There have been two baronetcies created for members of the Sandys family, both in the Baronetage of England. Both creations are extinct.

The Sandys Baronetcy, of Wilberton in the County of Cambridge, was created in the Baronetage of England on 25 November 1611 for Sir Miles Sandys, Member of Parliament for Cambridge, Huntingdon and Cambridgeshire.  He was the third son of Edwin Sandys, Archbishop of York. Sandys was succeeded by his eldest son, Miles, the second Baronet, who had already been knighted. The title became extinct when the latter died childless in 1654.

The Sandys Baronetcy, of Northborne in the County of Kent, was created in the Baronetage of England on 15 December 1684 for the fourteen-year-old Richard Sandys. He was the grandson of Edwin Sandys, of Northbourne Court, a colonel in the parliamentary army, elder son of Sir Edwin Sandys, second son of Edwin Sandys, Archbishop of York, and elder brother of Sir Miles Sandys, 1st Baronet, of Wilberton (see above). Sandys left only daughters and the title became extinct on his death in 1726.

Sir Samuel Sandys, of Ombersley, eldest brother of Sir Miles Sandys, 1st Baronet, of Wilberton, was the ancestor of the Barons Sandys (of the 1743 and 1802 creations). George Sandys, seventh son of Edwin Sandys, Archbishop of York, was a traveller and poet. Miles Sandys, brother of Edwin Sandys, Archbishop of York, was a courtier and politician.

The family surname is pronounced "Sands".

Sandys baronets, of Wilberton (1611)
 Sir Miles Sandys, 1st Baronet (1563–1645)
 Sir Miles Sandys, 2nd Baronet (died 1654)

Sandys baronets, of Northborne (1684)
 Sir Richard Sandys, 1st Baronet (1670–1726)

Family tree

See also
 Bayntun-Sandys Baronets
Baron Sandys

References

Extinct baronetcies in the Baronetage of England
1611 establishments in England

Sandys baronets


Marco Pannella (born Giacinto Pannella; 2 May 1930 – 19 May 2016) was an Italian politician, journalist and activist. He was well known in his country for his nonviolence and civil rights' campaigns, like the right to divorce, the right to abortion, the legalization of cannabis and the abolition of nuclear power. Internationally, he supported human rights and self-determination causes, like the Tibetan independence and persecution of Christians in Vietnam.

He was the historic leader of the Radical Party, the first political organization of Italian Radicals in the post-World War II period, founded in 1955. Between 1979 and 2009, he was a Member of the European Parliament, where he sat as a full member in the Committee on Legal Affairs, in the Committee on Budgetary Control and in the Delegation for relations with Israel. He was also President of the Nonviolent Radical Party.

He is considered to have been a left-libertarian and liberal socialist.

Early life
Pannella was born in Teramo (Abruzzo) from an Italian father and a Swiss mother on 2 May 1930. He attended the classical lyceum Julius Caesar in Rome. In 1955 Pannella graduated with a degree in law from the University of Urbino.

Political career
At 20 years old, Pannella became a national representative at the university level for the Italian Liberal Party (PLI), member of the student association Unione Goliardica Italiana (UGI) and at 23 he was President of the Unione Nazionale degli Studenti, (National Union of Students).

At 24 he promoted the foundation of the Partito Radicale (hereinafter the "Radical Party"). From 1960 to 1963, he was in Paris as a correspondent of the Italian newspaper Il Giorno. During his long political career, Pannella co-founded a series of organizations such as the Italian league for divorce, the League for objection of conscience, the League for the abrogation of the Agreement between the Catholic Church and the Italian State (Concordat), the Centre of legal initiative "Piero Calamandrei", as well as the Italian Association for Demographic Education (AIED). He has been at the forefront of the promotion of important reforms regarding narcotics and faced incarceration on various occasions for his civil disobediences. He played a prominent role in the movement that led to the legalization of abortion in Italy in 1978. He also promoted actions to grant electoral rights for Italians aged 18.

Engaged in the defence of civil rights in Eastern European countries, in 1968 he was arrested in Sofia for having distributed leaflets against the Communist regime. He was one of the first promoters and founders of the Green and ecologist political movements in Europe.

Over the years, he was engaged in Italy in the defence of civil rights as well as against the public financing of political parties and against corruption of Italian politics. Beginning in the 1970s, Pannella promoted a series of referendums on themes ranging from social to political issues, in particular on those relating to the legality of the State, the rule of law and to the administration of justice.

He was elected to the European Parliament in 1979. He sat in the Technical Group of Independents which was a technical alliance of left wing MEPs who were not allied with either the Soviet influenced Communist parties or the mainstream Social Democratic parties. He served as chair of the group along with the hardline Irish Republican Neil Blaney and Danish left-wing Eurosceptic Jens-Peter Bonde.Throughout the 1980s, he promoted international anti-prohibitionist campaigns on drugs and was one of the founders of the Radical Antiprohibitionist Coordination (CORA) and of the International Antiprohibitionist League.

A believer in Gandhian nonviolence, Pannella carried out several hunger strikes in Italy and elsewhere to defend civil rights and to end extermination through starvation the world over. This included a hunger strike in 2007, to protest against the death penalty. This strike was set off by the hanging of Saddam Hussein. A hunger strike in April 2014 to protest Italian prison conditions resulted in Pannella having to have surgery.

A disciple of Altiero Spinelli and Ernesto Rossi, Pannella was one of the first European Federalists and fought, through nonviolent means, for the creation of the European Union.

He was elected Secretary of the Radical Party in November 1981 and remained in office until November 1983. At the RP Congress in Budapest in 1989, he launched the creation of the Transnational Radical Party of which he became president of the Federal Council on that occasion.

In 2003, he created together with other prominent European personalities the Medbridge Strategy Center, whose goal is to promote dialogue and mutual understanding between Europe and the Middle-East.

He was honorary President of the Party of the Rom (ROI) in the Czech Republic and he was also honorary member of the Socialist Slovene Youth. The Jewish National Fund (Hebrew: קרן קימת לישראל, Keren Kayemet LeYisrael) dedicated him a reforestation area in the Negev Desert in Israel.

In October 2011, he became a member of the French Federalist Party in order to take part in the founding convention of the European Federalist Party which took place on 5/6 November 2011. Thus he became a founding member of the European Federalist Party.

Personal life
Pannella was never married and had no children. He had been living for several decades with his girlfriend Mirella Parachini. In 2010, he alluded in an interview to the fact that Parachini and he had always been in an open relationship "without jealousy". In the same interview, Pannella came out as bisexual and said he had "three or four" significant relationships with men. He was atheist.

Pannella died on 19 May 2016 of cancer, after agreeing to be sedated. The Italian Prime Minister Matteo Renzi described him as a "lion of freedom".

Electoral history

References

External links
 Nonviolent Radical Party official website
 Rome Set To Lead Peace-Keeping Mission
 MedBridge official website

1930 births
2016 deaths
Italian libertarians
People from Teramo
Italian people of Swiss descent
Italian Liberal Party politicians
Italian bisexual people
Italian LGBT journalists
Anti–death penalty activists
Nonviolence advocates
Bisexual male politicians
Bisexual male writers
Bisexual journalists
LGBT MEPs for Italy
Critics of the Catholic Church
Members of the Chamber of Deputies (Italy)
MEPs for Italy 2004–2009
MEPs for Italy 1999–2004
MEPs for Italy 1994–1999
MEPs for Italy 1989–1994
MEPs for Italy 1984–1989
MEPs for Italy 1979–1984
Italian Radicals MEPs
Radical Party (Italy) politicians

Marco Pannella


People who form a couple, or who are married, very often have an agreement that they will only have sex with each other, and with no one else. If one of the two has sex with someone else, this is called infidelity.

Infidelity is common: About half of the men, and a quarter of women reported having an extra-marital affair, according to the Kinsey Reports, done in the 1950s.

In many countries, where religion is still present in everyday life (mostly in  Africa, the Middle East, and Asia), being untrue to the one you love is a criminal offense. In most European countries, and the Americas, it is no longer a crime punishable by law.

Related pages
 Adultery is the same concept, but usually has a religious background.
 Cuckolding

References

Other websites
Who Cheats More? The Demographics of Infidelity in America

Human sexuality
Relationships

Infidelity


Belinda Jack is Fellow and Tutor in French literature and Language at Christ Church, Oxford at the University of Oxford, Professor of Rhetoric at Gresham College and the author of books such as The Woman Reader and George Sand: A Woman's Life Writ Large.

Education and career
After a period living in Paris and studying at the Sorbonne, Belinda Jack obtained a bachelor's degree in French with African and Caribbean Studies from the University of Kent. She then obtained her Doctor of Philosophy (D.Phil) in Négritude and Literary Criticism at St John's College, Oxford at the University of Oxford in 1989.

After completing her doctorate, Jack stayed on at the University of Oxford where she worked as a lecturer at a number of different Colleges before being awarded a Fellowship at Christ Church, Oxford. She continues to tutor at Christ Church, in French Literature and Language. Jack is an 'Official Student' at Christ Church, Oxford making her a Fellow and a Member of the Governing Body at the college. Jack currently teaches an Advanced Translation course at the Faculty of Medieval and Modern Languages, University of Oxford., and she is currently Director of the University of Oxford Undergraduate studies for Modern Languages.

In 2013, Belinda Jack was appointed as the 47th Professor of Rhetoric at Gresham College, following Richard J. Evans. In this role she delivers a series of free public lectures within the City of London. Her first series was on The Mysteries of Reading, and this was followed by The Mysteries of Writing Novels and Poems.

Other research work and publications
Belinda Jack has authored and co-authored a number of books and research publications. Her five books include:
 The Woman Reader (Yale, 2012)
 Beatrice's Spell: The Enduring Legend of Beatrice Cenci (Chatto and Windus, 2003)
 George Sand: A Woman's Life Writ Large (Chatto and Windus, 1999)
 Negritude and Literary Criticism: The History and Theory of 'Negro-African' Literature in French (Greenwood Press, 1996)
 Francophone Literatures: An Introductory Survey (Oxford: OUP, 1996).

When asked about writing her next book, Jack has said, "What I would like to write as my next book, will be a book about the novel and I want to try and do two things at once. I want, on the other hand, to introduce a novel in all its variety and at the same time, to give hints to would-be writers about how to read novels in order to write novels"

Jack co-authored Epreuve avant la lettre: George Sand et l'autobiographie renversee (Literature, 134 (2004), 121–130) which is written in the French language.

