Witchcraft in Latin America, known in Spanish as  (pronounced ), is a complex blend of indigenous, African, and European influences. Indigenous cultures had spiritual practices centered around nature and healing, while the arrival of Africans brought syncretic religions like Santería and Candomblé. European witchcraft beliefs merged with local traditions during colonization, contributing to the region's magical tapestry. Practices vary across countries, with accusations historically intertwined with social dynamics. A male practitioner is called a , a female practitioner is a .

When Franciscan friars from New Spain arrived in the Americas in 1524, they introduced Diabolism—belief in the Christian Devil—to the Indigenous peoples of the Americas. Bartolomé de las Casas believed that human sacrifice was not diabolic, in fact far off from it, and was a natural result of religious expression. Mexican Indians gladly took in the belief of Diabolism and still managed to keep their belief in creator-destroyer deities.

Witchcraft was an important part of the social and cultural history of late-Colonial Mexico, during the Mexican Inquisition. The presence of the witch is a constant in the ethnographic history of colonial Brazil, especially during the several denunciations and confessions given to the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith of Bahia (1591–1593), Pernambuco and Paraíba (1593–1595).

Yet, as anthropologist Ruth Behar writes, witchcraft, not only in Mexico but in Latin America in general, was a "conjecture of sexuality, witchcraft, and religion, in which Spanish, indigenous, and African cultures converged." Furthermore, witchcraft in Mexico generally required an interethnic and interclass network of witches. According to anthropology professor Laura Lewis, witchcraft in colonial Mexico ultimately represented an "affirmation of hegemony" for women, Indians, and especially Indian women over their white male counterparts as a result of the casta system.

Concept
Across the Afro-Latin diaspora, many forms of spiritual practices have emerged: Haitian Vodou, Cuban Santería, and Brazilian Candomblé and Umbanda. What sets the witches of Latin America apart from their European counterparts is the blend of religiosity and spirituality. The witches in Latin America's 'magic' are rooted in African magic, European spiritualism, and Indigenous practices, making them practice an integrated version of spirituality. .

Isabelo Zenón Cruz made the assessment that Puerto Rican vernacular religions (and really any Afro-Latino religions) have been only studied by folklorists but not comparative religionists due to "classist and racist assumptions".

Unlike many other Caribbean religions that derive from Africa, Brujería is not based on stable community, hierarchy, or membership. Instead, practices are more dependent on the ritual preferences of the actual participants. Because of the spontaneity of the spirits, it is impossible for institutionalized doctrines of worships to be enforced on followers and practicers of Brujería.

Within sacred altars of brujos, lessons of practitioners, and brujería rituals lie ties to African ideologies, Catholicism, and Spiritism; explaining the erasure of hierarchical order.

Before Spiritism was developed, Taíno Indians and enslaved African people in Latin America developed the convictions that there exist spirits and those spirits can be communicated with. This becomes mixed with the convictions of spiritual worship introduced by Catholic missionaries. Early leaders of Spiritism found interest in Brujería amongst liberal, emancipation minded groups in the late nineteenth century; begging the interest for further research of the correlation between politics and Brujería.

Origins
In Latin America, in the 1500s, when the archbishop of Santo Domingo and fifth bishop of Puerto Rico, Nicolás Ramos, recorded his recollections of 'black brujos [male and female] who engaged with the devil in the shape of a goat and, every night in front of this goat, cursed God, Santa María, and the sacraments of the Holy Church.'' Ramos wrote, ''[A]sserting that they did not have nor believe in a god other than that devil...they performed these rituals in some fields [apparently they were in a trance] ,...not in dreams since there were some people who saw them.'' These people, Ramos continues, ''tried to make them [the sorcerers] refrain from their doings through chanting and holy gifts [ dádivas ], and with all this [information they] came to me.'" This perpetual demonization of elements of African worship set up the forefront to the centuries of demonization of Brujería practices.

From the sixteenth to the subsequent eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, slaves were shipped from Africa to Puerto Rico and Hispaniola and were forced to convert to Christianity by the imposing church and the overseeing hacendados—land owners. Branded slaves were baptized to be fully recognized as the property of hacendados.

In the late 1800s to early 1900s during the early days of American occupation within Cuba, there were established attacks to undermine the legitimacy of several Afro-Cuban institutions and organizations— including Brujería.

With the growth of a single Cuban identity came a greater appreciation for conformity and deviation from "creolised manifestations". However, the declination of faith-based practices in Cuba due to the rise in Marxism from 1959 to the 1990s lead to practitioners of Afro-Cuban religions to have to find innovative ways to survive Castro's political informants that particularly called for the suppression of witchcraft and Brujería.

The introduction of Spiritism in the twentieth century attracted more participants of all racial backgrounds. It also added new foundations of practice and ritualistic objects such as: santiguos (healing blessings), 19 despojos (spiritual cleansings), prayers, and spells; and an array of indigenous, medieval Catholic, and African offerings.

Brujería
Brujería is a syncretic Latin American tradition that combines Indigenous religious and magical practices from Aruba, Bonaire, and Curaçao in the Dutch Caribbean, Catholicism, and European witchcraft. The tradition and terminology is considered to encompass both helpful and harmful practices. Healers may be further distinguished by the terms  or , a man or woman who performs  ("little works") and  ("large treatments") to promote or restore health, bring fortune or misfortune, deal with unrequited love, and more serious concerns. Sorcery usually involves reference to an entity referred to as the  or .

Modernization
The brujas inherited traits from Catholicism, and yet the Catholic Church had deemed them as evil and demonized them. In some places, their demonization has come to an end on this scale, and they are left as they are, but in others, brujas are forced to not practice their form of magic. That being said, with the increasing rate of persecution amongst practitioners since the colonization of the Afro-Latino Caribbean, Brujería has been forced into modernization to combat erasure.

As separatist ideals begin to gain more momentum, particularly in Puerto Rico, there becomes more clings to cultural nationalism— including clings to aspects of Afro-Boricua and Taíno folklore. Previously (1950s–1960s), journalists in the island denounced Brujería as a way to help "educate the masses". However, the shift in cultural nationalism from the 1980s onwards now leads to media outlets uncovering "hidden traditions" of the "endangered Puerto Rican Hispanic, Taíno, and African traditions"

Romberg argues the practice of modern-day Brujería as "the vernacular co-optation of discourses of interest and passions, of consumerism and spirituality, commodity fetishism and morality, and welfare capitalism and magic". And also reveals that despite misconceptions, Brujería builds to social order through both "holistic or individualized types of intervention"  and endorsement of positive "mainstream social values".

Practice
Brujería does not participate in community, hierarchical, or initiation-based practice or membership. Rituals are interdependent on the procedures, practices, and attitudes passed down by its participants and heavily depend on forces of nature and the spontaneity of the spirits. Following specific guidelines and doctrines in Brujería is possible.

