Neergabby is a locality and farming area within the Shire of Gingin, located around 20 km north of Perth metropolitan area's northern limit.

Neergabby is situated at the confluence of the Moore River and Gingin Brook, giving it a strategic importance in the development of the North West Stock Route between Perth and Geraldton during the 1850s where it was often known as the Junction. Prior to European settlement the area was used by the Noongar people as an area for women to gather food and medicinal plants.

A government road connecting Gingin to Neergabby and the Moore River was built in the early 1860s. This included the Old Junction Bridge, which dates back to 1863 and was restored by the Neergabby Community Association in 2005 after its western span collapsed three years earlier.

Neergabby and the wider stock route was heavily trafficked until the Midland railway line was constructed in the 1890s several kilometres further east. This caused the route to decline in importance in the early 20th century (save for a revival during World War II) until the only people using it were summer holiday makers trying to access the coastal bays for camping.

Despite its location in the Wheatbelt region, Neergabby's proximity to both the coast and to fresh water allows for more intensive agriculture with numerous citrus orchards and farming retreats located along Gingin Brook.

References

Towns in Western Australia
Shire of Gingin

Neergabby, Western Australia


Three's Company is an American television sitcom that aired for eight seasons on ABC from March 15, 1977, to September 18, 1984. It is based on the British sitcom Man About the House created by Brian Cooke and Johnnie Mortimer.

The story revolves around three single roommates: Jack Tripper, Janet Wood, and Chrissy Snow, who all platonically live together in a Santa Monica, California, apartment complex owned by Stanley and Helen Roper. The show, a farce, chronicles the escapades and hijinks of the trio's constant misunderstandings, social lives, and financial struggles. A top 10 hit from 1977 to 1983, the series has remained popular in syndication and through DVD releases. The show also spawned similar spin-offs to those that Man About the House had: The Ropers and Three's a Crowd, based upon George and Mildred and Robin's Nest, respectively.

Synopsis
Florist Janet Wood (Joyce DeWitt) and secretary Chrissy Snow (Suzanne Somers) live in Santa Monica, sharing a multi-bedroom apartment with their roommate Eleanor. When Eleanor decides to move out, culinary school student Jack Tripper (John Ritter) crashes her going-away party at the apartment and is found by Janet and Chrissy the next morning, passed out in the bathtub. Needing someone to cover Eleanor's share of the rent, the women offer to let Jack move in with them and he quickly accepts so that he can have a place to stay other than the local YMCA.

However, overbearing landlord Stanley Roper (Norman Fell) refuses to allow unmarried men and women to live together in his apartment. He allows Jack to move in only after Janet tells him that Jack is homosexual. Although Stanley's wife Helen (Audra Lindley) quickly figures out that Jack is straight, she trusts him with the girls and keeps the secret from Stanley, who tolerates Jack but mocks him. Frequently siding with the three roommates instead of her husband, Helen's bond with them grows through the couple's departure, leading into the spin-off The Ropers.

Jack continues the charade when new building manager Ralph Furley takes over the apartment complex because Mr. Furley insists that his hard-nosed brother Bart (the building's new owner) would also never tolerate such living situations. Jack eventually meets a love interest, Vicky Bradford, which leads into Three's a Crowd.

After Norman Fell and Audra Lindley left the series in 1979 for their own sitcom, The Ropers, Don Knotts joined the cast as the roommates' new building manager, Ralph Furley. Following Suzanne Somers' departure in 1980, Jenilee Harrison joined the cast as Chrissy's first cousin, Cindy Snow, who was soon replaced by Priscilla Barnes as Terri Alden.

Cast and characters
 John Ritter as Jack Tripper
 Joyce DeWitt as Janet Wood
 Suzanne Somers as Christmas "Chrissy" Snow (seasons 1–5)
 Norman Fell as Stanley Roper (seasons 1–3; season 5, guest star)
 Audra Lindley as Helen Roper (seasons 1–3; season 5, guest star)
 Richard Kline as Larry Dallas (seasons 1–3, recurring; seasons 4–8, main)
 Don Knotts as Ralph Furley (seasons 4–8)
 Ann Wedgeworth as Lana Shields (season 4)
 Jenilee Harrison as Cindy Snow (seasons 5–6)
 Priscilla Barnes as Terri Alden (seasons 6–8)

Episodes

Background and production

Development
Famed Broadway writer Peter Stone tried to Americanize the British sitcom Man About the House. He originally set the series in New York, and he envisioned the male roommate as a successful, yet underpaid, chef in a fancy French restaurant, while the two female roommates were an executive secretary and a high-fashion model. When ABC's Fred Silverman read the script, he felt that middle America would not like the concept, and he decided to pass on the script. Silverman asked Larry Gelbart, creator and producer of M*A*S*H, for help with the series. At first, Gelbart wanted nothing to do with the show, feeling that its relatively simple premise made it substandard in comparison to M*A*S*H.

Ultimately, as a favor to Silverman, Gelbart developed a pilot episode with the help of his son-in-law, who named the series Three's Company. Gelbart's adaptation closely followed the British series. Gelbart named the male roommate David Bell, an aspiring filmmaker looking for a place to live and who just happened to be a great cook. The two female roommates were portrayed by Valerie Curtin who played Jenny, an employee of the DMV, and Susanne Zenor, who played Samantha, an aspiring actress. In Gelbart's version, the series took place in an apartment building called the Hacienda Palms in North Hollywood, California. It was produced by Don Taffner and Ted Bergmann.

Silverman liked Gelbart's version, and ABC ordered a pilot, which was taped in early 1976. The format of the show just barely made it on to the fall 1976 ABC lineup, but the network later removed it for what network executives felt were more promising series. While ABC was considering how to re-shoot the pilot, CBS expressed an interest in the show. CBS made a firm commitment to producers Taffner and Bergmann to air the show with the Gelbart cast as a mid-season replacement in February 1977. At the last minute, ABC decided that it wanted the show after all, and made a firm commitment to air the show at mid-season with a new cast.

For help in remolding the show, producers hired Don Nicholl, Michael Ross, and Bernie West, the writers who adapted the British series Till Death Us Do Part into All in the Family.  Their revised version of the pilot followed the British series even more closely. The male roommate changed from filmmaker David Bell to Jack Tripp, a cooking student, similar to his British counterpart chef Robin Tripp. Aspiring actress Samantha became secretary Chrissy, portrayed by Denise Galik. Galik was dismissed a couple of days before the pilot taped, and Susan Lanier replaced her. The other female roommate, DMV employee Jenny became Janet Wood, a florist, portrayed by Joyce DeWitt. They also moved the setting of the show from North Hollywood to the beachside in Santa Monica.

Nicholl, Ross, and West went on to conceive the show as an all out farce, building the show's plot line heavily on the many misunderstandings encountered by each of the characters. This pilot was actually a remake of the second episode of the British series, titled "And Mother Makes Four". The new concept was generally well liked, with the exception of Lanier's portrayal of Chrissy.

Despite the doubts about Lanier's portrayal as Chrissy, Silverman put the show on the network lineup, scheduled to air in March 1977. Meanwhile, he ordered a search for another actress to portray Chrissy. The day before production of the series began, Silverman desperately watched the audition tapes again, fast-forwarding through them quickly. Suddenly, he noticed Suzanne Somers's audition, which he hadn't seen previously. Silverman recognized Somers from her appearance on The Tonight Show, watched her audition and decided she was ideal for the part. No one on the production staff could give Silverman a straight answer why Somers had originally been rejected. Producers contacted her immediately, and she was on the set the next day.

At the last minute before the pilot taped, the producers considered whether to recast Ritter. Although test audiences liked Ritter, the producers felt Ritter's foolish and clumsy portrayal of Jack made his character seem somewhat effeminate. Earlier in the casting process, actors such as Barry Van Dyke and future television director Michael Lembeck were considered for the role. Silverman was confident in Ritter, and he advocated that he remain on the show.

With Somers, Ritter, and DeWitt set in their roles, the third version of the pilot hastily went into production in January 1977. ABC accepted this version, and five additional episodes were filmed for the show's spring debut.

Filming
Three's Company was recorded at two locations: the first, seventh, and eighth seasons were taped at Metromedia Square and ABC Television Center, while the second through sixth seasons were taped in Studio 31 at CBS Television City. The cast would receive the script on Monday, rehearse from Tuesday to Thursday, and then shoot on Friday. Each episode was shot two consecutive times using different audiences using a three multicamera setup.

The taping was done in sequence, and there were rarely any retakes because the producers were strict. Priscilla Barnes once said, "Our bosses were very, very controlling. If my hair was too blonde, I'd get called up in the office."

The scenes in the opening credits with the trio frolicking on a boardwalk and riding bumper-cars were shot at the Santa Monica Pier, prior to the construction of the adjacent larger amusement park.

Producers shot a new opening sequence when Priscilla Barnes joined the show, featuring the new threesome and the other cast members riding a zoo tram and observing various animals around the park. These sequences were filmed at the Los Angeles Zoo in Griffith Park. During this sequence, a baby boy in overalls who approaches Janet while feeding the goats at the zoo was portrayed by Jason Ritter, John Ritter's oldest son. The exterior shots of the apartment building were filmed at 2912 4th Street in Santa Monica.

Of all the new sitcoms that premiered on ABC for the 1976–77 television season, only Three's Company and the summer premiere of What's Happening!! returned for a second season.

Cast changes
Three's Company had many cast changes over its run. The first of these changes took place in the spring of 1979 with the relocation of the Ropers to their own television series, which revolved around Helen and Stanley and their neighbors in a townhouse community after Stanley had sold the apartment building; it lasted for one and a half seasons. Man About the House had similarly spun off the Ropers for the series George and Mildred.