As well as authoring books and academic publications, Jack is widely published through her many articles, essays, chapters and reviews. These have appeared in The Wall Street Journal, Literary Review, The Times Literary Supplement, Times Higher Education and BBC History. She has regularly appeared on BBC Radio and television, as well as speaking frequently at literary festivals across the UK.

Reviews of The Woman Reader have been generally positive.

American author Naomi Wolf wrote, "Engaging, lively and vigorous. The Woman Reader is a landmark work that no feminist-or for that matter, general reader-should miss"
The Sunday Telegraph wrote "A rarefied study of women's reading over the centuries – a subject that is vast, but also intensely private, and that has left little trace for most of history"
Lesley McDowell for The Independent wrote "Jack's excellent history begins from a position of anxiety, which she argues is caused by women's access to the written word. What do women read and that happens to them, and the world, when they do?"

References

External links
Belinda Jack, Christ Church Oxford
Past Gresham College lectures by Professor Jack

Professors of Gresham College
Living people
English rhetoricians
Alumni of St John's College, Oxford
Alumni of the University of Kent
University of Paris alumni
Fellows of Christ Church, Oxford
Academics of the University of Oxford
English literary critics
British women literary critics
Literary critics of French
Historians of French literature
English feminists
English feminist writers
Year of birth missing (living people)

Belinda Jack


Metal amides (systematic name metal azanides) are a class of coordination compounds composed of a metal center with amide ligands of the form NR2−. Amido complexes of the parent amido ligand NH2− are rare compared to complexes with diorganylamido ligand, such as dimethylamido. Amide ligands have two electron pairs available for bonding.

Geometry and structure
In principle, the M-NX2 group could be pyramidal or planar.  The pyramidal geometry is not observed.

In many complexes, the amido is a bridging ligand. Some examples have both bridging and terminal amido ligands. Bulky amide ligands have a lesser tendency to bridge. Amide ligands may participate in metal-ligand π-bonding giving a complex with the metal center being co-planar with the nitrogen and substituents. Metal bis(trimethylsilyl)amides form a significant subcategory of metal amide compounds. These compounds tend to be discrete and soluble in organic solvents.

Alkali metal amides

Lithium amides are the most important amides. They are prepared from n-butyllithium and the appropriate amine

The lithium amides are more common and more soluble than the other alkali metal analogs. Potassium amides are prepared by transmetallation of lithium amides with potassium t-butoxide (see also Schlosser base) or by reaction of the amine with potassium, potassium hydride, n-butylpotassium, or benzylpotassium.

The alkali metal amides, MNH2 (M = Li, Na, K) are commercially available. Sodium amide (also known as sodamide) is synthesized from sodium metal and ammonia with ferric nitrate catalyst. The sodium compound is white, but the presence of metallic iron turns the commercial material gray.

2 Na  +  2 NH3  →  2 NaNH2  +  H2

Lithium diisopropylamide is a popular non-nucleophilic base used in organic synthesis. Unlike many other bases, the steric bulk prevents this base from acting as a nucleophile. It is commercially available, usually as a solution in hexane. It may be readily prepared from n-butyllithium and diisopropylamine.

Main group amido complexes
Amido derivatives of main group elements are well developed.

Transition metal complexes
Early transition metal amides may be prepared by treating anhydrous metal chloride with alkali amide reagents.  In some cases, two equivalents of a secondary amine can be used, one equivalent serving as a base:
MCln + n LiNR2 → M(NR2)n + n LiCl
MCln + 2n HNR2 → M(NR2)n + n HNR2·HCl

Transition metal amide complexes have been prepared by these methods:
 treating a halide complex with an alkali amide
 deprotonation of a coordinated amine
 oxidative addition of an amine

Amido-ammine complexes
Highly cationic metal ammine complexes such as [Pt(NH3)6]4+ spontaneously convert to the amido derivative:
[Pt(NH3)6]4+  <-->  [Pt(NH3)5(NH2)]3+  +  H+

Transition metal amides are intermediates in the base-induced substitution of transition metal ammine complexes. Thus, the Sn1CB mechanism for the displacement of chloride from chloropentamminecobalt chloride by hydroxide proceeds via an amido intermediate:
[Co(NH3)5Cl]2+  +  OH−  →  [Co(NH3)4(NH2)]2+  +  H2O  +  Cl−
[Co(NH3)4NH2]2+  +   H2O  →  [Co(NH3)5OH]2+

See also
Inorganic imide

References

Coordination chemistry

Metal amides


A pizza cutter (also known as a roller blade) is a handheld kitchen utensil that is used to cut various items into sections or slices. Due to its prevalence in the making of pizza, it has earned the name "pizza cutter." The typical pizza cutter has a wheel-shaped blade that is attached to a handle. The original design has been modified over the years to include different sizes, blades, handles, and uses. The typical pizza cutter is not limited to cutting pizza but also for a variety of other tasks such as cutting dough or chopping herbs.

History
The Italian Silvio Pacitti invented the mezzaluna (Italian for "half moon") shaped blade in 1708. This utensil was a rounded blade that impacted its target and finished with a rolling motion across the object to create a clean cut (as opposed to dragging across the target, as with standard knives). It was intended to assist in cutting herbs and vegetables and could be found in either a single or double blade.

Varieties
There are two main types of pizza cutters.

The most common uses a wheel that rotates in a circle while a person moves the cutter in a direction that they would like to cut the pizza. People can also use the wheel pizza cutter for things such as craft work.

The other type is a large curved knife called a mezzaluna, which is rocked back and forth to cut the pizza. Some types of mezzalunas (particularly the double-bladed type) are often used to mince herbs or chop vegetables.

These two types of pizza cutters come in many different sizes.

See also

References

External links

Kitchen knives
Pizza
19th-century inventions

sv:Kökskniv#Pizzaskärare

Pizza cutter


Pokémon Sword and Shield are the first set of games in the eighth generation of the Pokémon series. They released on the Nintendo Switch on November 15, 2019. This is the first Pokémon game to have DLC, being The Isle Of Armor (released June 17, 2020) and The Crown Tundra (released October 22, 2020).

Gameplay
Main Article: Gameplay of Pokémon

Gyms return from previous entries and the combat is the same with new Dynamaxing, which makes the Pokémon larger.

References

2019 video games
Nintendo Switch games
Pokémon RPGs

Pokémon Sword and Shield


John Amos Comenius (; ; ; ; Latinized: Ioannes Amos Comenius; 28 March 1592 – 15 November 1670) was a Moravian philosopher, pedagogue and theologian who is considered the father of modern education. He served as the last bishop of the Unity of the Brethren before becoming a religious refugee and one of the earliest champions of universal education, a concept eventually set forth in his book Didactica Magna. As an educator and theologian, he led schools and advised governments across Protestant Europe through the middle of the seventeenth century.

Comenius introduced a number of educational concepts and innovations including pictorial textbooks written in native languages instead of Latin, teaching based in gradual development from simple to more comprehensive concepts, lifelong learning with a focus on logical thinking over dull memorization, equal opportunity for impoverished children, education for women, and universal and practical instruction. He also believed heavily in the connection between nature, religion, and knowledge, in which he stated that knowledge is born from nature and nature from God. Besides his native Moravia, he lived and worked in other regions of the Holy Roman Empire, and other countries: Sweden, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Transylvania, England, the Netherlands and Hungary.

Life and work

John Amos Comenius was born in 1592 in the Margraviate of Moravia in the Bohemian Crown. His birthplace is uncertain and possibilities include Uherský Brod (as on his gravestone in Naarden), Nivnice, and Komňa (from this village he took his surname, which means "a man from Komňa"), all of which are located in Uherské Hradiště District of today's Czech Republic. John was the youngest child and only son of Martin Komenský (died 1602–4) and his wife Anna Chmelová. His grandfather, whose name was Jan (János) Szeges, was of Hungarian origin. He started to use the surname Komenský after leaving Komňa to live in Uherský Brod. Martin and Anna Komenský belonged to the Moravian Brethren, a pre-Reformation Protestant denomination, and Comenius later became one of its leaders. His parents and two of his four sisters died in 1604 and young John went to live with his aunt in Strážnice.

Owing to his impoverished circumstances he was unable to begin his formal education until later in life. He was 16 when he entered the Latin school in Přerov (he later returned to this school as a teacher 1614–1618). He continued his studies in the Herborn Academy (1611–1613) and the University of Heidelberg (1613–1614). In 1612 he read the Rosicrucian manifesto Fama Fraternitatis. Comenius was greatly influenced by the Irish Jesuit William Bathe as well as his teachers Johann Piscator, Heinrich Gutberleth, and particularly Heinrich Alsted. The Herborn school held the principle that every theory has to be functional in practical use, therefore it has to be didactic (i.e. morally instructive). In the course of his study he also became acquainted with the educational reforms of Ratichius and with the report of these reforms issued by the universities of Jena and Giessen.

Comenius became rector of a school in Přerov. In 1616 he was ordained into the ministry of the Moravian Brethren and four years later became pastor and rector at Fulnek, one of its most flourishing churches. Throughout his life this pastoral activity was his most immediate concern. In consequence of the religious wars, he lost all his property and his writings in 1621. In 1627 he led the Brethren into exile when the Habsburg Counter-Reformation persecuted the Protestants in Bohemia. In 1628 he corresponded with Johann Valentin Andreae.

He produced the book Janua linguarum reserata, or The Gate of Languages Unlocked, which brought him to prominence. However, as the Unity of the Brethren became an important target of the Counter Reformation movement, he was forced into exile even as his fame grew across Europe. Comenius took refuge in Leszno in Poland, where he led the gymnasium and, furthermore, was given charge of the Bohemian and Moravian churches.

In 1638 Comenius responded to a request by the government of Sweden and traveled there to draw up a scheme for the management of the schools of that country,

After his religious duties, Comenius's second great interest was in furthering the Baconian attempt at the organization of all human knowledge. He became one of the leaders in the encyclopædic or pansophic movement of the seventeenth century, and, in fact, was inclined to sacrifice his more practical educational interests and opportunities for these more imposing but somewhat visionary projects. In 1639, Comenius published his Pansophiæ Prodromus, and in the following year his English friend Hartlib published, without his consent, the plan of the pansophic work as outlined by Comenius. The pansophic ideas find partial expression in the series of textbooks he produced from time to time. In these, he attempts to organize the entire field of human knowledge so as to bring it, in outline, within the grasp of every child. Comenius also attempted to design a language in which false statements were inexpressible.