However, some commonalities include basic ritual gestures, communication during divination, possession, and specific components of altars. These similarities are often referred to as "a kind of spiritual lingua franca" which explains the ubiquity of the practice cross the Afro-Latino and Non-Afro-Latino diaspora.

In practice, brujos stress to not believe in the ritualistic objects or hold too much pertinence in the material representations of the spiritual entities, but rather focus on the messages and "powers of the entities that inhabit these icons" that are also used to summon ancient demons.

Power is sensed and manifested when the voices of Spiritist entities, Santería orishas, and the recently deceased are brought on by "Brujería rituals, divination, trance and the making of magic works". The spirits' abstract means of revelation include through emotions, through senses, and through healings as a means to transform the "emotional, proprioceptive and (to some extent) physiological states of participants".

Whereas a lot of focus within the practice of Brujería is on the technological systems, Brujería focuses mostly on interpersonal client-patient power that "emerges during healing, divination and magic rituals challenges the assumed precondition"; specifically in regards to health, labor, family relations, and even career management.

Brujos and practitioners of Brujería never question the spirits. The performative methods of surrender training is the only lesson brujos aim to teach. The expectation is to have faith in the spirits and the spirits will theatrically reveal what is meant to be shown.

See also

 Catalan mythology about witches

 Guayama – Puerto Rican "City of Witches"

References

Further reading

Latin American culture

Witchcraft in Latin America


John Skelton, also known as John Shelton (c. 1463 – 21 June 1529), possibly born in Diss, Norfolk, was an English poet and tutor to King Henry VIII of England. Skelton died in Westminster and was buried in St. Margaret's Church, although no trace of the tomb remains.

Education
Skelton is said to have been educated at Oxford, though it is documented that he studied at Cambridge. He could be the "one Scheklton" mentioned by William Cole as taking his M.A. degree at Cambridge in 1484, but this is unconfirmed. In 1490, William Caxton, in the preface to The Boke of Eneydos compyled by Vyrgyle, refers to him as though Skelton already had a scholarly reputation when the book was published. "But I pray mayster John Skelton," he says, "late created poete laureate in the unyversite of Oxenforde, to oversee and correct this sayd booke ... for him I know for suffycyent to expowne and englysshe every dyffyculte that is therin. For he hath late translated the epystlys of Tulle, and the boke of dyodorus siculus, and diverse other works... in polysshed and ornate termes craftely... suppose he hath drunken of Elycons well."

The laureateship referred to was a degree in rhetoric. As well as Oxford, in 1493 Skelton received the same honour at Cambridge, and also at Leuven. He found a patron in the pious and learned Countess of Richmond, Henry VII's mother, for whom he wrote Of Mannes Lyfe the Peregrynacioun, a lost translation of Guillaume de Diguileville's "Pèlerinage de la vie humaine." An elegy "Of the death of the noble prince Kynge Edwarde the forth," included in some of the editions of the Mirror for Magistrates, and another (1489) on the death of Henry Percy, fourth earl of Northumberland, are among his earliest poems.

Poet laureate
In the last decade of the 15th century he was appointed tutor to Prince Henry (afterwards King Henry VIII of England). He wrote for his pupil a lost Speculum principis, and Erasmus, in 1500, dedicated an ode to the prince speaking of Skelton as "unum Britannicarum literarum lumen ac decus."  This Latin phrase roughly translates as "the one light and glory of British letters."  In 1498 he was successively ordained sub-deacon, deacon and priest. He seems to have been imprisoned in 1502, but no reason is known for his disgrace. Two years later he retired from regular court attendance to become rector of Diss, a benefice he retained nominally until his death.

Skelton frequently signed himself "regius orator" and poet-laureate, but there is no record of any emoluments paid in connection with these dignities, although the Abbé du Resnel, author of "Recherches sur les poètes couronnez," asserts that he had seen a patent (1513–1514) in which Skelton was appointed poet-laureate to Henry VIII. As rector of Diss he caused great scandal among his parishioners, who thought him, says Anthony Wood, more fit for the stage than the pew or the pulpit. He was secretly married to a woman who lived in his house, and earned the hatred of the Dominican friars by his fierce satire. He consequently came under the formal censure of Richard Nix, the bishop of the diocese, and appears to have been temporarily suspended. After his death a collection of farcical tales, no doubt chiefly, if not entirely, apocryphal, gathered round his name—The Merie Tales of Skelton.

During the rest of the century he figured in the popular imagination as an incorrigible practical joker. His sarcastic wit made him enemies, among them: Sir Christopher Garnesche or Garneys, Alexander Barclay, William Lilly and the French scholar, Robert Gaguin (c. 1425–1502). With Garneys he engaged in a regular "flyting," undertaken, he says,  at the king's command, but Skelton's four poems read as if the abuse in them were dictated by genuine anger. Earlier in his career he found a friend and patron in Cardinal Wolsey, and the dedication to the cardinal of his Replycacion is couched in the most flattering terms. But in 1522, when Wolsey in his capacity of Papal legate dissolved convocation at St Paul's, Skelton put in circulation the couplet:
Gentle Paul, laie doune thy sweard
For Peter of Westminster hath shaven thy beard.
In Colyn Cloute he incidentally attacked Wolsey in a general satire on the clergy. Speke, Parrot and Why Come Ye nat to Courte? are direct and fierce invectives against the cardinal. To avoid another arrest Skelton took sanctuary in Westminster Abbey. He was kindly received by the abbot, John Islip, who continued to protect him until his death. According to his biographer, Edward Braynewood, Skelton was buried before the high altar of Saint Margaret's Church with this inscription on alabaster: Joannes Skeltonus vates pierius hic situs est (Here lies John Skelton, Pierian bard).

His works
In his Garlande of Laurell Skelton gives a long list of his works, only a few of which are extant. The garland in question was worked for him in silks, gold and pearls by the ladies of the Countess of Surrey at Sheriff Hutton Castle, where he was the guest of the duke of Norfolk. The composition includes complimentary verses to the various ladies, and a good deal of information about himself. But it is as a satirist that Skelton merits attention. The Bowge of Court is directed against the vices and dangers of court life. He had already in his Boke of the Thre Foles drawn on Alexander Barclay's version of the Narrenschijf of Sebastian Brant, and this more elaborate, imaginative poem belongs to the same class.

Skelton, falling into a dream at Harwich, sees a stately ship in the harbour called the Bowge of Court, the owner of which is the "Dame Saunce Pere." Her merchandise is Favour; the helmsman Fortune; and the poet, who figures as Drede (modesty), finds on board F'avell (the flatterer), Suspect, Harvy Hafter (the clever thief), Dysdayne, Ryotte, Dyssymuler and Subtylte. These figures explain themselves in turn, until at last Drede, who finds they are secretly his enemies, is about to save his life by jumping overboard, when he wakes with a start. Both poems are written in the seven-lined Rhyme Royal, a Continental verse-form first used in English by Chaucer, but it is in an irregular metre of his own—known as "Skeltonics" —that his most characteristic work was accomplished.

