rijs, Dutch architect

S
Henk G. Sol, Dutch organizational theorist
Dirk Jan Struik, Dutch-American mathematician
Thomas Joannes Stieltjes, Dutch mathematician and founder of Riemann–Stieltjes integral
Egbert Schuurman, Dutch reformation philosopher
Jan Arnoldus Schouten, Dutch mathematician

T
Antonia Terzi, Italian aerodynamicist
Bernard Tellegen, Dutch electrical engineer, inventor of penthode and gyrator
Alexander Tzonis, Greek architect

U
Johannes Herman Frederik Umbgrove, Dutch geologist

V
Marc de Vries, Dutch technologist
Henk van der Vorst, Dutch mathematician
Cees Veerman, Dutch politician
Jacq Firmin Vogelaar, Dutch novelist
Felix Andries Vening Meinesz, Dutch geophysicist and geodesist

W
Aaldert Wapstra, Dutch physicist
Ludwig Oswald Wenckebach, Dutch sculptor

Z
Friso de Zeeuw, Dutch politician
Andy Zaidman, Professor Object Oriented Programming

Delft University of Technology

List of Delft University of Technology faculty


Isla del Trocadero (tr. "trader's island") is an island in the Bay of Cádiz, in Andalusia, Spain.

Situation
The island has an area of 5.25 km² and lies in the southern part of the Bay of Cádiz, southwest of Puerto Real village.

The north of the island is crossed by Spanish national highway N443, which goes from Puerto Real to Cádiz. The industrial area Polígono El Trocadero and the ramp in the national highway named El Trocadero refer to the direct proximity of the island.

Protected area
The Isla del Trocadero belongs to large protected area and a natural park (Parque Natural de la Bahía de Cádiz), with an extension of 100 km2. The area is an important wetland biotope and landing zone for migratory birds.

Access to the island
The island can be accessed by the ports of Puerto Real and Matagorda. It is particularly interesting for bird watching.

History
The island has been an important commercial traffic point for a long time, hence its name  It was also used to repair ships. The San Luis Fort, in the Southern tip of the island, was used as part of the defences of the Bay of Cádiz.

The fort, currently in ruins, was captured by French troops  during the Battle of Trocadero, on August 31, 1823. This lends name to the Trocadéro area in the 16th arrondissement of Paris, which featured the Palais du Trocadéro in the 19th century, and in celebration of which the London Trocadero was named a few years later.

Trocadero
Geography of the Province of Cádiz
Protected areas of Andalusia
Landforms of Andalusia

Isla del Trocadero


Ferdinand Pecora (January 6, 1882 – December 7, 1971) was an American lawyer and New York State Supreme Court judge who became famous in the 1930s as Chief Counsel to the United States Senate Committee on Banking and Currency during its investigation of Wall Street banking and stock brokerage practices.

Early life

Ferdinand Pecora was born in Nicosia, Sicily, the son of Louis Pecora and Rosa Messina, who emigrated to the United States in 1886. He grew up in Chelsea, Manhattan. After briefly studying for the Episcopal ministry, Pecora attended St. Stephen's College (now Bard College) and the City University of New York before he was forced to leave school when his father was injured in an industrial accident.

Career

After securing a job as a clerk in a Wall Street law firm, Pecora eventually attended New York Law School and became a member of the New York bar in 1911.

New York City public prosecution

Originally a Progressive Republican, he became a member of the Democratic Party and Tammany Hall in 1916. In 1918, he was appointed as an assistant district attorney in New York City. Over the next twelve years, he earned a reputation in the city as an honest and talented prosecutor. Although he had little experience with Wall Street, he helped shut down more than 100 bucket shops.

In 1922, Pecora was named chief assistant district attorney, the number-two man in the office under the newly elected Joab H. Banton. In 1929, Banton chose Pecora as his heir apparent, but Tammany Hall refused to nominate him, fearing that the honest Pecora might bring prosecutions against its members. Pecora left the district attorney's office for private practice, where he remained until 1933.

Senate

Ferdinand Pecora was appointed chief counsel to the U.S. Senate's Committee on Banking and Currency in January 1933 to replace Irving Ben Cooper by the outgoing committee chairman, Republican Peter Norbeck. He continued under Democratic chairman Duncan Fletcher, following the 1932 election that swept Franklin D. Roosevelt into the U.S. presidency and gave the Democratic Party control of the Senate. In fact, following a meeting with Senator Fletcher in March 1933, President Roosevelt publicly gave Pecora carte blanche to go wherever his investigations might lead him.

The Senate committee hearings that Pecora led probed the causes of the Wall Street Crash of 1929 that launched a major reform of the American financial system. Pecora, aided by John T. Flynn, a journalist, and Max Lowenthal, a lawyer, personally undertook many of the interrogations during the hearings, including such Wall Street personalities as Richard Whitney, president of the New York Stock Exchange, George Whitney (a partner in J.P. Morgan & Co.) and investment bankers Thomas W. Lamont, Otto H. Kahn, Albert H. Wiggin of Chase National Bank, and Charles E. Mitchell of National City Bank (now Citibank). Because of Pecora's work, the hearings soon acquired the popular name the Pecora Commission, and Time magazine featured Pecora on the cover of its June 12, 1933, issue.

Pecora's investigation unearthed evidence of irregular practices in the financial markets that benefited the rich at the expense of ordinary investors, including exposure of Morgan's "preferred list" by which the bank's influential friends (including Calvin Coolidge, the former president, and Owen J. Roberts, a justice of Supreme Court of the United States) participated in stock offerings at steeply discounted rates. He also revealed that National City sold off bad loans to Latin American countries by packing them into securities and selling them to unsuspecting investors, that Wiggin had shorted Chase shares during the crash, profiting from falling prices, and that Mitchell and top officers at National City had received $2.4 million in interest-free loans from the bank's coffers.

Spurred by these revelations, the United States Congress enacted the Glass–Steagall Act, the Securities Act of 1933 and the Securities Exchange Act of 1934. With the United States in the grips of the Great Depression, Pecora's investigations highlighted the contrast between the lives of millions of Americans in abject poverty and the lives of such financiers as J.P. Morgan, Jr.; under Pecora's questioning, Morgan and many of his partners admitted that they had paid no income tax in 1931 and 1932; they explained their failure to pay taxes by reference to their losses in the stock market's decline.

SEC

After Pecora closed his investigations, on July 2, 1934, President Roosevelt appointed him a Commissioner of the newly formed U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC).

New York State Supreme Court

On January 21, 1935, Pecora resigned from the SEC (to be replaced by James Delmage Ross) and became a judge of the New York Supreme Court, a position he held until 1950, when he ran unsuccessfully against Vincent R. Impellitteri for Mayor of New York City.

On October 17, 1950, Judge Pecora and US Senator Herbert H. Lehman (D-NY) gave radio addresses on behalf of the CIO-PAC during prime (10:30-11:15 P.M.).

National Lawyers Guild

In 1937, Pecora was a founding member of the National Lawyers Guild (NLG). On March 1, 1938, Pecora become NLG president, noted as a "forceful speaker." Pecora resigned from the NLG during its third annual convention in 1939 after the vote against his resolution disavowing communists failed to carry in the national vote.

Private practice

Returning to the practice of law, Pecora represented such major clients as Warner Bros. Pictures Distributing Corporation, et al. as respondents before the United States Supreme Court in the 1954 case, Theatre Enterprises v. Paramount, 346 U.S. 537.

Personal life

Pecora and his wife, Florence Louise Waterman, married in 1910 and had one son. He died at the Ottendorfer Public Library and Stuyvesant Polyclinic Hospital on December 7, 1971. He was 89.