In 1641, he responded to a request by the English parliament and joined a commission there charged with the reform of the system of public education. The English Civil War interfered with the latter project. According to Cotton Mather, Comenius was asked by Winthrop to be the President of Harvard University (this being more plausibly John Winthrop the Younger than his father as junior Winthrop was in England) but in 1642, Comenius moved to Sweden instead to work with Queen Christina (reigned 1632–1654) and the chancellor Axel Oxenstierna (in office 1612–1654) on the task of reorganizing the Swedish schools. The same year he moved to Elbląg (Elbing) in Poland and in 1648 went to England with the aid of Samuel Hartlib, who came originally from Elbląg. In 1650 Zsuzsanna Lorántffy, widow of George I Rákóczi prince of Transylvania invited him to Sárospatak. Comenius remained there until 1654 as a professor at the first Hungarian Protestant College; he wrote some of his most important works there.

Comenius returned to Leszno. During the Deluge in 1655, he declared his support for the Protestant Swedish side, for which Polish Catholic partisans burned his house, his manuscripts, and the school's printing press in 1656. The manuscript of Pansophia was destroyed in the burning of his home in Leszno in 1657. From Leszno he took refuge in Amsterdam in the Netherlands. He lived in the Huis met de Hoofden and taught his grandson Johann Theodor Jablonski as well as the young patricians Pieter de Graeff and Nicolaas Witsen.

In 1659, Comenius produced a new edition of the 1618 Bohemian Brethren hymnal, Kancionál, to jest kniha žalmů a písní duchovních containing 606 texts and 406 tunes. In addition to revising the psalms and hymns, his revision greatly expanded the number of hymns and added a new introduction. This edition was reissued several times, into the nineteenth century. His texts in Czech were notable poetic compositions, but he used tunes from other sources. He also edited the German hymnal Kirchen-, Haus- und Hertzens-Musica (Amsterdam, 1661), which had been published under the title Kirchengesänge since 1566. In other writings, Comenius addresses both instrumental and vocal music in many places, although he dedicated no treatise to the topic. Sometimes he follows the medieval mathematical conception of music, but in other places he links music with grammar, rhetoric, and politics. Musical practice, both instrumental and vocal, played an important role in his system of education.

He would die there, in Amsterdam, in 1670. For unclear reasons he was buried in Naarden, where visitors can see his grave in the mausoleum, located in the Kloosterstraat, devoted to him. Next to the mausoleum is the Comenius Museum.

Educational influence

For the greater part of the eighteenth century and early part of the nineteenth, there was little recognition of his relationship to the advance in educational thought and practice. However, the importance of the Comenian influence in education has been recognized since the middle of the nineteenth century. The practical educational influence of Comenius was threefold.

He was first a teacher and an organizer of schools, not only among his own people, but later in Sweden, and to a slight extent in Holland. In his Didactica Magna (Great Didactic), he outlined a system of schools that is the exact counterpart of the existing American system of kindergarten, elementary school, secondary school, college, and university.

The second influence was in formulating the general theory of education. In this respect, he is the forerunner of Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Fröbel, etc., and is the first to formulate the idea of "education according to nature," which became consequential during the latter part of the eighteenth and early part of the nineteenth century. The influence of Comenius on education is comparable with that of his contemporaries, Bacon and Descartes, on science and philosophy. In fact, he was largely influenced by the works of these two men. This comparison is largely due to the fact that he first applied or attempted to apply in a systematic manner the principles of thought and investigation, newly formulated by those philosophers, to the organization of education in all its aspects. The summary of this attempt is given in the Didactica Magna, completed about 1631, though not published until several years later.

The third aspect of influence was on the subject matter and method of education, exerted through a series of textbooks of an entirely new nature. The first-published of these was the Janua Linguarum Reserata (The Gate of Tongues Unlocked), issued in 1631. This was followed by a more elementary text, the Vestibulum, a more advanced one, the Atrium, and others. The Orbis Pictus, published in 1658, became one of the most renowned and widely circulated school books over the next century. It was also the first successful application of illustrations to the work of teaching youth (though not the first illustrated book for children, per se).

The educational writings of Comenius comprise more than forty titles. These texts were all based on the same fundamental ideas: (1) learning foreign languages through the vernacular; (2) obtaining ideas through objects rather than words; (3) starting with objects most familiar to the child to introduce him to both the new language and the more remote world of objects; (4) giving the child a comprehensive knowledge of his environment, physical and social, as well as instruction in religious, moral, and classical subjects; (5) making this acquisition of a compendium of knowledge a pleasure rather than a task; and (6) making instruction universal "to all men and from all points of view".

Theology

John Amos Comenius was a bishop of the Unity of the Brethren church that had its roots in the teaching of Czech reformer Jan Hus. One of his most famous theological works is the Labyrinth of the World and Paradise of the Heart. The book represents his thinking about the world being full of various useless things and complex labyrinths. The true peace of mind and soul can be found only in the one's heart where Christ the Saviour should dwell and rule. This teaching is also repeated in one of his last works, Unum Necessarium (Only One is Needed), where he shows various labyrinths and problems in the world and provides simple solutions to various situations. In this book he also admits that his former believing in prophecies and revelations of those days was his personal labyrinth where he got lost many times. He was greatly influenced by Boehme.

In his Synopsis physicae ad lumen divinum reformatae, Comenius gives a physical theory of his own, said to be taken from the Book of Genesis. He was also famous for his prophecies and the support he gave to visionaries. In his Lux in tenebris he published the visions of Christopher Kotterus, Mikuláš Drabík (lat. Nicolaus Drabicius) and Kristina Poniatowska. Attempting to interpret the Book of Revelation, he promised the millennium in 1672 and guaranteed miraculous assistance to those who would undertake the destruction of the Pope and the house of Austria, even venturing to prophesy that Oliver Cromwell, Gustavus Adolphus, and George I Rákóczi, prince of Transylvania, would perform the task. He also wrote to Louis XIV of France, informing him that the empire of the world should be his reward if he would overthrow the enemies of God.

Family
One of his daughters, Elisabeth, married Peter Figulus from Jablonné nad Orlicí. Their son, Daniel Ernst Jablonski (1660–1741), Comenius's grandson, later went to Berlin in 1693; there he became the highest official pastor at the court of King Frederick I of Prussia (reigned 1701–1713). There he became acquainted with Count Nicolaus Ludwig Zinzendorf (1700–1760). Zinzendorf was among the foremost successors to Comenius as a bishop (1737–1760) in the renewed Moravian Brethren's Church.

Legacy
The Comenius Medal, a UNESCO award honouring outstanding achievements in the fields of education research and innovation, commemorates Comenius. Peter Drucker hailed Comenius as the inventor of textbooks and primers.

On 28 March 2010, Google celebrated Jan Amos Komensky's 418th Birthday with a doodle.

Czech Republic

During the 19th-century Czech National Revival, Czechs idealised Comenius as a symbol of the Czech nation. This image persists to the present day.

The Czech Republic celebrates 28 March, the birthday of Comenius, as Teachers' Day. The University of Jan Amos Komenský was founded in Prague in 2001, offering bachelor's, master's and graduate degree programmes. Gate to Languages, a project of lifelong education, taking place in the Czech Republic from October 2005 to June 2007 and aimed at language education of teachers, was named after his book Janua linguarum reserata (Gate to Languages Unlocked). Comenius is pictured on the 200 Czech koruna banknote.

Asteroid 1861 Komenský, discovered by Luboš Kohoutek, is named in his honor.

Elsewhere in Europe

In Leszno, Poland, a local college is named after him. There is also square of his name nearby post Unity's of the Brethren church.
In Poland, the Comenius Foundation is a non-governmental organisation dedicated to the provision of equal opportunities to children under 10 years of age.

In Sárospatak, Hungary, a teacher's college is named after him, which belongs to the University of Miskolc. Comenius' name has been given to primary schools in several German cities, including Bonn, Grafing, and Deggendorf. In Skopje, North Macedonia the Czechoslovak government built a school after a catastrophic 1963 earthquake and named it after Comenius (Jan Amos Komenski in Macedonian). In 1919 Comenius University was founded by an act of parliament in Bratislava, Czechoslovakia, now in Slovakia. It was the first university with courses in Slovak.

The Comenius tower in Luxembourg was completed in 2008 as an addition to the headquarters of the Court of Justice of the European Union. The building houses many of the institution's translation services.

The Italian film director Roberto Rossellini took Comenius, and especially his theory of "direct vision", as his model in the development of his didactic theories, which Rossellini hoped would usher the world into a utopian future.

Comenius is a European Union school partnership program. In the United Kingdom, the University of Sheffield's Western Bank Library holds the largest collection of Comenius manuscripts outside of the Czech Republic.

He is commemorated in the Calendar of Saints of the Evangelical Church in Germany on 16 November.

United States
In 1892, educators in many places celebrated the 300th anniversary of Comenius. Comenius Hall was built as the principal classroom and faculty office building on Moravian College's campus in Pennsylvania, and the Comenian Society for the study and publication of his works was formed.  The education department at Salem College in North Carolina has an annual Comenius Symposium dedicated in his honor; the subjects usually deal with modern issues in education. The Comenius Foundation is a non-profit 501(c)(3) charity which uses film and documentary production to further faith, learning, and love.