Two changes took place in the fall of 1979, at the beginning of the fourth season. The first was the addition of Lana, an older woman who chased Jack. She kept pursuing him but he was unappreciative of her advances. Since Ann Wedgeworth disliked her diminishing role in the series, producers dropped Lana from the show with no explanation before mid-season. The other new addition that fall was the new building manager, Ralph Furley (played by Don Knotts), whose brother Bart bought the building from the Ropers. Mr. Furley pursued Lana unsuccessfully, as she unsuccessfully pursued Jack. Unlike Lana, Mr. Furley remained until the end of the series.

Season five (1980–81) marked the beginning of contract re-negotiations and sparked friction on the set. Somers demanded a substantial increase in salary, from $30,000 to $150,000 per episode (equivalent to $–$ in ), plus 10% of the show's profits. John Ritter, as the show's top-billed actor, was making $50,000 per episode at the time. When Somers's demands were not met, Somers went on a strike of sorts. Executives believed that a complete loss of Somers could damage the program's popularity, so a compromise was reached. Somers, who was still under contract, continued to appear in the series, but only in the one-minute closing tag scene of a handful of episodes. Somers's scenes were taped on separate days from the show's regular taping; she did not appear on set with any of the show's other cast members. According to Somers, an off-hiatus contract with CBS as well as tension between her and producer Michael Ross led to her being fired, and her dismissal was on the personal level as she states that Ted Harbert confirms this. According to the story within the show, her character had returned to her hometown of Fresno to care for her ailing mother, and was only seen when she telephoned her former roommates and they recounted that week's adventures to her. This arrangement continued for one season. Somers's contract was not renewed and Chrissy's place in the apartment was taken by her clumsy cousin Cindy Snow (Jenilee Harrison).

Another replacement, Terri Alden (played by Priscilla Barnes), a clever, sometimes sassy nurse, joined the cast in the sixth season (1981–82). In the script, Cindy was to move to college to fulfill her dream of becoming a veterinarian and would continue to visit throughout the sixth season.

The show ended with the departure of all cast members except Ritter. Janet gets married and starts a new life, and Terri moves to Hawaii. Ritter moved on to the spin-off Three's a Crowd (syndicated as Three's Company, Too in the Three's Company syndication package), itself based upon the Man About the House spin-off, Robin's Nest.

After three decades of not speaking to each other, Suzanne Somers and Joyce DeWitt finally reconciled and reunited for Somers's web series Breaking Through, which aired February 2, 2012.
Previously, Somers reconciled with Ritter just days before his death from aortic dissection on September 11, 2003. They had even discussed her making a cameo appearance on Ritter's new show, 8 Simple Rules.

Music
The theme song was composed by Joe Raposo (known for composing for the children's television shows Sesame Street and The Electric Company), and sung by Ray Charles (not to be confused with the blind R&B musician of the same name) and Julia Rinker.

Themes
Humor in the show was based on farce, often relying on innuendo and misunderstanding, as well as physical comedy to punctuate the hare-brained schemes the characters would invariably conjure up to get themselves out of situations and dilemmas. Running jokes were frequently based on Jack's (supposed) sexual orientation, Mr. Roper's lack of sexual prowess, and Chrissy's blonde moments. Conflict in the show came from the dysfunctional marriage of the Ropers, Janet's intolerance for a roommate romance, and later on, Jack's friendship with Larry and Larry's abuse thereof. Of all the characters, only Jack, Janet, and Larry appeared in all eight seasons of the series. Jack is the only character to appear in every episode; Janet appears in every episode except one (season 3's "Stanley's Hotline").

Release

Home media
Anchor Bay Entertainment has released all eight seasons of Three's Company on DVD in Region 1. These are the original, unedited and uncut network television broadcast versions and not the edited versions which have been seen in syndication since the Fall of 1982. Some episodes include commentary as a bonus feature. Also, the season 2 set includes the first of the two unaired pilots as a bonus feature, while the season 3 set contains the other.

Anchor Bay released a complete series set on August 19, 2014. The set was subsequently re-released on February 13, 2018, this time by Lionsgate Home Entertainment.

Syndication
ABC aired back-to-back repeats of Three's Company during daytime from June 15 to September 11, 1981 at 11:00 a.m. EST/10:00 CST. The show has been in syndication since 1982  on local stations such as WNEW-TV (Now WNYW) in New York City and the sales on the project realized more than $150million, of which Thames took 12.5% ($19million). It debuted on cable in 1992 on TBS and ran through 1999. Nick at Nite bought the show in 2000 and have a seven-year term with other Viacom networks such as TV Land and TNN. In 2007, Viacom renewed its contract for reruns of the show for another six years.

In March 2001, after being notified by a viewer, Nick at Nite quickly edited an episode ("The Charming Stranger") where John Ritter's scrotum skin was briefly visible through the bottom of a pair of blue boxer shorts. The most famous quip about this issue was uttered by Ritter himself, who told the New York Observer when they asked him about the controversy: "I've requested that Nickelodeon air both versions, edited and unedited, because sometimes you feel like a nut, and sometimes you don't" (quoting an advertising jingle for Almond Joy and Mounds candy bars). The incident was also brought-up during a "Celebrity Secrets" comedy bit on Late Night with Conan O'Brien in the late 1990s, in which a nervous-acting Ritter jokingly says, "Somebody asked me if I did that on purpose..." After taking a nervous sip of water, he responds, "You bet I did!"

Since 2010, the show has aired on Antenna TV, where its spin-offs also air. Because the spin-offs cannot be stripped due to a lack of episodes, they are aired at the same time with the show. In Canada, DejaView (a Shaw Media property) re-airs the show.

In 2020, Pluto TV added the show to their channel lineup. and also made its IFC debut on November 27, 2020.

Reception
Three's Company premiered in the spring, in the middle of the 1976–77 season. In the 1960s and 1970s, midseason television programs were often cancelled after their original six-episode run in the spring. Network observers did not believe that Three's Company would go anywhere after its first six episodes. They were proven wrong when it raked in record ratings, breaking barriers at the time as the highest-rated midseason show ever broadcast on network television. ABC gladly renewed the show for a formal television season, giving it a permanent primetime spot during the 1977–78 television season.

Ratings continued to climb throughout the years. The first episode, "A Man About the House", reached No. 28 for the week. The first episode to hit the No. 1 spot was February 14, 1978, when "Will the Real Jack Tripper..." was aired. The most-watched episode aired on March 13, 1979. It was titled "An Anniversary Surprise", and it centered around Stanley Roper selling the apartment, and the Ropers moving out. Immediately after the episode was the series premiere of the spinoff, The Ropers.

TV movie
In May 2003, NBC aired a two-hour television movie entitled Behind the Camera: The Unauthorized Story of Three's Company, a docudrama featuring actors portraying Ritter, Dewitt, Somers and other actors on the series. The movie covered the entire run of the series, from the pilots to the final episode, but the contract negotiations and subsequent departure of Somers provided much of the drama. Dewitt co-produced and narrated the movie. Ritter and Somers both had some input, but neither appeared in the project.

Film adaptation
In 2016, New Line Cinema began negotiations to obtain the film rights to Three's Company with Abby Kohn and Marc Silverstein penning the screenplay. Robert Cort and Don Taffner, Jr. will produce the film and plan to have it set in the 1970s.

Notes

References

External links
Three's Company Official Website

Three's Company on TVLand.com

Three's Company Show Memorabilia
The Show "Three's Company " Cast, Pictures, and Trivia! at endedtvseries.com\

1970s American sitcoms
1970s American sex comedy television series
1977 American television series debuts
1980s American sitcoms
1980s American sex comedy television series
1984 American television series endings
American Broadcasting Company original programming
American television series based on British television series
English-language television shows
Nielsen ratings winners
Television series by Fremantle (company)
Television controversies in the United States
Television shows set in Los Angeles
Television shows set in Santa Monica, California
Fictional trios

Three's Company


Zdolbuniv (, , ) is a small city in the Rivne Raion of Rivne Oblast (province) of western Ukraine. Prior to the administrative reform of 2020, it was the administrative center of the former Zdolbuniv Raion (district), and it has an important railway station and cement plant (there is a deposit of chalk). Population:

History
The town was mentioned in 1497 in the deed, in which the Lithuanian Grand Duke and future King of Poland Alexander Jagiellon committed several villages to Prince Konstanty Ostrogski. Among the villages mentioned in the deed was Dolbunov. The town has had its present name of Zdolbuniv since 1629. In 1569, following the Union of Lublin, Zdolbuniv became part of the Kingdom of Poland, where it remained for over 200 years, until the Partitions of Poland. In 1793, it was annexed by the Russian Empire, and in the interbellum period, it again belonged to Poland. It was a powiat (country) centre in Wołyń Voivodeship during this period. Zdolbunow, as it was then known, was an important rail hub, located near the Polish-Soviet border. The town had a mixed Polish-Ukrainian-Jewish population.

In September 1939, following the Soviet Invasion of Poland, Zdolbunow was captured by the Soviet Union, where it remained until the Operation Barbarossa. Its Jewish minority was murdered in the Holocaust, and in late 1943, Zdolbunow became a shelter for the ethnic Polish population of Volhynia, escaping the Volhynian Genocide. On February 3, 1944, the town was captured by the Red Army.

Zdolbuniv is the birthplace of a contemporary Polish painter Stanislaw Fijalkowski (born 1922), and singer Teresa Tutinas (born 1943)

Gallery

References

Cities in Rivne Oblast
Cities of district significance in Ukraine
Ostrozhsky Uyezd
Wołyń Voivodeship (1921–1939)
Holocaust locations in Ukraine

Zdolbuniv


Brad Mehldau Trio Live is a live album by American pianist and composer Brad Mehldau's Trio released on the Nonesuch label in 2008.