The Boke of Phyllyp Sparowe, the lament of Jane Scroop, a schoolgirl in the Benedictine convent of Carrow near Norwich, for her dead bird, was no doubt inspired by Catullus. It is a poem of some 1,400 lines and takes many liberties with the formularies of the church. The digressions are considerable. It depicts Jane as having a wide reading in the romances of Charlemagne, of the Round Table, The Four Sons of Aymon and the "Trojan cycle." Skelton finds space to give an opinion of Geoffrey Chaucer, John Gower and John Lydgate. Whether we can equate this opinion, voiced by the character of Jane, with Skelton's own is contentious. It would appear that he seems to have realised Chaucer's value as a master of the English language. Gower's matter was, Jane tells us, "worth gold," but his English she regards as antiquated. The verse in which the poem is written, called from its inventor "Skeltonical," is here turned entirely to whimsical use. The lines are usually six-syllabled but vary in length, and rhyme in groups of two, three, four and even more. It is not far removed from the old alliterative English verse, and well fitted to be chanted by the minstrels who had sung the old ballads. For its comic admixture of Latin Skelton had abundant example in French and Low Latin macaronic verse. He makes frequent use of Latin and French words to carry out his exacting system of frequently recurring rhymes. This breathless, voluble measure was in Skelton's energetic hands an admirable vehicle for invective, but it easily degenerated into doggerel.

By the end of the 16th century he was a "rude rayling rimer" (Puttenham, Arte of English Poesie), and at the hands of Pope and Warton he fared even worse. His own criticism is a just one:
For though my ryme be ragged,
Tattered and jagged,
Rudely rayne beaten,
Rusty and moughte eaten,
It hath in it some pyth.
Colyn Cloute represents the average country man who gives his opinions on the state of the church. It is an indictment of the sins of the clergy before the Reformation. He exposes their greed and ignorance, the ostentation of the bishops and the common practice of simony, taking care to explain the accusations do not include all and that he writes in defence of the church. He repeatedly, indirectly hits at Wolsey in this satire. Speke, Parrot has only been preserved in a fragmentary form, and is very obscure. It was apparently composed at different times, but in the latter part of the composition he openly attacks Wolsey. In Why Come Ye nat to Courte? there is no attempt at disguise. The wonder is not that Skelton had to seek sanctuary, but that he had any opportunity of doing so. He rails at Wolsey's ostentation, at his almost royal authority, his overbearing manner to suitors high and low, and taunts him with his mean extraction. This scathing invective was not allowed to be printed in the cardinal's lifetime, but no doubt widely circulated in manuscript and by repetition. The charge of coarseness regularly brought against Skelton is based chiefly on The Tunnynge of Elynoare Rummynge, a realistic description in the same metre of the drunken women who gathered at a well-known ale-house kept by Elynour Rummynge at Leatherhead, not far from the royal palace of Nonsuch.

"Skelton Laureate against the Scottes" is a fierce song of triumph celebrating the victory of Flodden. "Jemmy is ded And closed in led, That was theyr owne Kynge," says the poem; but there was an earlier version written before the news of James IV's death had reached London. This, the earliest singly printed ballad in the language, was entitled A Ballade of the Scottysshe Kynge, and was rescued in 1878 from the wooden covers of a copy of Huon de Bordeaux. "Howe the douty Duke of Albany, lyke a cowarde knight" deals with the Campaign of 1523, and contains a panegyric of Henry VIII. To this is attached an envoi to Wolsey, but it surely was misplaced, for both satires on the cardinal are of earlier date.

Skelton also wrote three plays, only one of which survives. Magnificence is one of the best examples of the morality play. It deals with the same topic as his satires - the evils of ambition. The play's moral, namely "how suddenly worldly wealth doth decay," was a favourite with him. Thomas Warton in his History of English Poetry described another piece titled Nigramansir, printed by Wynkyn de Worde in 1504. It deals with simony and the love of money in the church; but no copy is known to exist, and suspicion has been cast on Warton's statement.

Illustration of Skelton's hold on public imagination is supplied from the stage. A play (1600) called Scogan and Shelton, by Richard Hathwaye and William Rankins, is mentioned by Henslowe. In Anthony Munday's Downfall of Robert, Earl of Huntingdon, Skelton acts the part of Friar Tuck, and Ben Jonson in his masque, The Fortunate Isles, introduced Skogan and Skelton in like habits as they lived.

Very few of Skelton productions are dated; their titles are here necessarily abbreviated. De Worde printed the Bowge of Court twice. Divers Batettys and dyties salacious devysed by Master Shelton Laureat, and Shelton Laureate agaynste a comely Coystroune have no date or printer's name, but are evidently from the press of Richard Pynson, who also printed Replycacion against certain yang scalers, dedicated to Wolsey. The Garlande or Chapelet of Laurell was printed by Richard Faukes (1523); Magnificence, A goodly interlude, probably by John Rastell about 1533, reprinted (1821) for the Roxburghe Club. Hereafter foloweth the Boke of Phyllyp Sparowe was printed by Richard Kele (1550?), Robert Toy, Antony Kitson (1560?), Abraham Veale (1570?), John Walley, John Wyght (1560?). Hereafter foloweth certaine bokes compyled by mayster Shelton ... including "Speke, Parrot", "Ware the Hawke", "Elynoure Rumpiynge and others", was printed by Richard Lant (1550?), John King and Thomas March (1565?), and by John Day (1560). Hereafter foloweth a title boke called Colyn Cloute and Hereafter ... Why Come Ye nat to Courte? were printed by Richard Kele (1550?) and in numerous subsequent editions. Pithy, plesaunt and profitable workes of maister Shelton, Poete Laureate. Nowe collected and newly published was printed in 1568, and reprinted in 1736. A scarce reprint of Filnour Rummin by Samuel Rand appeared in 1624.

Five of Skelton's "Tudor Portraits", including The Tunnying of Elynour Rummyng were set to music by Ralph Vaughan Williams in or around 1935.  Although he changed the text to suit his music, the sentiments are well expressed. The four others are "My pretty Bess", "Epitaph of John Jayberd of Diss", "Jane Scroop (her lament for Philip Sparrow)", and "Jolly Rutterkin." The music is rarely performed, although it is considered funny, and captures the coarseness of Skelton in an inspired way.

See The Poetical Works of John Shelton; with Notes and some account of the author and his writings, by the Rev. Alexander Dyce (2 vols., 1843). A selection of his works was edited by WH Williams (London, 1902). See also Zur Charakteristik John Skeltons by Dr Arthur Koelbing (Stuttgart, 1904); F Brie, "Skelton Studien" in Englische Studien, vol. 38 (Heilbronn, 1877, etc.); A Rey, Skelton's Satirical Poems... (Berne, 1899); A Thummel, Studien über John Skelton (Leipzig-Reudnitz, 1905); G Saintsbury, Hist. of Eng. Prosody (vol. i, 1906); and A Kolbing in the Cambridge History of English Literature (vol. iii, 1909).