Works

Latin
 Linguae Bohemicae thesaurus, hoc est lexicon plenissimum, grammatica accurata, idiotismorum elegantiae et emphases adagiaque ("Treasure of the Czech language"), 1612–1656
 Problemata miscellanea ("Different Problems"), 1612, non-existent, perished in fire while being prepared for printing.
 Sylloge quaestionum controversarum, 1613
 Grammaticae facilioris praecepta, 1614–1616
 Theatrum universitatis rerum, 1616–1627
 Centrum securitatis ("The Center of Safety"), 1625
 Moraviae nova et post omnes priores accuratissima delineatio autore J. A. Comenio ("Map of Moravia"), 1618–1627
 Janua linguarum reserata, 1631
 Didactica magna ("The Great Didactic"), 1633–1638
 Via Lucis, Vestigata & Vestiganda ("The Way of Light"), 1641
 Januae Lingvarum Reseratae Aureae Vestibulum quo primus ad Latinam aditus Tyrunculis paratur ("Introduction to Latin"), 1648
 Schola pansophica ("School of Pansophy"), 1650–1651
 Primitiae laborum scholasticorum, 1650–1651
 Eruditionis scholasticae janua, rerum & linguarum structuram externam exhibens, 1656, doi:10.3931/e-rara-79809 (Digitized edition at e-rara).
 Opera didactica omnia ("Writing on All Learning"), 1657
Orbis Pictus ("The Visible World in Pictures"), 1658
 De bono unitatis et ordinis ("On Good Unity and Order"), 1660
 De rerum humanarum emendatione consultatio catholica ("General Consultation on an Improvement of All Things Human"), 1666
 Unum necessarium ("The One Thing Needful"), 1668
 Spicilegium Didacticum, 1680

Czech
 O andělích ("About Angels"), 1615
 Retuňk proti Antikristu a svodům jeho ("Utterance against the Antichrist and his temptations"), 1617
 O starožitnostech Moravy ("About Moravian Antiquities"), 1618–1621
 Spis o rodu Žerotínů (Script about House of Žerotín), 1618–1621
 Listové do nebe ("Letters to Heaven"), 1619
 Manuálník aneb jádro celé biblí svaté ("Manual or Core of the Whole Holy Bible"), 1620–1623
 Přemyšlování o dokonalosti kŕesťanské ("Thinking About Christian Perfection"), 1622
 Nedobytedlný hrad jméno Hospodinovo ("Unconqerable Fortress (is) Name of the God"), 1622
 Truchlivý, díl první ("The Mournful", volume I), 1623
 O poezí české ("About Czech Poetry"), 1623–1626
 Truchlivý, díl druhý ("The Mournful", volume II), 1624
 O sirobě ("About Poor People"), 1624
 Pres boží ("Press of God"), 1624
 Vidění a zjevení Kryštofa Kottera, souseda a jircháře sprotavského ("Seeing and Revelation of Kryštof Kotter, Neibourgh of Mine and Tanner from Sprotava"), 1625
 Překlad některých žalmů ("Translation of Some Psalms"), 1626
 Didaktika česká ("Czech Didactic"), 1628–1630
 Škola hrou (Schola Ludus, School by Play) 1630
 Labyrint světa a ráj srdce ("Labyrinth of the World and Paradise of the Heart") 1631
 Trouba milostivého léta pro národ český ("The Horn of the Year of Jubilee"), 1631–1632
 Brána jazyků otevřená (The Gate of Languages Unlocked) 1633
 Orbis Pictus, 1658

See also
 Moravian College
 Didactic method
 Great Didactic

References

Further reading
 Čapková, Dagmar. Jan Amos Komenský a jeho dílo. [John Amos Comenius and His Works.] (Prague, 1945.) .
 Keatinge, The Great Didactic of Comenius (London, 1896)
 Kučera, Karel. 2014. Jan Ámos Komenský. A man in search of peace, wisdom, and proverbs. Proceedings of the Seventh Interdisciplinary Colloquium on Proverbs, November 2013, at Tavira, Portugal, ed. by Rui J. B. Soares and Outi Lauhakangas, pp. 64–73. Tavira: Tipografia Tavirense.
 Simon Somerville Laurie, John Amos Comenius (1881; sixth edition, 1898)
 Löscher, Comenius, der Pädagoge und Bischof (Leipzig, 1889)
 Monroe, Will S. Comenius and the Beginning of Educational Reform (New York, 1900) Web access
 Müller, Ein Systematiker in der Pädagogik : eine philosophisch-historische Untersuchung : Inaugural-Dissertation zur Erlangung der Doctorwürde an der philophischen Fäcultat der Universität Jena (Dresden, Bleyl und Kaemmerer, 1887)
 Robert Hebert Quick, Essays on Educational Reformers (London, 1890)

External links

 The Correspondence of Jan Amos Comenius [Komenský] (566 letters) in EMLO
 J. A. Comenius Museum in Uherský Brod
 The National Pedagogical Museum and Library of J.A. Comenius
 Comenius Museum in Přerov
 Comenius Museum & Mausoleum, Naarden, NL
 Comenius' biography
 Comenius Foundation. US
 Article by the psychologist Jean Piaget on the importance of Comenius (PDF)
 Jan Amos Comenius Bibliography
 Didactica Magna
 Unum Necessarium: The One Thing Necessary. Translation by Vernon H. Nelson provided courtesy of Moravian Archives, Winston-Salem, NC
 Dveře gazyků otewřené. Praha: [s.n.], 1805. 280 s. – available at ULB's Digital Library
 Janua Linguarum Reserata Quinque-Linguis. Amstelodami : Apud Ludovicum & Danielem Elzevirios, 1661. 881 s.  – available at ULB's Digital Library
 Janua Linguarum reserata aurea. Pragae : Typis Archi-Episcopalibus in Collegio S. Norberti excudebat paulus Postrzibacz, Anno 1667. 506 s.  – available at ULB's Digital Library

 Orbis sensualium pictus at Internet Archive
  – translation by Charles Hoole, at Google Book Search
Orbis sensualium pictus trilinguis. Latin, German and Hungarian, 1708
 Orbis sensualium pictus trilinguis. Leutschoviae : Typis Samuelis Brewer, Anno Salutis 1685. 484 s. - available at ULB's Digital Library
 Orbis Pictus, in hungaricum et germanicum translatus. Po'sonban: Weber, 19. stor. 172 s. – available at ULB's Digital Library
 Orbis pictus von Amos Comenius. [Nürnberg]: [s.n.], 1770. 263 s. – available at ULB's Digital Library

1592 births
1670 deaths
17th-century German bishops
17th-century people from Bohemia
17th-century Bohemian writers
17th-century Dutch philosophers
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John Amos Comenius


Ronald Nelson Young (born October 19, 1940) is an American consultant, college teacher, politician, and former schoolteacher. He was a member of the Maryland State Senate from 2011 to 2023, and previously served as a mayor of Frederick, Maryland, serving from
1974 to 1990.

Background
Ronald Young was born in Frederick, Maryland and was raised in Frederick. He attended and graduated from Frederick High School. Young attended Frederick Community College and graduated with an Associate in Arts degree. He then attended the University of Maryland, College Park in College Park, Maryland and received a Bachelor of Arts degree in history and government.

Young completed his formal education by earning a Masters of Education degree in administration and supervision from Western Maryland College (later McDaniel College) in Westminster, Maryland.

Public office
Young became involved in local politics in the late 1960s, primarily in the Frederick County Young Democrats organization along with several friends, among them Galen R. Clagett. Young and Clagett both ran for the Frederick City Board of Aldermen in 1969, and Young was elected and served on the Board of Aldermen from 1970 to 1974 during mayor E. Paul Magaha's administration.

Mayor of Frederick
In 1973, Young ran for mayor of Frederick. He defeated former mayor and serving alderman Donald B. Rice in the Democratic primary, and then defeated serving alderman Glenmore Rice in the general election. Young assumed the role of mayor in 1974 at the age of 34. Young was re-elected as mayor in 1977, 1981 and 1985. In 1989, he was defeated by Paul P. Gordon in the general election in a contested election, ending sixteen years of service as Frederick's mayor.

During Young's years as mayor, he pursued various projects, including the Carroll Creek flood control project, the Market Street underground wiring project, the Weinberg Center for the Arts, Harry Grove Stadium, Clustered Spires Golf Course, and the revitalization of downtown Frederick.

Later years
Young worked in commercial real estate, as a part-time college instructor at Frederick Community College, and as a consultant in the years immediately following his defeat as mayor.

In 1991, he worked for the State of Maryland in the Maryland Department of Planning. Young later served under Governor Parris Glendening as the Deputy Secretary of the Maryland Department of Natural Resources and served as the Deputy Secretary of the Maryland Department of Planning until leaving in 2000 after a dispute with Glendening.

In 2001, Young accepted the position of town manager of Indian Head, Maryland. He  served until 2005, when he decided to make one more run for mayor of Frederick.

After his defeat for the mayoralty of Frederick City by William J. Holtzinger, Young maintained a semi-retired lifestyle. He is still involved in commercial real estate, consulting, novel-writing, and painting.

In the Senate
In 2010, Young decided to run for Maryland State Senator for District 3. He defeated Don DeArmon in the Democratic primary in September 2010, and defeated incumbent Senator Alex X. Mooney in the general election in November 2010. Young was sworn in on January 12, 2011 and appointed to the Senate's Education, Health and Environmental Affairs Committee. Senator Young also serves on the Alcoholic Beverages, Environment, and Labor, Licensing, and Regulations Subcommittees.

In the 2012 legislative session his social media bill (SB 434) provided the model language for the federal legislation on the same issue.

Senator Young has voted in favor of gay marriage, the DREAM act, congressional redistricting, prohibiting smoking in a car where children are present, and to expand gambling.

During the 2013 legislative session Young introduced a bill that asks drivers who are renewing or obtaining a driver's license if they want to opt out of the organ donor program, a change from the current system that asks drivers if they'd like to become a donor.

In 2014, Young was re-elected to the State Senate. Senator Young sits on the Education, Health, and Environmental Affairs Committee and is Chair of the Comptrollers Issues Subcommittee which deals with Alcohol, Labor, Licensing, and Regulations. He also serves on the Education Subcommittee as well as the Joint Committee on Program Open Space and Agricultural Preservation. Senator Young is a Senate Representative to the Financial Education and Capability Commission and serves on the National Conference of State Legislation's Natural Resource and Infrastructure Committee.

In 2021, Young announced that he would not seek another term on the State Senate. He endorsed his wife, Karen Lewis Young, to succeed him in representing Maryland's 3rd legislative district.

Affiliations
Young is a member of a number of organizations: 1968–Present he helped create and serves on the board of the Frederick Community Action Agency, 2006–present he is on the board of directors for Goodwill Industries, 2008–present he is on the advisory board for Maryland Shakespeare Theater, the president of East Frederick Rising from 2006-2010, and a member of the following organizations: Rotary Club of Carroll Creek, 1000 Friends of Maryland, American Planning Association, American Legion, Chesapeake Bay Foundation, Fraternal Order of Elks, Fraternal Order of Owls, National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), U.S. Tennis Association, and the Urban Land Institute. Ron Young is also the former President of Delaplaine Visual Arts Center, the Frederick Arts Council, and the Frederick Festival of the Arts. He is a former trustee for the Maryland Art Place and a former member of the Forum for Rural Maryland, Rural Legacy Board, board of directors, and the Way Station. Other organizations that he has belonged to are Urban Land Institute; American Planning Association; Elks; Fraternal Order of Owls; NAACP; and the American Legion.