Reception

The album received universally favourable reviews. AllMusic awarded the album 4 stars and in its review by Thom Jurek, states "Those new or curious about the trio will be astonished by what's here, pure and simple. For seasoned jazz fans and those of the pianist in particular, this is nothing short of total delight". The Guardians John Fordham observed "Since the mid-1990s, the prodigiously gifted pianist Brad Mehldau has been turning out one disc a year. Yet every Mehldau venture offers a new mix of standard songs and deconstructed pop themes; a new level of understanding within his group; a new twist on old piano-trio rules; and a startling new freedom in the way the pianist's left hand cajoles, threatens and encourages his right". On All About Jazz, John Kelman noted "Ballard has lit an unmistakable fire under this group, but it's the trio's increasing open-mindedness that distinguishes Live from its previous live outings. Refined simplicity contrasts with sophisticated complexity while spare economy coexists alongside busier dynamics, making Live another exceptional milestone in a career defined by gradual but unrelenting growth and exploration". PopMatters reviewer Ron Hart said "On Brad Mehldau Trio Live, he provides yet another impressive showcase from his favorite NYC stage across a massive two-disc set that features his latest trio, which includes longtime bassist Larry Grenadier and daring new drummer Jeff Ballard."
JazzTimes reviewer, Thomas Conrad commented "Mehldau plays here with a daring abandon that sweeps all of the 12 performances far from where they began. Yet he is not reckless; every piece sustains one large idea. Grenadier and Ballard never crowd the musical space, yet their indispensable, defining roles occur in the foreground".

Track listing
All compositions by Brad Mehldau except as indicated

Disc One:
 Introduction - 0:15
 "Wonderwall" (Noel Gallagher) - 8:45
 "Ruby's Rub" - 13:07
 "O Que Será" (Chico Buarque) - 10:38
 "B-Flat Waltz" - 9:11
 "Black Hole Sun" (Chris Cornell) - 23:31
 "The Very Thought of You" (Ray Noble) - 13:03
Disc Two:
 "Buddha Realm" - 12:00
 "Fit Cat" - 10:41
 "Secret Beach" - 11:35
 "C.T.A." (Jimmy Heath) - 16:16
 "More Than You Know" (Billy Rose, Edward Eliscu, Vincent Youmans) - 12:09
 "Countdown" (John Coltrane) - 14:57

Personnel
Brad Mehldau - Piano
Larry Grenadier - Bass
Jeff Ballard - Drums

Credits
Produced by Brad Mehldau
Executive Producer - Robert Hurwitz
Engineered by Rick Jacobsohn and Tim Martyn
Mixing by James Farber
Mastering by Greg Calbi
Artwork by John Gall
Photography by Michael Wilson

References

Nonesuch Records live albums
Brad Mehldau live albums
2008 live albums
Albums recorded at the Village Vanguard

Brad Mehldau Trio Live


Oana Niculescu-Mizil Ștefănescu (born August 11, 1975) is a Romanian politician. A member of the Social Democratic Party (PSD) since 2000, with an interlude as an independent during 2012, she sat in the Romanian Chamber of Deputies for Bucharest from 2008 to 2015.

Biography
She was born in Bucharest to Coman Nicolae Ștefănescu and Lidia Niculescu-Mizil; her maternal grandfather was Paul Niculescu-Mizil, a Ceaușescu-era Communist politician. She had one brother, Răzvan, who died in a motorcycle accident in 2005, aged 28. A 1994 graduate of I. L. Caragiale National College, she attended Spiru Haret University from 2000 to 2003, studying Marketing and International Business. She also holds a 2009 master's degree from the Carol I National Defence University, where she studied security and national defense. From 2000 to 2002, she worked in the foreign affairs department of President Ion Iliescu's administration, focusing on the Middle East, Asia, and Latin America. She has headed a luxury chocolate company since 2003, and has been honorary director of a media consortium since 2004.

Joining the PSD in 2000, Niculescu-Mizil was elected to represent Bucharest's Ferentari neighborhood in Parliament in 2008, and served on its committees for foreign affairs and Romanians abroad during her first term. In 2010, protesting what she saw as the "fraudulent" adoption of a pensions law, she appeared in Parliament in a prison uniform borrowed from the Jilava penitentiary. Prior to addressing legislators, President Traian Băsescu asked her, "Do you really think you needed to create a circus, madam?" In March 2012, after two years heading the Călărași County chapter of the PSD, she was removed from that position after clashing with the party leadership, objecting to its decision to dismiss Marian Vanghelie as head of the Bucharest party organization. Days later, she resigned from the party, alleging that it was no longer promoting advantages for ordinary people, instead advancing the personal interests of certain of its leaders. For the 2012 election, she ran on the lists of the Social Liberal Union, backed by the PSD, and won a new term. Initially assigned to the culture committee, she was later placed on the foreign policy committee. In October 2014, she received a three-year suspended sentence in a conflict of interest case that arose after she hired her mother in her parliamentary office. The following March, when a corruption investigation against Vanghelie began, she resigned from the Chamber, citing a wish not to impede the judicial process. In October 2016, her three-year suspended sentence was reduced to one year.

In 1999, she married Lebanese businessman Jamil Tohme. In 2012, she and Vanghelie, the mayor of Sector 5, which included her electoral district, confirmed that for the past year, they were in a relationship that had begun after each separated from their respective spouse. The couple had a daughter in 2015. Oana Mizil is nicknamed Laleaua neagră ("The Black Tulip") after a legendary woman who benefited the Roma residents of Ferentari.

Notes

External links
 Personal blog

1975 births
Living people
Politicians from Bucharest
Carol I National Defence University alumni
Social Democratic Party (Romania) politicians
Members of the Chamber of Deputies (Romania)
21st-century Romanian women politicians
21st-century Romanian politicians
Romanian politicians convicted of crimes
Romanian white-collar criminals

Oana Niculescu-Mizil


The Watts De Peyster Fireman's Hall is located on Broadway in the village of Tivoli, New York. John Watts De Peyster, a resident, paid for it and gave it to the village for its fire department in 1898. It is a brick "storefront" firehouse, a type of fire station more commonly seen in cities at the time than small rural villages like Tivoli.

Since the construction of a new firehouse in 1986 it has been the village hall. In 1989 it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places, and three years later it also became a contributing property to the Hudson River Historic District, a National Historic Landmark.

History

Tivoli was incorporated as a village of the Town of Red Hook in 1872, after a period of tremendous growth due to commerce along the Hudson River. Two smaller existing settlements, Upper Red Hook Landing and Madalin, were combined in the new municipality.

As soon as the village came into existence, its government discussed the need for a new firehouse to serve the community. These discussions continued for a quarter-century, during which its commercial importance began to decline. In 1896 the Village Board passed legislation creating a fire department and calling a special election to decide how it would be financed. Two years later John Watts De Peyster, a wealthy resident of the area and village president as well as an influential authority on firefighting, saved the village the trouble by hiring local architect Michael O'Connor to design a new firehouse. Once it was built, he leased it to the village.

In 1900, during a tax dispute with the village, he barred the board from meeting there. He had also threatened to close the firehouse if his estranged son, who had been elected village president, was allowed in the building. Seven years later, upon his death, the lease passed to a local orphanage he had founded. That arrangement lasted until 1921, when his descendants bought the lease from the orphanage and donated the building to the village.

Since 1986, when a new firehouse was built, the building has been the location of the Tivoli Village Offices and Tivoli Free Library, as well as the Tivoli Bays Visitor Center of the Hudson River National Estuarine Research Reserve.

The Watts de Peyster Fireman's Hall was restored and renovated in 1994.

Building

The firehouse is a three-story building, three bays wide by four deep, on a half-acre (2,000 m2) lot in downtown Tivoli. It is faced in brick laid in English bond with contrasting stone courses at the floor levels. The hipped slate roof is pierced by a dormer with gabled parapet top, four chimneys and a round turreted tower rising from the southwest corner. The roofline's cornice is broken in front by the dormer.

On the northern (front) facade, the first floor has two former garage openings, now filled with paneled wooden doors, and a regular entrance between them. The course above them consists of stone blocks with oak leaves, a traditional European symbol in heraldry for firefighters. A cornerstone gives the architect, builder and date of construction, and a marble dedication plaque memorializes Watts and de Peyster. The stone basement is visible along the side and rear elevations.

Inside, the first floor is divided into the two large bays used originally for fire engines, with plaster walls, wainscoting, pressed tin ceilings and wooden-plank floors. The second floor, used originally as meeting rooms, has similar finishing as well as thin cast iron columns in its largest room. All rooms have their original carved mantel and fireplace cover. The third floor is a single large room with two large wood braces supporting the ceiling.

There is one outbuilding, a garage built during the mid-20th century. It is not considered a contributing property.

Tivoli Bays Visitor Center of the Hudson River National Estuarine Research Reserve (HRNERR)

Tivoli Bays is one of four coastal wetlands that comprise the Hudson River Reserve (HR), in the National Estuarine Research Reserve System (NERR). The HRNERR Tivoli Bays Visitor Center and Doorway to the Bays exhibit for the Tivoli Bays unit of the HRNERR are housed in Watts de Peyster Fireman's Hall. The Visitor Center and exhibit are depicted as "i" (Information) located on Kidd Lane on the map of the Tivoli Bays unit of the HRNERR. A nature trail leading to a canoe launch begins behind the building.

See also

References

External links

Fire stations completed in 1898
Defunct fire stations in New York (state)
Red Hook, New York
Tivoli, New York
National Register of Historic Places in Dutchess County, New York
Buildings and structures in Dutchess County, New York
Fire stations on the National Register of Historic Places in New York (state)
Historic district contributing properties in New York (state)

Watts De Peyster Fireman's Hall


Olin George Kreutz (; born June 9, 1977) is an American former professional football player who was a center in the National Football League (NFL) for fourteen seasons. He played college football for University of Washington, and earned consensus All-American honors. He was drafted by the Chicago Bears in the third round of the 1998 NFL Draft and spent 13 seasons with Chicago where he was selected to six Pro Bowls. He also played four games for the New Orleans Saints in 2011. Kreutz was a semi-finalist for the NFL Hall of Fame in 2020 after being named to the 2000s All-Decade Team.

