The Estonian Museum of Natural History (abbreviated EMNH; Estonian: Eesti Loodusmuuseum) is the Estonian national museum for natural history. It is situated in Tallinn's Old Town.

The museum focuses on natural history and nature education, offering its visitors a tour in the wilderness of Estonia.

History
The origins of the museum goes back to the Estonian Literary Society's museum founded in 1842 and renamed to the Provincial Museum in 1864. This museum was active in exploring the natural sciences, an area that increased in significance at the museum in 1872 when Alexander von der Pahlen (1820–1895) began to contribute to the collection. Pahlen was later elected chairman and under his leadership the collection continued to grow. As the collection grew, a new building on Kohtu Street was purchased in 1911 to house it.

During World War I, due to passive resistance, the museum's collection were not moved to Russia. The Provincial Museum continued to operate under the Arts and Heritage Department of the Minister of Education and Research but changed its name to the Museum of the Estonian Literary Society in 1926.

After the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, Baltic-German institutions, including the Estonian Literary Society, were closed. In 1940, through the Regulation of the Council of People's Commissars of the Estonian SSR, the Soviet authorities nationalized all museums allowing for a National Museum of Natural History to be established in Tallinn on January 1, 1941. In 1942, a bomb destroyed a portion of the museum's specimens.

Collection

The collections of the Estonian Museum of Natural History contain nearly 300,000 museum specimens. Approximately 90% of the plant, beetle, butterfly and moth, bird and mammal species found in Estonia are represented in the collections. A highly valuable part of the collections is made up by type specimens – the specimens used to provide the first description of a new taxon and serving as a definitive example of that taxon.

Botanical
The principal botanical collection contains approximately 122,000 plant specimens. The vascular plant herbarium includes 90,000 specimens, of which 88,700 are leaves, and the rest fruits, seeds, and strobili. Most of the material was collected in Estonia and the collection contains specimens of a predominant part of the domestic flora - 1,600 taxa. The collection's oldest specimens date back to the 1830s.

Mycological collections
The mycological herbarium includes approximately 2,450 plant specimens. The unlichenized fungi collection contains 250 samples. Of the more than 2,200 specimens included in the lichen i.e. lichenized fungi collection, approximately 1,600 were collected in Estonia and 600 from abroad (mainly Scandinavia and other parts of Europe).

Zoological
The zoological collections contains approximately 130,000 specimens. The collections boast a wide selection of both vertebrate and invertebrate species from Estonia as well as other parts of the world.

The zoological collections include:
 The ornithological collections
 The mammal collection
 The species-rich collection of mollusk shells, corals, and echinoderms
 The wet specimen collection
 The entomological collections

Geological
The museum's geological collection holds approximately 3,500 samples. Nearly three fourths of the specimens constitute paleontological material, the oldest specimens of which were collected in the mid-19th century. The dominant part of the paleontological collection is formed by Paleozoic fossils found in the Estonian bedrock. The most numerous samples among the preserved material include fossils of marine invertebrates from the Ordovician and Silurian Periods. The paleontological collections furthermore contain bone fractions and skeletal fragments of mammals of the Quaternary Period, most of which originate from Russia's northern territories. Lithological collections hold typical sedimentary rocks of the Estonian bedrock: limestone, marl, sandstone, and mudstone. Petrological collections are small, with the main specimens being Estonian glacial erratic samples and samples of metamorphic rocks and igneous rocks collected from the territory of the former Soviet Union. The number of the museum's mineralogical specimens has increased significantly during the last decade, owing to domestic and foreign donations. While minerals inserted into the collections in previous years mostly come from Russia, Eastern Europe, and Germany, the contemporary collection includes minerals from Australia, South America, and Africa. Some of the most notable mineralogical samples include large quartz, amethyst, and fluoride druses.

History of science collection
The history of science collection has approximately 1,050 archival materials and historical items related to the study and mediation of nature.

Photo collection
The photo collection contains photos, negatives and colour slides, 28,000 items in total, reflecting the daily life, exhibitions, field work and events of the museum throughout time. The photo collection of the museum has been digitised in the biodiversity information system PlutoF under the acronym TAMF.

See also
 Estonian Museum of Applied Art and Design
 Museum of Estonian Architecture

External links
 Official website

References

Museums in Estonia
Natural history museums

Estonian Museum of Natural History


The Martin Chittenden House is a historic house on Vermont Route 117 in Jericho, Vermont.  Built in the 1790s, it is one of the highest-style Federal period houses in Chittenden County, with a distinctive brickwork exterior and numerous unusual interior features.  It was built by Thomas Chittenden for his son Martin, both of whom served as Governor of Vermont.  The house was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1978.

Description and history
The Martin Chittenden House stands in a rural area of southwestern Jericho, on the west side of River Road (VT 117) overlooking the Winooski River.  It is a -story brick building, five bays wide and three deep, with a side gable roof and end chimneys.  The brick of the front is laid in Flemish bond, while the sides are laid in Flemish cross bond, giving a diamond cross pattern to those surfaces.  The main entrance is at the center of the north-facing front facade, recessed with sidelight windows.  The opening is framed by pilasters and a broken pediment, and there is a Palladian window in the second floor above.  The interior follows a central hall plan, with two chambers on either side of the central hall.  The front left parlor has a distinctive carved fireplace overmantel surround, which surrounds a period wall painting with patriotic themes.  The interior of the attic spaces preserves the framework of a hip roof.

The house's construction date is uncertain; it was probably built about 1796, when Martin Chittenden married, and was most likely a wedding present from Martin's father Thomas.  Thomas Chittenden was Vermont's first governor, and Martin continued the political activities of his father, serving as governor during the War of 1812.  This house, along with others built by Thomas Chittenden for his other sons, rank among the most imposing houses of the period in the area.  The artwork over the parlor fireplace mantel is one of the most distinctive and well-preserved examples of patriotic folk art of the period.

See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Chittenden County, Vermont

References

Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Vermont
National Register of Historic Places in Chittenden County, Vermont
Federal architecture in Vermont
Houses completed in 1790
Houses in Chittenden County, Vermont
Buildings and structures in Jericho, Vermont
1790 establishments in Vermont
Governor of Vermont

Martin Chittenden House


Bach Church is the common name of a Protestant parish church in Arnstadt, Thuringia, Germany. It was officially named Johann-Sebastian-Bach-Kirche in 1935 because of its association with the composer Johann Sebastian Bach.

It was in this church that Bach played a harpsichord concerto after working for Johann Ernst III, Duke of Saxe-Weimar for 7 months.

A church on the premises named after St. Boniface burned down in 1581. A new church was built from 1676 to 1683 and simply named Neue Kirche (New church). It is a Baroque hall church with three tiers on all sides.

The organ builder Johann Friedrich Wender from Mühlhausen built from 1699 to 1703 on the third tier of the church an organ with two manuals and 21 stops. It was inspected in June 1703 by Johann Sebastian Bach, then 18 years old, who was hired afterwards for the post of the organist at the church, his first position as an organist. He was succeeded in 1707 by his cousin Johann Ernst Bach who held the post to 1728. The organ was changed and restored several times. A replica of the organ was installed in the church of Pontaumur, Auvergne, which is used also for a regional Bach festival, Bach en Combrailles.

References

Literature

External links

Arnstadt Bach
Hall churches
Arnstadt Bach

Bach Church, Arnstadt


If a software product is offered as Hybrid SaaS or Hybrid Cloud, it means that it combines elements of both Software-as-a-Service (SaaS) and on-premises software deployment models.

In the case of a hybrid model, the software product offers a combination of cloud-based SaaS functionality and on-premises capabilities. It allows organizations to deploy the software partly in the cloud, and partly on their local infrastructure or inside their Virtual Private Cloud depending on their specific requirements and preferences.

The hybrid approach can be beneficial in certain scenarios. For example:

 Customization and control: Some organizations may have unique requirements or security concerns that require them to have greater control over their data and infrastructure. By offering a hybrid model, the software vendor allows organizations to maintain certain aspects of the software on-premises while still leveraging the benefits of the cloud-based SaaS functionality.
 Connectivity and latency: In certain industries or regions with limited internet connectivity or high latency, running critical parts of the software on-premises can ensure reliable access and faster response times.
 Compliance and data sovereignty: In industries with strict regulatory requirements or data sovereignty concerns, a hybrid approach can enable organizations to keep sensitive data on-premises while utilizing the cloud for non-sensitive operations.

By offering a Hybrid SaaS model, software vendors aim to provide flexibility and cater to a wider range of customer needs, allowing them to balance cloud-based convenience and on-premises control.

Hybrid SaaS vs. Hybrid Cloud

Hybrid SaaS (Software-as-a-Service) and hybrid cloud are related but distinct concepts in the realm of cloud computing.

 Hybrid SaaS refers to a deployment model where a software application is delivered as a service and combines elements of both on-premises and cloud-based infrastructure. In this model, some components or data reside on the customer's local infrastructure (on-premises) while others are hosted in the cloud. It offers a blend of the flexibility and scalability of the cloud with the control and customization options of on-premises deployment.
 Hybrid cloud refers to a computing environment that combines both private cloud infrastructure and public cloud services. It involves the integration and orchestration of resources from multiple cloud environments, including a private cloud (on-premises infrastructure) and at least one public cloud provider, such as Amazon Web Services (AWS), Microsoft Azure, or Google Cloud Platform.

In summary, the main difference between hybrid SaaS and hybrid cloud lies in their focus. Hybrid SaaS primarily refers to a software deployment model combining on-premises and cloud-based components, while hybrid cloud refers to the integration and utilization of both private and public cloud environments, encompassing infrastructure and services beyond just software applications.

References

Software distribution

Hybrid SaaS


Kanakarayan Tiruselvam Paul (24 March 1876 – 11 April 1931) was an Indian leader who served as the president of the All India Conference of Indian Christians, representing the Christian community of colonial India in the First Round Table Conference in London. Paul was the first Indian-born National General Secretary of the National Council of YMCAs of India. A devout Christian himself, he explored the relationship between Christianity and national identity. He was the President of the Governing Council of the United Theological College, Bangalore, General Secretary of the National Missionary Society (India), and Chairman of the National Christian Council of India. Paul's lasting legacy was rural reconstruction, which he initiated through the YMCA in India. He was an ardent follower of Mahatma Gandhi, who praised K.T. Paul for his nationalism.