References

1940 births
Living people
American consultants
Schoolteachers from Maryland
Maryland city council members
Democratic Party Maryland state senators
Mayors of Frederick, Maryland
University of Maryland, College Park alumni
Western Maryland College alumni
21st-century American politicians

Ronald N. Young


The Charminar is a monument and mosque in Hyderabad, India. The structure was built in 1591 AD. It is the most famous building of Hyderabad and also one of the most famous buildings in India. It was built by Muhammad Quli Qutb Shahi to celebrate the end of a deadly plague. The Charminar lies near the bank of the river Musi. It is close to Laad Bazaar and Makkah Masjid. Charminar is taken from two words Char and Minar which translate as Four Towers in English.

Some people say that Charminar was the first structure to be constructed in the newly built city of Hyderabad. It is said that Quli Qutab Shah prayed for the end of the plague and vowed to build a mosque if it was eradicated. Mir Momin Astarabadi, the prime minister of Qutb Shah played an important role in the design and layout of Charminar and the city of Hyderabad. The structure is of Indo-Islamic architecture with some Persian elements.

References

Hyderabad, India
Mosques in India
1591 establishments
16th-century buildings and structures

Charminar


The Mastos Painter (fl. mid-6th century BC) was a painter of ancient Greek vases. He is named for a black-figure mastos used by the art historian John Boardman to illustrate the type, which is shaped like a woman's breast (Greek mastos).

Works
The Mastos Painter belonged to the circle of the Lysippides Painter. The work for which he was named depicts Dionysus, two horse-legged satyrs or silens, and Hermes as they "gaze admiringly" at Ariadne holding the infant Oinopion, her child with Dionysus. This "gentle kind of narrative" is characteristic also of the Antimenes Painter, the mature work of the Andokides Painter, and Oltos and Epiktetos around 515 BC.

Although the painter takes his name from his exemplary mastos, he also produced work on other vase types. On a belly amphora executed around 525 BC, he depicts an ivy-bearing Dionysus bringing his mother Semele from the underworld; the god looks back at her as she climbs into a chariot drawn by the magnificent pair of horses who dominate the scene. Hermes, wearing his characteristic petasos hat, carries branches of foliage as he accompanies the horses. Three bearded horse-tailed satyrs of varying size fill out the composition. The largest leaps in amazement on the chariot-shaft, looking back at the recovered Semele; another stands shoulder-height before the horses as he plays an aulos, the double-pipe wind instrument. A third, the smallest figure in the group, stoops beneath the horses, one hand extended toward their bellies and the other grasping his phallus.  The artistry has been characterized as "gently rounded" and allusive, elastic in its articulation. The female figure has also been identified as Ariadne.

The Mastos Painter also depicts a Panathenaic victory procession on what has been identified as a genuine prize amphora. The scene depicts the winning horse in a race, mounted by the nude boy-jockey holding a pair of branches. An elaborately clothed man stands in front of the horse, patting its muzzle and holding a wreath and branches. He may represent the owner, who would have been considered the victor. The man who stands beside the horse, holding its bridle, is perhaps the trainer. A third well-clad man holding branches stands behind the horse.

The Mastos Painter has also been credited with a black-figure vase depicting the pankration.

References

Ancient Greek vase painters
Anonymous artists of antiquity
Year of birth unknown

Mastos Painter


Fort de Chartres was a French fortification first built in 1720 on the east bank of the Mississippi River in present-day Illinois. It was used as the administrative center for the province, which was part of New France. Due generally to river floods, the fort was rebuilt twice, the last time in limestone in the 1750s in the era of French colonial control over Louisiana and the Illinois Country.

The magazine (ammunition storehouse) of the fort is believed to be the oldest surviving building in Illinois. A partial reconstruction now exists of the limestone fort and the site is preserved as an Illinois state park, four miles (6 km) west of Prairie du Rocher in Randolph County, Illinois. Located on the floodplain area that became known as the American Bottom, the site is south of modern St. Louis. The forts were placed on the National Register of Historic Places and recognized as a National Historic Landmark on October 15, 1966. It was named one of the contributing properties to the French Colonial Historic District in 1974, along with other French-influenced sites such as the Creole House, the Pierre Menard House, the Kolmer Site (a former Indian village), and the site of Fort Kaskaskia.

The name of the fort honored Louis, duc de Chartres, son of the Regent of France. The state historic site today hosts several large re-enactments at the fort of colonial-era civil and military life each summer.

History

French rule

On January 1, 1718, the French government granted a trade monopoly to John Law and his Company of the West. Hoping to make a fortune mining precious metals, the company built a fort to protect its interests. The original wooden fort was built in 1718–1720 by a French contingent from New Orleans, led by Pierre Dugué de Boisbriant. When administration of the Illinois Country was moved from Quebec City to New Orleans, governance was transferred to the Company of the Indies. The fort was built to be the seat of government and to control the Indians of the region, particularly the Fox. The original fort was a palisade of logs with two bastions at opposite corners.

Within five years, flooding from the Mississippi had left the original fort in bad condition. Construction of a second fort further from the river, but still on the flood plain, began in 1725. This fort was also made of logs and had a bastion at each of the four corners.

The second wooden fort deteriorated somewhat less rapidly but by 1742 was in bad repair. In 1747 the French garrison moved to the region's primary settlement  to the south at Kaskaskia. The French debated where to rebuild the fort. When rule of the area reverted to the French crown in the 1730s, officials began to discuss construction of a stone fortress. The government in New Orleans wanted to move the garrison permanently to Kaskaskia, but the local commandant argued for a location near the original site.

The government decided to rebuild a fort in stone near the first forts rather than at Kaskaskia. Construction began in 1753 and was mostly completed in 1754. The limestone fort had walls 15-ft (3 m)-high and 3-ft (1 m)-thick, enclosing an area of 4 acres (16,000 m2). The stone for construction was quarried in bluffs about two or three miles (4 km) distant and had to be ferried across a small lake.

In August 1751 Francois Saucier was summoned from Mobile to New Orleans by Governor Vaudreuil for a special assignment. This assignment was for the construction of a new fort to accommodate the garrison of additional troops that France was sending to the colony. The new fort was to replace the old wooden Fort de Chartres and was to be constructed of stone at the settlement. The main purpose of the new fort was to impress the warring Chickasaw Tribe of the area and to check and halt the progress of the British in the area. This new assignment required Francois to immediately journey to his new post in Illinois without the benefit of first returning home to Mobile for personal necessities.

The original intention of the French Government was for Francois and his crew to build the new stone Fort de Chartres in Kaskaskia. The Governor of the territory, Vaudreuil, eventually made the decision to leave the Fort where it stood. Due to problems of flooding it was decided to move it a little over one half mile north of the old fort. Upon arriving he took on the task of surveying the terrain, its situation and advantages, in order to make recommendations on construction. Once his plans were completed he sent them as instructed to the governor in New Orleans with all specifications and estimated costs. After some time of deliberations by the French government and many delays and discussions of the cost of construction as planned by Francois, a scaled down version of the fort was finally given approval and Francois was then given permission to start its construction. During this period of waiting for approval from France, preparations were being conducted by Francois and his crew of soldiers as he had been instructed by the governor for the forts construction, including clearing the land, felling of trees for timber and other site preparations. After the many earlier delays, the budget for building the new fort was finally approved and they proceed with the construction of Fort de Chartres.

British rule
In 1763 the Treaty of Paris was signed following the Seven Years' War (French and Indian War) and the French transferred control of the Illinois Country east of the Mississippi to Great Britain. (Spain had been granted the western part of the Illinois Country—also known as Upper Louisiana—in the 1762 Treaty of Fontainebleau.) The stone fort had served as center of French administration of the region for only twenty years.

The British had difficulty getting a regiment to their newly acquired fort, but on October 10, 1765, a small detachment of the 42nd Regiment of Foot commanded by Captain Thomas Stirling took control of the fort and surrounding area. The 42nd was shortly replaced by the 34th Foot. French Canadian settlers were ordered to leave or get a special license to remain. Many Canadien settlers moved to the more congenial culture of St. Louis. The 34th Regiment of Foot renamed the installation Fort Cavendish, after its colonel. However, the post was known as Ft. Chartres from 1768 on, after the 34th were replaced by the 18th Regiment of Foot under the command of Lt. Col. Wilkins. The British abandoned the post in May 1772 when the majority of the 18th Foot was ordered back to Philadelphia. A small party under Capt Hugh Lord remained at Kaskaskia until May 1776.

Ruin
The Mississippi continued to take its toll after the fort was abandoned. In 1772 the south wall and bastion fell into the river. The remaining walls deteriorated, and visitors noted trees growing in them by the 1820s. Locals carted away stones for construction over the years. By 1900 the walls were gone. The only part of the original fort that remained was the stone masonry powder magazine.

Reconstruction

The State of Illinois acquired the ruins in 1913 as a historic site and restored the powder magazine in 1917. The powder magazine is thought to be the oldest existing building in the state of Illinois. In the 1920s the foundations of the fort's buildings and walls were exposed. In the late 1920s and through the 1930s, the US WPA rebuilt the gateway and two stone buildings.

A combination museum and office building, constructed in 1928 on the foundation of an original fort building, houses exhibits depicting French life at Fort de Chartres. The large stone "Guards House", reconstructed in 1936, contains a Catholic chapel furnished in the style of the 1750s, along with a priest's room, a gunner's room, an officer-of-the-day room, and a guard's room. Also on the grounds are an operating bake oven, a garden shed built of upright logs in French Colonial poteaux-sur-sol (French: "post on sill") construction, and a kitchen garden with raised beds of produce typical of French 18th-century Illinois.

Partial reconstruction of the fort's walls on the original foundations followed in 1989. The frames of some additional buildings were erected as a display of the post-and-beam construction techniques used for the originals. Other buildings' foundations and cellars were exposed for educational display as well.

Today the site has a museum and small gift shop. It plays host each June to a Rendezvous that is said to be one of the largest and oldest in the country, celebrating frontier French and Indian culture.

The site is protected by modern levees, but the Mississippi River is still an occasional menace. The flood of 1993 breached the levee and sent waters fifteen feet deep to lap at the top of the walls.