Early years
Kreutz was born in Honolulu, Hawaii. He is the youngest of four sons born to Henry Kreutz, Jr., of Aina Haina. He attended football powerhouse Saint Louis School in Honolulu, where he lettered in high school football, and was teammates with Dominic Raiola, who was two years behind him, and Chris Fuamatu-Maʻafala.

Kreutz also excelled in wrestling and track and field. He received All-State and SuperPrep All-America honors while serving as football team captain during his senior year, and would additionally go on to win the Hawaii state wrestling heavyweight championship.

College career
Kreutz attended the University of Washington, where he played for the Washington Huskies football team under coach Jim Lambright. In 1996, Kreutz was involved in an altercation with defensive tackle Sekou Wiggs in spring practice.  It continued in the lockerroom where Kreutz punched Wiggs, leaving Wiggs with a broken jaw. Wiggs lost 65 pounds as a result of having his jaw wired shut and never resumed his role as a starter. Kreutz was recognized as a consensus first-team All-American and earned Pac-10 honors during his junior year, after which he elected to turn pro.

Professional career

NFL Draft
According to Sports Illustrated, Kreutz was the No. 1 center available in the 1998 NFL Draft. He was described as "a good technician" who "has all the physical tools to be a solid NFL player" while being able to "handle really big NT and DT." The Chicago Bears drafted Kreutz in the third round, 64th overall. He was the highest selected Washington interior lineman since Ed Cunningham in 1992. It was also the second consecutive year in which the Bears selected an offensive lineman from Washington, after Bob Sapp in 1997.

Chicago Bears
Over his thirteen-year career with the Bears, Kreutz was selected to six Pro Bowls, was selected once as a 1st team All-Pro, and was one of the team's most consistent offensive linemen. He started 182 regular-season games for the Bears, second only to Walter Payton.

In an incident eerily reminiscent of his college days, Kreutz drew controversy during the 2005 NFL season after breaking the jaw of fellow offensive lineman Fred Miller during an off-practice outing. The NFL fined both players $50,000. In October 2006, Kreutz was signed to a three-year contract extension through the 2010 season. In 2007, Kreutz was appointed as one of the team's captains.

In 2011, Kreutz chose to end his career with the Chicago Bears after turning down an offer of $4 million for one year. Kreutz was the longest tenured Bears member at the time he left the organization.

New Orleans Saints
On August 5, 2011, Kreutz signed with the New Orleans Saints for a one-year $2 million contract with an additional $2 million in incentives. Kreutz played in four of the Saints' first six games, missing the other two with a knee injury. He then decided to quit the team, saying that he had lost his "passion" for the game; the Saints were reportedly planning to move him to the "left team" list. In an interview, Kreutz cited offensive line coach Aaron Kromer's recurring expletive-laden tirades as the catalyst for his exit. A confrontation with Kromer resulted in Kreutz inadvertently throwing quarterback Drew Brees against a wall. After the incident, Kreutz stated, "it was time for me to go." He was waived after leaving the squad on October 22.

Post-retirement
On August 19, 2015, Kreutz signed on to be in the WSCR 670 the Score Bears post game show along with James Williams and Hub Arkush, replacing the recently deceased Doug Buffone.

In 2019, Kreutz joined NBC Sports Chicago's Football Aftershow, serving as a Bears gameday analyst alongside Laurence Holmes and former teammates Lance Briggs, Alex Brown, and Matt Forte. Kreutz joined CHGO, a Chicago sports media start-up, in 2022 but was fired in May for physically assaulting Adam Hoge, a fellow employee. Kreutz later replied to a PR message from CHGO on Twitter with a Mike Tyson quote, "Social media made y'all way too comfortable with disrespecting people and not getting punched in the face for it." Kreutz later apologized to Hoge and revealed he was also leaving NBC Sports Chicago.

Personal life
Kreutz is married to his high school sweetheart, Wendi; they have six children, and reside in Bannockburn, Illinois, but also have a winter home in Kalama Valley, Hawaii.

References

1977 births
Living people
All-American college football players
American football centers
Chicago Bears players
National Conference Pro Bowl players
New Orleans Saints players
Players of American football from Honolulu
Washington Huskies football players
Brian Piccolo Award winners

Olin Kreutz


Black Chicks Talking is an arts project by Australian actress Leah Purcell featuring a 2001 documentary film, a 2002  book, a stage production and an art exhibition. The film is co-directed by Brendan Fletcher and features Indigenous Australian women including Purcell, actress Deborah Mailman and politician Kathryn Hay. Following the book and film, Purcell wrote a fictionalised dramatisation under the same title.

Book
Purcell got the idea for a book featuring interviews of Indigenous Australian women following the success of her semi-autobiographical play Box the Pony. After seeing the play someone suggested that Purcell find other indigenous women to tell their stories. Purcell sought out nine other indigenous women who personally inspired her, some professional, some not. The interviewees comprised politician and former Miss Australia Kathryn Hay, actress Deborah Mailman, netball player Sharon Finnan, United Nations youth delegate Tammy Williams, Rosanna Angus, Cilla Malone, Frances Rings, Lisa Fraser-Gooda and Rachel Perkins. To initiate discussion, Purcell asked each woman the question "Out of the five senses, which one do you relate to and what is your first pleasurable memory of that sense?" Her partner Bain Stewart gave her the idea of filming the interviews and using them as the basis for a documentary. Further interviews were conducted over the telephone, particularly when participants felt uncomfortable opening up on-camera. The interviews explored the topics of identity, family and culture in relation to Indigenous Australian women.

Film
Purcell used the documentary footage of the interviews as the basis for the film. Only five of the women from the book are featured in the film — Hay, Mailman, Williams, Angus and Malone. In addition to the solo interviews conducted for the book, Purcell filmed the women talking over dinner at a restaurant in Sydney. The documentary was finished before the book was published.

Release and reception
The film premiered at the inaugural Tribeca Film Festival and was shown at the Melbourne and Sydney film festivals. It was screened on the Australian network SBS on 30 August 2002. It won the Inside Film Award for Best Documentary. The book was published in June 2002 by Hodder Headline Australia. Realist artist Robert Hannaford painted portraits of each of the ten women which, along with stills from the documentary, made up a travelling art exhibition. A stage adaptation of Black Chicks Talking by Purcell and Sean Mee opened in December 2002. The play is a fictional story with five female characters, one of whom, Elizabeth, is played by Purcell.

References

External links

2001 films
2002 non-fiction books
Australian non-fiction books
2001 documentary films
Australian documentary films
Books about Indigenous Australians
Documentary films about Aboriginal Australians
Documentary films about women
2000s English-language films
English-language documentary films

Black Chicks Talking


Clipperton Island ( ; ), also known as Clipperton Atoll and previously referred to as Clipperton's Rock, is an  uninhabited French coral atoll in the eastern Pacific Ocean. The only French territory in the North Pacific, Clipperton is  from Paris, France;  from Papeete, Tahiti; and  from Acapulco, Mexico.

Clipperton was documented by French merchant-explorers in 1711 and formally claimed as part of the French protectorate of Tahiti in 1858. Despite this, American guano miners began working the island in the early 1890s. As interest in the island grew, Mexico asserted a claim to the island based upon Spanish records from the 1520s that may have identified the island. Mexico established a small military colony on the island in 1905, but during the Mexican Revolution contact with the mainland became infrequent, most of the colonists died, and lighthouse keeper Victoriano Álvarez instituted a short, brutal reign as "king" of the island. Eleven survivors were rescued in 1917 and Clipperton was abandoned.

The dispute between Mexico and France over Clipperton was taken to binding international arbitration in 1909 with the Italian king, Victor Emmanuel III, deciding in 1931 that the island was French territory. Despite the ruling, Clipperton remained largely uninhabited until 1944 when the U.S. Navy established a weather station on the island to support its war efforts in the Pacific. France protested and as concerns about Japanese activity in the eastern Pacific waned the U.S. abandoned the site in late 1945.

Since the end of World War II, Clipperton has primarily been the site for scientific expeditions to study the island's wildlife and marine life, including its significant masked and brown booby colonies. It has also hosted climate scientists and amateur radio DX-peditions. Plans to develop the island for trade and tourism have been considered, but none have been enacted and the island remains mostly uninhabited with periodic visits from the French navy.

Geography

The coral island is located at  in the East Pacific,  southwest of Mexico,  west of Nicaragua,  west of Costa Rica and  northwest of the Galápagos Islands in Ecuador. The nearest land is Socorro Island, about  to the south-east in the Revillagigedo Archipelago. The nearest French-owned island is Hiva Oa in the Marquesas Islands of French Polynesia.

Despite its proximity to North America, Clipperton is often considered one of the eastern-most points of Oceania due to being part the French Indo-Pacific, and to commonalities between its marine fauna and the marine fauna of Hawaii and Kiribati's Line Islands, with the island sitting along the migration path for animals in the Eastern Tropical Pacific region. The island is the only emerged part of the East Pacific Rise, as well as the only feature in the Clipperton Fracture Zone that breaks the ocean's surface, and it is one of the few islands in the Pacific that lacks an underwater archipelagic apron.

The atoll is low-lying and largely barren, with some scattered grasses, and a few clumps of coconut palms (Cocos nucifera). The land ring surrounding the lagoon measures  in area with an average elevation of , although a small volcanic outcropping, referred to as  (), rises to  on its southeast side. The surrounding  reef hosts an abundance of corals and is partly exposed at low tide.

Clipperton Rock is the remains of the island's now extinct volcano's rim; because it includes this rocky outcropping, Clipperton is not a true atoll and is sometimes referred to as a 'near-atoll'. The surrounding reef in combination with the weather makes landing on the island difficult and anchoring offshore hazardous for larger ships; in the 1940s American ships reported active problems in this regard.

Environment
The environment of Clipperton Island has been studied extensively with the first recordings and sample collection being done in the 1800s. Modern research on Clipperton is focused primarily on climate science and migratory wildlife.