Works

In 1939, Pecora wrote a book about the Senate investigations titled Wall Street Under Oath: The Story of Our Modern Money Changers, which has been reprinted twice:

 Wall Street Under Oath: The Story of Our Modern Money Changers (1939)

References

Further reading

There is a brief entry for Pecora in the Dictionary of American National Biography (Oxford University Press, 1999).

External links

Chernow, R. "Where Is Our Ferdinand Pecora?", The New York Times. Retrieved on 2009-01-06.
Lewis, Stephen. Investigating the Financial Crisis and My Passion for Borsalino Hats, recalling a personal encounter with Judge Pecora. Retrieved on 2009-01-09.

1882 births
1971 deaths
United States Senate lawyers
Lawyers from Manhattan
Italian emigrants to the United States
New York Law School alumni
Members of the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission
New York Supreme Court Justices
New York (state) Democrats
20th-century American judges
New York (state) Republicans
Franklin D. Roosevelt administration personnel
People from Nicosia, Sicily

Ferdinand Pecora


Giorgos Kyrtsos () is a Greek politician who has been serving as a Member of the European Parliament since 2014.

Member of the European Parliament, 2014–present
In parliament, Kyrtsos has been serving on the Committee on Economic and Monetary Affairs since 2014. In 2019, he also joined the Committee on Foreign Affairs.

In addition to his committee assignments, Kyrtsos has been part of the Parliament's delegations for relations with the NATO Parliamentary Assembly (2014–2019) and with the Arab Peninsula (since 2019).

Kyrtsos was expelled from New Democracy on 18 February 2022 following his criticism of the government of Prime Minister Kyriakos Mitsotakis for curtailing press freedom. On 4 May 2022, he left the EPP and joined Renew Europe.

Political positions
In 2019, Kyrtsos publicly endorsed policy proposals put forward by Greek Solution founder Kyriakos Velopoulos according which illegal immigrants to Greece are to be sent to remote, uninhabited islands to await deportation.

In November 2021, Kyrtsos joined a group of seven Members of the European Parliament led by Raphaël Glucksmann to Taiwan to send a strong signal in support of the self-ruling island, despite a threat of retaliation from China.

In 2022, Kyrtsos and his colleague Markus Ferber tabled several amendments to paragraphs relating to the European Central Bank's climate strategy in a report by the Parliament, criticizing ECB President Christine Lagarde's plan to take greater account of the environment in core policy decisions as a "distraction" from the bank's duty to tame inflation.

References

Living people
MEPs for Greece 2019–2024
New Democracy (Greece) politicians
1952 births
Politicians from Athens
New Democracy (Greece) MEPs
MEPs for Greece 2014–2019

Giorgos Kyrtsos


Lee Jaffe (born 1950) is an American artist, photographer, filmmaker, musician, and producer.

Life and work

Early life
Born in the Bronx to a Jewish family, Jaffe grew up in New York City. Having fulfilled his high school requirements at the age of sixteen, Jaffe left New York to attend Penn State University, where he studied American history and literature, art history, and modern philosophy.

Early films and conceptual art
Jaffe left Penn State at the age of 19, returned briefly to New York where he played harmonica and guitar in various bands, and then picked up suddenly and moved to Brazil. Through the music scene there, he was introduced into a circle of friends making experimental films. There, he directed such films as the 16 mm film Nine Ways of Dying, created in the remote mountains of Brazil. Jaffe became close to the influential Brazilian filmmaker Neville d'Almeida and the artist Hélio Oiticica, with whom he collaborated in the April 1970 exhibition "From Body to Earth" in Belo Horizonte.

When Jaffe returned in New York in 1971, he continued making films, such as Impact, with the conceptual artist Vito Acconci, and Brooklyn Bridge, with Gordon Matta-Clark. In 1971, he also participated in the landmark conceptual exhibition "Projects: Pier 18" for the Museum of Modern Art, New York, curated by Willoughby Sharp.

Music career and sojourn in Jamaica
In 1972, while working with Island Records, he met Bob Marley in a hotel room in New York. He followed Marley back to Jamaica on what was originally a two-week vacation, but ended up staying for the next five years. Jaffe lived with Marley, managing the Wailers, playing harmonica on the album Natty Dread, and organizing their North American tour. In Jamaica, Jaffe also met Peter Tosh, and he produced his album Legalize It and shot the iconic cover in 1977.

Turn to painting
Jaffe moved back to New York in 1977, while still working with Peter Tosh. In 1983 Jaffe turned to painting. His works have been characterized as "large scale, multi-media historical assemblage." Through his work, he has explored various themes of marginalization in American history, such as "the exploitation of the black performer in America, the cruelty of the fur industry, the relationship of the Native American to his environment, the ambiguity of America's traitors." Jaffe has exhibited at major museums worldwide, including Moderna Museet, Stockholm, Sweden; Irish Museum of Modern Art, Dublin, Ireland; and the Ikon Gallery, Birmingham, England.

Recent work
In the mid-80s, Jaffe produced records for reggae pioneer Joe Higgs, Grammy-nominated The Wailing Souls, and dancehall innovator Barrington Levy. In 2003, he wrote ONE LOVE: Life with Bob Marley and the Wailers, published by W.W. Norton and Sons.

In 2013, Jaffe co-wrote a book with French scholar and Jamaican popular music specialist, Jérémie Kroubo Dagnini, Bob Marley and the Wailers: 1973-1976, published by Camion Blanc (French language). This book is a sort of autobiography in which Jaffe reveals precious details about his meetings and relations with Bob Marley and other extraordinary artists including Peter Tosh, Hélio Oiticica, Vito Acconci, and Jean-Michel Basquiat just to name a few.

Jaffe lives today in New York, where he continues to produce films and create his large-scale painting and assemblage.

Film
1969-72
 Mask Whisper
 Parallel Fears (with Miguel Rio Branco)
 Impact (with Vito Acconci)
 Nine Ways of Dying
 Brooklyn Bridge (with Gordon Matta-Clark)
 Le Chien (Starring Rita Renior and Elizabeth Weiner)
 The Life and Times of Luis Gonzaga

2009
 Flow: For Love of Water (producer)

Discography
 1977 Peter Tosh, Legalize it
 1986 Joe Higgs, Family
 1988 Joe Higgs, Blackman Know Yourself
 1991 The Wailing Souls, All Over The World
 1994 Morgan Heritage, Miracles
 1994 Barrington Levy, Barrington
 1999 Barrington Levy, Living Dangerously

Books
 2003 ONE LOVE, Life with Bob Marley and the Wailers by Lee Jaffe, Roger Steffens Publisher: W. W. Norton and Company; 1st edition (April 22, 2003)
 1992 Cordially Yours, Lee Jaffe by Rainer Crone and David Moos. Publisher: Moderna Museet (1992)
 2013 Bob Marley & The Wailers: 1973-1976 by Lee Jaffe, Jérémie Kroubo Dagnini. Publisher: Camion Blanc (June 17, 2013). Language: French.

References

External links

 www.leejaffe.com
 www.stage35.com/leejaffewp/

Living people
1950 births
Artists from the Bronx
Jewish American artists
21st-century American Jews

Lee Jaffe


Not to be confused with Parietal eye.

The third eye is spiritual concept. The third (or inner) eye is an invisible eye located on the forehead. It symbolizes a state of enlightenment. In India, it refers to chakra. It also related to visions, precognition, clairvoyance, and out-of-body experiences.

Indian gods were usually depicted with a third eye.