See also

 List of French forts in North America

References

External links

 Fort De Chartres Official Site
Biography of Francois Saucier

Chartres
French colonial settlements of Upper Louisiana
Chartes
History museums in Illinois
Military and war museums in Illinois
Museums in Randolph County, Illinois
Illinois State Historic Sites
Military facilities on the National Register of Historic Places in Illinois
National Historic Landmarks in Illinois
National Register of Historic Places in Randolph County, Illinois
Louisiana (New France)
French-American culture in Illinois
French colonial architecture
Chartres
1720 establishments in New France
Poteaux-sur-sol framing
Military installations established in 1720
1772 disestablishments in the British Empire
Military installations closed in 1772

Fort de Chartres


Lemanski Hall (born November 24, 1970) is a former American football linebacker in the National Football League (NFL) for the Houston/Tennessee Oilers, Chicago Bears, Dallas Cowboys and Minnesota Vikings. He is currently a defensive ends coach for Clemson University. Hall played college football at the University of Alabama.

Early years
Hall attended Valley High School, where he played quarterback, running back, linebacker and defensive back. He was a teammate of future NFL players John Copeland, Josh Evans and Marcus Pollard. As a senior, he rushed for 1,110 yards, 20 touchdowns and also had 20 interceptions, receiving All-State honors at the end of the year.

He accepted a football scholarship from the University of Alabama. As a freshman, he registered 16 special teams tackles. The next year, he was converted from strong safety to outside linebacker.

As a junior, he was named a starter at linebacker, making 70 tackles (led the team), 8 tackles for loss and 5 sacks, while helping the team win the 1992 National Championship team. As a senior, he collected 76 tackles. He finished his college career with 192 tackles, 18 tackles for loss and 8 sacks.

He was named to the Alabama All-Decade team for the 1990s.

Professional career

Houston Oilers
Hall was selected by the Houston Oilers in the seventh round (220th overall) of the 1994 NFL Draft. He was a core special teams player, with his only 2 starts coming in the 1997 season.

On September 1, 1998, he was traded to the Chicago Bears in exchange for a seventh round selection (#213-Mike Green).

Chicago Bears
In 1998, he was used by the Chicago Bears mainly on special teams, registering 18 special teams tackles (second on the team). He was released on September 5, 1999.

Dallas Cowboys
On October 27, 1999, he was signed as a free agent by the Dallas Cowboys. Despite not joining the team until the eighth week of the season, he finished with 14 special teams tackles (third on the team).

Minnesota Vikings
On February 23, 2000, the Minnesota Vikings signed him as a free agent. In 2001, he started 13 games at strongside linebacker, posting 62 tackles (tied for fifth on the team).

On September 1, 2002, he was waived injured after suffering a fracture of the medial orbital wall behind his right eye during training camp. He was re-signed on September 11. He passed Patrick Chukwurah on the depth chart and became a starter. He suffered a high ankle sprain in the fourth game against the Seattle Seahawks and missed 2 contests, giving Nick Rogers an opportunity to pass him on the depth chart. He wasn't re-signed after the season.

Coaching career
After his retirement, he volunteered to coach football at Centennial High School. He was an assistant and strength & conditioning coach at Christ Presbyterian Academy from 2004 to 2006. He also did an internship with the Tennessee Titans through the NFL Diversity Coaching Fellowship. In 2008, he was hired to be a linebackers coach and fitness instructor at Ensworth School.

Clemson
In 2015, Hall was hired by Clemson University to be a defensive analyst on the football staff. In 2017 he was promoted to a senior defensive analyst. In 2018, he was promoted to an on field coaching position as the defensive line coach.

References

1970 births
Living people
American football linebackers
Alabama Crimson Tide football players
Chicago Bears players
Clemson Tigers football coaches
Dallas Cowboys players
Houston Oilers players
Minnesota Vikings players
Tennessee Oilers players
High school football coaches in Tennessee
People from Valley, Alabama
Players of American football from Alabama

Lemanski Hall


Hook Norton Cutting and Banks is a  biological and geological Site of Special Scientific Interest south of Hook Norton in Oxfordshire. The site is in three areas, two of which are managed as a nature reserve called Hook Norton Cutting by Berkshire, Buckinghamshire and Oxfordshire Wildlife Trust. and are designated a Geological Conservation Review site.

Hook Norton Cutting is a nature reserve along two stretches of a disused railway line separated by a tunnel. Most of it is unimproved calcareous grassland with a rich variety of flora. The site is notable for its bee species, including one which has only been recorded at three other sites in the country, Andrena bucephala. The cutting exposes rocks dating to the Middle Jurassic, around 167 million years ago, which are the type section of the Hook Norton Member of the Chipping Norton Formation. Hook Norton Bank is a steeply sloping limestone grassland by the River Swere.

References

Berkshire, Buckinghamshire and Oxfordshire Wildlife Trust
Sites of Special Scientific Interest in Oxfordshire
Geological Conservation Review sites

Hook Norton Cutting and Banks


John Carr (born 1945 or 1946) is a former Irish trade union leader.

Early life and education
Carr was born in Downings in north-western County Donegal; his father was a fisherman and he grew up speaking Irish.  When he was twelve, Carr won a scholarship to Scoil Éanna in County Galway, an Irish-language school which specialised in preparing students for teacher training.  He then went to St Patrick's College of Education in Dublin, where he led an unofficial student social committee, organising dances and performances by bands – including Phil Lynott.  At one of these dances, he met his future wife, Joan.  He also set up a poker club with Joe O'Toole, which was still running forty years later.

Career

Teaching
On graduating as a teacher, Carr found work at Scoil Eoin Baiste in Clontarf, where he worked for 22 years.  He was the first male teacher in its infants section, and was soon promoted to become the school's principal.  During this period, he was active in the Teachers' Club in Dublin, and in the 1980s remortgaged his house to keep it running.  In his spare time, he worked as a DJ, a job the Sunday World campaigned against as inappropriate for a principal.

Union
In 1989, Carr became the full-time assistant general secretary of the Irish National Teachers' Organisation (INTO), then its general treasurer in 1997, and in 2001 its general secretary.  Under his leadership, the union successfully encouraged the formation of various structures to counter educational disadvantage, including the National Council for Special Education, the DEIS initiative, the Teaching Council and the Statutory Committee on Educational Disadvantage.

Carr stood down from his trade union post in 2010.

Recognition
Carr was named Donegal Person of the Year in 2009.

References

1940s births
Living people
Irish trade union leaders
Trade unionists from County Donegal

John Carr (Irish trade unionist)


The Hardaway Site, designated by the Smithsonian trinomial 31ST4, is an archaeological site near Badin, North Carolina.  A National Historic Landmark, this multi-layered site has seen major periods of occupation as far back as 10,000 years.  Materials from this site were and are used to assist in dating materials from other sites in the eastern United States.  The site was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1990.

Description
The Hardaway Site is located on a rocky ridge overlooking Badin Lake, occupying two knolls and the intervening saddle at the ridge's northern end.  The site is stratified into four layers of cultural material, found above an otherwise sterile layer of clay.  Each of these layers contains extensive evidence of human habitation and use, including stone-lined hearths, and large volumes of stone tool creation byproducts (debitage).  The uppermost layer of material has been disturbed by historic activities, including occupation by Native Americans in the colonial period, and plowing for agriculture.

The site was identified by an amateur archaeologist in 1937, and underwent its first professional excavation in 1948, under the auspices of the University of North Carolina (UNC), by arrangement with the landowner, a predecessor to Alcoa, the present owner of the site.  Between then and 1958 it was systematically investigated, but early work was frustrated by difficult topography and geology.  An analysis of finds published in 1964 was able to lay a groundwork of typology and chronology of features and materials that continues to be of importance to archaeologists working in the region.  By the end of 1980, more than seven metric tons of cultural material had been recovered from the site.  While the archaeologists were allowed to study the artifacts found, Alcoa retained ownership of all of the artifacts. In 2005 Alcoa donated the more than 1.3 million artifacts to UNC.

See also
List of National Historic Landmarks in North Carolina
National Register of Historic Places in Stanly County, North Carolina

References

External links
Description of some of the artifacts found at the Hardaway site
Mammoth Trumpet article about the Hardaway Site

Archaeological sites on the National Register of Historic Places in North Carolina
National Historic Landmarks in North Carolina
Geography of Stanly County, North Carolina
Alcoa
National Register of Historic Places in Stanly County, North Carolina

Hardaway Site


In additive number theory, Fermat's theorem on sums of two squares states that an odd prime p can be expressed as:

with x and y integers, if and only if

The prime numbers for which this is true are called Pythagorean primes.
For example, the primes 5, 13, 17, 29, 37 and 41 are all congruent to 1 modulo 4, and they can be expressed as sums of two squares in the following ways:

On the other hand, the primes 3, 7, 11, 19, 23 and 31 are all congruent to 3 modulo 4, and none of them can be expressed as the sum of two squares. This is the easier part of the theorem, and follows immediately from the observation that all squares are congruent to 0 or 1 modulo 4.

Since the Diophantus identity implies that the product of two integers each of which can be written as the sum of two squares is itself expressible as the sum of two squares, by applying Fermat's theorem to the prime factorization of any positive integer n, we see that if all  the prime factors of n congruent to 3 modulo 4 occur to an even exponent, then n is expressible as a sum of two squares. The converse also holds. This generalization of Fermat's theorem is known as the sum of two squares theorem.

History
Albert Girard was the first to make the observation, characterizing the positive integers (not necessarily primes) that are expressible as the sum of two squares of positive integers; this was published in 1625. The statement that every prime p of the form 4n+1 is the sum of two squares is sometimes called Girard's theorem. For his part, Fermat wrote an elaborate version of the statement (in which he also gave the number of possible expressions of the powers of p as a sum of two squares)  in a letter to Marin Mersenne dated December 25, 1640: for this reason this version of the theorem is sometimes called Fermat's Christmas theorem.

Gaussian primes
Fermat's theorem on sums of two squares is strongly related with the theory of Gaussian primes.

A Gaussian integer is a complex number  such that  and  are integers. The norm  of a Gaussian integer is an integer equal to the square of the absolute value of the Gaussian integer. The norm of a product of Gaussian integers is the product of their norms. This is the Diophantus identity, which results immediately from the similar property of the absolute value.

Gaussian integers form a principal ideal domain. This implies that Gaussian primes can be defined similarly as primes numbers, that is as those Gaussian integers that are not the product of two non-units (here the units are  and ).