Family
John Skelton's lineage is difficult to prove. Some scholars have thought he may have been related to Sir John Shelton and his children, who also came from Norfolk. Sir John's daughter, Mary Shelton, was a mistress of Henry VIII's during the reign of her cousin, Anne Boleyn. Mary Shelton was the main editor and contributor to the Devonshire MS, a collection of poems written by various members of the court.

It is said that several of Skelton's works were inspired by women who were to become mothers to two of Henry VIII's six wives. Elizabeth Boleyn (Howard), Countess of Wiltshire and Ormonde, was said to be so beautiful that Skelton compared her to Cressida. This comparison may have been a double entendre, because Cressida, as depicted by Chaucer in his work Troilus and Criseyde, was notable as a symbol of female inconstancy. A popular but unverifiable legend suggests several poems were inspired by Margery Wentworth; she is noted as one of the women portrayed in Skelton's Garland of Laurel. She also is reported as having an eponymous poem written in her honour by Skelton. Elizabeth was the mother of Anne Boleyn, Henry's second wife; Margery was the mother of his third, Jane Seymour.

See also

 Grammarians' War

Notes

References

"John Skelton". Poetry Foundation. Retrieved 2017-01-26.

Kinsman, Robert S. (1963). "The Voices of Dissonance: Pattern in Skelton's "Colyn Cloute"". The Huntington Library Quarterly. XXVI, Number 4
Lindvall, Terry (2015). God Mocks: A History of Religious Satire from the Hebrew Prophets to Stephen Colbert. NYU Press. pp. 69–71.
Norton, Elizabeth (2009). Jane Seymour: Henry VIII's True Love. Amberley Publishing Limited. pp. 9–10.  – via Books.google.com.
Skelton, John (1992). Brownlow, F.W., ed. The Book of the Laurel. University of Delaware Press. pp. 32–33.  – via Books.google.com
Skelton, John. Dyce, Alexander, ed. The Poetical Works of John Skelton: With Notes, and Some Account of the Author and His Writings. London: T. Rodd, 1843. 2 vols.
Sobecki, Sebastian; Scattergood, John, eds. (2018). A Critical Companion to John Skelton. D.S. Brewer
Walker, Greg (2002). John Skelton and the Politics of the 1520s. Cambridge University Press.  – via Books.google.com
Ward, A.W.; Waller, A.R., eds. (1907–21). "Phyllyp Sparowe" The Cambridge History of English and American Literature. Volume III. Renascence and Reformation. – via Bartleby.com
Weir, Alison (2011). Mary Boleyn: Mistress of Kings. Random House Publishing Group

External links

 The Skelton Project

 The Poems of John Skelton Complete works in modern spelling with notes, for online reading and multiple download formats at Ex-classics.
 Skelton's Grave
 Ware the Hawk
 Philip Sparrow
 John Skelton's "Speke Parott" video

Alumni of the University of Cambridge
British Poets Laureate
1460s births
1529 deaths
People from Diss, Norfolk
15th-century English poets
16th-century English poets
English male poets
Poet priests

John Skelton (poet)


Gillian Sewell (born November 1, 1972, in Belfast, Northern Ireland) is a former Irish Canadian field hockey player who earned 36 international caps for the Canada during her career.

On national level Sewell, a resident of Hamilton, Ontario, has participated in the CIAU Championships for four years and has led her team to three OWIAA Championships. She has been a CIAU and conference all star from 1991 to 1994 and 1996.

The Belfast-born Sewell claimed all-star honours in Indoor Hockey as well for both Ontario and Canada. She captained the 1993 Canadian Junior World Cup Team.

International Senior Tournaments
 1995 – Pan American Games, Mar del Plata, Argentina (3rd)
 1995 – Olympic Qualifier, Cape Town, South Africa (7th)
 1997 – World Cup Qualifier, Harare, Zimbabwe (11th)

External links
 Profile on Field Hockey Canada

1972 births
Living people
Canadian female field hockey players
Sportspeople from Hamilton, Ontario
Canadian people of Northern Ireland descent
Northern Ireland emigrants to Canada
Sportspeople from Belfast
Female field hockey players from Northern Ireland
Irish female field hockey players
British female field hockey players
Pan American Games medalists in field hockey
Pan American Games bronze medalists for Canada
Field hockey players at the 1995 Pan American Games
Medalists at the 1995 Pan American Games

Gillian Sewell


Claes Gustaf Borgström (21 July 1944 – 15 May 2020) was a Swedish lawyer and politician. He served as Equality Ombudsman (JämO) from 2000 until 2007. A member of the Social Democratic Party prior to 2013, he joined the Left Party in that year.

Education
Borgström earned a law degree (juris kandidat) from Stockholm University in 1974.

Career
After earning his law degree, Borgström began working as a lawyer, taking several high-profile criminal cases. Between 2000 and 2007, Borgström served the Swedish government as Equality Ombudsman (JämO). Borgström expressed his dislike of this job to his client Sture Bergwall. He described the job as boring, and he would not stay for the full tenancy.

After the defeat of the Social Democrats in the 2006 election, Borgström resigned to start a law firm together with former Social Democratic Minister of Justice Thomas Bodström. Borgström himself had plans of becoming the Minister of Justice if the Social Democrats had won the election in 2010, according to his client Sture Bergwall. According to Bergwall, Borgström was quoted as saying of Bodström: "I have no high thoughts of Thomas Bodström. It is actually unimaginable how the current Minister of Justice was chosen for his post. He is a shallow person."

From 2008, Borgström was the Swedish Social Democratic Party's spokesperson on questions regarding gender equality.

In a 2004 interview, Borgström stated that men carry a collective responsibility for violence against women, but emphasized the difference between collective responsibility and collective guilt. In this context, he voiced certain support for Gudrun Schyman's proposal of a "male tax" in order to pay for the costs of violence against women and other issues regarding gender equality. He attracted attention in March 2006, when he demanded that Sweden boycott the 2006 FIFA World Cup in Germany "in protest against the increase in the trafficking of women that the event is expected to result in".

In 2010, Borgström successfully appealed the decision to close the sexual assault case against WikiLeaks founder Julian Assange, and became the legal representative of the two Swedish women against whom the Swedish police have accused Assange of sexual misconduct. However, it seems the relationship soured, and he was replaced with Elisabeth Massi Fritz.

In 2013, citing his dissatisfaction with what he referred to as the right-leaning changes in the Social Democratic Party, Borgström left the Social Democrats and joined Left Party.