References

 Cavendish (1994), p. 2606.
 Leadbeater (1994), p. 79.
 Saraswati (2001), p. [page needed].
 Dhillon, Singh & Dua (2009).
 Jefferson (1982), ch. 4.

Spirituality

Third eye


Bryanston  is a village and civil parish in north Dorset, England, situated on the River Stour  west of Blandford Forum. In the 2011 census the parish had a population of 925.  The village is adjacent to the grounds of Bryanston School, an independent school.

The village was named after Brian de Lisle, a Baron at the court of King John. The Rogers family owned it for a long period of time, and it was later purchased by Sir William Portman, 6th Baronet, who took part in crushing Monmouth's rebellion in 1685. In the 1890s the Portman family built a large country house, designed by Richard Norman Shaw and set in . Since 1927 the building has been the home of Bryanston School. In 1950 Viscount Portman gave up the Bryanston Estates as part payment of death duties. The estate was then owned by the crown until 2015 when the estate was purchased by a UK company held on behalf of the Viscount Rothermere and his son the Hon Vere Harmsworth for an undisclosed sum.

See also
 Bryanston Square in London

References

External links

Villages in Dorset

Bryanston


The Mazda RX-7 is a front-engine, rear-wheel-drive, rotary engine-powered sports car that was manufactured and marketed by Mazda from 1978 until 2002 across three generations, all of which made use of a compact, lightweight Wankel rotary engine.

The first-generation RX-7, sometimes referred to as the SA (early) and FB (late), is a two-seater 2-door hatchback coupé. It featured a 12A carbureted rotary engine as well as the option for a 13B rotary engine with electronic fuel injection in later years.

The second-generation RX-7, sometimes referred to as the FC, was offered as a 2-seater coupé with a 2+2 option available in some markets, as well as in a convertible body style. This was powered by the 13B rotary engine, offered in naturally aspirated or turbocharged forms.

The third-generation RX-7, sometimes referred to as the FD, was offered a 2+2-seater coupé with a limited run of a 2-seater option.  Some markets were only available as a 2-seater. It featured a sequentially-turbocharged 13B REW engine.

More than 800,000 RX-7s were manufactured over its lifetime.

First generation (SA22C, FB)

Series 1 (1978-1980)
Series 1 (produced from 1978 until 1980) is commonly referred to as the "SA22C" from the first alphanumeric of the vehicle identification number. Mazda's internal project number for what was to become the RX-7 was X605. In Japan, it was introduced in March 1978, replacing the Savanna RX-3, and joined Mazda's only other remaining rotary engine-powered products, called the Cosmo which was a two-door luxury coupé, and the Luce luxury sedan.

The lead designer at Mazda was , whose son, Ikuo, would go on to design the Mazda2 and the RX-7's successor, the RX-8. The transition of the Savanna to a sports car appearance reflected products from other Japanese manufacturers. The advantage the RX-7 had was its minimal size and weight, and the compact rotary engine installed behind the front axle helped balance the front and rear weight distribution, which provided a low center of gravity.

In Japan, sales were enhanced by the fact that the RX-7 complied with the Japanese Government dimension regulations: thus Japanese buyers were not liable for yearly taxes for driving a larger car. The rotary engine had financial advantages to Japanese consumers in that the engine displacement remained below , a significant determination when paying the Japanese annual road tax; this kept the obligation affordable to most buyers while having more power than the traditional engines having a straight cylinder configuration.

In May 1980, Mazda introduced a limited production run of special North American models known as the Leathersport Models. This package was essentially an uprated GS model with added LS badges on each B-pillar, special stripes on the exterior, and LS-only gold anodized wheels (with polished outer face and wheel rim). All LS editions came equipped with special LS-only full brown leather upholstery, leather-wrapped steering wheel, leather-wrapped shift knob, removable sunroof, LS-specific four-speaker AM/FM stereo radio with power antenna (though listed as a six-speaker stereo, as the two rear dual voice coil speakers were counted as four speakers in total), remote power door side mirrors, and other standard GS equipment. Two primary options were also available; a three-speed JATCO 3N71B automatic transmission and air conditioning. Other GS options such as cassette tape deck, splash guards, padded center console arm rest and others could be added by the dealer. The LS model was only ever available in three different exterior colors: Aurora White, Brilliant Black, and Solar Gold. No official production records are known to exist or to have been released. This series of RX-7 had exposed steel bumpers and a high-mounted indentation-located rear license plate, called by Werner Buhler of Road & Track magazine a "Baroque depression."

Series 2 (1981-1983)

The Series 2, referred to as the FB (produced from 1981 to 1983), had integrated plastic-covered bumpers, wide black rubber body side moldings, wraparound taillights and updated engine control components. While marginally longer overall, the new model was  lighter in federalized trim. The four-speed manual option was dropped for 1981 as well, while the gas tank grew larger and the dashboard was redesigned, including a shorter gear stick mounted closer to the driver. In 1983, the  speedometer returned for the RX-7. The GSL package provided optional four-wheel disc brakes, front ventilated (Australian model) and clutch-type rear limited-slip differential (LSD). This revision of the SA22 was known in North America as the "FB" after the US Department of Transportation mandated 17 digit Vehicle Identification Number changeover. For various other markets worldwide, the 1981–1985 RX-7 retained the 'SA22C' VIN prefix. In the UK, the 1978–1980 series 1 cars carried the SA code on the VIN but all later cars (1981–1983 series 2 and 1984–1985 series 3) carried the FB code and these first-generation RX-7s are known as the "FB" only in Northern America.

In Japan, a very well appointed version similar to the export market GSL arrived late in 1982, called the SE-Limited. This model received two-tone paint, alloy wheels shaped like the Wankel rotor, all-wheel disc brakes, limited-slip differential, and a full leather interior. It also had the latest iteration of the 12A rotary engine, the RE-6PI with variable induction port system and .

In Europe, the FB was mainly noticed for having received a power increase from the  of the SA22; the 1981 RX-7 now had  on tap. European market cars also received four-wheel disc brakes as standard.

Series 3 (1984-1985)

The Series 3 (produced 1984–1985) featured an updated lower front fascia. North American models received a different instrument cluster. GSL package was continued into this series, but Mazda introduced the GSL-SE sub-model. The GSL-SE had a fuel injected  13B RE-EGI engine rated at  and . GSL-SE models had much the same options as the GSL (clutch-type rear LSD and rear disc brakes), but the brake rotors were larger, allowing Mazda to use the more common lug nuts (versus bolts), and a new bolt pattern of 4x114.3mm (4x4.5"). Also, they had upgraded suspension with stiffer springs and shocks. The external oil cooler was reintroduced, after being dropped in the 1983 model-year for the controversial "beehive" water-oil heat exchanger.

The 1984 RX-7 GSL has an estimated 29 MPG (8.11 litres/100 km) highway/19 MPG (12.37 L/100 km) city. According to Mazda, its rotary engine, licensed by NSU-Wankel allowed the RX-7 GSL to accelerate from 0 to 80  km/h (50  mph) in 6.3 seconds.

In 1985, Mazda introduced the RX-7 Finale in Australia. This was the last of the series and brought out in limited numbers. The Finale featured power options and a brass plaque mentioning the number the car was as well as "Last of a legend" on the plaque. The finale had special stickers and a blacked out section between the window & rear hatch.