The SURPACLIP oceanographic expedition, a joint undertaking by the National Autonomous University of Mexico and the University of New Caledonia Nouméa, made extensive studies of the island in 1997. In 2001, French National Centre for Scientific Research geographer Christian Jost extended the 1997 studies through the French Passion 2001 expedition, which focused on the evolution of Clipperton's ecosystem. In 2003, cinematrographer Lance Milbrand stayed on the island for 41 days, recording the adventure for the National Geographic Explorer and plotting a GPS map of Clipperton for the National Geographic Society.

In 2005, a four-month scientific mission organised by Jean-Louis Étienne made a complete inventory of Clipperton's mineral, plant, and animal species; studied algae as deep as  below sea level; and examined the effects of pollution. A 2008 expedition from the University of Washington's School of Oceanography collected sediment cores from the lagoon to study climate change over the past millennium.

Lagoon
Clipperton is a ring-shaped atoll that completely encloses a stagnant fresh water lagoon and measures  in circumference and  in area. The island is the only coral island in the eastern Pacific. The lagoon is devoid of fish, and is shallow over parts of the eroded coral heads, but contains some deep basins with depths of , including a spot known as  ('the bottomless hole') with acidic water at its base. The water is described as being almost fresh at the surface and highly eutrophic. Seaweed beds cover approximately 45 per cent of the lagoon's surface. The rim averages  in width, reaching  in the west, and narrowing to  in the north-east, where sea waves occasionally spill over into the lagoon. Ten islets are present in the lagoon, six of which are covered with vegetation, including the Egg Islands ().

The closure of the lagoon approximately 170 years ago and prevention of seawater from entering the lagoon has formed a meromictic lake. The surface of the lagoon has a high concentration of phytoplankton that vary slightly with the seasons. As a result of this the water columns are stratified and do not mix leaving the lagoon with an oxic and brackish upper water layer and a deep sulfuric anoxic saline layer. At a depth of approximately  the water shifts with salinity rising and both pH and oxygen quickly decreasing. The deepest levels of the lagoon record waters enriched with hydrogen sulfide which prevent the growth of coral. Before the lagoon was closed off to seawater, coral and clams were able to survive in the area as evident by fossilized specimens.

Studies of the water have found that microbial communities on the water's surface are similar to other water samples from around the world with deeper water samples showing a great diversity of both bacteria and archaea. In 2005, a group of French scientists discovered three dinoflagellate microalgae species in the lagoon: Peridiniopsis cristata, which was abundant; Durinskia baltica, which was known to exist previously in other locations, but was new to Clipperton; and Peridiniopsis cristata var. tubulifera, which is unique to the island. The lagoon also harbours millions of isopods, which are reported to deliver a painful sting.

While some sources have rated the lagoon water as non-potable, testimony from the crew of the tuna clipper M/V Monarch, stranded for 23 days in 1962 after their boat sank, indicates otherwise. Their report reveals that the lagoon water, while "muddy and dirty", was drinkable, despite not tasting very good. Several of the castaways drank it, with no apparent ill effects. Survivors of a Mexican military colony in 1917 (see below) indicated that they were dependent upon rain for their water supply, catching it in old boats. American servicemen on the island during World War II had to use evaporators to purify the lagoon's water. Aside from the lagoon and water caught from rain, no freshwater sources are known to exist.

Climate
The island has a tropical oceanic climate, with average temperatures of  and highs up to . Annual rainfall is , and the humidity level is generally between 85 per cent and 95 per cent with December to March being the drier months. The prevailing winds are the southeast trade winds. The rainy season occurs from May to October, and the region is subject to tropical cyclones from April to September, but such storms often pass to the northeast of Clipperton. In 1997 Clipperton was in the path of the start of Hurricane Felicia, as well as Hurricane Sandra in 2015. In addition, Clipperton has been subjected to multiple tropical storms and depressions including Tropical Storm Andres in 2003.  Surrounding ocean waters are warm, pushed by equatorial and counter-equatorial currents and have seen temperature increases due to global warming.

Flora and fauna

When Snodgrass and Heller visited in 1898, they reported that "no land plant is native to the island". Historical accounts from 1711, 1825, and 1839 show a low grassy or suffrutescent (partially woody) flora. During Marie-Hélène Sachet visit in 1958, the vegetation was found to consist of a sparse cover of spiny grass and low thickets, a creeping plant (Ipomoea spp.), and stands of coconut palm. This low-lying herbaceous flora seems to be a pioneer in nature, and most of it is believed to be composed of recently introduced species. Sachet suspected that Heliotropium curassavicum, and possibly Portulaca oleracea, were native. Coconut palms and pigs introduced in the 1890s by guano miners were still present in the 1940s. The largest coconut grove is Bougainville Wood () on the southwestern end of the island. On the northwest side of the atoll, the most abundant plant species are Cenchrus echinatus, Sida rhombifolia, and Corchorus aestuans. These plants compose a shrub cover up to  in height, and are intermixed with Eclipta, Phyllanthus, and Solanum, as well as the taller Brassica juncea. The islets in the lagoon are primarily vegetated with Cyperaceae, Scrophulariaceae, and Ipomoea pes-caprae. A unique feature of Clipperton is that the vegetation is arranged in parallel rows of species, with dense rows of taller species alternating with lower, more open vegetation. This was assumed to be a result of the trench-digging method of phosphate mining used by guano hunters.

The only land animals known to exist are two species of reptiles (the Pacific stump-toed gecko and the copper-tailed skink), bright-orange land crabs known as Clipperton crabs (Johngarthia oceanica, prior to 2019 classified as Johngartia planata), birds, and ship rats. The rats probably arrived when large fishing boats wrecked on the island in 1999 and 2000.

The pigs introduced in the 1890s reduced the crab population, which in turn allowed grassland to gradually cover about 80 per cent of the land surface. The elimination of these pigs in 1958, the result of a personal project by Kenneth E. Stager, caused most of this vegetation to disappear as the population of land crabs recovered. As a result, Clipperton is virtually a sandy desert with only 674 palms counted by Christian Jost during the Passion 2001 French mission and five islets in the lagoon with grass that the terrestrial crabs cannot reach. A 2005 report by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Southwest Fisheries Science Center indicated that the increased rat presence had led to a decline in both crab and bird populations, causing a corresponding increase in both vegetation and coconut palms. This report urgently recommended eradication of rats, so that vegetation might be reduced, and the island might return to its 'pre-human' state.

In 1825, Benjamin Morrell reported finding green sea turtles nesting on Clipperton, but later expeditions have not found nesting turtles there, possibly due to disruption from guano extraction, as well as the introduction of pigs and rats. Sea turtles found on the island appear to have been injured due to fishing practices. Morrell also reported fur and elephant seals on the island in 1825, but they too have not been recorded by later expeditions.

Birds are common on the island; Morrell noted in 1825: "The whole island is literally covered with sea-birds, such as gulls, whale-birds, gannets, and the booby". Thirteen species of birds are known to breed on the island and 26 others have been observed as visitors. The island has been identified as an Important Bird Area by BirdLife International because of the large breeding colony of masked boobies, with 110,000 individual birds recorded.  Observed bird species include white terns, masked boobies, sooty terns, brown boobies, brown noddies, black noddies, great frigatebirds, coots, martins (swallows), cuckoos, and yellow warblers. Ducks and moorhens have been reported in the lagoon.

The coral reef on the north side of the island includes colonies more than  high. The 2018 Tara Pacific expedition located five colonies of Millepora platyphylla at depths of , the first of this fire coral species known in the region. Among the Porites spp. stony corals, some bleaching was observed, along with other indications of disease or stress, including parasitic worms and microalgae.

The reefs that surround Clipperton have some of the highest concentration of endemic species found anywhere with more than 115 species identified. Many species are recorded in the area, including five or six endemics, such as Clipperton angelfish (Holacanthus limbaughi), Clipperton grouper (Epinephelus clippertonensis), Clipperton damselfish (Stegastes baldwini) and Robertson's wrasse (Thalassoma robertsoni). Widespread species around the reefs include Pacific creolefish, blue-and-gold snapper, and various species of goatfish. In the water column, trevallies are predominant, including black jacks, bigeye trevally, and bluefin trevally. Also common around Clipperton are black triggerfish;, several species of groupers, including leather bass and starry groupers; Mexican hogfish; whitecheek, convict, and striped-fin surgeonfish; yellow longnose and blacknosed butterflyfish; coral hawkfish; golden pufferfish; Moorish idols; parrotfish; and moray eels, especially speckled moray eels. The population of sharks in the waters around the island was noted to have increased in both density and size of individuals in a 2019 expedition, particularly the population of the white tip shark. Galapagos sharks, reef sharks and hammerhead sharks are also present around Clipperton.

Three expeditions to Clipperton have collected sponge specimens, including U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt's visit in 1938. Of the 190 specimens collected, 20 species were noted, including nine found only at Clipperton. One of the endemic sponges, collected during the 1938 visit, was named Callyspongia roosevelti in honor of Roosevelt.

In April 2009, Steven Robinson, a tropical fish dealer from Hayward, California, traveled to Clipperton to collect Clipperton angelfish. Upon his return to the United States, he described the 52 illegally collected fish to federal wildlife authorities as king angelfish, not the rarer Clipperton angelfish, which he intended to sell for $10,000. On 15 December 2011, Robinson was sentenced to 45 days of incarceration, one year of probation, and a $2,000 fine.

Environmental threats
During the night of 10 February 2010, the Sichem Osprey, a Maltese chemical tanker, ran aground en route from the Panama Canal to South Korea. The  ship contained  of xylene,  of soybean oil, and  of tallow. All 19 crew members were reported safe, and the vessel reported no leaks. The vessel was re-floated on 6 March and returned to service.