Personal life
Borgström was born in Stockholm. His father was Gustaf Borgström, CEO of Sveriges Köpmannaförbund ("Swedish Merchants' Association") from 1942 until 1957. Borgström is also the brother of journalists Annette Kullenberg and Kerstin Vinterhed. He married his former colleague Märit Borgström (née Röger) in Mallorca in 2007. He had three children from an earlier marriage.

Borgström died in Stockholm on 15 May 2020, after developing COVID-19 during the COVID-19 pandemic in Sweden aged 75.

References

External links

  Borgström accused of making inappropriately demeaning public statements about Julian Assange. Accessed 19 August 2012.

1944 births
2020 deaths
Politicians from Stockholm
20th-century Swedish lawyers
Stockholm University alumni
Ombudsmen in Sweden
Swedish Social Democratic Party politicians
Deaths from the COVID-19 pandemic in Sweden

Claes Borgström


Sir John Donald Brown Junor (15 January 1919 – 3 May 1997) was a Scottish journalist and editor-in-chief of the Sunday Express between 1954 and 1986, having previously worked as a columnist there. He then moved in 1989 to The Mail on Sunday, where he remained until his death.

Noted for his deliberately provocative views, Junor was described by the Conservative MP Julian Critchley as "possibly the best-known Scotsman in England" during the 1980s and as "an ill-natured populist with a taste for common-or-garden abuse."

Early life

Born in Glasgow into a "Scottish Presbyterian, respectable working class" family, Junor was raised in what he later described as "a red-stone tenement in Shannon Street in Maryhill... [in] a two roomed-flat without indoor sanitation." He attended North Kelvinside Secondary School (later merged into Cleveden Secondary School) before proceeding to study English Literature at Glasgow University. As a student he was "violently anti-Fascist, anti-Franco, above all anti-Hitler", and in 1938 he became president of the university's Liberal Club. Shortly before graduation, Junor was recruited by the Liberal Party activist Lady Glen-Coats to accompany her on a fact-finding tour of the Third Reich; they reportedly only managed to escape Germany days before the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939.

During the war Junor had a commission in the Fleet Air Arm, where he edited a station magazine which so impressed the Admiralty that he was invited to become the assistant editor of a new magazine intended for the entire branch of the service. After the original choice for editor, A. P. Herbert, declined to take up the role, Junor was appointed in his place and named the magazine Flight Deck. Following demobilisation, he worked for a time in The Sydney Sun's London office before joining the Daily Express in 1947 as a reporter on a salary of 18 guineas a week.

Politics
Ambitious for a parliamentary seat, in the 1945 General Election Junor contested Kincardine and Western Aberdeenshire in the Liberal interest, losing to the Conservative candidate by only 642 votes. He then unsuccessfully fought Edinburgh East at a by-election in 1947, and finally was beaten once more at Dundee West in 1951. From that point on he moved away from the Liberals (breaking with the party completely over the Suez crisis) and into the orbit of reactionary, traditional Toryism. He was a vigorous supporter of Margaret Thatcher during her time as Prime Minister, and was knighted on her recommendation in 1980.

Journalism
His Sunday Express column (which he continued to write in his years as editor-in-chief) was noted for recurrent catchphrases, two of them being "pass the sick-bag, Alice" and "I don't know, but I think we should be told". Junor frequently mentioned the small town of Auchtermuchty in Fife.

Junor could be brutally forthright in his column. In 1984 he wrote: "[W]ith compatriots like these [the IRA Brighton bombers] wouldn't you rather admit to being a pig than be Irish?" Following complaints that the comment was racist, Junor was censured by the Press Council in May 1985.

He was often lampooned in Private Eye, which nicknamed him 'Sir Jonah Junor' and described the Daily Express building on Fleet Street as 'the Black Lubyanka'.

Contempt of Parliament
On 24 January 1957, Junor was called to the Bar of the House of Commons to be reprimanded for contempt of Parliament – the last non-politician to be so called. The matter concerned an article about petrol allocation that appeared in the Sunday Express on 16 December 1956. Junor apologised:

Personal life
Junor married Pamela Welsh in 1942, and had two children. The journalist Penny Junor is his daughter, and the journalist Sam Leith his grandson. He was a lifelong supporter of Partick Thistle.

Works
The Best of JJ (1981)
Listening for a Midnight Tram: Memoirs (1990)

References
Penny Junor (2002): Home Truths: Life Around My Father,
Graham Lord (2012): Lord's Ladies and Gentlemen: 100 Legends of the 20th Century

Notes

1919 births
1997 deaths
Journalists from Glasgow
Alumni of the University of Glasgow
Daily Mail journalists
Scottish columnists
Scottish newspaper editors
20th-century Scottish autobiographers
Scottish knights
Artists' Rifles soldiers
Scottish Liberal Party parliamentary candidates
Fleet Air Arm personnel of World War II

John Junor


Dietrich Schwanitz (April 23, 1940 – December 17, 2004) was a German writer and literary scholar. He became known to larger audiences after publishing the bestselling campus novel Der Campus in 1995.

Life

Schwanitz's parents were teaching and living in the northern Ruhr area. In the late phase of World War II his mother send him with help of the Red Cross to Switzerland to escape the bombing raids in war torn Germany. In Switzerland Schwanitz stayed for six years with Mennonite mountain farmers rather isolated from society and without attending a school. He returned to his parents in 1950 and school director who took a liking in him (seeing him as a modern "Kaspar Hauser") got him accepted directly into a gymnasium (highschool) and helped him to catch up with the curriculum. Schwanitz graduated ultimately as best of his class and went on to pursue English studies, history and philosophy at universities in Münster, London, Philadelphia and Freiburg. In 1971 he received his PhD from the Albert Ludwig University in Freiburg for thesis on George Bernard Shaw. In 1978 he became a tenured professor for English studies at the University of Hamburg where he stayed until his early retirement in 1997 due to health issues.

After his retirement Schwanitz moved to Southern Germany. He continued to write and in 2001 he purchased  the Salmen in Hartheim am Rhein, a restaurant with a theater stage. Schwanitz planned to turn it into a cultural center and had its theater room painted with Shakespearean motives. He was found dead in the Salmen in late December 2004. The police investigation concluded that there was no indication of a crime or suicide and that he had died of hypothermia. Originally it was reported that Schwanitz was suffering from Parkinson's disease but after his death it became known that in fact he had suffered from Huntington's disease instead. He was married, and the couple had one son and one daughter.

Work

Schwanitz main academic work during his tenure at the University of Hamburg was applying system theory to literary theory and he published two books on that subject. First his main work Systemtheorie und Literatur. Ein neues Paradigma ("System Theory and Literature. A New Paradigm", 1990) which was later followed by Shakespeare und die Liebe. Ein Beispiel für die Applikation der Systemtheorie auf die Literatur. ("Shakespeare and Love. An Example for the Application of System Theory to Literature", 1996). He also published an introduction into English studies and a cultural history of the English speaking world.