The handling and acceleration of the car were noted to be of a high caliber for its day. The RX-7 had "live axle" 4-link rear suspension with Watt's linkage, a 50:50 front and rear weight distribution, and weighed under . It was the lightest generation of the RX-7 ever produced. 12A-powered models accelerated from 0–97 km/h (60 mph) in 9.2 seconds, and turned 0.779 g (7.64 m/s²) laterally on a skid pad. The  12A engine was rated at  at 6,000 rpm in North American models, allowing the car to reach speeds of over . Because of the smoothness inherent in the Wankel rotary engine, little vibration or harshness was experienced at high engine speeds, so a buzzer was fitted to the tachometer to warn the driver when the 7,000 rpm redline was approaching.

The 12A engine has a long thin shaped combustion chamber, having a large surface area in relation to its volume. Therefore, combustion is cool, giving few oxides of nitrogen. However, the combustion is also incomplete, so there are large amounts of partly burned hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide. The exhaust is hot enough for combustion of these to continue into the exhaust. An engine-driven pump supplies air into the exhaust to complete the burn of these chemicals. This is done in the "thermal reactor" chamber where the exhaust manifold would normally be on a conventional engine. Under certain conditions, the pump injects air into the thermal reactor and at other times air is pumped through injectors into the exhaust ports. This fresh air is needed for more efficient and cleaner-burning of the air/fuel mixture.

Options and models varied from country to country. The gauge layout and interior styling in the Series 3 was only changed for the North American models. Additionally, North America was the only market to have offered the first generation of the RX-7 with the fuel-injected 13B, model GSL-SE. Sales of the first-generation RX-7 were strong, with a total of 474,565 cars produced; 377,878 (nearly eighty percent) were sold in the United States alone.

RX-7 Turbo

Following the introduction of the first turbocharged rotary engine in the Luce/Cosmo, a similar, also fuel injected and non-intercooled 12A turbocharged engine was made available for the top-end model of the Series 3 RX-7 in Japan. It was introduced in September 1983. The engine was rated at  (JIS) at 6,500 rpm. While the peak power figures were only slightly higher than those of the engine used in the Luce/Cosmo, the new "Impact Turbo" was developed specifically to deal with the different exhaust gas characteristics of a rotary engine. Both rotor vanes of the turbine were remodeled and made smaller, and the turbine had a twenty percent higher speed than a turbo intended for a conventional engine. The Savanna Turbo was short-lived, as the next generation of the RX-7 was about to be introduced.

Second generation (FC3S and FC3C)

The second-generation RX-7 (sometimes referred to as "FC", VIN begins JM1FC3 or JMZFC1), still known as the Mazda Savanna RX-7 in Japan, featured a complete restyling much like similar sports cars of the era such as the Nissan 300ZX. Mazda's development team, led by Chief Project Engineer , chose to focus on the American market when designing the FC, where the majority of first-generation of the RX-7 models had been sold. The team drew inspiration from successful sports cars that were popular at the time, such as studying the suspension design of the Porsche 928.

While the first-generation RX-7 was a purer sports car, the second-generation RX-7 tended toward the softer sport-tourer trends of its day, sharing some similarities with the HB series Cosmo. Handling was much improved, with less of the oversteer tendencies of the previous version. The rear end design was vastly improved from the SA22's live rear axle to a more modern, Independent Rear Suspension (rear axle). Steering was more precise, with rack and pinion steering replacing the old recirculating-ball steering of the SA22. Disc brakes also became standard, with some models (S4: Sport, GXL, GTU, Turbo II, Convertible; S5: GXL, GTUs, Turbo, Convertible) offering four-piston front brakes. The rear seats were optional in some models of the FC RX-7, but are not commonly found in the American Market. Mazda also introduced Dynamic Tracking Suspension System (DTSS) in the FC. The revised independent rear suspension incorporated special toe control hubs which were capable of introducing a limited degree of passive rear steering under cornering loads. The DTSS worked by allowing a slight amount of toe-out under normal driving conditions but induced slight toe-in under heavier cornering loads at around 0.5g or more; toe-out in the rear allows for a more responsive rotation of the rear, but toe-in allowed for a more stable rear under heavier cornering. Another new feature was the Auto Adjusting Suspension (AAS). The system changed damping characteristics according to the road and driving conditions. The system compensated for camber changes and provided anti-dive and anti-squat effects.

In Japan, a limited edition of the second-generation RX-7 called Infini was available with production limited to only 600 cars for each year. Some special noted features for all Infini series are: infini logo on the rear, upgraded suspension, upgraded ECU, higher power output of the engine, reduced weight, 15-inch BBS aluminum alloy wheels, Infini logo steering wheel, aero bumper kits, bronze-colored window glass, floor bar on the passenger side, aluminum bonnet with scoop, flare, and holder. The car was thought as the pinnacle of the RX-7 series (until the introduction of the third generation RX-7). The Infini IV came with other special items such as black bucket seats, 16-inch BBS wheels, Knee pads, and all the other items mentioned before. There are differing years for the Infini, which denoted the series. Series I was introduced in 1987, Series II was introduced in 1988, Series III was introduced in 1989, and Series IV was introduced in 1990. Series I and II came in White or Black exterior colour, Series III came in Shade Green only, and Series IV came in Shade Green or Noble Green exterior colours. There are only minor differences between the Series models, the biggest change which was from the Series I and II being an S4 and the Series III and IV being an S5.

The Turbo II model uses a turbocharger with a twin-scroll design. The smaller primary chamber is engineered to cancel the turbo lag at low engine speeds. At higher revolutions, the secondary chamber is opened, pumping out 33 percent more power than the naturally aspirated counterpart. The Turbo II also has an air-to-air intercooler which has a dedicated intake on the hood. The intake is slightly offset toward the left side of the hood. In the Japanese market, only the turbocharged engine was available; the naturally-aspirated version was only available for select export markets. This can be attributed to insurance companies in many Western nations penalizing turbocharged cars (thus restricting potential sales). The Japanese market car produces  in the original version; this engine was upgraded to  in April 1989 as part of the Series 5 facelift. The limited edition, two-seater Infini model received a  version beginning in June 1990, thanks to an upgraded exhaust system and high-octane fuel.

Australian Motors Mazda introduced a limited run of 250 'Sports' model Series 4 RX-7s; each with no power steering, power windows or rear wiper as an attempt to reduce the weight of the car.

Convertible

Mazda introduced a convertible version of the RX-7, the FC3C, in 1988 with a naturally aspirated engine—introduced to the US market with ads featuring actor James Garner, at the time featured in many Mazda television advertisements. Only about 22,000 convertibles were built.

The convertible featured a removable rigid section over the passengers and a folding fabric rear section with heated rear glass window. Power operated, lowering the top required unlatching two header catches, power lowering the top, exiting the car (or reaching over to the right-side latch), and folding down the rigid section manually. Mazda introduced with the convertible the first integral windblocker, a rigid panel that folded up from behind the passenger seats to block unwanted drafts from reaching the passengers—thereby extending the driving season for the car with the top retracted. The convertible also featured optional headrest-mounted audio speakers and a folding leather snap-fastened tonneau cover. The convertible assembly was precisely engineered and manufactured, and dropped into the ready body assembly as a complete unit—a first in convertible production.

Production ceased in 1991 after Mazda marketed a limited run of 500 examples for 1992 for the domestic market only. In markets outside the US, only the turbocharged version of the convertible was available.

North America
The Series 4 (produced for the 1986 through the 1988 model years) was available with a naturally aspirated, fuel injected 13B-VDEI producing  in North American spec. An optional turbocharged model, known as the Turbo II in the American market, was rated at  and  of torque at 3,500 rpm. The turbo model was introduced at the Chicago Auto Show in February 1986, with a target of 20 percent of overall RX-7 sales.