Biography

Early life
Kanakarayan Tiruselvam Paul was born on 24 March 1876 in a Christian family at Salem, Madras Presidency, India. After matriculation and intermediate studies, he joined Madras Christian College in 1892, to earn his bachelor's degree.

He worked in the Government secretariat and resigned after his marriage. He joined the Coimbatore London Mission High School as a teacher, and later became the Headmaster of the Punganur Arcot Mission High School.

In 1902 he joined the Teacher's College at Saidapet. The following year he returned to his alma mater, Madras Christian College, as a tutor in the Department of History.

Christian leader
Paul's contributions to the church in India may be seen in his work at the National Missionary Society (NMS). In 1905 he helped Vedanayagam Samuel Azariah to establish the National Missionary Society at Serampore and became its Honorary Treasurer; the following year he became its Organising Secretary, and from 1909 to 1914 its general secretary. In this capacity, he became aware of the need for unity in Christian witness and social activity. As general secretary, he visited churches, conducted personal interviews, and organized branch meetings all over India. In North India, he initiated a civic body called 'Premsabha' (meaning 'Council of Love' in Hindi), which did social and religious work among poor Christians of the depressed classes. His contacts with Christian missionaries of other denominations also led Paul to think about the need for unity among Christians and to take part in the formation of the South Indian United Church.

Paul worked for the transformation of the National Missionary Council of India into the National Christian Council of India, in which the Indian churches, as well as missions from overseas, were members. He became the first Chairman of the National Christian Council of India. Paul also showed much interest in theological education. At the time of his death, he was the President of the Governing Council of the United Theological College, Bangalore. He was also the convener of the SIUC committee on theological education. Paul became the president of the All India Conference of Indian Christians in 1923 and represented the Indian Christian community at the London Round Table Conferences in 1930–1932 along with Surendra Kumar Datta.

Indian Nationalism and Christian Leaders
The massacre of innocent Indians by General Dyer at the Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar, Punjab, in 1918 had fanned the fire of anti-British feelings all over India. Mahatma Gandhi, launching his first attack on British rule using the weapon of Satyagraha, gave a call for Non-Cooperation Movement in 1920.  Indian Christians could not sit on the fence and had to reveal where their sympathies lay. The leaders S. K. Datta and K. T. Paul published an article in the 'Young Men of India' in July 1920 protesting against the insensitive behavior of the British in Punjab. Though the massacre of Jallianwala Bagh had shocked Indian Christians, Paul had not lost his belief that India could build its future through organic links with Western Christianity and British contact. However, his hopes of transformation of the Indian polity in cooperation with the British rule strengthened by diarchy turned into dismay in 1918.

The history of India since the second half of the 19th century had been distinguished by a national movement for political independence. In its initial stages, Indian Christians had seldom participated, and during the first Non-cooperation Movement of Gandhi (1920–23), there was hardly any Christian participation. But in the latter phases of the struggle, an increasing number of Christians began to identify with the national movement, and the maintenance of a secular state – especially from among the Reformed Churches: H.C. Mukherjee, Raja Sir Maharaj Singh, K.T. Paul, S.K. Datta, and V.S. Azariah and V.Santiago are examples. Between 1900 and 1930 K.T. Paul, S.K. Datta, V.Santiago, and V.S. Azariah formed a trio who instilled feelings of responsible nationalism in the Christian community – despite opposition from some western missionaries as well as some Indian Christians.

In the 1930s and 40s Christians were mainly on the side of the Indian National Congress in its struggle for independence. Several Christian organizations such as the Christian Patriot Group of Madras, and the Indian Christian Association, were organized to express Christian views on political matters.

K.T. Paul as the conscience of Indian Christians
Paul grew to adulthood at a time when the Indian National Congress was voicing the growing demand of educated Indians for representative Government. Paul was committed to political nationalism, seeing in it also a self-awakening of India that would transform the totality of its traditional life. In his speech at the second session of the Round Table Conference in London (7 to 11 September 1931), Gandhi said of K.T. Paul, "I miss as I have no doubt all of you miss, the presence in our midst of K.T. Paul. Although, I do not know, so far as I know, though he never officially belonged to the Congress, he was a nationalist to the full."

As the secretary of the National Missionary Society, and later as the National General Secretary of the YMCA, Paul helped to prevent the Christian community from becoming a 'communal' group. He saw a 'designed place of necessity' for nationalism in the purpose of God for mankind.

Paul as a nationalist recommended the indigenization of even the structure of the Indian Church. He was opposed to the Western type of church structure in India, especially episcopacy.  He argued that episcopacy was a product of the West, that it was foreign to the genius of India, that the prophet and not the priest would suffice for the religious life of India, that if the united church in South India fell into the clutches of episcopacy it would be fettered perpetually by western forms since such a union would be a patched-up union, unrelated in any way to what was essentially Indian.

Christian Nationalist
As a Christian Nationalist and a devote Christian leader, Paul saw the rising nationalist feelings in a different dimension. In order to understand his position as a true nationalist one has to look into the then political situations from 1919 to 1930. In 1919 Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms were introduced which were not accepted by Congress. At this time the Government also passed the Rowlatt Act under the pretext of eradicating terrorism. Most of the Indian leaders thought that these measures were against liberty and thus a betrayal. As a result, the Satyagraha Movement was started by Mahatma Gandhi. At first, Paul did not agree with Gandhi's policy. In the tragedy of Chauri Chaura, a number of policemen were brutally beaten to death by a gang of people who claimed to be Gandhi's followers. This was followed by the Bombay riot. Gandhi suspended the whole Satyagraha indefinitely. But on 10 March 1922, Gandhi was arrested.

Immediately after this, Paul was invited by the Viceroy to become a member of the first Round Table Conference. There his main emphasis was on national unity, although he was unable to influence matters much in the political fields of India.

With the partition of Bengal in 1905, the Swadeshi movement had been inaugurated. One way in which the Indian Christians responded to it was by developing indigenous leadership and freedom from foreign domination and dependence within the church. With this idea, the National Missionary Council was founded. It was founded on the principle that it will use only indigenous personnel, methods, and money for its work. The Society was never active in politics but because it was purely Indian in its personal and management, it continued to express sympathy for the national movement.  The National Missionary Council (NMC) was established in 1912 in Calcutta. NMC comprised British and Indian missionaries. Paul was one of the prominent leaders of this council for many years.

YMCA and K T Paul
Paul was appointed the Joint National General Secretary of the Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA) in India in 1913. Dr. John R. Mott, who had attracted Paul to YMCA service later supported his appointment in 1916 as the first Indian National General Secretary of the YMCA in India. Paul began the process of indigenization of the organization at a time when practically all Christian institutions were headed by Europeans. Paul was able to Indianise the policy and programs, leading to the implementation of new and innovative programs for the marginalized sections of India. The Rural Reconstruction Scheme was one such program. His vision for the future of the Indian YMCA was rooted in his understanding of his own people – their fears, their hopes, and their desperate needs.

The YMCA has thus far been an urban movement with specific objectives. Paul took it in a new direction, mindful of the peculiar problems of rural Indian society as compared to the industrialized, urban, and literate Western society for whose specific needs the YMCA had been created. This however was a herculean task as Paul had to work out substantial details explaining why the Indian YMCA should take up the rural program and deviate completely from its set path of working for the urban youth.

Rural Reconstruction
Paul was moved by the appalling conditions of poverty of the rural masses who constituted 90 per cent of India's population. Thus he established Rural YMCA Centres to work for the upliftment of rural young men. At this stage, the missionaries too looked to the YMCA for help in the Mass Movement areas where a large number of Christians who were coming over to Christianity brought their problems of poverty, debt, and depression with them. Such problems could not be solved in a day. The large number of such converts entering the Church proved to be a burden. Therefore, it was at the urgent request of the missionaries that the YMCA began to render help in the field, seeking the cooperation of the church to make it economically possible for those Christians to become honest and self-respecting citizens. Paul worked for the village education scheme and rural reconstruction program through the YMCA and the church.

By launching the Rural Work Programme, Paul had in fact opened a 'campaign against Indian poverty'. No government has so far succeeded in eliminating poverty, but Paul experimented with a methodology to tackle it at its roots. As a keen student of the Indian situation he had taken note of the Co-operative Act passed by Lord Curzon in 1904, followed by another in 1912, meant to help farmers to overcome their serious financial problems. Neither the Co-operative Credit banks of the Government nor its agricultural development departments had succeeded in solving the problem of poverty in rural India.

Paul took an intensive study tour of the poverty-stricken districts to supplement the existing knowledge of both the theory and practice of Indian agriculture. He thought that every Indian problem had its roots in rural conditions.

Under the guidance of Paul, the YMCA took up responsibility for depressed classes in four districts and set up YMCA Credit Societies to help bankrupt farmers. However, it ran into difficulty as the regular District Co-operative Banks of the Government were not willing to give loans to these Societies without adequate property securities of the community who took the loan. Paul's appeal to take the character of the borrower as his credit was rejected by the banks. Social disability which deprived the lower castes, of memberships of government Co-operative Credit societies, was a problem faced by Christians both in north and south India. Paul argued that the disabilities of Christians are so great that if special attention was not given to them it would take a century for the advantages to reach them. Therefore, special treatment was given to them while non-Christians could become shareholders and beneficiaries.

Madras Christian Co-operative Bank Ltd
Paul decided that if other banks did not give credit, the YMCA should organize a Central Co-operative Bank of its own. He was encouraged in his venture by his friend L. D. Swamikannu Pillai, the Registrar of Co-operative Societies. Madras Christian Co-operative Bank Ltd was started in 1916, with the intention of 25 per cent of net profits being carried to the Reserve Fund and 9 per cent paid as dividends. Although organizations established by Paul were never exclusively for Christians, the presence of Christian communities in the area was a pre-requisite.

Paul's Anti-Poverty Strategy
Then as it is now illiteracy was the bane of India and has been largely responsible for poverty and uncontrolled population growth breeding greater illiteracy and thus creating a vicious circle. The Rural Reconstruction Programme was aimed at removing this ignorance and illiteracy in the villages. The slogan, "5 Ds are the enemies of the villagers" (Debt, Drink, Disease, Darkness, and the Devil), was adopted. By 1921, rural work had begun to produce productive results. Nearly 40,000 people had been reached and helped towards gaining economic independence. In one of the Districts in Bengal, an entire village of outcastes had been liberated. In another village in Madras, the crops of the outcaste converts had increased a hundredfold.