Schwanitz was popular with students as a teacher, in 1980 he had founded the University Players an English theater group that still existed long after he had left the university. The group garnered attraction in 1988 when it performed the play "MacBarsch" alluding to Uwe Barschel the leading figure in Waterkantgate, one West Germany's biggest political scandals.

In 1995 Schwanitz published Der Campus, which is a campus novel, a genre that didn't really exist in German at the time. It quickly became a bestseller in German speaking countries and was adapted into a movie of the same name in 1998.

Books
 Georg Bernard Shaw – künstlerische Konstruktion und unordentliche Welt. Dissertation, Frankfurt am Main 1971, .
 Systemtheorie und Literatur. Ein neues Paradigma. Westdt. Verl., Opladen 1990, .
 Literaturwissenschaft für Anglisten: Das studienbegleitende Handbuch. Hueber, Ismaning 1993, .
 Englische Kulturgeschichte. Von 1500 bis 1914. Eichborn, Frankfurt am Main 1996, .
 Shakespeare und die Liebe. Ein Beispiel für die Applikation der Systemtheorie auf die Literatur. Fernuniversität, Hagen 1996.
 Eine andere Welt. Kindheitserlebnisse bei den Schweizer Täufern. In: Gudrun Schäfer (Hrsg.): Die Speisung der Hunderttausend. Die Hilfe der Mennoniten nach dem Zweiten Weltkrieg. Petra Knecht Verlag, Landau 1997, , S. 29–36.
 Das Shylock-Syndrom oder die Dramaturgie der Barbarei. Eichborn, Frankfurt am Main 1997, .
 Der Campus. Goldmann-Taschenbuch, München 1996, .
 Der Zirkel: Romantische Komödie. Eichborn, Frankfurt am Main 1998, .
 Amoklauf im Audimax. Rowohlt-Taschenbuch, Reinbek 1998, .
 Bildung. Alles, was man wissen muß. Eichborn, Frankfurt am Main 1999, .
 Die Geschichte Europas. Eichborn, Frankfurt am Main 2000, .
 Männer: Eine Spezies wird besichtigt. Eichborn, Frankfurt am Main 2001, .
 Shakespeares Hamlet und alles, was ihn für uns zum kulturellen Gedächtnis macht. Eichborn, Frankfurt am Main 2006,

Notes

References

Osman Durrani: The Campus and its Novel. Dietrich Schwanitz's Literary Exploration of German University Life. In: Susanne Stark: The Novel in Anglo-German Context. Rodopi, 2000, pp. 425–436 (excerpt (Google))

German-language writers
Teachers of English
Academic staff of the University of Hamburg
2004 deaths
1940 births
German male writers

Dietrich Schwanitz


Marisol Nichols (born November 2, 1973) is an American actress, known for her roles as Nadia Yassir on the Fox series 24 and Hermione Lodge on the CW drama series Riverdale.

Early life
Nichols was born in the Rogers Park neighborhood of Chicago, Illinois, and grew up in Naperville, Illinois, with her mother, who is of Mexican descent, and her stepfather, Randy. Her biological father is of Russian-Jewish and Hungarian-Jewish descent. She is the oldest of three siblings, having two younger brothers.

Career
In 1996, she appeared in episodes of Due South and Beverly Hills, 90210. In 1997, she made her movie debut as Audrey Griswold in the film Vegas Vacation with Chevy Chase and Beverly D'Angelo. She also had supporting roles in the films Scream 2, Friends 'Til the End, Can't Hardly Wait, Jane Austen's Mafia and The Sex Monster.

From 2000 to 2002, she starred in the Showtime drama series Resurrection Blvd.. In 2001, she played Bahraini Princess (Sheika) Meriam Al Khalifa in the made-for-TV movie The Princess and the Marine. In 2003, she made guest appearances on episodes of Friends, CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, Nip/Tuck and Charmed. Marisol's Charmed episode, "Chris-Crossed", was the show's highest-rated non-season-premiere episode. In 2006, she appeared in six episodes of Cold Case and starred in the film Big Momma's House 2.

She starred in the short-lived TV series Blind Justice in 2005 and In Justice, in 2006. In 2007, she starred in  24 as Special Agent Nadia Yassir. In 2008, she starred in the film Felon with Stephen Dorff.

In 2010, Nichols portrayed Sarah Monahan in the short-lived supernatural crime drama The Gates, a summer series on ABC.

She also was a guest star in an episode of NCIS: Los Angeles in 2010, as Tracy Keller, former partner and potential romantic interest for Special Agent G. Callen (Chris O'Donnell). Nichols' character appears in the sixth episode of Season 2. She also had a cameo in Kristin Chenoweth's music video for "I Want Somebody (Bitch About)". Nichols also portrayed "The Desert Wolf" on MTV's show Teen Wolf.

In 2012, Nichols starred in the ABC TV series GCB, with Leslie Bibb, Kristin Chenoweth, Annie Potts, Jennifer Aspen and Miriam Shor.

In 2017, Nichols began starring as Hermione Lodge, the mother of Veronica Lodge, in the teen drama series Riverdale, loosely based on the Archie comic book series. On February 23, 2020, Nichols announced that she would be leaving Riverdale ahead of its fifth season, making season four her last on the show. However, in June 2020, Nichols revealed that after having a talk with showrunner Roberto Aguirre-Sacasa, she would be staying on for season five.

Personal life
In November 1999, Nichols married Andrea Sorrentino, whom she met in Italy while filming the movie My Father's Shoes. They later divorced. In April 2008, she married director Taron Lexton. They have a daughter, born in September 2008. In November 2018, Nichols filed for divorce.

Nichols resides in Los Angeles, California.

In the 1990s, Nichols became a Scientologist, having been introduced to it by her chiropractor.

Volunteer work and activism
In an interview with Marie Claire, Nichols stated that she was raped when she was eleven, and that it "changed the entire trajectory of [my] life in a day." This inspired her to start a non-profit organization called Foundation for a Slavery Free World and has regularly spoken publicly about sex trafficking and ways to prevent children from becoming trafficked victims.

In 2012, as her career slowed down, Nichols began working with former FBI and CIA agents, Navy SEALs and Green Berets, as well as local law enforcement who have left government agencies and gone independent to help trap child sex predators. Her role involved acting as "bait", playing whatever role the situation called for, such as pretending to be a parent who was pimping out a child. In partnership with nonprofit organization Operation Underground Railroad, Nichols' work took her across the United States and other countries globally, including Haiti and Venezuela.

Filmography

Film

Television

Music videos

References

External links

1973 births
Living people
Actresses from Chicago
American film actresses
American Scientologists
American television actresses
American voice actresses
American actresses of Mexican descent
American people of Russian-Jewish descent
American people of Hungarian-Jewish descent
Actresses from Naperville, Illinois
Hispanic and Latino American actresses
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses

Marisol Nichols


A cover version (or simply "cover") is a song which is re-recorded by a singer or band, after another artist has released a recording of it. Sometimes the versions are similar, but sometimes they are very different.