In mid-March 2012, the crew from the Clipperton Project noted the widespread presence of refuse, particularly on the northeast shore, and around the Clipperton Rock. Debris, including plastic bottles and containers, create a potentially harmful environment for the island's flora and fauna. This trash is common to only two beaches (northeast and southwest), and the rest of the island is fairly clean. Other refuse has been left after the occupations by Americans 1944–1945, French 1966–1969, and the 2008 scientific expedition. During a 2015 scientific and amateur radio expedition to Clipperton, the operating team discovered a package that contained  of cocaine. It is suspected that the package washed up after being discarded at sea. In April 2023, the Passion 23 mission by France's  and the surveillance frigate Germinal collected more than  of plastic waste from the island's beaches along with a bale of cocaine.

The Sea Around Us Project estimates the Clipperton EEZ produces a harvest of  of fish per year; however, because French naval patrols in the area are infrequent, this includes a significant amount of illegal fishing, along with lobster harvesting and shark finning, resulting in estimated losses for France of €0.42 per kilogram of fish caught.

As deep-sea mining of polymetallic nodules increases in the adjacent Clarion–Clipperton Zone, similar mining activity within France's exclusive economic zone surrounding the atoll may have an impact on marine life around Clipperton. Polymetallic nodules were discovered in the Clipperton EEZ during the Passion 2015 expedition.

Politics and government
The island is an overseas state private property of France under direct authority of the Minister of the Overseas. Although the island is French territory, it has no status within the European Union. Ownership of Clipperton Island was disputed in the 19th and early 20th centuries between France and Mexico, but was finally settled through arbitration in 1931; the 'Clipperton Island Case' remains widely studied in international law textbooks.

In the late 1930s, as flying boats opened the Pacific to air travel, Clipperton Island was noted as a possible waypoint for a trans-Pacific route from the Americas to Asia via the Marquesas Islands in French Polynesia, bypassing Hawaii. However, France indicated no interest in developing commercial air traffic in the corridor.

After France ratified the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) in 1996, they reaffirmed the exclusive economic zone off Clipperton island which had been established in 1976. After changes were made to the area nations were allowed to claim under the third convention of UNCLOS France in 2018 expanded the outer limits of the territorial sea to  and the exclusive economic zone off Clipperton Island to , encompassing  of ocean.

On 21 February 2007, administration of Clipperton was transferred from the High Commissioner of the Republic in French Polynesia to the Minister of Overseas France.

In 2015, French MP Philippe Folliot set foot on Clipperton becoming the first elected official from France to do so. Folliot noted that visiting Clipperton was something he had wanted to do since he was nine years old. Following the visit, Folliot reported to the National Assembly on the pressing need to reaffirm French soverignty over the atoll and its surrounding maritime claims. He also proposed estblishing an international scientific research station on Clipperton and administrative reforms surrounding the oversight of the atoll.

In 2022, France passed legislation officially referring to the island as "La Passion–Clipperton".

History

Discovery and early claims
There are several claims to the first discovery of the island. The earliest recorded possible sighting is 24 January 1521 when Portuguese-born Spanish explorer Ferdinand Magellan discovered an island he named San Pablo after turning westward away from the American mainland during his circumnavigation of the globe. On 15 November 1528, Spaniard Álvaro de Saavedra Cerón discovered an island he called Isla Médanos in the region while on an expedition commissioned by his cousin, the Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés, to find a route to the Philippines.

Although both San Pablo and Isla Médanos are considered to be possible sightings of Clipperton, the island was first charted by French merchant Michel Dubocage, commanding La Découverte, who arrived at the island on Good Friday, 3 April 1711; he was joined the following day by fellow ship captain  and La Princesse. The island was given the name  ('Passion Island') as the date of rediscovery fell within Passiontide. They drew up the first map of the island and claimed it for France.

In August 1825, American sea captain Benjamin Morrell made the first recorded landing on Clipperton, exploring the island and making a detailed report of its vegetation.

The common name for the island comes from John Clipperton, an English pirate and privateer who fought the Spanish during the early 18th century, and who is said to have passed by the island. Some sources claim that he used it as a base for his raids on shipping.

19th century

Mexican claim 1821–1858
After its declaration of independence in 1821, Mexico took possession of the lands that had once belonged to Spain. As Spanish records noted the existence of the island as early as 1528, the territory was incorporated into Mexico. The Mexican constitution of 1917 explicitly includes the island, using the Spanish name , as Mexican territory. This would be amended on January 18, 1934, after the sovereignty dispute over the island was settled in favor of France.

French claim (1858)
On 17 November 1858, Emperor Napoleon III annexed Clipperton as part of the French protectorate of Tahiti. Ship-of-the-line Lieutenant Victor Le Coat de Kervéguen published a notice of this annexation in Hawaiian newspapers to further cement France's claim to the island.

Guano mining claims (1892–1905)
In 1892, a claim on the island was filed with the U.S. State Department under the U.S. Guano Islands Act by Frederick W. Permien of San Francisco on behalf of the Stonington Phosphate Company. In 1893, Permien transferred those rights to a new company, the Oceanic Phosphate Company. In response to the application, the State Department rejected the claim, noting France's prior claim on the island and that the claim was not bonded as was required by law. Additionally during this time there were concerns in Mexico that the British or Americans would lay claim to the island.

Despite the lack of U.S. approval of its claim, the Oceanic Phosphate Company began mining guano on the island in 1895. Although the company had plans for as many as 200 workers on the island, at its peak only 25 men were stationed there. The company shipped its guano to Honolulu and San Francisco where it sold for between US$10 and US$20 per ton. In 1897, the Oceanic Phosphate Company began negotiations with the British Pacific Islands Company to transfer its interest in Clipperton; this drew the attention of both French and Mexican officials.

On 24 November 1897, French naval authorities arrived on the Duguay Trouin and found three Americans working on the island. The French ordered the American flag to be lowered. At that time, U.S. authorities assured the French that they did not intend to assert American sovereignty over the island. A few weeks later, on 13 December 1897, Mexico sent the gunboat La Demócrata and a group of marines to assert its claim on the island, evicting the Americans, raising the Mexican flag, and drawing a protest from France. From 1898 to 1905, the Pacific Islands Company worked the Clipperton guano deposits under a concession agreement with Mexico. In 1898, Mexico made a US$1.5 million claim against the Oceanic Phosphate Company for the guano shipped from the island from 1895 to 1897.

20th century

Mexican colonization (1905–1917)
In 1905, the Mexican government renegotiated its agreement with the British Pacific Islands Company, establishing a military garrison on the island a year later and erecting a lighthouse under the orders of Mexican President Porfirio Díaz. Captain Ramón Arnaud was appointed governor of Clipperton. At first he was reluctant to accept the post, believing it amounted to exile from Mexico, but he relented after being told that Díaz had personally chosen him to protect Mexico's interests in the international conflict with France. It was also noted that because Arnaud spoke English, French, and Spanish, he would be well equipped to help protect Mexico's sovereignty over the territory. He arrived on Clipperton as governor later that year.

By 1914 around 100 men, women, and children lived on the island, resupplied every two months by a ship from Acapulco. With the escalation of fighting in the Mexican Revolution, regular resupply visits ceased, and the inhabitants were left to their own devices. On 28 February 1914, the schooner Nokomis wrecked on Clipperton; with a still seaworthy lifeboat, four members of the crew volunteered to row to Acapulco for help. The  arrived months later to rescue the crew. While there, the captain offered to transport the survivors of the colony back to Acapulco; Arnaud refused as he believed a supply ship would soon arrive.

By 1917, all but one of the male inhabitants had died. Many had perished from scurvy, while others, including Arnaud, died during an attempt to sail after a passing ship to fetch help. Lighthouse keeper Victoriano Álvarez was the last man on the island, together with 15 women and children. Álvarez proclaimed himself 'king', and began a campaign of rape and murder, before being killed by Tirza Rendón, who was his favourite victim. Almost immediately after Álvarez's death, four women and seven children, the last survivors, were picked up by the U.S. Navy gunship  on 18 July 1917.

Final arbitration of ownership (1931)
Throughout Mexico's occupation of Clipperton, France insisted on its ownership of the island, and lengthy diplomatic correspondence between the two countries led to a treaty on 2 March 1909, agreeing to seek binding international arbitration by Victor Emmanuel III of Italy, with each nation promising to abide by his determination. In 1931, Victor Emmanuel III issued his arbitral decision in the 'Clipperton Island Case', declaring Clipperton a French possession. Mexican President Pascual Ortiz Rubio, in response to public opinion that considered the Italian king biased towards France, consulted international experts on the validity of the decision, but ultimately Mexico accepted Victor Emmanuel's findings. France formally took possession of Clipperton on January 26, 1935.

U.S. presidential visit
President Franklin D. Roosevelt made a stop over at Clipperton in July 1938 aboard the  as part of a fishing expedition to the Galápagos Islands and other points along the Central and South American coasts. At the island, Roosevelt and his party spent time fishing for sharks, and afterwards Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt of the Smithsonian Institution went ashore with some crew to gather scientific samples and make observations of the island.

Roosevelt had previously tried to visit Clipperton in July 1934 after transiting through the Panama Canal en route to Hawaii on the Houston; he had heard the area was good for fishing, but heavy seas prevented them from lowering a boat when they reached the island. On 19 July 1934, soon after the stop at Clipperton, the rigid airship  rendezvoused with the Houston, and one of the Macon Curtiss F9C biplanes delivered mail to the president.

American occupation (1944–1945)

In April 1944, the  took observations of Clipperton while en route to Hawaii. After an overflight of the island by planes from the  and  to ensure Clipperton was uninhabited, the  departed San Francisco on 4 December 1944 with aerological specialists and personnel and was followed several days later by  with provisions, heavy equipment, and equipment for construction of a U.S. Navy weather station on the island. The sailors at the weather station were armed in case of a possible Japanese attack in the region. Landing on the island proved challenging. LST-563 grounded on the reef and the salvage ship  was brought in to help refloat the ship but it too was grounded. Finally, in January 1945, the  and  were able to free the Seize and to offload equipment from LST-563 before it was abandoned.