The Series 5 (1989–1992) featured updated styling and better engine management, as well as lighter rotors and a higher compression ratio 9.7:1 for the naturally aspirated model, and 9.0:1 for the turbo model. The naturally aspirated Series 5's 13B-DEI engine was rated at , while the Series 5 Turbo was rated at  at 6,500 rpm and  of torque at 3,500 rpm.

Mazda sold 86,000 RX-7s in the US alone in 1986, its first model year, with sales peaking in 1988.

10th Anniversary RX-7
Mazda introduced the 10th Anniversary RX-7 in 1988 as a limited production model based on the RX-7 Turbo II. Production was limited to 1,500 units. The 10th Anniversary RX-7 features a Crystal White monochromatic paint scheme with matching white body side moldings, tail light housings, mirrors and 16-inch alloy seven-spoke wheels. There were two "series" of 10th Anniversary models, with essentially a VIN-split running production change between the two. The most notable difference between the series can be found on the exterior- the earlier "Series I" cars had a black "Mazda" logo decal on the front bumper cover, whereas most if not all "Series II" cars did not have the decal. Series II cars also received the lower seat cushion height/tilt feature that Series I cars lacked. Another distinctive exterior feature is the bright gold rotor-shaped 10th Anniversary Edition badge on the front fenders (yellow-gold on the Series II cars). A distinctive 10th Anniversary package feature is the all black leather interior (code D7), which included not just the seats, but the door panel inserts as well and a leather-wrapped MOMO steering wheel (with 10th Anniversary Edition embossed horn button) and MOMO leather-wrapped shift knob with integrated boot. All exterior glass is bronze tinted (specific in North America to only the 10th Anniversary), and the windshield was equipped with the embedded secondary antenna also found on some other select models with the upgraded stereo packages. Other 10th Anniversary Edition specific items were headlight washers (the only RX-7 in the US market that got this feature), glass breakage detectors added to the factory alarm system, 10th Anniversary Edition logoed floor mats, 10th Anniversary Edition embroidered front hood protector and accompanying front end mask (or "bra"), and an aluminum under pan.

GTUs (1989–1990)
In 1989, with the introduction of the facelifted FC RX-7, and to commemorate the RX-7s IMSA domination, Mazda introduced a limited model labeled the GTUs. Starting with the lightweight base model, which came with manual windows, no rear wiper, the sunroof and air conditioning was dealer optioned, the GTUs added items found on the Turbo model such as four-piston front brakes, ventilated rear brake rotors, vehicle speed-sensing power steering, one-piece front chin spoiler, cloth-covered Turbo model seats, leather-wrapped steering wheel, 16-inch wheels, 205/55VR tires, and a GTUs-only 4.300 viscous-type limited-slip differential (all other FC LSD's were 4.100). This allowed quicker acceleration from the naturally aspirated 13B rotary engine. It was rumored that Mazda built 100 cars in 1989–1990. There have not been 100 of these models found and registered. The only way to verify the GTUs model is through the door ID tag and firewall VIN. It is the only model with turbo ID tags and a non turbo VIN.

Third generation (FD3S)

The third-generation RX7, (sometimes referred to as FD, chassis code FD3S for Japan and JM1FD for the North America), featured an updated body design. The 13B-REW engine was the first-ever mass-produced sequential twin-turbocharger system to be exported from Japan, boosting power to  in 1992 and finally to  by the time production ended in Japan in 2002.

The RX-7 FD's chief designer was . Another key designer was Wu-huang Chin (), a Taiwanese automotive artist who also worked on the Mazda MX-5 Miata.

In Japan, sales were affected by this series' non-compliance with Japanese dimension regulations and Japanese buyers paid annual taxes for the car's non-compliant width. As the RX7 was now considered an upper-level luxury sports car due to the increased width dimensions, Mazda also offered two smaller offerings, the Eunos Roadster, and the Eunos Presso hatchback.

The sequential twin turbocharging system, introduced in 1992, was extremely complex and was developed with the aid of Hitachi. It was previously used on the exclusive-to-Japan Cosmo JC Series. The system used two turbochargers, one to provide  of boost from 1,800 rpm. The second turbocharger activated in the upper half of the rpm range, during full-throttle acceleration – at 4,000 rpm to maintain  until redline. The changeover process occurred at 4,500 rpm, with a momentary dip in pressure to , and provided semi-linear acceleration from a wide torque curve throughout the entire rev range under normal operation.

Under high-speed-driving conditions, the changeover process produced a significant increase in power output and forced technical drivers to adjust their driving style to anticipate and mitigate any over-steer during cornering. The standard turbo control system used 4 control solenoids, 4 actuators, both a vacuum and pressure chamber, and several feet of preformed vacuum/pressure hoses, all of which were prone to failure in part due to complexity and the inherent high temperatures of the rotary engine.

Information about various trims and models is listed as follows:

Series 6 (1992-1995)

Series 6 was exported throughout the world and had the highest sales. In Japan, Mazda sold the RX-7 through its ɛ̃fini brand as the ɛ̃fini RX-7. Models in Japan included the Type S, the base model, Type R, the lightweight sports model, Type RZ, Type RB, A-spec and the Touring X, which came with a four-speed automatic transmission. The RX-7 was sold in 1993–1995 in the U.S. and Canada. The Series 6 was rated at  and .

North American market
At launch, three option packages were offered; the unlabeled base model, the Touring and the R1 (renamed R2 in 1994).  All cars were only available as a 2-seater unlike the previous generation which was a 2+2 configuration in North America.  All cars were equipped with the same sequential twin-turbo 13B REW engine. A 5-speed manual transmission was standard and a 4-speed automatic was available on the base model and Touring package. A driver-side airbag and anti-lock brakes are standard as well.  The Touring package included a glass moonroof, fog lights, leather seats, a rear window wiper and a Bose Acoustic Wave music system with CD player. The R1 (R2 in 1994–95) model featured upgraded springs, Bilstein shocks, an additional engine oil cooler, an aerodynamics package comprising a front lip and rear wing, suede seats and Pirelli Z-rated tires.  Cruise control was deleted on the R1. The R2 differed from the R1 in that it had slightly softer suspension.

In 1994, the interior received a small update to include a passenger-side air bag, and a PEG (popular equipment group) package was offered. The PEG package featured leather seats, a rear cargo cover and a power steel sunroof. It did not include the fog lights or Bose stereo of the touring package. An automatic transmission was not available with the PEG.

In 1995, the Touring package was replaced by the PEP (popular equipment package). The PEP included a rear wing, leather seats, sunroof and fog lights, but didn't have the Bose Stereo nor the rear window wiper. An estimated 500 RX-7s were produced for the 1995 model year. This would be the final year of RX-7 production for North America.

Australian market
A special high-performance version of the RX-7 was introduced in Australia in 1995, named the RX-7 SP. This model was developed to achieve homologation for racing in the Australian GT Production Car Series and the Eastern Creek 12 Hour production car race. An initial run of 25 cars were made, and later an extra 10 were built by Mazda due to demand. The RX-7 SP was rated at  and  of torque, a substantial increase over the standard model. Other changes included a race-developed carbon fiber nose cone and rear spoiler, a carbon fibre  fuel tank (as opposed to the  tank in the standard car), a 4.3:1 final drive ratio, 17-inch wheels, larger brake rotors and calipers. A "three times more efficient" intercooler, a new exhaust, and a modified ECU were also included. Weight was reduced significantly with the aid of further carbon fibre usage including lightweight vented bonnet and Recaro seats to reduce weight to  (from ) making this model road-going race car that matched the performance of the rival Porsche Carrera RS Club Sport for the final year Mazda officially entered. The formula paid off when the RX-7 SP won the 1995 Eastern Creek 12 Hour, giving Mazda the winning 12-hour trophy for a fourth straight year. The winning car also gained a podium finish at the international tarmac rally Targa Tasmania months later. A later special version, the Bathurst R, was introduced in 2001 to commemorate this victory in Japan only. It was based on the RX-7 Type R and 500 were built in total, featuring adjustable dampers, a carbon fibre shift knob, carbon fibre interior trim, special fog lamps and a different parking brake lever.