The multiplicative property of the norm implies that a prime number  is either a Gaussian prime or the norm of a Gaussian prime. Fermat's theorem asserts that the first case occurs when  and that the second case occurs when  and  The last case is not considered in Fermat's statement, but is trivial, as

Related results
Above point of view on Fermat's theorem is a special case of the theory of factorization of ideals in rings of quadratic integers. In summary, if  is the ring of algebraic integers in the quadratic field, then an odd prime number , not dividing , is either a prime element in  or the ideal norm of an ideal of  which is necessarily prime. Moreover, the law of quadratic reciprocity allows distinguishing the two cases in terms of congruences. If  is a principal ideal domain, then  is an ideal norm if and only

with  and  both integers.

In a letter to Blaise Pascal dated September 25,  1654 Fermat announced the following two results that are essentially the special cases  and  If  is an odd prime, then

Fermat wrote also:
 If two primes which end in 3 or 7 and surpass by 3 a multiple of 4 are multiplied, then their product will be composed of a square and the quintuple of another square.
In other words, if  are of the form  or , then . Euler later extended this to the conjecture that

Both Fermat's assertion and Euler's conjecture were established by Joseph-Louis Lagrange. This more complicated formulation relies on the fact that  is not a principal ideal domain, unlike  and

Algorithm
There is a trivial algorithm for decomposing a prime of the form  into a sum of two squares: For all  such , test whether the square root of  is an integer. If this the case, one has got the decomposition.

However the input size of the algorithm is  the number of digits of  (up to a constant factor that depends on the numeral base). The number of needed tests is of the order of  and thus exponential in the input size. So the computational complexity of this algorithm is exponential.

An algorithm with a polynomial complexity has been described by
Stan Wagon in 1990, based on work by Serret and Hermite (1848), and Cornacchia (1908).

Description
Given an odd prime  in the form , first find  such that .
This can be done by finding a Quadratic non-residue modulo , say , and letting
.

Such an  will satisfy the condition since quadratic non-residues satisfy .

Once  is determined, one can apply the Euclidean algorithm with  and . Denote the first two remainders that are less than the square root of  as  and . Then it will be the case that .

Example
Take . A possible quadratic non-residue for 97 is 13, since . so we let .
The Euclidean algorithm applied to 97 and 22 yields:

The first two remainders smaller than the square root of 97 are 9 and 4; and indeed we have , as expected.

Proofs
Fermat usually did not write down proofs of his claims, and he did not provide a proof of this statement. The first proof was found by Euler after much effort and is based on infinite descent.  He announced it in two letters to Goldbach, on May 6, 1747 and on April 12, 1749; he published the detailed proof in two articles (between 1752 and 1755).  Lagrange gave a proof in 1775 that was based on his study of quadratic forms. This proof was simplified by Gauss in his Disquisitiones Arithmeticae (art. 182). Dedekind gave at least two proofs based on the arithmetic of the Gaussian integers. There is an elegant proof using Minkowski's theorem about convex sets. Simplifying an earlier short proof due to Heath-Brown (who was inspired by Liouville's idea), Zagier presented a non-constructive one-sentence proof in 1990.
And more recently Christopher gave a  partition-theoretic proof.

Euler's proof by infinite descent
Euler succeeded in proving Fermat's theorem on sums of two squares in 1749, when he was forty-two years old. He communicated this in a letter to Goldbach dated 12 April 1749. The proof relies on infinite descent, and is only briefly sketched in the letter. The full proof consists in five steps and is published in two papers. The first four steps are Propositions 1 to 4 of the first paper and do not correspond exactly to the four steps below. The fifth step below is from the second paper.

For the avoidance of ambiguity, zero will always be a valid possible constituent of "sums of two squares", so for example every square of an integer is trivially expressible as the sum of two squares by setting one of them to be zero.

1. The product of two numbers, each of which is a sum of two squares, is itself a sum of two squares.
This is a well-known property, based on the identity

due to Diophantus.

2. If a number which is a sum of two squares is divisible by a prime which is a sum of two squares, then the quotient is a sum of two squares.
(This is Euler's first Proposition).

Indeed, suppose for example that  is divisible by  and that this latter is a prime. Then  divides

Since  is a prime, it divides one of the two factors. Suppose that it divides . Since

(Diophantus's identity) it follows that  must divide . So the equation can be divided by the square of . Dividing the expression by  yields:

and thus expresses the quotient as a sum of two squares, as claimed.

On the other hand if  divides , a similar argument holds by using the following variant of Diophantus's identity:

3. If a number which can be written as a sum of two squares is divisible by a number which is not a sum of two squares, then the quotient has a factor which is not a sum of two squares. (This is Euler's second Proposition).
Suppose  is a number not expressible as a sum of two squares, which divides . Write the quotient, factored into its (possibly repeated) prime factors, as  so that . If all factors  can be written as sums of two squares, then we can divide  successively by , , etc., and applying step (2.) above we deduce that each successive, smaller, quotient is a sum of two squares. If we get all the way down to  then  itself would have to be equal to the sum of two squares, which is a contradiction. So at least one of the primes  is not the sum of two squares.

4. If  and  are relatively prime positive integers then every factor of  is a sum of two squares.
(This is the step that uses step (3.) to produce an 'infinite descent' and was Euler's Proposition 4. The proof sketched below also includes the proof of his Proposition 3).

Let  be relatively prime positive integers: without loss of generality  is not itself prime, otherwise there is nothing to prove. Let  therefore be a proper factor of , not necessarily prime: we wish to show that  is a sum of two squares. Again, we lose nothing by assuming  since the case  is obvious.

Let  be non-negative integers such that  are the closest multiples of  (in absolute value) to  respectively. Notice that the differences  and  are integers of absolute value strictly less than : indeed, when  is even, gcd; otherwise since gcd, we would also have gcd.

Multiplying out we obtain

uniquely defining a non-negative integer . Since  divides both ends of this equation sequence it follows that  must also be divisible by : say . Let  be the gcd of  and  which by the co-primeness of  is relatively prime to . Thus  divides , so writing ,  and , we obtain the expression  for relatively prime  and , and with , since

Now finally, the descent step: if  is not the sum of two squares, then by step (3.) there must be a factor  say of  which is not the sum of two squares. But  and so repeating these steps (initially with  in place of , and so on ad infinitum) we shall be able to find a strictly decreasing infinite sequence  of positive integers which are not themselves the sums of two squares but which divide into a sum of two relatively prime squares. Since such an infinite descent is impossible, we conclude that  must be expressible as a sum of two squares, as claimed.

5. Every prime of the form  is a sum of two squares.
(This is the main result of Euler's second paper).

If , then by Fermat's Little Theorem each of the numbers  is congruent to one modulo . The differences  are therefore all divisible by . Each of these differences can be factored as

Since  is prime, it must divide one of the two factors. If in any of the  cases it divides the first factor, then by the previous step we conclude that  is itself a sum of two squares (since  and  differ by , they are relatively prime). So it is enough to show that  cannot always divide the second factor. If it divides all  differences , then it would divide all  differences of successive terms, all  differences of the differences, and so forth. Since the th differences of the sequence  are all equal to  (Finite difference), the th differences would all be constant and equal to , which is certainly not divisible by . Therefore,  cannot divide all the second factors which proves that  is indeed the sum of two squares.

Lagrange's proof through quadratic forms
Lagrange completed a proof in 1775 based on his general theory of integral quadratic forms. The following presentation incorporates a slight simplification of his argument, due to Gauss, which appears in article 182 of the Disquisitiones Arithmeticae.

An (integral binary) quadratic form is an expression of the form  with  integers. A number  is said to be represented by the form if there exist integers  such that . Fermat's theorem on sums of two squares is then equivalent to the statement that a prime  is represented by the form  (i.e., , ) exactly when  is congruent to  modulo .

The discriminant of the quadratic form is defined to be . The discriminant of  is then equal to .

Two forms  and  are equivalent if and only if there exist substitutions with integer coefficients

with  such that, when substituted into the first form, yield the second. Equivalent forms are readily seen to have the same discriminant, and hence also the same parity for the middle coefficient , which coincides with the parity of the discriminant. Moreover, it is clear that equivalent forms will represent exactly the same integers, because these kind of substitutions can be reversed by substitutions of the same kind.

Lagrange proved that all positive definite forms of discriminant −4 are equivalent. Thus, to prove Fermat's theorem it is enough to find any positive definite form of discriminant −4 that represents . For example, one can use a form

where the first coefficient a =  was chosen so that the form represents  by setting x = 1, and y = 0, the coefficient b = 2m is an arbitrary even number (as it must be, to get an even discriminant), and finally  is chosen so that the discriminant  is equal to −4, which guarantees that the form is indeed equivalent to . Of course, the coefficient  must be an integer, so the problem is reduced to finding some integer m such that  divides : or in other words, a  'square root of -1 modulo ' .

We claim such a square root of  is given by . Firstly it follows from Euclid's Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic that . Consequently, : that is,  are their own inverses modulo  and this property is unique to them. It then follows from the validity of Euclidean division in the integers, and the fact that  is prime, that for every  the gcd of  and  may be expressed via the Euclidean algorithm yielding a unique and distinct inverse  of  modulo . In particular therefore the product of all non-zero residues modulo  is . Let : from what has just been observed, . But by definition, since each term in  may be paired with its negative in , , which since  is odd shows that , as required.

Dedekind's two proofs using Gaussian integers
Richard Dedekind gave at least two proofs of Fermat's theorem on sums of two squares, both using the arithmetical properties of the Gaussian integers, which are numbers of the form a + bi, where a and b are integers, and i is the square root of −1. One appears in section 27 of his exposition of ideals published in 1877; the second appeared in Supplement XI to Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet's Vorlesungen über Zahlentheorie, and was published in 1894.

1. First proof. If  is an odd prime number, then we have  in the Gaussian integers. Consequently, writing a Gaussian integer ω = x + iy with x,y ∈ Z and applying the Frobenius automorphism in Z[i]/(p), one finds

since the automorphism fixes the elements of Z/(p). In the current case,  for some integer n, and so in the above expression for ωp, the exponent (p-1)/2 of -1 is even. Hence the right hand side equals ω, so in this case the Frobenius endomorphism of Z[i]/(p) is the identity.

Kummer had already established that if } is the order of the Frobenius automorphism of Z[i]/(p), then the ideal  in Z[i] would be a product of 2/f distinct prime ideals. (In fact, Kummer had established a much more general result for any extension of Z obtained by adjoining a primitive m-th root of unity, where m was any positive integer; this is the case  of that result.) Therefore, the ideal (p) is the product of two different prime ideals in Z[i]. Since the Gaussian integers are a Euclidean domain for the norm function , every ideal is principal and generated by a nonzero element of the ideal of minimal norm. Since the norm is multiplicative, the norm of a generator  of one of the ideal factors of (p) must be a strict divisor of , so that we must have , which gives Fermat's theorem.