Social Work
Paul began his social work when he was in the YMCA, which before his time was entirely an urban organization. In the rural areas of India, Christians suffered without any monetary or other kinds of help. In 1912, he decided to extend the cooperative credit movement to rural areas. This formed the basis of his other work in rural areas, which had social, physical, and religious themes also.

An important outcome of this Rural Work was the appeal it made to the young educated Indian Christians. With the prevailing wave of Nationalism, the young men were asking "How can I best serve India?" A large number of young men were responding positively to this nationalistic fervour in developing the rural work started by Paul. It provided scope for such Christian young men to identify themselves with the nationalistic aspirations of the people by working for their upliftment. Nationalistic zeal and drive for indigenization among Indian Christians found fulfilment in rural work.

Bibliography
 K. T. Paul, The British Connection With India (1928)
 K. T. Paul, Christianity and Indian Nationhood

References

 K.A.: Baago: History of the National Christian Council of India 1914–64. Maharashtra: National Christian Council, 1965.
 M.D. David: The YMCA and the Making of Modern India [A Centenary History]. New Delhi: National Council of YMCAs of India., 1992.
 E.R. Hambye, A.C. Perumalil (eds): Christianity in India. Alleppey (India), Prakasam Publications, 1972.
 Jeyakumar, D. Arthur: Christians and the National Movement:The Memoranda of 1919 and the National Movement. Calcutta: Punthi Pustak, 1999.
 H.A. Popley: K.T. Paul Christian Leader Calcutta: Y.M.C.A Publishing House, 1938.
 Thomas Abraham Vazhayil: Christians in Secular India. New Jersey: Fairleigh Dickinson, 1974.
 Thomas, Joseph. K. T. Paul and His Contribution to the Discussion on the Relation between Christianity and Indian Nationalism in the First Half of the 20th Century. Senate of Serampore, 1976.
 M.M. Thomas and P.T Thomas: Towards an Indian Christian Theology, Life and Thought of Some Pioneers. Thiruvalla: New Day Publications of India, 1992.

External links
K. T. Paul materials on the South Asian American Digital Archive (SAADA)

YMCA leaders
Indian Christian religious leaders
1876 births
1931 deaths
People from Salem, Tamil Nadu
Christian nationalists

K. T. Paul


A pantograph (or "pan" or "panto") is an apparatus mounted on the roof of an electric train, tram or electric bus to collect power through contact with an overhead line. The term stems from the resemblance of some styles to the mechanical pantographs used for copying handwriting and drawings.

The pantograph is a common type of current collector; typically, a single or double wire is used, with the return current running through the rails. Other types of current collectors include the bow collector and the trolley pole.

Invention

The pantograph, with a low-friction, replaceable graphite contact strip or "shoe" to minimise lateral stress on the contact wire, first appeared in the late 19th century. Early versions include the bow collector, invented in 1889 by Walter Reichel, chief engineer at Siemens & Halske in Germany, and a flat slide-pantograph first used in 1895 by the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad

The familiar diamond-shaped roller pantograph was devised and patented by John Q. Brown of the Key System shops for their commuter trains which ran between San Francisco and the East Bay section of the San Francisco Bay Area in California. They appear in photographs of the first day of service, 26 October 1903.  For many decades thereafter, the same diamond shape was used by electric-rail systems around the world and remains in use by some today.

The pantograph was an improvement on the simple trolley pole, which prevailed up to that time, primarily because the pantograph allows an electric-rail vehicle to travel at much higher speeds without losing contact with the overhead lines, e.g. due to dewirement of the trolley pole.

Notwithstanding this, trolley pole current collection was used successfully at up to  on the Electroliner vehicles of the Chicago North Shore and Milwaukee Railroad, also known as the North Shore Line.

Modern use
The most common type of pantograph today is the so-called half-pantograph (sometimes 'Z'-shaped), which evolved to provide a more compact and responsive single-arm design at high speeds as trains got faster. Louis Faiveley invented this type of pantograph in 1955. The half-pantograph can be seen in use on everything from very fast trains (such as the TGV) to low-speed urban tram systems. The design operates with equal efficiency in either direction of motion, as demonstrated by the Swiss and Austrian railways whose newest high-performance locomotives, the Re 460 and Taurus, operate with them set in the opposite direction. In Europe the geometry and shape of the pantographs are specified by CENELEC, the European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization.

Technical details

The electric transmission system for modern electric rail systems consists of an upper, weight-carrying wire (known as a catenary) from which is suspended a contact wire. The pantograph is spring-loaded and pushes a contact shoe up against the underside of the contact wire to draw the current needed to run the train. The steel rails of the tracks act as the electrical return. As the train moves, the contact shoe slides along the wire and can set up standing waves in the wires which break the contact and degrade current collection. This means that on some systems adjacent pantographs are not permitted.

Pantographs are the successor technology to trolley poles, which were widely used on early streetcar systems. Trolley poles are still used by trolleybuses, whose freedom of movement and need for a two-wire circuit makes pantographs impractical, and some streetcar networks, such as the Toronto streetcar system, which have frequent turns sharp enough to require additional freedom of movement in their current collection to ensure unbroken contact. However, many of these networks, including Toronto's, are undergoing upgrades to accommodate pantograph operation.

Pantographs with overhead wires are now the dominant form of current collection for modern electric trains because, although more fragile than a third rail system, they allow the use of higher voltages.

Pantographs are typically operated by compressed air from the vehicle's braking system, either to raise the unit and hold it against the conductor or, when springs are used to effect the extension, to lower it. As a precaution against loss of pressure in the second case, the arm is held in the down position by a catch. For high-voltage systems, the same air supply is used to "blow out" the electric arc when roof-mounted circuit breakers are used.

Single and double pantographs

Pantographs may have either a single or a double arm. Double-arm pantographs are usually heavier, requiring more power to raise and lower, but may also be more fault-tolerant.

On railways of the former USSR, the most widely used pantographs are those with a double arm ("made of two rhombs"), but, since the late 1990s, there have been some single-arm pantographs on Russian railways. Some streetcars use double-arm pantographs, among them the Russian KTM-5, KTM-8, LVS-86 and many other Russian-made trams, as well as some Euro-PCC trams in Belgium. American streetcars use either trolley poles or single-arm pantographs.

Metro systems and overhead lines

Most rapid transit systems are powered by a third rail, but some use pantographs, particularly ones that involve extensive above-ground running. Most hybrid metro-tram or 'pre-metro' lines whose routes include tracks on city streets or in other publicly accessible areas, such as (formerly) line 51 of the Amsterdam Metro, the MBTA Green Line, RTA Rapid Transit in Cleveland, Frankfurt am Main U-Bahn, and San Francisco's Muni Metro, use overhead wire, as a standard third rail would obstruct street traffic and present too great a risk of electrocution.

Among the various exceptions are several tram systems, such as the ones in Bordeaux, Angers, Reims and Dubai that use a proprietary underground system developed by Alstom, called APS, which only applies power to segments of track that are completely covered by the tram. This system was originally designed to be used in the historic centre of Bordeaux because an overhead wire system would cause a visual intrusion. Similar systems that avoid overhead lines have been developed by Bombardier, AnsaldoBreda, CAF, and others. These may consist of physical ground-level infrastructure, or use energy stored in battery packs to travel over short distances without overhead wiring.

Overhead pantographs are sometimes used as alternatives to third rails because third rails can ice over in certain winter weather conditions. The MBTA Blue Line uses pantograph power for the entire section of its route that runs on the surface, while switching to third rail power before entering the underground portion of its route. The entire metro systems of Sydney, Madrid, Barcelona, Shanghai, Hong Kong, Seoul, Kobe, Fukuoka, Sendai, Jaipur, Chennai, Mumbai and Delhi use overhead wiring and pantographs (as well as certain lines of the metro systems in Beijing, Chongqing, Noida, Hyderabad, Jakarta, Tokyo, Osaka, Nagoya, Singapore, Sapporo, Budapest, and Mexico City). Pantographs were also used on the Nord-Sud Company rapid transit lines in Paris until the other operating company of the time, Compagnie du chemin de fer métropolitain de Paris, bought out the company and replaced all overhead wiring with the standard third rail system used on other lines.

Numerous railway lines use both third rail and overhead power collection along different portions of their routes, generally for historical reasons. They include the North London line and West London lines of London Overground, the Northern City Line of Great Northern, three of the five lines in the Rotterdam Metro network, Metro-North Railroad's New Haven Line, and the Chicago Transit Authority's Yellow Line. In this last case, the overhead portion was a remnant of the Chicago North Shore and Milwaukee Railroad's high-speed Skokie Valley Route, and was the only line on the entire Chicago subway system to utilize pantograph collection for any length.  As such, the line required railcars that featured pantographs as well as third rail shoes, and since the overhead was a very small portion of the system, only a few cars would be so equipped.  The changeover occurred at the grade crossing at East Prairie, the former site of the Crawford-East Prairie station.  Here, trains bound for Dempster-Skokie would raise their pantographs, while those bound for Howard would lower theirs, doing so at speed in both instances.  In 2005, due to the cost and unique maintenance needs for what only represented a very small portion of the system, the overhead system was removed and replaced with the same third rail power that was used throughout the rest of the system, which allowed all of Chicago's railcars to operate on the line. All the pantographs were removed from the Skokie equipped cars.

Until 2010, the Oslo Metro line 1 changed from third rail to overhead line power at Frøen station. Due to the many level crossings, it was deemed difficult to install a third rail on the rest of the older line's single track. After 2010 third rails were used in spite of level crossings. The third rails have gaps, but there are two contact shoes.

Three-phase supply

On some systems using three phase power supply, locomotives and power cars have two pantographs with the third-phase circuit provided by the running rails. In 1901 an experimental high-speed installation, another design from Walter Reichel at Siemens & Halske, used three vertically mounted overhead wires with the collectors mounted on horizontally extending pantographs.

Inclined pantographs

On lines where open wagons are loaded from above, the overhead line may be offset to allow this; the pantographs are then mounted at an angle to the vertical.

Weaknesses
Contact between a pantograph and an overhead line is usually assured through a block of graphite. This material conducts electricity while working as a lubricant. As graphite is brittle, pieces can break off during operation. Bad pantographs can seize the overhead wire and tear it down, so there is a two-way influence whereby bad wires can damage the pantograph and bad pantographs can damage the wires. To prevent this, a pantograph monitoring station can be used. At sustained high speeds, above , friction can cause the contact strip to become red hot, which in turn can cause excessive arcing and eventual failure.