European market
In Europe, only 1,152 examples of the FD were sold through the official Mazda network, due to a high price and a fairly short time span. Only one model was available and it included twin oil-coolers, electric sunroof, cruise control and the rear storage bins in place of the back seats. It also has the stiffer suspension and strut braces from the R models. Germany topped the sales with 446 cars, while UK is second at 210 and Greece third with 168 (thanks to that country's tax structure which favored the rotary engine). The European models also received the 1994 interior facelift, with a passenger air bag. Sales in most of Europe ended after 1995 as it would have been too expensive to reengineer the car to meet the new Euro 2 emissions regulations.

United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, for 1992, customers were offered only one version of the FD, which was based on a combination of the US touring and the base model. For the following year, in a bid to speed up sales, Mazda reduced the price of the RX-7 to £25,000, down from £32,000, and refunded the difference to those who bought the car before that was announced. From 1992 to 1995, only 210 FD RX-7s were officially sold in the UK. The FD continued to be imported to the UK until 1996. In 1998, for a car that had suffered from slow sales when it was officially sold, with a surge of interest and the benefit of a newly introduced SVA scheme, the FD would become so popular that there were more parallel and grey imported models brought into the country than Mazda UK had ever imported.

Series 7 (1996-1998)
Series 7 included minor changes to the car. Updates included a simplified vacuum routing manifold and a 16-bit ECU which combined with an improved intake system netted an extra . This additional horsepower was only available on manual transmission cars as the increase in power was only seen above 7,000 rpm, which was the redline for automatic transmission equipped cars. The rear spoiler and tail lights were also redesigned. The Type RZ model was now equipped with larger brake rotors as well as 17-inch BBS wheels. In Japan, the Series 7 RX-7 was marketed under the Mazda and ɛ̃fini brand name.

Series 7 RX-7s were also sold in Australia, New Zealand and the UK. Series 7 models were produced only with right-hand drive (RHD), which likely explains why they were only exported to these RHD markets.

Series 8 (1998-2002)
Series 8 was the final series, and was only available in the Japanese market. More efficient turbochargers were available on certain models, while improved intercooling and radiator cooling was made possible by a redesigned front fascia with larger openings. The seats, steering wheel, and instrument cluster were all changed. The rear spoiler was modified and gained adjustability on certain models. Three horsepower levels are available:  for automatic transmission equipped cars, for the Type RB, and  available on the top-of-the-line sporting models.

The high-end "Type RS" came equipped with Bilstein suspension and 17-inch wheels as standard equipment, and reduced weight to . Power was increased with the addition of a less restrictive muffler and more efficient turbochargers which featured abradable compressor seals,  at 6,500 rpm and  of torque at 5000 rpm as per the maximum Japanese limit. The Type RS had a brake upgrade by increasing rotor diameter front and rear to  and front rotor thickness from  to . The Type RS version also sported a 4.30 final drive ratio, providing a significant reduction in its 0– time. The gearbox was also modified, 5th gear was made longer to reduce cruising rpm and improve fuel efficiency. The very limited edition Type RZ version included all the features of the Type RS, but at a lighter weight, at . It also featured gun-metal colored BBS wheels and a red racing themed interior. An improved ABS system worked by braking differently on each wheel, allowing the car better turning during braking. The effective result made for safer driving for the average buyer.

Easily the most collectible of all the RX-7s was the last model limited to 1,500 units. Dubbed the "Spirit R", they combined all the extra features Mazda had used on previous limited-run specials with new exclusive features like cross-drilled brake rotors. Sticker prices when new were 3,998,000 yen for Type-A and B and 3,398,000 yen for Type-C. Mazda's press release said "The Type-A Spirit R model is the ultimate RX-7, boasting the most outstanding driving performance in its history."

There are three models of "Spirit R": the "Type A", "Type B", and "Type C". The "Type A" is a two-seater with a 5-speed manual transmission. It features lightweight red trim Recaro front seats as seen in the earlier RZ models. The "Type B" shares all features of the "Type A" but with a 2+2 seat configuration. The "Type C" is also a 2+2, but has a 4-speed automatic transmission. Of the 1,504 Spirit R's made, 1,044 were Type A, 420 Type B and 40 Type C. An exclusive Spirit R paint color, Titanium Grey, adorned 719 of the 1,504 cars produced.

In Japan the FD3S production span is categorized into 6 models: #1 from 1991/12, #2 from 1993/08, #3 from 1995/03, #4 from 1996/01, #5 from 1998/12 and #6 from 2000/10. The model number (1 to 6) actually shows as the first digit of the 6 characters long JDM VIN number, for example in VIN# FD3S-ABCDEF the A is the model number. A total of 9 limited editions (type RZ in 1992/10 (300 cars), RZ 1993/10 (150), R-II Bathurst 1994/09 (350), R Bathurst X 1995/07 (777), RB Bathurst X 1997/01 (700), RS-R 1997/10 (500), RZ 2000/10 (325), R Bathurst R 2001/08 (650), Spirit R 2002/04 (1504)) and 2 special editions (Bathurst R 1995/02, R Bathurst 2001/12 (2174)) were produced.

Reviews and awards
The RX-7 made Car and Driver magazine's Ten Best list five times (1983, 1987, 1993-1995).

In 2004, Sports Car International named the Series 3 car seventh on their list of Top Sports Cars of the 1970s. In 1983, the RX-7 would appear on Car and Driver magazine's Ten Best list for the first time in 20 years.

Though about  heavier and more insulated than its predecessor, the FC continued to win accolades from the press. The RX-7 FC was Motor Trends Import Car of the Year for 1986, and the Turbo II was on Car and Driver magazine's 10 Best list for a second time in 1987.

The FD RX-7 was Motor Trend's Import Car of the Year for 1993. When Playboy first reviewed the FD RX-7 in 1993, they tested it in the same issue as the [then] new Dodge Viper. In that issue, Playboy declared the RX-7 to be the better of the two cars. It went on to win Playboy's Car of the Year for 1993.

The FD RX-7 also made Car and Driver's Ten Best list for 1993 through 1995 – all three years in which it was sold in the United States. In June 2007, Road & Track proclaimed: "The ace in Mazda's sleeve is the RX-7, a car once touted as the purest, most exhilarating sports car in the world." After its introduction in 1991, it won the Automotive Researchers' and Journalists' Conference Car of the Year award in Japan.

Handling in the RX-7 FD was regarded as world-class, and it is still regarded as being one of the finest-handling and best-balanced cars of all time.

Motorsport

Racing versions of the first-generation RX-7 were entered at the prestigious 24 hours of Le Mans endurance race. The first outing for the car, equipped with a 13B engine, failed by less than one second to qualify in 1979. The next year, a 12A-equipped RX-7 not only qualified, it placed 21st overall. That same car did not finish in 1981, along with two more 13B cars. Those two cars were back for 1982, with one 14th-place finish and another DNF. The RX-7 Le Mans effort was replaced by the 717C prototype for 1983.