2. Second proof. This proof builds on Lagrange's result that if  is a prime number, then there must be an integer m such that  is divisible by p (we can also see this by Euler's criterion); it also uses the fact that the Gaussian integers are a unique factorization domain (because they are a Euclidean domain). Since  does not divide either of the Gaussian integers  and  (as it does not divide their imaginary parts), but it does divide their product , it follows that  cannot be a prime element in the Gaussian integers. We must therefore have a nontrivial factorization of p in the Gaussian integers, which in view of the norm can have only two factors (since the norm is multiplicative, and , there can only be up to two factors of p), so it must be of the form  for some integers  and . This immediately yields that .

Proof by Minkowski's Theorem
For  congruent to  mod  a prime,  is a quadratic residue mod  by Euler's criterion. Therefore, there exists an integer  such that  divides . Let  be the standard basis elements for the vector space  and set  and . Consider the lattice . If  then . Thus  divides  for any .

The area of the fundamental parallelogram of the lattice is . The area of the open disk, , of radius  centered around the origin is . Furthermore,  is convex and symmetrical about the origin. Therefore, by Minkowski's theorem there exists a nonzero vector  such that . Both  and  so . Hence  is the sum of the squares of the components of .

Zagier's "one-sentence proof"
Let  be prime, let  denote the natural numbers (with or without zero), and consider the finite set  of triples of numbers.
Then  has two involutions: an obvious one  whose fixed points  correspond to representations of  as a sum of two squares, and a more complicated one,

which has exactly one fixed point . This proves that the cardinality of  is odd. Hence,  has also a fixed point with respect to the obvious involution.

This proof, due to Zagier, is a simplification of an earlier proof by Heath-Brown, which in turn was inspired by a proof of Liouville. The technique of the proof is a combinatorial analogue of the topological principle that the Euler characteristics of a topological space with an involution and of its fixed-point set have the same parity and is reminiscent of the use of sign-reversing involutions in the proofs of combinatorial bijections.

This proof is equivalent to a geometric or "visual" proof using "windmill" figures, given by Alexander Spivak in 2006 and described in this MathOverflow post and this Mathologer YouTube video .

Proof with partition theory
In 2016, A. David Christopher gave a partition-theoretic proof by considering partitions of the odd prime  having exactly two sizes , each occurring exactly  times, and by showing that at least one such partition exists if  is congruent to 1 modulo 4.

See also
 Legendre's three-square theorem
 Lagrange's four-square theorem
 Landau–Ramanujan constant
 Thue's lemma
 Friedlander–Iwaniec theorem

References

*Richard Dedekind, The theory of algebraic integers.
L. E. Dickson. History of the Theory of Numbers Vol. 2. Chelsea Publishing Co., New York 1920
Harold M. Edwards, Fermat's Last Theorem. A genetic introduction to algebraic number theory. Graduate Texts in Mathematics no. 50, Springer-Verlag, NY, 1977.
C. F. Gauss, Disquisitiones Arithmeticae (English Edition). Transl. by Arthur A. Clarke. Springer-Verlag, 1986.

D. R. Heath-Brown, Fermat's two squares theorem. Invariant, 11 (1984) pp. 3–5.
John Stillwell, Introduction to Theory of Algebraic Integers by Richard Dedekind. Cambridge Mathematical Library, Cambridge University Press, 1996.
Don Zagier, A one-sentence proof that every prime p ≡ 1 mod 4 is a sum of two squares. Amer. Math. Monthly 97 (1990), no. 2, 144,

Notes

External links
Two more proofs at PlanetMath.org

Fermat's two squares theorem, D. R. Heath-Brown, 1984.
 Polster, Burkard (2019) "Fermat's Christmas theorem: Visualising the hidden circle in π/4 = 1 − 1/3 + 1/5 − 1/7 + ..." (Video). Mathologer.

Additive number theory
Squares in number theory
Theorems in number theory

Fermat's theorem on sums of two squares


Diabetes insipidus is a medical condition caused when vasopressin does not appear in a person's blood. Vasopressin is released from the brain, and travels in the blood to the kidneys. There, it pulls water out of the urine, which reduces the amount of urine stored in the bladder.

If there is no vasopressin in the blood, the kidneys leave the water in the urine, and the bladder holds more liquid. This means a person needs to urinate more often. It also causes thirst. Increased thirst and urination are symptoms of regular diabetes (diabetes mellitus). That's why diabetes insipidus shares the name "diabetes."

Related pages
 Diabetes mellitus

Endocrine diseases

Diabetes insipidus


BTS may refer to:

Arts and media
 BTS, also known as the Bangtan Boys, a South Korean boy band
 BTS, a nickname for Beyond the Supernatural, a roleplaying game
 BTS, an abbreviation for Between the Species, a philosophy journal
 BTS, an abbreviation for Beneath the Sky, an American metalcore band
 BTS, an abbreviation for Built to Spill, an American indie rock band

Organizations
 BTS Group, a global consulting firm headquartered in Stockholm, Sweden
 BTS Group Holdings, a public company in Thailand
 Baptist Theological Seminary, in Kakinada, India
 Biomedical Tissue Services, a defunct human tissue recovery firm
 Breaking the Silence (non-governmental organization), established in 2004 by veterans of the Israel Defense Forces
 British Thoracic Society, a charity for respiratory and associated disorders
 British Toxicology Society, headquartered in Staffordshire
 British Transplant Society,  a non-profit professional body related to organ transplantation in the United Kingdom
 British Tunnelling Society, a learned society of the Institution of Civil Engineers
 Broadcast Television Systems Inc., a video company
 Bureau of Transportation Statistics, part of the United States Department of Transportation

Technology
 Base transceiver station, a telecommunication base station
 Build to stock, a build-ahead production approach
 Branch Trace Store, of Intel processors

Transportation
 Bandar Tasik Selatan station, a rail interchange station in Kuala Lumpur
 BTS Skytrain, elevated rapid transit system in Bangkok
 Bratislava Airport (IATA code), Slovakia

Education
 Berlin Graduate School for Transnational Studies, a scientific cooperative project between the Free University Berlin, the Hertie School of Governance, and the Social Science Research Center Berlin
 Brevet de technicien supérieur, a technician certificate diploma in France

BTS (disambiguation)


Giorgi II Dadiani (; died 1384) was a member of the House of Dadiani and eristavi ("duke") of Odishi in western Georgia from 1345 until his death.

Giorgi II succeeded on the death of his father, Mamia I Dadiani, in 1384, as duke of Odishi, latter-day Mingrelia. He was confirmed by King George V of Georgia. Beyond Odishi proper, Giorgi held sway over Guria and Svanetia. He, further, had the rank of mandaturt-ukhutsesi ("Lord High Steward") of Georgia. Giorgi and his wife, Marikhi, are depicted in a fresco in the northern wall of the Bedia Cathedral, in his possessions in Abkhazia, which he had renovated. He also made contributions to the Monastery of the Cross in Jerusalem. Giorgi died in 1384. He is buried in his family's burial ground in the Khobi Cathedral.

Giorgi had a wife, Rusudan, and two sons, of whom Vameq I succeeded him in Odishi; the other, Kakhaber, was appanaged with Guria with the title of Gurieli.

References

14th-century people from Georgia (country)
House of Dadiani
1384 deaths

Giorgi II Dadiani


Angelica Schuyler Church was an American woman from New York. She knew Alexander Hamilton, Benjamin Franklin, the Marquis de Lafayette and Thomas Jefferson.

Early life and family

Angelica was born in 1756.  She grew up in Albany, New York.  Her parents were Philip Schuyler and Catharine Van Rensselaer Schuyler.  Philip Schuyler had fought in the French and Indian War.  He went to the New York State Assembly and Continental Congress.  During the Revolutionary War, Philip Schuyler was a Major General in the Continental Army. Her parents had fifteen children, and eight lived to be adults.  Angelica's sister Elizabeth would later marry Alexander Hamilton.  The Schuyler family had almost twenty slaves.

Historian Danielle Funiciello of the Schuyler Museum says the Schuyler daughters probably learned French, dancing, geography, history, writing, arithmetic, music, needlework, and how to run a household.  Because about half of Albany spoke Dutch as a first language, the Schuylers probably spoke Dutch.  Because Angelica could read in French, she could read philosophy.

After the war, Philip Schuyler was a senator in the New York state government and then senator for New York in the United States government.

Marriage and life in Europe

Angelica Schuyler married a British man called John Barker Church in 1777.  At the time, John Barker Church was using a false name, John Carter.  He had changed his name and left England because he owed people money from gambling.  She ran away to marry him because she thought her parents would not want them to marry.  Her parents were angry and would not speak to her for days.  Her mother's parents talked to her parents until they changed their minds.

John Barker Church made a lot of money selling supplies to the French and Continental armies during the war. He was General George Washington's Commissary General. He also made money buying land and selling it later.

In 1783, Angelica Schuyler Church, her husband, and their four children moved from the United States to France.  John Barker Church was an envoy from the United States government to the government of France.  In Paris, Angelica Schuyler Church made friends with Benjamin Franklin, the Marquis de Lafayette, the Marquis de Tallyrand and Thomas Jefferson.  She introduced Thomas Jefferson to Maria Cosway.

In 1785, the Churches moved to London, where Angelica Schuyler Church made friends with some people in the royal family.  John Barker Church became a member of Parliament.  They visited the United States twice.  They visited once in 1785.  They visited again in 1789 because Angelica Schuyler Church had been invited to George Washington's inauguration, the ceremony where he officially became the first President of the United States.

The Churches moved back to the United States in 1797.

Legacy

John Barker Church had given supplies to the Americans during the Revolutionary War.  At the time, he told them they could pay him later.  Because the American government realized they could not pay him at all, they gave him land in New York State instead.  They gave him 100,000 acres on the Genesee River.  Angelica and John's son Philip Church designed and built a town there, Angelica, New York, named after his mother.

Angelica Schuyler Church died on March 13, 1814.

In popular culture

Angelica is a character in the Broadway musical Hamilton by Lin-Manuel Miranda.  Miranda said he had to make changes so the story of the musical would make sense.  For example, in the musical, Angelica gets married after Elizabeth and Alexander Hamilton do, instead of before.

References

1756 births
1814 deaths
18th-century American people
19th-century American people
Socialites
People from Albany, New York

Angelica Schuyler Church