Once the weather station was completed and sailors garrisoned on the island, the U.S. government informed the British, French, and Mexican governments of the station and its purpose. Every day at 9 a.m., the 24 sailors stationed at the Clipperton weather station sent up weather balloons to gather information. Later, Clipperton was considered for an airfield to shift traffic between North America and Australia far from the front lines of Pacific Theater.

In April 1943, during a meeting between presidents Roosevelt of the U.S. and Avila Camacho of Mexico, the topic of Mexican ownership of Clipperton was raised. The American government seemed interested in Clipperton being handed over to Mexico due to the importance the island might play in both commercial and military air travel, as well as its proximity to the Panama Canal.

Although these talks were informal, the U.S. backed away from any Mexican claim on Clipperton as Mexico had previously accepted the 1931 arbitration decision. The U.S. government also felt it would be easier to obtain a military base on the island from France. However, after the French government was notified about the weather station, relations on this matter deteriorated rapidly with the French government sending a formal note of protest in defense of French sovereignty. In response, the U.S. extended an offer for the French military to operate the station or to have the Americans agree to leave the weather station under the same framework previously agreed to with other weather stations in France and North Africa. There were additional concern within the newly formed Provisional Government of the French Republic that notification of the installation was made to military and not civilian leadership.

French Foreign Minister Georges Bidault said of the incident: "This is very humiliating to us we are anxious to cooperate with you, but sometimes you do not make it easy". French Vice Admiral Raymond Fenard requested during a meeting with U.S. Admiral Lyal A. Davidson that civilians be given access to Clipperton and the surrounding waters, but the U.S. Navy denied the request because there was an active military installation on the island. Instead Davidson offered to transport a French officer to the installation and reassured the French government that the United States did not wish to claim sovereignty over the island. During these discussions between the admirals, French diplomats in Mexico attempted to hire the Mexican vessel Pez de Plata out of Acapulco to bring a military attaché to Clipperton under a cover story that they were going on a shark fishing trip. At the request of the Americans, the Mexican government refused to allow the Pez De Plata to leave port. French officials then attempted to leave in another smaller vessel and filed a false destination with the local port authorities but were also stopped by Mexican officials.

During this period, French officials in Mexico leaked information about their concerns, as well as about the arrival of seaplanes at Clipperton, to The New York Times and Newsweek; both stories were refused publishing clearance on national security grounds. In February 1945, the U.S. Navy transported French Officer Lieutenant Louis Jampierre to Clipperton out of San Diego where he visited the installation and that afternoon returned to the United States. As the war in the Pacific progressed, concerns about Japanese incursions into the Eastern Pacific were reduced and in September 1945 the U.S. Navy began removing from Clipperton. During the evacuation, munitions were destroyed, but significant matériel was left on the island. By 21 October 1945, the last U.S. Navy staff at the weather station left Clipperton.

Post-World War II developments
Since the island was abandoned by American forces at the end of World War II, the island has been visited by sports fishermen, French naval patrols, and Mexican tuna and shark fishermen. There have been infrequent scientific and amateur radio expeditions and, in 1978, Jacques-Yves Cousteau visited with a team of divers and a survivor from the 1917 evacuation to film a television special called Clipperton: The Island that Time Forgot.

The island was visited by ornithologist Ken Stager of the Los Angeles County Museum in 1958. Appalled at the depredations visited by feral pigs upon the island's brown booby and masked booby colonies (reduced to 500 and 150 birds, respectively), Stager procured a shotgun and killed all 58 pigs. By 2003, the booby colonies had grown to 25,000 brown boobies and 112,000 masked boobies, making Clipperton home to the world's second-largest brown booby colony, and its largest masked booby colony. In 1994, Stager's story inspired Bernie Tershy and Don Croll, both professors at the University of California, Santa Cruz Long Marine Lab, to found the non-profit Island Conservation, which works to prevent extensions through the removal of invasive species from islands.

When the independence of Algeria in 1962 threatened French nuclear testing sites in North Africa, the French Ministry of Defence considered Clipperton as a possible replacement site. This was eventually ruled out due to the island's hostile climate and remote location, but the island was used to house a small scientific mission to collect data on nuclear fallout from other nuclear tests. From 1966 to 1969, the French military sent a series of missions, called "Bougainville," to the island. The Bougainville missions unloaded some 25 tons of equipment, including sanitary facilities, traditional Polynesian dwellings, drinking water treatment tanks, and generators. The missions sought to surveil the island and its surrounding waters, observe weather conditions, and evaluate potential rehabilitation of the World War II era airstrip. By 1978, the structures built during the Bougainville missions had become quite derelict. The French explored reopening the lagoon and developing a harbour for trade and tourism during the 1970s, but this too was abandoned. An automatic weather installation was completed on 7 April 1980, with data collected by the station transmitted via satellite to Brittany.

In 1981, the Académie des sciences d'outre-mer recommended the island have its own economic infrastructure, with an airstrip and a fishing port in the lagoon. This would mean opening the lagoon to the ocean by creating a passage in the atoll rim. To oversee this, the French government reassigned Clipperton from the High Commissioner for French Polynesia to the direct authority of the French government, classifying the island as an overseas state private property administered by France's Overseas Minister. In 1986, the Company for the Study, Development and Exploitation of Clipperton Island (French acronym, SEDEIC) and French officials began outlining a plan for the development of Clipperton as a fishing port, but due to economic constraints, the distance from markets, and the small size of the atoll, nothing beyond preliminary studies was undertaken and plans for the development were abandoned. In the mid-1980s, the French government began efforts to enlist citizens of French Polynesia to settle on Clipperton; these plans were ultimately abandoned as well.

In November 1994, the French Space Agency requested the help of NASA to track the first stage breakup of the newly designed Ariane 5 rocket. After spending a month on Clipperton setting up and calibrating radar equipment to monitor Ariane flight V88, the mission ended in disappointment when the rocket disintegrated 37 seconds after launch due to a software bug.

Despite Mexico accepting the 1931 arbitration decision that Clipperton was French territory, the right of Mexican fishing vessels to work Clipperton's territorial waters have remained a point of contention. A 2007 treaty, reaffirmed in 2017, grants Mexican access to Clipperton's fisheries so long as authorization is sought from the French government, conservation measures are followed, and catches are reported; however, the lack of regular monitoring of the fisheries by France makes verifying compliance difficult.

Castaways
In May 1893, Charles Jensen and "Brick" Thurman of the Oceanic Phosphate Company were left on the island by the company's ship Compeer with 90 days worth of supplies in order to prevent other attempts to claim the island and its guano. Before sailing for Clipperton, Jensen wrote a letter to the Secretary of the Coast Seamen's Union, Andrew Furuseth, instructing him that if the Oceanic Phosphate Company had not sent a vessel to Clipperton six weeks after the return of the Compeer to make it known that they had been stranded there. The Oceanic Phosphate Company denied it had left the men without adequate supplies and contracted the schooner Viking to retrieve them in late August. The Viking rescued the men, who had used seabirds' eggs to supplement their supplies, and returned them to San Francisco on 31 October.

In May 1897, the British cargo vessel Kinkora wrecked on Clipperton; the crew was able to salvage food and water from the ship, allowing them to survive on the island in relative comfort. During the crew's time on the island, a passing vessel offered to take the men to the mainland for $1,500, which the crew refused. Instead eight of the men loaded up a lifeboat and rowed to Acapulco for help. After the first mate of the Kinkora, Mr. McMarty, arrived in Acapulco, HMS Comus set sail from British Columbia to rescue the sailors.

In 1947, five American fishermen from San Pedro, California, were rescued from Clipperton after surviving on the island for six weeks.

In early 1962, the island provided a home to nine crewmen of the sunken tuna clipper MV Monarch, stranded for 23 days from 6 February to 1 March. They reported that the lagoon water was drinkable, although they preferred to drink water from the coconuts they found. Unable to use any of the dilapidated buildings, they constructed a crude shelter from cement bags and tin salvaged from Quonset huts built by the American military 20 years earlier. Wood from the huts was used for firewood, and fish caught off the fringing reef combined with potatoes and onions they had saved from their sinking vessel augmented the island's meager supply of coconuts. The crewmen reported they tried eating bird's eggs, but found them to be rancid, and they decided after trying to cook a 'little black bird' that it did not have enough meat to make the effort worthwhile. Pigs had been eradicated, but the crewmen reported seeing their skeletons around the atoll. The crewmen were eventually discovered by another fishing boat, and rescued by the U.S. Navy destroyer .

Amateur radio DX-peditions
Clipperton has long been an attractive destination for amateur radio groups due to its remoteness, permit requirements, history, and interesting environment. While some radio operation has been part of other visits to the island, major DX-peditions have included FO0XB (1978), FO0XX (1985), FO0CI (1992), FO0AAA (2000), and TX5C (2008).

In March 2014, the Cordell Expedition, organised and led by Robert Schmieder, combined a radio DX-pedition using callsign TX5K with environmental and scientific investigations. The team of 24 radio operators made more than 114,000 contacts, breaking the previous record of 75,000. The activity included extensive operation in the 6-meter band, including Earth–Moon–Earth communication (EME) or 'moonbounce' contacts. A notable accomplishment was the use of DXA, a real-time satellite-based online graphic radio log web page, allowing anyone with a browser to see the radio activity. Scientific work conducted during the expedition included the first collection and identification of foraminifera and extensive aerial imaging of the island using kite-borne cameras. The team included two scientists from the University of Tahiti and a French TV documentary crew from Thalassa.

In April 2015, Alain Duchauchoy, F6BFH, broadcast from Clipperton using callsign TX5P as part of the Passion 2015 scientific expedition to Clipperton Island. Duchauchoy also researched Mexican use of the island during the early 1900s as part of the expedition.