In the UK, the pantographs (Brecknell Willis and Stone Faiveley) of vehicles are raised by air pressure and the graphite contact "carbons" create an air gallery in the pantograph head which release the air if a graphite strip is lost, activating the automatic drop device and lowering the pantograph to prevent damage. Newer electric traction units may use more sophisticated methods which detect the disturbances caused by arcing at the point of contact when the graphite strips are damaged. There are not always two pantographs on an electric multiple unit but, in cases where there are, the other one can be used if one is damaged; an example of this situation would be a Class 390 Pendolino. The rear pantograph in relation to the direction of travel is often used as to avoid damaging both pantographs in case of entanglements: if the front pantograph was used, debris from an entanglement could cause damage to the rear pantograph, rendering both pantographs and the vehicle inoperable.

Automatic dropping device
Automatic dropping device (ADD) is a safety device that automatically lowers the pantograph on electric trains to prevent accidents in case of obstructions or emergencies. It is also known as pantograph dropping device. The automatic dropping device is obligatory for trains with operational speeds of 160 km/h and higher. Otherwise, the train operators are free to install these devices. The damage that causes the pantograph to fall can include the strip head, the pantograph head and other parts. The ADD mostly uses a pneumatic system to detect a damage. For example, a broken contact strip will cause a pressure drop in the air tube inside.

See also

 Bow collector
 Current collector
 Pantographs and underbody collectors
 Railway electrification system
 Trolley pole

References

Locomotive parts
Tram technology

Electric buses

de:Stromabnehmer#Scherenstromabnehmer

Pantograph (transport)


Gabras or Gavras (, ) feminine form Gabraina (Γάβραινα), is the name of an important Byzantine aristocratic family which became especially prominent in the late 11th and early 12th centuries as the semi-independent and quasi-hereditary rulers of Chaldia.

The Gabrades are attested for the first time in the late 10th century, when Constantine Gabras participated in the revolt of Bardas Skleros. The general Theodore Gabras captured Trebizond and ruled it and the theme of Chaldia as a virtually autonomous state (ca. 1081–1098). He was celebrated for his martial exploits, and was later venerated as a saint in the region. His son, Constantine Gabras, also became governor of Chaldia (ca. 1119–1140) and ended up ruling it as a quasi-independent prince. Several members of the family entered service with the Seljuk Turks in the 12th and 13th centuries, and in the 14th century, several Gabrades are attested in administrative positions in Byzantium, most notably the official and scholar Michael Gabras, known for his extensive correspondence with the main Byzantine literary and political figures of his day, and his brother John. A branch of the family also became rulers of the Principality of Theodoro in the Crimea.

Origins and first members
The Gabras family first appears in the northeastern corner of the Byzantine world, the province of Chaldia, centred on Trebizond. The family's ethnic origin is unknown. There have been many speculations regarding their origin, most of them being based on the etymology of the family's name and on the location that they first appeared.

Alexander Vasiliev and Alexander Kazhdan suggested an Armenian origin for the family's surname, as a "convenient solution", but the surname "Gabras" is most likely not Armenian. Greek, Pontic Greek, Persian and Laz origins for the name have also been suggested, but these possibilities, too, are considered quite implausible. More likely interpretations include Jakob Philipp Fallmerayer's opinion that the name was derived from the Aramaic-Syriac formula "g-b-r", indicating "hero" or "man" and Konstantinos Amantos's suggestion that the name is a corruption/hypocoristic of the name "Gabriel" (i.e. man of God), which comes from the same root. Historian Anthony Bryer considers that the name is a cognate of the Arabic kafir, Persian gabr or Turkish gavur, terms meaning "infidel" or "unbeliever", which is appropriate for the Christian–Muslim borderlands where the Gabrades first appear.

Some historians, including Bryer, characterized the Gabrades as being "Greco-Laz". Bryer later revised his view and wrote that the Gabrades were most likely simply native Chaldians, as Inner Chaldia, their native region, was beyond the areas of either Greek, Laz or Armenian settlement. Inner Chaldia was a region with its own distinct identity: a mountainous area, it was scarcely affected by Hellenization and preserved a traditional and archaic societal structure, with tiny lordships centred on mountain strong-holds.

The first known member of the family, Constantine Gabras, participated in the 976–979 revolt of Bardas Skleros, and was killed in battle in 979. A patrikios Gabras appears in 1018, who was blinded for plotting along with the Bulgarian Elemag to restore the recently subdued Bulgarian Empire; it is unclear, however, what his relation with the Chaldian Gabrades is, or whether he might be a Bulgarian noble. In 1040, a Michael Gabras was one of the leaders of a failed aristocratic conspiracy against the Domestic of the Schools Constantine, a brother of Emperor Michael IV (r. 1034–1041). He too was blinded along with his fellow conspirators.

The Gabrades as autonomous rulers in Chaldia

The first important member of the family was Theodore Gabras. A native of Chaldia, he was an energetic and valiant man. He recaptured Trebizond from the Turks in 1075, and was appointed governor (doux) of Chaldia by Alexios I Komnenos in 1081. Gabras ruled Chaldia as a virtually independent ruler, and until his death in battle in 1098, he fought with success against the Danishmend Turks and the Georgians. He became a heroic figure in both Pontic Greek and Turkoman poetry, and was recognized by the Orthodox Church as a martyr and saint. By his first wife, Irene (possibly a Taronitissa), Theodore had a son, Gregory Gabras, who was kept as a hostage in Constantinople, where he was initially betrothed to one of the daughters of the sebastokrator Isaac Komnenos and later to Maria Komnene, daughter of Alexios I. Theodore tried to kidnap him in 1091, but failed. Nothing further is known of Gregory Gabras, but he may be identical to Gregory Taronites, who as doux of Chaldia in 1103–1106 also led a rebellion against Alexios. Another member of the family, Constantine Gabras, whose exact relation to Theodore is unknown, was also appointed doux of Chaldia by John II Komnenos (r. 1118–1143) ca. 1119. He ruled it practically independently from 1126 until 1140, when John II subdued him. His exploits also formed part of an extensive oral tradition in the Pontus, but the so-called "Song of Gabras", written down ca. 1900, has been shown to be a modern work drawing from other medieval sources.

The Gabrades' success in creating a more or less autonomous domain is not surprising: northeastern Asia Minor, including Chaldia, had had a long history of disaffection with the central Byzantine government in the 11th century, helped by its mixed Greek and Armenian population—the latter introduced in the early 11th century and quickly coming to dominate the Pontic hinterland. Already before the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, the renegade Frankish mercenary Robert Crispin had made the fortress of Koloneia the centre of a separate domain, and was succeeded in 1073 by Roussel de Bailleul. Thus, when Theodore Gabras appeared at Trebizond in 1075 and again in 1081, he was seen as a native leader for the Pontic Greeks of the coastlands, and his regime relied on local forces, i.e. the old thematic levies of the province. The Gabrades' Turkish counterpart and main rivals were the Danishmendid emirs of Neokaisareia and Sebasteia. On the other hand, as Bryer comments, "although rivals, the Gabrades and the Danishmendids probably had more in common with each other than they had with the Komnenoi of Constantinople or the Seljuks of Konya"; the two often allied with each other, especially against efforts by their respective suzerains to bring them to heel, and the Gabrades are remembered as gallant foes in Turkoman heroic poetry.

Service under the Komnenoi and the Seljuks
Following the collapse of their independent power, many of the Gabrades came to serve under the new Seljuk Sultanate at Konya, while others went to serve the Komnenoi emperors at Constantinople and mostly lost their ties to the Pontus.

Already in the 1140s, a nameless member of the family fought on the side of the Seljuks and was captured and executed by Manuel I Komnenos (r. 1143–1180) in 1146. Another Gabras, possibly the son of the former, defected from Byzantium to Kilij Arslan II (r. 1155–1192) and became one of his leading advisors. He may be identical with, or the father of, Kilij Arslan's vizier during the last part of his reign (ca. 1180–1192), Ikhtiyar al-Din Hasan ibn Ghafras. Other members of the family in Seljuk service include Constantine Gabras, possibly the son of the doux Constantine, who "betrayed" the emperor while on a diplomatic mission in 1162/3; an unnamed Gabras who was accused of poisoning Kilij Arslan II in 1192; John Gabras ("Giovanni de Gabra"), who was sent to a diplomatic mission in Europe on behalf of Sultan Kayqubad I in 1234–1236; and a Michael ("Mikhail bar Gavras") who was a physician at Malatya ca. 1256.

On the other hand, the pansebastos sebastos Michael Gabras was a general of Manuel I Komnenos, fighting against the Hungarians and the Seljuks, and became related to the imperial dynasty as a son-in-law of Andronikos Komnenos.

In late Byzantium and the Empire of Trebizond
The surname of Gabras is still attested in the Byzantine world during the 13th and 14th centuries, but the family had lost its prestige. Some of the Gabrades of this period were peasants who adopted the surname of their masters, and most of the family members attested in government service were lowly officials.

Under the Empire of Nicaea, the Gabrades appear in Macedonia and western Asia Minor. A pansebastos sebastos Ioannakios or Ioannikios Gabras is mentioned in the  ca. 1216; a megaloepiphanestatos Gregory Gabras is mentioned as governor of a village near Prilep in the 1220s, and the latter's relative, the pansebastos sebastos Stephen Gabras, was active near Ohrid; a John Gabras sold land near Miletus in 1236; and a Constantine Gabras was protopapas ("senior priest") of the Metropolis of Miletus ca. 1250. In the Palaiologan period, the pansebastos sebastos Christopher Gabras died as a monk ca. 1264/5; Manuel Doukas Komnenos Gavras is attested as benefactor of a monastery in 1300/1; other members of the family are occasionally mentioned in legal documents, epigrams or correspondence as active in Constantinople and Macedonian cities like Serres or Veroia. Gabras Komnenos, of unknown first name, held the post of "judge of the army" (krites tou phossatou) and is recorded by Manuel Philes as a "slayer of the barbarians"; a John Gabras Kaballarios was hetaireiarches at Serres ca. 1348; another family member held a pronoia estate at Kalamaria before 1347. Other Gabrades were serfs (paroikoi), attached to large estates: Michael Gabras at Leros ca. 1263; Demetrios and his sons Michael and Philotheos, as well as a probably related Basil Gabras, as paroikoi of the Esphigmenou monastery at Rentina ca. 1300; finally, Demetrios Gabras Chrito[u]s and George Gabras were paroikoi of the Xeropotamou monastery at Rebenikeia in the early 14th century.