Mazda began racing RX-7s in the IMSA GTU series in 1979. In its first year, RX-7s placed first and second at the 24 Hours of Daytona, and claimed the GTU series championship. The car continued winning, claiming the GTU championship seven years in a row. The RX-7 took the GTO championship ten years in a row from 1982. In addition to this, a GTX version was developed, named the Mazda RX-7 GTP; this was unsuccessful, and the GTP version of the car was also unsuccessful. The RX-7 has won more IMSA races than any other car model. In the USA SCCA competition RX-7s were raced with great success by Don Kearney in the NE Division and John Finger in the SE Division. Pettit Racing won the GT2 Road Racing Championship in 1998. The car was a '93 Mazda RX-7 street car with only bolt-on accessories. At season end Pettit had 140 points—63 points more than the second place team. This same car finished the Daytona Rolex 24-hour race four times.

The RX-7 also fared well at the Spa 24 Hours race. Three Savanna/RX-7s were entered in 1981 by Tom Walkinshaw Racing. After hours of battling with several BMW 530is and Ford Capris, the RX-7 driven by Pierre Dieudonné and Tom Walkinshaw won the event. Mazda had turned the tables on BMW, who had beaten Mazda's Familia Rotary to the podium eleven years earlier at the same event. TWR's prepared RX-7s also won the British Touring Car Championship in 1980 and 1981, driven by Win Percy.

Canadian-born Australian touring car driver Allan Moffat was instrumental in bringing Mazda into the Australian touring car scene which ran to Group C regulations unique to Australia. Over a four-year span beginning in 1981, Moffat took the Mazda RX-7 to victory in the 1983 Australian Touring Car Championship, as well as a trio of Bathurst 1000 podiums, in 1981 (3rd with Derek Bell), 1983 (second with Yoshimi Katayama) and 1984 (third with former motorcycle champion Gregg Hansford). Privateer racer Peter McLeod drove his RX-7 to win the 1983 Australian Endurance Championship, while Moffat won the Endurance title in 1982 and 1984. Australia's adoption of international Group A regulations, combined with Mazda's reluctance to homologate a Group A RX-7 (meaning that a base number of 5,000 had to be built, plus another 500 "evolution" models), ended Mazda's active participation in Australian touring car racing at the end of the 1984 season. Plans had been in place to replace the RX-7 with a Mazda 929, but testing by Allan Moffat in late 1984 had indicated that the car would be uncompetitive and Mazda abandoned plans to race in Group A.

The RX-7 even made an appearance in the World Rally Championship. The car finished 11th on its debut at the RAC Rally in Wales in 1981. Group B received much of the focus for the first part of the 1980s, but Mazda did manage to place third at the 1985 Acropolis Rally, and when the Group B was folded, its Group A-based replacement, the 323 4WD claimed the victory at Swedish Rally in both 1987 and 1989.

IMSA Bridgestone Supercar Series

The third-generation Mazda RX-7 entered its first professional race in the world on February 23, 1992, at the Miami Grand Prix. The cars made it to the podium many times and won the IMSA Supercar race at Sebring in 1994. Peter Farrell Motorsport also fielded RX-7's in the IMSA Firestone Firehawk Endurance Series dominating many races and finishing runner up in the overall championship two years in a row.

Revivals
Mazda has made several references to a revival of the RX-7 in various forms over the years since the RX-8 was discontinued. In November 2012, MX-5 program manager Nobuhiro Yamamoto indicated that Mazda was working on a 16X based RX-7, with 300 horsepower.

In October 2015, Mazda unveiled the RX-Vision concept car at the Tokyo Motor Show, powered by a new rotary engine and featured design cues reminiscent of the third generation RX-7. A production-ready concept could have followed suit by 2017, marking 50 years since the revealing of Mazda's first rotary-powered sports car, the Cosmo.

In October 2023, Mazda unveiled the Iconic SP concept car at the Japan Mobility Show, powered by a two-rotor rotary engine and also features design cues reminiscent of the third generation RX-7, most notably its pop-up headlights.

References

Citations

General sources

Further reading

External links

1980s cars
1990s cars
2000s cars
24 Hours of Le Mans race cars
Cars introduced in 1978
Cars powered by Wankel engines
Convertibles
Group B cars
Hatchbacks
Coupés
RX-7
RX-7
Rally cars
Rear-wheel-drive vehicles
Sports cars
Touring cars
Vehicles with four-wheel steering
Cars discontinued in 2002

Mazda RX-7


The q-Gaussian is a probability distribution arising from the maximization of the Tsallis entropy under appropriate constraints.  It is one example of a Tsallis distribution. The q-Gaussian is a generalization of the Gaussian in the same way that Tsallis entropy is a generalization of standard Boltzmann–Gibbs entropy or Shannon entropy. The normal distribution is recovered as q → 1.

The q-Gaussian has been applied to problems in the fields of statistical mechanics, geology, anatomy, astronomy, economics, finance, and machine learning. The distribution is often favored for its heavy tails in comparison to the Gaussian for 1 < q < 3. For  the q-Gaussian distribution is the PDF of a bounded random variable. This makes in biology and other domains the q-Gaussian distribution more suitable than Gaussian distribution to model the effect of external stochasticity. A generalized q-analog of the classical central limit theorem was proposed in 2008, in which the independence constraint for the i.i.d. variables is relaxed to an extent defined by the q parameter, with independence being recovered as q → 1. However, a proof of such a theorem is still lacking.

In the heavy tail regions, the distribution is equivalent to the Student's t-distribution with a direct mapping between q and the degrees of freedom. A practitioner using one of these distributions can therefore parameterize the same distribution in two different ways. The choice of the q-Gaussian form may arise if the system is non-extensive, or if there is lack of a connection to small samples sizes.

Characterization

Probability density function
The standard q-Gaussian has the probability density function

where

is the q-exponential and the normalization factor  is given by

Note that for  the q-Gaussian distribution is the PDF of a bounded random variable.

Cumulative density function
For  cumulative density function is

where  is the hypergeometric function. As the hypergeometric function is defined for  but x is unbounded,  Pfaff transformation could be used.

For ,

Entropy
Just as the normal distribution is the maximum information entropy distribution for fixed values of the first moment  and second moment  (with the fixed zeroth moment  corresponding to the normalization condition), the q-Gaussian distribution is the maximum Tsallis entropy distribution for fixed values of these three moments.

Related distributions

Student's t-distribution
While it can be justified by an interesting alternative form of entropy, statistically it is a scaled reparametrization of the Student's t-distribution introduced by W. Gosset in 1908 to describe small-sample statistics. In Gosset's original presentation the degrees of freedom parameter ν  was constrained to be a positive integer related to the sample size, but it is readily observed that Gosset's density function is valid for all real values of ν. The scaled reparametrization introduces the alternative parameters q and β which are related to ν.

Given a Student's t-distribution with ν degrees of freedom, the equivalent q-Gaussian has

with inverse

Whenever , the function is simply a scaled version of Student's t-distribution.

It is sometimes argued that the distribution is a generalization of Student's t-distribution to negative and or non-integer degrees of freedom. However, the theory of Student's t-distribution extends trivially to all real degrees of freedom, where the support of the distribution is now compact rather than infinite in the case of ν < 0.

Three-parameter version
As with many distributions  centered on zero, the q-Gaussian can be trivially extended to include a location parameter μ. The density then becomes defined by

Generating random deviates
The Box–Muller transform has been generalized to allow random sampling from q-Gaussians. The standard Box–Muller technique generates pairs of independent normally distributed variables from equations of the following form.