Many songs become more popular as cover versions than in their original recordings. Paul Revere and the Raiders recorded two songs, "Louie, Louie" and "(I'm Not Your) Steppin' Stone", that were bigger hits for other bands (The Kingsmen and The Monkees, respectively) than their versions.

A few songs are covered so many times by different artists, that the songs become standards. "Without You" (written by Peter Ham and Tom Evans of the band Badfinger) was first covered by Harry Nilsson, then later by dozens of other singers, including Mariah Carey. "Yesterday" and "Something", written by Paul McCartney and George Harrison of The Beatles (respectively), are also standards.

Famous cover versions
 "The Twist" (written and recorded by Hank Ballard, and later covered by Chubby Checker)
 "I Heard It Through the Grapevine" (first recorded by Gladys Knight and the Pips, then later by Marvin Gaye)
 "Tainted Love" (first recorded by Gloria Jones, then later by Soft Cell)
 "It's Gonna Take a Miracle" (first recorded by The Royalettes, then later by Deniece Williams)

Eurodance cover versions
 8 feat Mr Mister: Broken Wings (Mr Mister)
 20 Century: You'll Be in My Heart (Phil Collins)
 Alcazar: This Is the World We Live In (Genesis)
 Andrew Spencer: Zombie (The Cranberries)
 Aquagen: Hard to Say I'm Sorry (Chicago)
 Aria Pozzi: Joe le taxi (Vanessa Paradis)
 Aurora featuring Naimee Coleman: Ordinary World (Duran Duran)
 Axxis: Here Comes the Rain Again (Eurythmics)
 Beat Factory: Nothing's Gonna Change My Love for You (Glenn Medeiros); Take on Me (A-ha)
 Bloqbusters: Forever Young (Alphaville)
 Bluestar: Sweet Dreams (Are Made of This) (Eurythmics)
 Boney M. vs Sash: Ma Baker (Boney M.)
 Boys Town Gang: Can't Take My Eyes Off You (Frankie Valli)
 Cascada: What Hurts the Most (Rascal Flatts)
 Candy: Words (F. R. David)
 Chris Rockford vs Jennifer Paige: Crush (Jennifer Paige)
 CK n Supreme Dream Team: Dreamer (Supertramp)
 Co.Ro & Taleesa: Because the Night (Patti Smith)
 Colton Ford & Pepper Mashay: Signed Sealed Delivered (Stevie Wonder)
 Crystal K Feat Melina: The Final Countdown (Europe)
 Dana International: Woman in Love (Barbra Streisand)
 Dance Floor Dons: Sweet Dreams My LA Ex (Rachel Stevens)
 Deja Vu featuring Tasmin: Against All Odds (Phil Collins); I Don't Wanna Miss a Thing (Aerosmith)
 DJ Analyser vs D JMC: We Belong (Pat Benatar)
 DJ Miko: Hot Stuff (Donna Summer)
 DJ Speedo featuring Angelica: There You'll Be (Faith Hill)
 DJ Yanou & Do: Heaven (Bryan Adams)
 East Side Beat: Ride Like the Wind (Christopher Cross)
 E-rotic: Angel Eyes; SOS; The Winner Takes It All (ABBA)
 Florida Inc: Fuck It (I Don't Want You Back) (Eamon)
 Gigi D'Agostino: The Riddle (Nik Kershaw)
 Global Deejays: The Sound of San Francisco (Scott McKenzie: San Francisco)
 Hi Tack: Let's Dance (David Bowie)
 Ignition X: It's My Life (Talk Talk)
 Interactive: Forever Young (Alphaville)
 Jan Wayne: Because the Night (Patti Smith); Only You (Yazoo); Take My Breath Away (Berlin); Total Eclipse of the Heart (Bonnie Tyler); Here I Am (Scorpions: Send Me an Angel); She's Like the Wind (Patrick Swayze)
 Jaybee featuring Morris: Shattered Dreams (Johnny Hates Jazz)
 Johnny Crockett: Shout (Tears for Fears)
 Karen Perry: Fame (Irene Cara)
 Kate Ryan: Désenchantée; Libertine (Mylène Farmer)
 Keira Green: All Out of Love (Air Supply)
 King of House: Billie Jean (Michael Jackson)
 Kopykatz: Gonna Make You Sweat (C & C Music Factory)
 Laurent Wolf featuring Fake: Another Brick (Fake)
 Linda O: Because the Night (Patti Smith)
 Liquid Dance: First Time (Robin Beck)
 Lunatic DJs: Baby Love (The Supremes)
 Mad'House: Like a Prayer, Holiday, ... (Madonna)
 Mary Griffin: Knock on Wood (Amii Stewart)
 Maurizzo: Here Comes the Rain (Eurythmics)
 Max Factor: Go Your Own Way (Fleetwood Mac)
 Mega Mania: Summer of 69 (Bryan Adams)
 Milk Inc.: The Sun Always Shines on TV (A-ha)
 Mirabeau: Back from Outta Space (Gloria Gaynor: I Will Survive)
 Missingheart: Moonlight Shadow (Mike Oldfield)
 Mixtery: Bring Me to Life (Evanescence, Daredevil soundtrack)
 N-Trance: Do You Think I'm Sexy (Rod Stewart)
 Nightflyer: Voyage voyage (Desireless)
 No Secrets: Kids in America (Kim Wilde)
 Nouky: When the Rain Begins to Fall (Jermaine Jackson & Pia Zadora)
 Novaspace: Beds Are Burning (Midnight Oil); Dancing with Tears in My Eyes (Ultravox); Run to You (Bryan Adams); So Lonely (The Police); Time After Time (Cyndi Lauper); Wicked Game (Chris Isaak); Your Eyes (Vladimir Cosma)
 Pascal: I Think We're Alone Now (Tiffany)
 Paulina Rubio: I Was Made for Lovin' You (Kiss)
 Playhouse: I Think We're Alone Now (Tiffany)
 Perfecto: Anything for Love (Meat Loaf)
 Power Pull feat Sun Ray: Hungry Eyes (Eric Carmen)
 Pulsedriver: Cambodia (Kim Wilde)
 Punk Division: Seven Nation Army (The White Stripes)
 Richard Grey: Warped Bass (Soft Cell: Tainted Love)
 RIP: Shut Up (The Black Eyed Peas)
 Rochelle: Bring Me to Life (Evanescence, Daredevil soundtrack)
 Royal Gigolos: California Dreaming (The Mamas & the Papas); No Milk Today (Herman's Hermits)
 Sugarcubes: 99 Red Balloons (Nena)
 Sylver: Lay All Your Love on Me (ABBA)
 Tamperer featuring Maya: Feel It (Jackson Five)
 The Cover Girlz: You're Beautiful (James Blunt)
 Thelma Houston: Don't Leave Me This Way (Harold Melvin & the Blue Notes)
 The Kinky Boyz: You Spin Me Round (Dead or Alive)
 Ultra Flirt: Dancing with Tears in My Eyes (Ultravox); I Was Made for Lovin' You (Kiss)
 Undercover: Baker Street (Gerry Rafferty)
 Uniting Nations: Out of Touch (Hall & Oates)
 Vanguarde: Gimme Gimme Gimme (ABBA, Façon Benny Benassi)
 Vasco & Millboy: The Sun Always Shines on TV (A-ha)
 Whigfield: Last Christmas (Wham!)
 Wonderland: Heaven Is a Place on Earth (Belinda Carlisle)

Sources

Musical terminology

Cover version


Maxed Out: Hard Times, Easy Credit and the Era of Predatory Lenders (2006) is an independent feature-length documentary film and (2007) book that chronicles abusive practices in the credit card industry.