The most famous of the Palaiologan-era Gabrades, however, is Michael Gabras, a sakellarios of the Patriarchate of Constantinople and "the most prolific of all Byzantine letter writers" (A. Bryer), whose correspondence spans the period 1305–1341 and includes most of the major political and literary figures of his day. He also had a brother John, who wrote a theological treatise against the doctrines of Gregory Palamas.

A few Gabrades also remained in the Pontus, where they entered the service of the Empire of Trebizond, established by the exiled Komnenoi shortly before the dissolution of the Byzantine Empire by the Fourth Crusade in 1204: most notably, a member of the family was governor of Sinope during the brief period when it was reclaimed from the Turks by Trebizond (ca. 1254 or 1258/9 – 1265 or 1267/8). Other family members are mentioned as landholders, mostly in the bandon (province) of Matzouka, south of Trebizond: Andronikos Gavras, probably in the 13th century; a George Gabras ca. 1344/5; Kosmas, a military leader (polemarchos) in the bandon of Matzouka ca. 1378; and Theodore Gabras in Gemora in the early 15th century.

In Crimea and the Principality of Theodoro

A branch of the Gabras family is commonly identified by scholars with the family known from Russian sources as "Khovra". This family ruled the small Principality of Theodoro, which was founded in the mid-14th century in the southwestern Crimea (in the area of "Gothia") and survived until conquered by the Ottoman Turks in 1475. The southern Crimea had been part of the Byzantine Empire until the late 12th century, and then came under the control of the Empire of Trebizond for a generation, but retained close links with the Pontic coast long after. While several hypotheses have been put forward as to how, when, and which branch of the Gabrades relocated there, none can be conclusively proven.

The first Gabras of Theodoro to be mentioned is Stephen ("Stepan Vasilyevich Khovra"), prince of Gothia, who emigrated to Moscow in 1391 or 1402 along with his son Gregory. The two became monks, and Gregory later founded the Simonov Monastery there. The Russian noble families of  and  claimed descent from them. Stephen's son, Alexios I, ruled Gothia after his father's departure until 1444/5 or 1447. He was succeeded briefly by John, possibly his son. John's son Alexios died young ca. 1446/7, and his epitaph was composed by John Eugenikos. Another son of Alexios, Olubei, succeeded as prince ca. 1447 and ruled until ca. 1458, while a daughter of Alexios, Maria of Gothia, became in 1426 the first wife of the last Trapezuntine emperor, David.

After the disappearance of Olubei from the scene ca. 1458, no princes are known by name until Isaac in 1465, possibly Olubei's son. Isaac was overthrown in 1475 by his brother Alexander due to his pro-Ottoman stance. His reign was brief, as the Ottoman Empire laid siege and conquered Theodoro itself in December. Alexander and his family were taken captive to Constantinople, where the prince was beheaded, his son was forcibly converted to Islam, and his wife and daughters became part of the Sultan's harem.

Later Gabrades
The name "Gabras" survived as "Gavrasov" or "Gavradov" among the Greeks in the Sea of Azov and as "Gabras" in Trapezuntine Chaldea. The last notable members of the family are mentioned in Constantinople during the early centuries of the Ottoman Empire, as with Michael or Mozalos Gabras, active ca. 1555–65, or Cyril Gabras, megas skeuophylax of the Patriarchate in 1604. Other family members are attested in Crete and the Aegean islands. Thus an unnamed Gabras held lands in Santorini in the early 17th century; and numerous Gabrades are to be found at Chios and in Crete, especially around Siteia, until the early 19th century. For Crete in particular, it has been often supposed, although with no definitive evidence, that the local Gabrades came directly from the Pontus. In the Black Sea Region of Turkey, People whose surnames are Kavraz directly comes from Gabras family with no definitive evidence. From the Fall of Trebizond until the 20th century, members of the family were also emigrating in Jerusalem and Buenos Aires.

Notes

References

Sources

Laz people
Principality of Theodoro

Gabras


A circular prime is a prime number with the property that the number generated at each intermediate step when cyclically permuting its (base 10) digits will be prime. For example, 1193 is a circular prime, since 1931, 9311 and 3119 all are also prime. A circular prime with at least two digits can only consist of combinations of the digits 1, 3, 7 or 9, because having 0, 2, 4, 6 or 8 as the last digit makes the number divisible by 2, and having 0 or 5 as the last digit makes it divisible by 5. The complete listing of the smallest representative prime from all known cycles of circular primes (The single-digit primes and repunits are the only members of their respective cycles) is 2, 3, 5, 7, R2, 13, 17, 37, 79, 113, 197, 199, 337, 1193, 3779, 11939, 19937, 193939, 199933, R19, R23, R317, R1031, R49081, R86453, R109297, R270343, R5794777 and R8177207, where Rn is a repunit prime with n digits. There are no other circular primes up to 1023. A type of prime related to the circular primes are the permutable primes, which are a subset of the circular primes (every permutable prime is also a circular prime, but not necessarily vice versa).

Other bases
The complete listing of the smallest representative prime from all known cycles of circular primes in base 12 is (using inverted two and three for ten and eleven, respectively)
2, 3, 5, 7, Ɛ, R2, 15, 57, 5Ɛ, R3, 117, 11Ɛ, 175, 1Ɛ7, 157Ɛ, 555Ɛ, R5, 115Ɛ77, R17, R81, R91, R225, R255, R4ᘔ5, R5777, R879Ɛ, R198Ɛ1, R23175, and R311407.

where Rn is a repunit prime in base 12 with n digits. There are no other circular primes in base 12 up to 1212.

In base 2, only Mersenne primes can be circular primes, since any 0 permuted to the one's place results in an even number.

References

External links
 Circular prime at The Prime Glossary
 Circular prime at World of Numbers
  a related sequence (the circular primes are a subsequence of this one)
 Circular, Permutable, Truncatable and Deletable Primes

Base-dependent integer sequences
Classes of prime numbers

Circular prime


Harry Oscar Wood (1879–1958) was an American seismologist who made several significant contributions in the field of seismology in the early twentieth-century. Following the 1906 earthquake in San Francisco, California, Wood expanded his background of geology and mineralogy and his career took a change of direction into the field of seismology. In the 1920s he co-developed the torsion seismometer, a device tuned to detect short-period seismic waves that are associated with local earthquakes. In 1931 Wood, along with another seismologist, redeveloped and updated the Mercalli intensity scale, a seismic intensity scale that is still in use as a primary means of rating an earthquake's effects.

Career
Wood was an instructor of geology and mineralogy at University of California, Berkeley from 1904 through 1912 and during that time taught the first course in seismology in the United States. He left California to operate the seismic station as a research associate at the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory from 1912 to 1917, and while there prepared a report on the necessity for additional earthquake research in Southern California. During World War I he worked at the National Bureau of Standards developing a piezoelectric seismograph that was being tested to locate cannon fire. For the period 1919–1920 he was the acting associate secretary at the United States National Research Council and secretary of the recently established American Geophysical Union. During his time in Washington, D.C., he attracted the interest of the Carnegie Institution for Science and they would eventually employ Wood to establish a small seismic network that would ultimately grow into the Caltech Seismological Laboratory.

Coming from the state of Maine, Wood earned a bachelor's and master's degrees from Harvard University, then arrived in Berkeley in 1904 and began instructing in the University of California's geology department, which was being led by Andrew Lawson. Wood began his transition into seismology following the 1906 San Francisco earthquake when damage investigations were conducted in the city under Lawson's leadership. The state refused to allocate funds for their research for the California State Earthquake Investigation Commission and instead the commission was funded and published by the Carnegie Institution for Science in what would be known as the Lawson report, but no further seismological research was done under that alliance until much later. Wood ultimately endowed two  research chairs in seismology at the Carnegie Institution for Science.

Wood–Anderson seismometer

In 1908, geologist Grove K. Gilbert paid Wood $1,000 to draft a map of potentially active faults in northern California and several years later Lawson assigned Wood to oversee the University's seismometers, where attention was focused on local earthquakes as well as the distant events that were used (especially by European scientists like Beno Gutenberg) to study the attributes of the Earth's interior. Seismometers that were in use up until that time had been developed and optimized for detecting the long-period seismic waves from distant earthquakes and did not detect local events well. Wood left Berkeley in 1912 and spent several years researching volcano seismology in Hawaii and made contact with Arthur L. Day, the director of the Carnegie Institution's geophysical laboratory, while Day also conducted volcanological research there. He would serve as Wood's mentor who took his advice and went to work at the Bureau of Standards in Washington D. C. where a relationship was developed with George Ellery Hale, the director of Carnegie's Mount Wilson Observatory in Pasadena.

In March 1921, the Carnegie Institution accepted a proposal from Wood to provide financing for a long-duration program of seismological research in Southern California. As a researcher for the Institute Wood worked in a partnership with John A. Anderson (an instrument designer and astrophysicist from the Mount Wilson Observatory) to pursue the development of a seismometer that could record the short-period waves from local earthquakes. Their instrument would require the ability to measure the seismic waves with periods from .5–2.0 seconds, which were considerably shorter than what the existing units were able to detect. In September 1923, with the successful completion of what became known as the , the focus became establishing a network of the instruments throughout the region that would be able to pinpoint earthquake epicenters and eventually allow mapping of the corresponding fault zones. Wood suggested that the Carnegie Institute establish a small network of the units at five locations throughout the region (Pasadena, Mount Wilson, Riverside, Santa Catalina Island, and Fallbrook) and the Institute agreed to move forward with the proposal.

Caltech Seismological Laboratory

The Carnegie Institute sought to cooperate with the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena for their seismic network's central station. Hale put forward the idea that the seismological lab could be integrated into the university's new geology department and soon thereafter the university's president, Robert A. Millikan, officially accepted the proposal and a new building away from the main campus was set up for the station which was eventually called the Caltech Seismological Laboratory. Soon after its founding, Beno Gutenberg, Charles Richter, and Hugo Benioff arrived in Pasadena to help with its formation.

Modified Mercalli intensity scale

Seismologist Michele Stefano de Rossi and limnologist François-Alphonse Forel had each created their own intensity scales and in 1883 came together to join their efforts and formulate the 10-level Rossi–Forel scale. In 1902, Giuseppe Mercalli updated the scale to include descriptions of how individuals responded to the earthquake, and Adolfo Cancani later proposed extending the scale to 12 levels. The German physicist August Heinrich Sieberg executed the change and called it the Mercalli-Cancani-Sieberg (MCS) scale which became popular in Europe. Wood and seismologist Frank Neumann devised their own 12-level scale in 1931, removed Cancini and Sieberg's names, and called it the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale. One of the first uses for the new scale was in a report Wood furnished to the Seismological Society of America regarding the effects of the 1933 Long Beach earthquake where its intensity was placed at VIII (Severe).