See also
 Desert island
 Lists of islands

Notes

References

External links

 Isla Clipperton o 'Los náufragos mexicanos − 1914/1917' [Clipperton or 'The Mexican Castaways – 1914/1917']

Photo galleries
 The first dive trip to Clipperton Island aboard the Nautilus Explorer — pictures taken during a 2007 visit
 Clipperton Island 2008 — Flickr gallery containing 94 large photos from a 2008 visit
 3D photos of Clipperton Island 2010 — 3D anaglyphs

Visits and expeditions
 2000 DXpedition to Clipperton Island — website of a visit by amateur radio enthusiasts in 2000
 Diving trips to Clipperton atoll — from NautilusExplorer.com

States and territories established in 1931
1931 establishments in the French colonial empire
1931 establishments in North America
1931 in Mexico

Islands of Overseas France
Pacific Ocean atolls of France
Uninhabited islands of France
Islands of Central America
Dependent territories in North America
Dependent territories in Oceania
French colonization of the Americas
Former populated places in North America
Former populated places in Oceania
Former disputed islands
Arbitration cases
Territorial disputes of France
Territorial disputes of Mexico
Tropical Eastern Pacific
Uninhabited islands of the Pacific Ocean
Pacific islands claimed under the Guano Islands Act
Coral reefs
Reefs of the Pacific Ocean
Neotropical ecoregions
Ecoregions of Central America
Important Bird Areas of Overseas France
Important Bird Areas of Oceania
Seabird colonies
Island restoration
Victor Emmanuel III of Italy

Clipperton Island


The Bedford Museum & Genealogical Library is the county museum and genealogical library for Bedford County, Virginia  It was started in 1932 by the General William R. Terry chapter of the United Daughters of the Confederacy  and the Peaks of Otter chapter of the National Society Daughters of the American Revolution.  It was in multiple locations in the town of Bedford, VA including the Courthouse and the library.  It finally found its permanent home in 1979 when it moved into the former Masonic Hall for Liberty Lodge #95.  It is part of the Bedford Historic District and is known as Bedford Masonic Hall on that Wiki page.  It is located at 201 E. Main St. Bedford, VA.

Annual Events
The Bedford Museum & Genealogical Library holds several events throughout the year including: An Annual train layout, Fridays at the Museum summer kids program, and Women's History Month essay contest for children.

Train Layout
The Bedford Museum is home to an annual O Gauge train layout on its third floor. Children are entertained as the train goes past villages and across a trestle and through a tunnel.  They can also run a trolley that goes back and forth in the village.  During the two weeks of Christmas Break, the Polar Express runs on the track as well.  There are other interactive train possibilities as well, depending on the year.

Fridays at the Museum
Every summer the Bedford Museum & Genealogical Library hosts a weekly summer activity that is geared to children coming out of 2nd to 6th grades.  The program is every Friday afternoon during the summer and children learn about local history and its interaction with national and sometimes international connections.  Some of the activities have included a visit from the Monancan Tribe and the Bedford County Sheriff.  There have also been trips to Avenel and the Avoca Museum.  The Museum's program has seen great results with some of the children that participated in the program to get Passed Advanced in history on their VA SOL.

Women's History Month Essay Contest
Every February the Bedford Museum & Genealogical Library hosts an annual Women's History Month Essay Contest open to students in the second to eighth grades.  Students must write about a woman who lived during that years theme (American Revolution, Civil War, etc.) and why they admired them.  Grand Prize winners are awarded $50 and 1st place and runners up get an award as well.

Monthly
The Museum holds a Genealogy and History Forum on the 2nd Saturday of every month from February to November. Some of the speakers share personal genealogy stories, others talk about their experiences like Carl Overstreet, who was the first U2 pilot to fly over Soviet Air Space.

It also offers a free beginning genealogy class every month from February to November that offers tips and advice for students just getting started in Genealogy.

Weekly
The Museum holds free weekly Bluegrass Jams on the third floor most Friday nights from 7 to 9 pm.

Displays
Exhibits displayed in the three-floor Museum feature African Americans, Native Americans, World War I, World War II, Korean War, Vietnam War, Operation Enduring Freedom, Co. A 1/116 29th Division (AKA Bedford Boys), Civil War, American Revolution, as well as household furniture. The changing exhibit room has highlighted local Manufacturing like Piedmont/Smyth Label and Lacey Putney, the longest serving Delegate in all of Virginia's History.

Genealogy Library
The first floor is the home location for the Genealogy Library.  It features over 1,600 books and over 1,000 files on family names and local history.

References

External links

Museums in Bedford County, Virginia
Genealogical libraries in the United States
1932 establishments in Virginia
Museums established in 1932

Bedford Museum & Genealogical Library


Carlos Marighella (; 5 December 1911 – 4 November 1969) was a Brazilian politician, writer, and militant of Marxist–Leninist orientation. Critical of nonviolent resistance to the Brazilian military dictatorship, he founded the Ação Libertadora Nacional, a Marxist–Leninist urban guerrilla group, which was responsible for a series of bank robberies and high-profile kidnappings. He was killed by police in 1969 in an ambush. Marighella's most famous contribution to revolutionary literature was the Minimanual of the Urban Guerrilla.

Biography

Marighella was born in Salvador, Bahia, to Italian immigrant Augusto Marighella and Afro-Brazilian Maria Rita do Nascimento. His father was a blue-collar worker originally from Emilia, while his mother was a descendant of enslaved Africans, brought from the Sudan (Hausa blacks). He spent his young life at a house in Rua do Desterro, at the Baixa do Sapateiro neighbourhood, where he would graduate from primary and secondary education. In 1934, he left the Polytechnic School of Bahia, where he was pursuing a degree in civil engineering, in order to become an active member of the Brazilian Communist Party (PCB). He then moved to Rio de Janeiro to work in the restructuring of PCB.
Son of an Italian Roman Catholic father and a mother of african Muslim background, Carlos was raised in a catholic household, eventually becoming atheist in his early 20s.

Arrests
Marighella was first arrested in 1932, after he wrote an offensive poem about the administration of Bahia intervener Juracy Magalhães. On 1 May 1936, during the Getúlio Vargas time in presidency, he was once again arrested for subversion. He was arrested again by the political police led by Filinto Müller. He remained in jail for a year. He was released by "macedada" (the measure which freed political prisoners without pressing charges against them). After his release, he once again entered clandestinity, along with all members of PCB. He was recaptured in 1939. He was not released until 1945, when an amnesty during the democratization process of the country benefited all political prisoners.

The following year, Marighella was elected constituent federal deputy by the Bahian branch of PCB, but he lost his office in 1948 under the new proscription of the party. Back in clandestinity, he occupied several offices in the leadership of the party. Invited by the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, Marighella visited China between 1953 and 1954 in order to learn more about the Chinese Communist Revolution. In May 1964, after the military coup, he was shot and arrested by agents of the Department of Social and Political Order (Departamento de Ordem Política e Social - DOPS), the political police, at a movie theater in Rio. He was released in the following year by a court order.

Writing
In 1966, he wrote The Brazilian Crisis, opting for the armed struggle against the military dictatorship. Later that year, he renounced his office in the national leadership of PCB.

In August 1967, he participated at the 1st Conference of Latin American Solidarity in Havana, contradicting what party had determined. In Havana, he wrote Some Questions About the Guerrillas in Brazil, dedicated to the memory of Che Guevara and made public by Jornal do Brasil on 5 September 1968. That same year he was expelled from PCB, and founded the Ação Libertadora Nacional (ALN) in February 1968.

Ação Libertadora Nacional
The Department of Political and Social Order (DOPS) attributed the assassination of Charles Rodney Chandler to Marighella and nine others according to the  at the time.

1969 kidnapping of the United States Ambassador

In September 1969, ALN members kidnapped the U.S. ambassador Charles Burke Elbrick in a coordinated move with the Revolutionary Movement 8th October (Movimento Revolucionário 8 de Outubro – MR-8). The group was responsible for several executions as well.

Death

After a series of successful robberies and kidnappings, the police force was determined to eliminate him. He was shot by police at an ambush at 8:00 pm on 4 November 1969 at 800 Alameda Casa Branca, São Paulo. This ambush was organized by police deputy Sérgio Paranhos Fleury, known for his work inside DOPS.

Marighella was buried at Cemitério Público da Quinta dos Lázaros, a cemetery in Salvador, Bahia. His tombstone was designed by architect Oscar Niemeyer, and is the only grave monument designed by the architect. It bears a quote from Marighella: "I didn't have time to be afraid" (Não tive tempo para ter medo).

Legacy
Marighella's most famous contribution to revolutionary struggle literature was the Minimanual of the Urban Guerrilla, consisting of advice on how to disrupt and overthrow a military regime as part of a Marxist revolution. Written shortly before his death in late 1969 in São Paulo, Minimanual was first published in North America by the Berkeley Tribe in Berkeley, California in July 1970 in an English edition.

In popular culture
In the 2006 biographical drama film Baptism of Blood, Marighella was portrayed by Brazilian actor and musician Marku Ribas.

In the 2019 drama Marighella, Marighella was portrayed by Seu Jorge; the film was accomplished actor Wagner Moura's directorial debut. The movie was exhibited at international film festivals, but Brazil's Agência Nacional do Cinema (National Agency of Cinema), during Bolsonaro's government, barred it from distribution in Brazil, citing "subversive elements"; it finally appeared on Brazilian screens in November, 2021.

Notes

References

External links
 "Pattern of Terror", Time, 24 August 1970
 Minimanual of the Urban Guerrilla by Carlos Marighella
 "Estratégia para matar o terror", Veja, 12 November 1969

1911 births
1969 deaths
Brazilian people of Italian descent
Stalinism
Anti-revisionists
Brazilian communists
Brazilian revolutionaries
Revolution theorists
Brazilian guerrillas
Brazilian Communist Party politicians
Far-left politics in Brazil
Terrorism in Brazil
People from Salvador, Bahia
Brazilian people of African descent
Urban guerrilla warfare theorists
Guerrillas killed in action
People shot dead by law enforcement officers in Brazil
Dead and missing in the fight against the military dictatorship in Brazil (1964–1985)
Assassinations in Brazil
Assassinated Brazilian politicians
1960s assassinated politicians

Carlos Marighella