The generalized Box–Muller technique can generates pairs of q-Gaussian deviates that are not independent. In practice, only a single deviate will be generated from a pair of uniformly distributed variables. The following formula will generate deviates from a q-Gaussian with specified parameter q and

where  is the q-logarithm and

These deviates can be transformed to generate deviates from an arbitrary q-Gaussian by

Applications

Physics
It has been shown that the momentum distribution of cold atoms in dissipative optical lattices is a q-Gaussian.

The q-Gaussian distribution is also obtained as the asymptotic probability density function of the position of the unidimensional motion of a mass subject to two forces: a deterministic force of the type  (determining an infinite potential well) and a stochastic white noise force , where  is a white noise. Note that in the overdamped/small mass approximation the above-mentioned convergence fails for , as recently shown.

Finance
Financial return distributions in the New York Stock Exchange, NASDAQ and elsewhere have been interpreted as q-Gaussians.

See also

 Constantino Tsallis
 Tsallis statistics
 Tsallis entropy
 Tsallis distribution
 q-exponential distribution
 Q-Gaussian process

Notes

Further reading
Juniper, J. (2007) , Centre of Full Employment and Equity, The University of Newcastle, Australia

External links
 Tsallis Statistics, Statistical Mechanics for Non-extensive Systems and Long-Range Interactions

Statistical mechanics
Continuous distributions
Probability distributions with non-finite variance

Q-Gaussian distribution


In cricket, an overthrow (sometimes called a buzzer) is an additional run scored by a batter as a result of the ball not being collected by a fielder in the centre, having been thrown in from the outfield. Overthrows usually occur when a fielder aims unsuccessfully at the stumps in an attempt to run out a batter, although sometimes they are due to handling errors by the fielder receiving the ball.

Runs scored in this manner are counted in addition to any runs already scored before the fielding error took place, and are credited to the batter. If the ball reaches the boundary as a result of an overthrow then the four runs for the boundary are added to the number of completed runs before the overthrow, which can lead to the unusual event of a batter scoring more than six runs off a single ball. It is considered an overthrow run if a ball hits a wicket while the  batter is inside the popping crease and then the batter runs.

There have been at least four instances in Test cricket of eight runs being scored off a single ball. The most recent was by Andrew Symonds for Australia against New Zealand at Brisbane in November 2008, when the batters managed to run four runs before the ball was thrown back over the wicket keeper's head for a four-run boundary.

It is possible for the ball to be thrown over more than once from the same ball, leading to even more runs being scored. In theory there is therefore no limit to how many runs may be scored off a single ball.

Deflections
A throw that reflects off the batter or bat and goes to the boundary is sometimes also considered an overthrow. A notable incidence of this was in the 2019 Cricket World Cup Final, where six runs were scored off a deflection from Ben Stokes's bat. A similar incident repeated in the first test of the New Zealand tour of England in 2022, with the throw deflecting off Ben Stokes' bat at the same venue (Lord's) and with the ball being bowled by the same bowler, Trent Boult, only the ball not going to the boundary.

References

Fielding (cricket)
Cricket terminology

Overthrow (cricket)


Haakon Sørbye (16 March 1920 – 15 September 2016) was a Norwegian engineer and resistance member during World War II. He was a member of the radio group Skylark B during the war. After the war he was a professor at the Norwegian Institute of Technology.

World War II
Sørbye attended secondary school at Stabekk, and enrolled at the Norwegian Institute of Technology on 1 September 1939 — the day World War II began. In April 1940, the war reached Norway, with Nazi Germany invading and occupying the country. Sørbye participated in the Norwegian Campaign as a telegrapher, but the Norwegian forces in Trøndelag capitulated by 10 May 1940.

In September 1940, the British Secret Intelligence Service established two stations for radio communication in occupied Norway; the so-called Skylark A was led by Sverre Midtskau in Oslo while Skylark B was led by Erik Welle-Strand in Trondheim. As students formed the backbone of the Skylark B group, Sørbye joined. Other members were Bjørn Rørholt and Einar Johansen. Chemistry professor Leif Tronstad also helped as well. Egil Reksten later took over as leader. Skylark B established regular contact with the intelligence in London in 1941 and helped provide information on German troop and naval movements, as well as vital information about German activity at the Vemork heavy water plant.

In September 1941, however, Gestapo managed to track the Skylark B transmitting activity. Sørbye was arrested by the Nazi authorities, and was first held in Vollan prison. He was then incarcerated at Møllergata 19 from 27 September 1941 to 16 January 1943, and then at Grini concentration camp until 29 July 1943. He was then shipped to Germany and the Nacht und Nebel camps. He spent much time in Natzweiler. Despite health problems, he survived until the end of World War II, and was brought home with the White Buses. Reksten survived as well, but seven of the eleven detainees associated with Skylark died. Sørbye was decorated with the King's Medal for Courage in the Cause of Freedom and the Defence Medal 1940–1945.

Post-war life
Sørbye resumed his studies, and finally graduated from the Norwegian Institute of Technology in 1948. He was hired by the Norwegian Defence Research Establishment, and stationed at their radar in Bergen. During the 1950s he stayed abroad to research; at the UK Post Office Research Station in 1951 and the SHAPE Air Defence Technical Centre (SADTC) from 1957 to 1960. In 1964 he was hired as a lecturer in telephone technology at the Norwegian Institute of Technology. After a period as professor of communication technology at the Technische Hogeschool Twente (nowadays: University of Twente) from 1970 to 1972, he was a professor of telematics at the Norwegian Institute of Technology from 1972 to his retirement in 1987. He was a fellow of the Norwegian Academy of Technological Sciences.

After his retirement he has spent much time as a guide with the White Buses, work for which he was awarded a King's Medal of Merit in 2015. He also practised as a radio amateur. His wife Ruth was a skilled geologist. Sørbye died on 15 September 2016.

References

1920 births
2016 deaths
20th-century Norwegian engineers
Norwegian Army personnel of World War II
Norwegian resistance members
MI6 personnel
Norwegian Institute of Technology alumni
Academic staff of the University of Twente
Norwegian expatriates in the Netherlands
Academic staff of the Norwegian Institute of Technology
Vollan concentration camp survivors
Natzweiler-Struthof concentration camp survivors
Grini concentration camp survivors
Night and Fog program
Members of the Norwegian Academy of Technological Sciences
Recipients of the King Haakon VII Freedom Medal
Recipients of the King's Medal for Courage in the Cause of Freedom
Recipients of the King's Medal of Merit

Haakon Sørbye


Deer Creek is a stream that flows through the western part of the Grand Canyon, in the U.S. state of Arizona, as a right-bank tributary of the Colorado River. A series of natural springs provide for a perennial flow in Deer Creek. During periods of intense rainfall, Deer Creek can experience severe flash flooding. In the final half mile above the Colorado River, Deer Creek flows through a narrow slot canyon before plunging over a  waterfall named Deer Creek Falls.

Deer Creek and its waterfall are within the boundaries of Grand Canyon National Park and are a popular stopping point for river trips through the canyon. Backpackers can also access the falls by hiking from the North Rim. The Surprise Valley trail connects the Deer Creek drainage with the adjacent Thunder River/Tapeats Creek drainage.

See also

 List of tributaries of the Colorado River
 List of Colorado River rapids and features

References

Grand Canyon
Rivers of Arizona
Waterfalls of Arizona
Tributaries of the Lower Colorado River in Arizona
Grand Canyon, North Rim
Grand Canyon, North Rim (west)

Deer Creek (Arizona)