References

External links
 A Brief History of the Seismo Lab – Caltech Seismological Laboratory
 Guide to the Papers Of Harry O. Wood, 1905–1954 – Online Archive of California
 The Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale – United States Geological Survey
  Harry Oscar Wood (1879–1958)

1879 births
1958 deaths
American seismologists
People from Gardiner, Maine
California Institute of Technology faculty
University of California, Berkeley faculty
Harvard University alumni

Harry O. Wood


Kaizoku Sentai Gokaiger is a Japanese television series. It is the 35th in Toei's Super Sentai series. Its follows Tensou Sentai Goseiger. It theme a Piracy motif and premiered on TV Asahi on February 13, 2011, joining Kamen Rider OOO and then Kamen Rider Fourze as a program in TV Asahi's Super Hero Time programming block, until Gokaigers, conclusion on February 19, 2012.

Anniversary
Gokaiger is a special anniversary series. Its protagonists are able to transform into not only their own unique, pirate-themed forms, but also all of the previous 34 Super Sentai teams. Each of them have their own unique power that the Gokaigers can use. The series and related film also features reappearances of actors reprising their characters from each of the previous series.

Its footage was used for the 2014 American Power Rangers season, Power Rangers Megaforce.

Plot
The story takes place in a world where previous Super Sentai groups exists. A group of young pirates come from space to Earth to obtain "The Greatest in the Universe", which can only be acquired after obtaining the "Greatest Powers" of the different 34 Super Sentai Teams. However, they end up facing the Space Empire Zangyack, whose earlier invasion forces were wiped out by the 34 Sentai groups long ago before a new invasion force is established under Commander Warz Gill, the emperor's son. As a result, due to their history with the empire, the space pirates use the powers of the older teams and attempt to master their powers to fight the Zangyack forces as the Gokaigers.

Characters

Gokaiger

Episodes
Several of the episodes in Gokaiger feature and focus on the actions of one of Legend Sentai. Those episodes are titled in a fashion similar to that of the original series. For example, episode 3, which features Mahō Sentai Magiranger, has a magic spell as part of the title, while episode 7, which features Juken Sentai Gekiranger, features one of the nonsense phrases that protagonists Jyan Kandou would use.

Doubutsu Sentai Zyuohger appearance
As part of Doubutsu Sentai Zyuohger'''s 40th anniversary celebration, the entire Gokaiger cast made a special appearance on episode 28 (September 4, 2016) and 29 (September 11th, 2016), commemorating the 1,999th an 2,000th of the Super Sentai Series, including a new updated version of the Gokaiger ED titles 'Super Hero Getter 2016'.

Cast
 Captain Marvelous / Gokai Red: Ryota Ozawa
 Joe Gibken / Gokai Blue: Yuki Yamada
 Luka Millfy / Gokai Yellow: Mao Ichimichi
 Don Dogoier / Gokai Green: Kazuki Shimizu
 Ahim de Famille / Gokai Pink: Yui Koike
 Gai Ikari / Gokai Silver: Junya Ikeda
 Basco to Jolokia: Kei Hogosai
 Navi (Voice): Yukari Tamura
 Engine Machalcon (Voice): Hiroaki Hirata
 Narrator, Gokaiger Equipment Voice, The Greatest in the Universe: Tomokazu Seki

Guest Stars
 Tsuyoshi Kaijo: Naoya Makoto
 Aka Red (Voice): Tōru Furuya
 Kai Ozu: Atsushi Hashimoto
 Banban "Ban" Akaza: Ryuji Sainei
 Marika "Jasmine" Reimon: Ayumi Kinoshita
 Doggie Kruger (Voice): Tetsu Inada
 Kozo Kagusai: Kentarō Shimazu
 Jyan Kandou: Hiroki Suzuki
 Kakeru Shishi: Noboru Kaneko
 Kaoru Shiba: Runa Natsui
 Toshizo Tanba: Kazuyuki Matsuzawa
 Eikichi Nishida: Takashi Yamanaka
 Kyosuke Jinnai: Yūji Kishi
 Mikoto Nakadai: Koutaro Tanaka
 Hyuuga: Teruaki Ogawa
 Ryouma: Kazuki Maehara
 Satoru Akashi: Mitsuomi Takahashi
 Matsuri Tatsumi: Kayoko Shibata
 Yousuke Shiina: Shun Shioya
 Nanami Nono: Nao Nagasawa
 Kouta Bitou: Kohei Yamamoto
 Gai Yuki: Toshihide Wakamatsu
 Yukito Sanjyo: Sho Tomita
 Emiri Sanjyo: Michi Nishijima
 Joh Ohara: Kazuhiko Nishimura
 Goro Hoshino: Masaru Shishido
 Moro Maruo: Tamao Satō
 Ryo of the Heavenly Fire Star: Keiichi Wada]
 Cain: Yuki Kimisawa
 Sōsuke Esumi: Yasuhisa Furuhara
 Speedor (Voice): Daisuke Namikawa
 Buson (Voice): Hisao Egawa
 Bear-RV (Voice): Miki Inoue
 Bomper (Voice): Akiko Nagakawa
 Kenta Date: Hayato Ōshiba
 Domon: Shūhei Izumi
 Honami Moriyama: Tamao Yoshimura
 Shiro Akebono: Kenji Ohba
 Ninjaman (Voice): Kazuki Yao
 Tsuruhime: Satomi Hirose
 Takayuki Hiba: Takayuki Godai
 Sho Hayate: Kazuoki
 Dai: Kihachirō Uemura
 Akira: Issei Hirota
 Remi Hoshikawa: Ryo Narushima
 Goushi: Seiji Umon
 Professor Shuichiro Amachi: Louis Yamada LIII
 Yuka Yamazaki: Kaoru Hirata
 Shoji of the Heavenly Gravity Star: Ei Hamura
 Kazu of the Heavenly Time Star: Keisuke Tsuchiya
 Shou Tatsumi: Atsushi Harada
 Houka Ozu: Ayumi Beppu
 Miu Sutō: Yumi Sugimoto

Songs
 Opening theme
 "Kaizoku Sentai Gokaiger"
 Lyrics: Yuho Iwasato
 Composition: Yūsuke Mochida
 Arrangement: Project.R (Hiroaki Kogashima)
 Artist: Tsuyoshi Matsubara (Project.R) with Young Fresh (Project.R)
 Ending theme
 "Super Sentai, Hero Getter"
 Lyrics: Shoko Fujibayashi & Naruhisa Arakawa
 Composition: Project.R (Kenichiro Ōishi)
 Artist: Project.R

The series' ending theme "Super Sentai Hero Getter" lists off all of the Super Sentai series, making reference to their songs and motifs, with each of the three verses of the song being played in rotation. The first verse covers Himitsu Sentai Gorenger through Choujyu Sentai Liveman, which all aired in the Shōwa period; the second covers Kousoku Sentai Turboranger through Mirai Sentai Timeranger, which all aired through the remainder of the 20th century; and the last one covers Hyakujuu Sentai Gaoranger through Tensou Sentai Goseiger, which were all broadcast in the 21st century.

The song is remixed into "Super Sentai Hero Getter ~ 199 ver." from their first team-up movie (eliminating all but one of the choruses) and then "Super Sentai Hero Getter ~ Now & Forever ver." in the final episode, the latter remix covering Gokaiger and Tokumei Sentai Go-Busters.

A second version titled "Super Sentai Hero Getter 2016" was released in episodes 28 and 29 of Doubutsu Sentai Zyuohger during the celebrations of the 2000th episode of the franchise, with two verses, including the first 40 Super Sentai Series. the first verse covers the 20 earlier series from Gorenger to Gekisou Sentai Carranger and the second verse covers the 20 late enteries, from Denji Sentai Megaranger to Zyuohger.

A third version titled "Super Sentai Hero Getter ~Ten Gokaiger ver.~" was released in 2021 as the ending song of the film Kaizoku Sentai: Ten Gokaiger which celebrates the 10th anniversary of the series, including the first 45 Super Sentai Series in three verses with 15 series each, the first covering from Gorenger to Chōjin Sentai Jetman, the second covering from Kyōryū Sentai Zyuranger to GoGo Sentai Boukenger and the third covering from Juken Sentai Gekiranger to Kikai Sentai Zenkaiger''.

Super Sentai series
2011 television series debuts
2012 television series endings

Kaizoku Sentai Gokaiger


Lieutenant General Clarence Ralph Huebner (November 24, 1888 – September 23, 1972) was a highly decorated senior officer of the United States Army who saw distinguished active service during both World War I and World War II. Perhaps his most notable role was as the Commanding General (CG) of the 1st Infantry Division (nicknamed "The Big Red One") during the Normandy landings of World War II.

World War I
A farm boy from Bushton, Kansas, who spent almost seven years serving from private to sergeant in the 18th Infantry Regiment, Huebner received a regular commission in November 1916.

During World War I Huebner served on the Western Front and was sent to France with his regiment, the 28th Infantry, which later became part of the 1st Infantry Division ("The Big Red One"), shortly after the American entry into World War I. The division was the first of the American Expeditionary Force (AEF) to be sent overseas during the war. The following year he participated in the first American regimental assault at Cantigny, through Soissons, Saint-Mihiel, and the Meuse-Argonne. For his service in this war, he received two Distinguished Service Crosses, an Army Distinguished Service Medal, and a Silver Star. He commanded the 2nd Battalion, 28th Infantry at Cantigny after his commanding officer was killed, and later commanded the regiment, one of the youngest regimental commanders in the AEF.

Remaining in the army after the war, Huebner attended the United States Army Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth in 1924 and served on its faculty from 1929 to 1933.

World War II

Division command
In 1943, Huebner relieved the popular commander of the 1st Infantry Division, General Terry Allen, in a move engineered by General Omar N. Bradley. While the 1st Infantry Division had enjoyed considerable combat success under Allen's leadership, Bradley was highly critical of both Allen and assistant division commander Theodore Roosevelt Jr.'s wartime leadership style, which favored fighting ability over drill and discipline: "While the Allies were parading decorously through Tunis," Bradley wrote, "Allen's brawling 1st Infantry Division was celebrating the Tunisian victory in a manner all its own. In towns from Tunisia all the way to Arzew, the division had left a trail of looted wine shops and outraged mayors. But it was in Oran...that the division really ran amuck. The trouble began when SOS (Services of Supply) troops, long stationed in Oran, closed their clubs and installations to our combat troops from the front. Irritated by this exclusion, the 1st Division swarmed into town to 'liberate' it a second time."  Despite this, Bradley admitted that "none excelled the unpredictable Terry Allen in the leadership of troops."

Upon assuming command, Huebner immediately ordered a series of close-order drills, parades, and weapons instruction for the 1st Infantry Division, including its veterans, who had just finished a bloody series of engagements with German forces in Sicily. This did not endear him to the enlisted men of the division, who made no attempt to hide their preference for Allen. As one of the men of the Big Red One said in disgust, "Hell's bells! We've been killing Germans for months and now they are teaching us to shoot a rifle? It doesn't make any sense."

Supported by Bradley and Eisenhower, Huebner persisted, and the morale of the division gradually recovered. Huebner, aided by Brigadier General Willard G. Wyman, his assistant division commander, led the division in the assault on Omaha Beach on D-Day, followed by a successful infantry attack at Saint-Lô. The division would later repel a German counteroffensive at Mortain, and pursue the German Army across France, culminating in the Battles of Aachen and the Huertgen Forest.

V Corps command
In January 1945 Huebner took command of the V Corps, which he directed from the Rhine to the Elbe, where his troops made first contact with the Red Army. He commanded V Corps until November 11, 1945.

Postwar service
After World War II, Huebner served as Assistant Army Chief of Staff (G-3) at the Pentagon from late 1945 until 1946 when he became Chief of Staff for the United States European Command (EUCOM). He was promoted to lieutenant general on March 28, 1947 and also served as Deputy Commander in Chief of EUCOM from 1947 to 1950. He was the last Military Governor (acting) of the American Zone in Germany from May 15, 1949 to September 1, 1949.

Huebner retired from the army on November 30, 1950.

Later years

On September 1, 1951, Huebner became director of New York State's Civil Defense Commission, a post he held until January 1961. A strong advocate of the building of fallout shelters, Huebner believed the United States population would eventually be forced to live full-time in underground shelters and "would see the sunshine only by taking a calculated risk".

Huebner married Florence Barrett in 1921. Following her death in 1966, Huebner married Anna Imelda Mathews in 1968. She died in 1974. All three are buried together in Arlington National Cemetery.

In popular culture
Huebner was portrayed by Charles Macaulay in the 1980 film The Big Red One, in the opening sequence set in World War I and, in the reconstructed extended version, in 1944 just prior to the Battle of Huertgen Forest.

Decorations
Huebner received the following honors and awards during his military career:

References

External links
Generals of World War II
United States Army Officers 1939–1945
 Army.mil: Clarence R. Huebner

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1888 births
1972 deaths
United States Army Infantry Branch personnel
People from Rice County, Kansas
United States Army Command and General Staff College alumni
United States Army War College alumni
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
United States military governors
United States Army personnel of World War I
Recipients of the Distinguished Service Cross (United States)
Recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (US Army)
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
Recipients of the Silver Star
Commanders of the Legion of Honour
Recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1914–1918 (France)
Recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1939–1945 (France)
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Recipients of the War Merit Cross (Italy)
Recipients of the Military Order of the White Lion
Recipients of the Czechoslovak War Cross
Honorary Companions of the Order of the Bath
Recipients of the Order of Suvorov, 2nd class
20th-century American politicians
United States Army generals of World War II
United States Army generals
Military personnel from Kansas

Clarence R. Huebner


José Millán-Astray y Terreros (July 5, 1879 – January 1, 1954) was a Spanish soldier, the founder and first commander of the Spanish Legion, and a major early figure of Francoist dictatorship.

Astray was notable for his disfigured body: during his time in the army, he lost both his left arm and right eye and was shot several times in the chest and legs.

Early life
Born in A Coruña, Galicia, his father was José Millán Astray, a lawyer, poet, librettist of the Zarzuela genre, and chief jailer of Madrid. His mother was Pilar Terreros Segade, an illustrator and comedic author and his sister, Pilar Millán Astray was to be a noted writer. Though pressed to study law, Millán-Astray aspired to a military career.

On August 30, 1894, he entered the Academia de Infantería de Toledo ("Infantry Academy of Toledo"). He graduated as a second lieutenant at the age of sixteen, and later served in the army in Madrid. On September 1, 1896, he enrolled in the Escuela Superior de Guerra ("Superior Military School").

On March 2, 1906, he married Elvira Gutiérrez de la Torre, daughter of General Gutiérrez Cámara. Only after the wedding did she reveal her intention to remain chaste. From this point on, the couple would maintain (in Millán-Astray's own words) a "fraternal relationship".

Career
Upon graduation, he joined the General staff of the Spanish Army. Soon after, the Philippine Revolution broke out, and he left his position to serve there as a volunteer second lieutenant. He would earn numerous decorations for his valor (Cruz de María Cristina, Cruz Roja al Mérito Militar, and Cruz Primera Clase al Mérito Militar) and became something of a war hero for his defence at the age of 18 of the city of San Rafael, in which he fought off a rebel force of two thousand with only thirty men. He subsequently served in the Rif War.

On October 26, 1924, while stationed in Spanish Morocco, he was wounded in the left arm during an ambush resulting in it needing to be amputated.

He continued leading his men and a month later, he lost his right eye when it was hit by a bullet.

This earned him the sobriquet Glorioso mutilado ("Glorious amputee"). He habitually wore an eyepatch and a white glove on his right hand when appearing in public.

Interested in forming a corps of foreign volunteers after the fashion of the French Foreign Legion, he traveled to Algeria to study its workings. With the support of then Major Francisco Franco, he created the Spanish Legion, and, with the rank of lieutenant colonel, served as its first commander. He would popularize the mottos ¡Viva la Muerte! ("Long live death!") and ¡A mí la Legión! ("To me the legion!").

Millán-Astray gave the legion a powerful ideology intended to evoke Spain's Imperial and Christian traditions. For instance, the legion adopted a regimental unit called the tercio in memory of the famed Spanish infantry formations that had terrorized their opponents on the battlefields of Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries. Millán-Astray also revived the Spaniard's ancient feud with the Moors and portrayed his men first as crusaders on an extended Reconquista against the Islamic civilization; and later as the saviours of Spain warding off the twin evils of Communism and democratic liberalism.  Favored by King Alfonso XIII and rewarded for his heroic leadership of the Legion in the aftermath of the Spanish military defeat at Annual, in 1924, he was promoted to full colonel. In 1927, he was promoted to brigadier general.  In 1932, the Republican government of Azaña placed him on the retirement list along with other generals regarded as hostile to the Republic.

During the Spanish Civil War he sided with the Nationalists. He served as director of the Office of Radio, Press, and Propaganda (1936-1937) on the Nationalist side and later (1937) was named head of the Corps of Wounded Veterans. It is said that he administered the press office like a military barracks, forcing journalists to fall in line in response to his whistle, and subjecting them to the same brutal harangues he had given as commander of the Legion.

Confrontation with Unamuno

Millán-Astray is perhaps best remembered for a heated response to Miguel de Unamuno, the writer and philosopher, on October 12, 1936. The celebration of the 12th of October had brought together a politically diverse crowd at the University of Salamanca, including Enrique Pla y Deniel, the Archbishop of Salamanca, and Carmen Polo Martínez-Valdés, the wife of Franco, and Millán-Astray himself.

Unamuno had supported Franco's uprising because he believed it necessary to bring order to the anarchy created by the Popular Front, and that day he was representing General Franco in the event. By then the Republican Government had removed Unamuno from his perpetual rectory at the Salamanca University and the rebel government had restored him.

There are different versions of what occurred.

The Portillo/Thomas version
According to the British historian Hugh Thomas in his magnum opus The Spanish Civil War (1961), the evening began with an impassioned speech by the Falangist writer José María Pemán. After this, Professor Francisco Maldonado decried Catalonia and the Basque Country as "cancers on the body of the nation," adding that "Fascism, the healer of Spain, will know how to exterminate them, cutting into the live flesh, like a determined surgeon free from false sentimentalism."

From somewhere in the auditorium, someone cried out the Spanish Legion's motto "¡Viva la Muerte!" [Long live death!]. As was his habit, Millán Astray, the founder and first commander of the Spanish Legion, responded with "¡España!" [Spain!]; the crowd replied with "¡Una!" [One!]. He repeated "¡España!"; the crowd then replied "¡Grande!" [Great!]. A third time, Millán Astray shouted "¡España!"; the crowd responded "Libre!" [Free!] This—Spain, one, great, and free—was a common Falangist cheer and would become a francoist motto thereafter. Later, a group of uniformed Falangists entered, saluting the portrait of Franco that hung on the wall.

Unamuno, who was presiding over the meeting, rose up slowly and addressed the crowd:

Unamuno gestured to the Archbishop of Salamanca,

Millán Astray responded: "Death to intelligence! Long live death!" provoking applause from the Falangists. Pemán, in an effort to calm the crowd, exclaimed "No! Long live intelligence! Death to the bad intellectuals!"

Unamuno continued: "This is the temple of intelligence, and I am its high priest. You are profaning its sacred domain. You will win [venceréis], because you have enough brute force. But you will not convince [pero no convenceréis]. In order to convince it is necessary to persuade, and to persuade you will need something that you lack: reason and right in the struggle. I see it is useless to ask you to think of Spain. I have spoken." Millán Astray, controlling himself, shouted "Take the lady's arm!" Unamuno took Carmen Polo by the arm and left under her protection.

The Severiano Delgado version
In 2018, the details of Unamuno's speech were disputed by the historian Severiano Delgado, who argued that the account in a 1941 article by Luis Gabriel Portillo (who was not present at Salamanca) in the British magazine Horizon may not have been an accurate representation of events.

Severiano Delgado, a historian and librarian at the University of Salamanca, asserts that Unamuno's  words were put in his mouth by Luis Portillo, in 1941, possibly with some help from George Orwell, in a piece in the literary magazine Horizon, entitled Unamuno's Last Lecture. Portillo had not witnessed the event.

Severiano Delgado's book, titled Archeology of a Myth: The act of October 12, 1936 in the auditorium of the University of Salamanca, shows how the propaganda myth arose regarding the confrontation that took place that day between Miguel de Unamuno and the general Millán Astray.

Delgado agrees that a "very fierce and violent verbal confrontation" between Unamuno and Millán Astray definitely occurred, which led to Unamuno being removed from his rectorship, but he thinks that the famous speech attributed to Unamuno was invented and written by Luis Portillo."

Delgado says that:

Unamuno took the floor, not to confront Millán Astray, but to answer a previous speech by Professor of Literature Francisco Maldonado who had identified Catalonia and the Basque Country with the "antiespaña" (Antispain). Unamuno himself was Basque and was revolted with Francisco Maldonado's speech, but when addressing the audience, Unamuno used the example of what had happened with José Rizal (a Filipino nationalist and polymath during the tail end of the Spanish colonial period of the Philippines, executed by the Spanish colonial government for the crime of rebellion after the Philippine Revolution). Millán Astray had fought in the Philippines and it was the reference to José Rizal that annoyed Millán Astray, who shouted "The traitoring intellectuals die".

As proof that the incident was nothing more than a crossroads of hard words, the photograph reproduced on the cover of his book shows Millán Astray and Miguel de Unamuno calmly saying goodbye in the presence of Bishop Plà, with no tension  between them. The photo was discovered in 2018 in the National Library and was part of the chronicle of the act that the newspaper "The Advancement of Salamanca" published the following day, 13 October 1936.

According to Delgado, Portillo's account of the speech became famous when a then very young British historian Hugh Thomas, aged 30, came across it in a Horizon anthology while researching his seminal book, The Spanish Civil War, and mistakenly took it as a primary source.

Later life

In 1941, during a game of bridge, he fell in love with Rita Gasset, daughter of former public works minister Rafael Gasset, and cousin of philosopher José Ortega y Gasset. As a result, Millán-Astray separated from his wife Elvira. Franco, seeking to avoid a scandal, relocated Millán-Astray to Lisbon. Here, Rita gave birth to Millán-Astray's only child, a daughter named Peregrina, on January 23, 1942.

After the affair, Millán-Astray was largely forgotten by the Spanish public. He eventually returned to Madrid, where he died of heart failure on January 1, 1954.

Reputation
Millán-Astray was by all accounts prone to actions and general demeanor frequently described as impulsive and ruthless, even by the standards of most Africanist officials. There is no conclusive evidence concerning the causes of these actions, which could be prompted by environmental conditioning, his alleged drug use, or undiagnosed medical conditions.

Legacy
For over 50 years a street in Madrid was named in his honour. In 2018, as part of a wider removal of street names linked to Francoism, it was renamed Justa Freire in memory of a jailed opponent of Francoism. In August 2021, a Madrid court ruled that the previous name was not incompatible with the Historical Memory Law as it commemorated his military achievements which predated Francoism and the street was restored to its former name of General Millán Astray on 24 August 2021. Six days later, the street name was vandalised.

References

Sources

External links
 Biographical profile from the Friends of the Spanish Legion
 Article discussing the parallels between José Millán Astray and Miguel de Unamumo
 Biographical article from Spartacus Educational
 Detailed Spanish biography from the

1879 births
1954 deaths
People from A Coruña
Spanish generals
Spanish military personnel of the Rif War
Spanish military personnel of the Spanish Civil War (National faction)
Spanish Roman Catholics
Francoist Spain
Spanish amputees
Spanish anti-communists
Shooting survivors
Eyepatch wearers

José Millán-Astray


Charles Augustus Young (15 December 1834 – 4 January 1908) one of the foremost solar spectroscopist astronomers in the United States. He observed solar eclipses and worked on spectroscopy of the Sun. He observed a solar flare with a spectroscope on 3 August 1872, and also noted that it coincided with a magnetic storm on Earth.

Young graduated from Dartmouth College in 1853. For two years, he taught classes at Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts. The following year, he studied at the theological seminary in Andover, while also continuing to teach.

In 1857, he became the Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy at Western Reserve College, now known as Case Western Reserve University, devoting nine years.  Young's name is inscribed on the Loomis Observatory, which is the oldest observatory in the United States still remaining in its original location.

In 1862, he served in the 85th Regiment of Ohio during the Civil War.

He was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society in 1874.

in 1865, he became a professor at his alma mater, Dartmouth, remaining until 1877 when he went to teach at Princeton University.

He was a successful educator who wrote a popular and widely used series of astronomy textbooks, including Manual of Astronomy. In 1927, when Henry Norris Russell, Raymond Smith Dugan and John Quincy Stewart wrote their own two-volume textbook, they entitled it Astronomy: A Revision of Young's Manual of Astronomy.

Young died of pneumonia after a brief illness, at his home in Hanover, New Hampshire, on 4 January 1908.

Mount Young in Sequoia National Park, California was named in his honor in 1909.

Gallery

References

External links

 The New Student's Reference Work/Young, Charles Augustus

 The Papers of Charles Augustus Young at Dartmouth College Library

1834 births
1908 deaths
Deaths from pneumonia in New Hampshire
American astronomers
Case Western Reserve University faculty
Dartmouth College alumni
Dartmouth College faculty
Princeton University faculty

Charles Augustus Young


The Transcendental Meditation technique, or TM technique is a kind of meditation that was developed by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. Today, the name is trademarked.

The meditation technique is practiced while sitting down with the eyes closed and is practiced twice a day.

Reviews of studies on the effects of the Transcendental Meditation technique show some results are not definite while some reviews of studies show patterns of positive effects.

Procedure

The Transcendental Meditation technique is learned in seven steps. There are two lectures and a personal interview. This is followed by a session in which the student learns how to meditate. In three more sessions  the meditation is checked to make sure the technique is being done correctly.

Goal
The goal of the Transcendental Meditation technique is said to be that the meditator continue to feel the deep rest, and the comfort of the meditation while living everyday life.

Origin

In 1955,  Maharishi Mahesh Yogi (born Mahesh Prasad Varma) began teaching a meditation technique he says was based on the Vedas. He gave this method for meditation the name, Transcendental Meditation.

Before this, Maharishi had studied with his teacher Swami Brahmananda Saraswati, and was also his secretary from 1941 until Brahmananda Saraswati's death in 1953. In 1957, Maharishi began the Spiritual Regeneration Movement in Madras, India, on the last day of a festival held in memory of his teacher. In 1958, he began the first of a number of worldwide tours in which he began to teach the TM technique to people around the world.

In the early 1970s, Maharishi  began to establish one Transcendental Meditation teaching center for each million of the people in the world, which at that time would have meant 3,600 Transcendental Meditation centers throughout the world.  In 1990, Maharishi moved to the town of Vlodrop,  in the Netherlands, where he began an organization he called The Global Country of World Peace that takes care of all of the teaching of the Transcendental Meditation technique around the world.  The Global Country of World Peace says there are more than 6 million people worldwide who have learned the Transcendental Meditation technique.

Effects on the Body

Transcendental Meditation has been researched  since 1970. The earliest study, done in 1970, showed that with the Transcendental Meditation technique the body  rests deeply,  but is not asleep, and is alert.  This study also showed that with the Transcendental Meditation technique stress became less.

According to one study Transcendental Meditation has been found to not have any advantages over health education in improving a persons health.

The Transcendental Meditation technique, religion, and cults

Transcendental Meditation websites say the Transcendental Meditation technique does not interfere with a person's religion.

In 2013, Monsignor Raffaello Martinelli, servicing Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, having worked for over 23 years with Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger (Pope Benedict XVI), said that for his Meditation, a Christian can learn from other religious traditions (zen, yoga, controlled respiration, Mantra): "As long as the Catholic Church rejects nothing of what is true and holy in these religions, we should not despise these indications since non-Christian. Instead, we can collect from them what is useful, provided you never lose sight of the Christian conception of prayer, its logic and requirements, since it is within this that all these fragments must be reformulated and assumed.../...». In 1984, Cardinal Sin, an Archbishop in the Catholic Church stated that the Transcendental Meditation technique interferes with Christian religions. And other clergy believe the  technique does not interfere with religious belief and practices.

Experts on cults say those who use the Transcendental Meditation technique may show cult-like actions,  while David Orme-Johnson, a psychologist and researcher who was once a professor at Maharishi University of Management, says studies show that those who use the Transcendental Meditation technique act in ways that are adult and self – sufficient, and  do not act in the way people in cults are said to act.

References

Meditation
New religious movements

Transcendental Meditation


Jurij Japelj, also known in German as Georg Japel, (11 April 1744 – 11 October 1807) was a Slovene Jesuit priest, translator, and philologist. He was part of the Zois circle, a group of Carniolan scholars and intellectuals that were instrumental in the spread of Enlightenment ideas in the Slovene Lands. His translations of the Bible, based on the 16th-century translation of the Lutheran author Jurij Dalmatin, set the basis for the development of modern standard Slovene.

Life and work

Born in the Upper Carniolan town of Kamnik, then part of the Habsburg monarchy (now in Slovenia), he studied in Jesuit schools in Ljubljana, Gorizia, and Graz. He was ordained a Roman Catholic priest in 1769 in Trieste, where he served until the Suppression of the Jesuits in 1773. He then became the personal secretary of Bishop of Ljubljana Johann Karl von Herberstein. Under Herberstein's influence, Japelj became sympathetic to Jansenist ideas.

With the support of Bishop Herberstein, Japelj started translating religious texts into Slovene. He rejected the innovations of the Franciscan friar Marko Pohlin, and returned to the language of 16th-century Slovene Protestants, especially Jurij Dalmatin and Adam Bohorič. Together with Blaž Kumerdej, he began a new translation of the Bible in Slovene, based on Jurij Dalmatin's translation from the 1580s.

In 1807, he started compiling a grammar of Slovene, which, however, remained unfinished. He also translated several poems by Metastasio, Kleist, Racine, Hagedorn, and Pope into Slovene. He also wrote some original poems in a mixture of Classicism, Roccoco, and Sentimentalism.

In 1799, Japelj became the director of the seminary in Klagenfurt, where he also covered other positions in the ecclesiastical and civil administration. He died in Klagenfurt in 1807, shortly after being appointed bishop of Trieste.

Sources

Janko Kos, Slovenska književnost (Ljubljana: Cankarjeva založva, 1982), 122-123.

1744 births
1807 deaths
People from Kamnik
Carniolan philologists
Carniolan translators
Carniolan Jesuits
Carniolan Roman Catholic priests
Slovenian philologists
Slovenian translators
18th-century Slovenian Roman Catholic priests
Translators of the Bible into Slovene
18th-century translators

Jurij Japelj