Written and directed by James Scurlock, the film and book use interviews with creditors, debtors, academics, and others to illustrate its story. The film, premiered at the South by Southwest Film Festival in Austin, Texas, USA, in 2006 where it claimed the Special Jury Prize, went on to several film fests including Seattle, Full Frame Documentary, Maui, New Zealand, Milwaukee International, Woodstock, Bergen, Leeds International, Oxford and IDFA (Amsterdam) film festivals. Henry Rollins selected Maxed Out when invited to host a favorite film within Maryland Film Festival 2007. The film was released in movie theaters in select cities in the United States in March 2007 through Magnolia Pictures.

The DVD was released nationally on June 7, 2007, in the joint effort of Magnolia Pictures and Red Envelope Entertainment (a division of Netflix). The book Maxed Out is published by Scribner, a division of Simon & Schuster. It was published in March 2007 in hardcover and in December 2007 in paperback.

Scurlock's purpose for the film and book was to raise awareness of how credit and lending issues are affecting society. The main premises of the documentary and book are that banks and other creditors deliberately market to people who are more likely to have problems paying and that the creditors benefit from connections to government, the debt collection industry, and from lawmaker apathy.

The non-profit organization Americans for Fairness in Lending (AFFIL) has organized screenings of Maxed Out around the country as part of its work.  AFFIL sustains a formal collaboration with the film.

References

USA Today
US News.com
ABC News.com

External links

2006 films
American documentary films
Documentary films about business
Documentary films about consumerism
Magnolia Pictures films
2006 documentary films
2000s English-language films
2000s American films
English-language documentary films

Maxed Out


The El Rey National Park () is a national park of Argentina, located in the Anta Department, province of Salta, in the Argentine Northwest, 80 km from the provincial capital. It has an area of 441.62 km².

The park was created in order to preserve a representative sample of the Southern Andean Yungas ecoregion and transition environments. The climate is warm, and annual rainfall oscillates between 500 and 700 mm. The flora is varied, showing different species in five levels according to height (from 750 to 2,000 m). The fauna includes tapirs, anteaters and peccaries, as well as fish in the rivers, brooks and lakes. The tapir or anta, which eats aquatic plants, is the largest South American mammal, weighing up to 300 kg.

The protected area was inhabited by farmer indigenous groups, the oldest inhabitants of the Yungas, and includes archaeological sites.

Sources
Administración de Parques Nacionales, Parque Nacional El Rey - National Parks Administration of Argentina (in Spanish)
Park Description on site of Salta Province

National parks of Argentina
Protected areas of Salta Province
Southern Andean Yungas

El Rey National Park


George Henry Waft Dip App SS B.Sc.(Hons) RMN MLC is a former Member of the Legislative Council of the Isle of Man.

Mr Waft was educated at the Isle of Man College of Further Education, the Naval Training School and the Nurse Training School. He became a catering officer for various naval companies and then worked for the DHSS for 30 years as well as being an Onchan Commissioner for 20 years. In 1991 was elected to the House of Keys representing Onchan. He remained an MHK for Onchan until his elevation to the Legislative Council in 1994. His interests are the countryside, computers, amateur radio, swimming and fishing.

Governmental positions
Chairman of the Civil Service Commission, 1996–2004
Chairman of the Whitely Council, 1996–2004
Formerly (until 2014) Chairman Ballamona Association for Mental Health, a Charitable company Limited by Guarantee No.194 A
 George Waft Retired from Legco March 2010

Publications
George Waft has written a book, From Tynwald Street to Tynwald Hill. First published in 2006.

References

Members of the House of Keys 1991–1996
Members of the Legislative Council of the Isle of Man
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)

George Waft


George D. Beveridge (January 5, 1922 – February 14, 1987) was an American journalist praised for his coverage of the Washington politics, government, and regional development, and described by The Washington Post as "an expert on this city and a keen observer and critic of journalistic ethics and practices".
He won a Pulitzer Prize for 1957 coverage of Washington urban problems.

Youth
Born in Washington, D.C., Beveridge's father worked as a machinist for the federal government during the Great Depression. Although he lived briefly in Arlington, VA and raised his family in Bethesda, MD, he regarded himself a lifelong resident of the District, where he graduated from Eastern High School.

Early career
After graduating from high school, Beveridge began his journalism career as a copyboy at the city's Evening Star. He enlisted in the US Army in 1942, where he wrote press releases before returning to the Star for what became a 41-year career there as reporter, editor, editorial writer, and ombudsman. He won the paper's first Pulitzer Prize for written journalism in 1958.

Evening Star, Washington Star

Beveridge joined the Evening Star in 1940 as a copyboy while attending George Washington University in the city. He worked his way up the ladder from general assignment reporter to local and then national news reporter.

In 1958, Beveridge wrote a series of articles about urban growth and development in Washington and its Maryland and Northern Virginia suburbs (much of the current Washington metropolitan area), delineating the concept of those municipalities acting together as a region. The series, titled "Metro, City of Tomorrow" earned him a Pulitzer Prize for Local Reporting, No Edition Time (a predecessor of the Investigative Reporting Prize). The jury called the series "excellent and thought-provoking ... describing in depth the urban problems of Washington, D.C., which stimulated widespread public consideration of these problems and encouraged further studies by both public and private agencies.

In 1963, he began an 11-year stint as the Star's chief editorial writer on local affairs. After returning to the newsroom as assistant managing editor for local news, he became the Star's first ombudsman. When the paper folded in 1981, Beveridge co-wrote the lead story for its last edition.

George Beveridge died of leukemia at his home in Bethesda on February 14, 1987, aged 65.

See also

References

External links

1922 births
1987 deaths
American male journalists
Pulitzer Prize for Investigative Reporting winners
The Washington Star people
Journalists from Washington, D.C.
Mass media people from Bethesda, Maryland
Deaths from cancer in Maryland
George Washington University alumni
Deaths from leukemia
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
20th-century American non-fiction writers
20th-century American male writers
United States Army personnel of World War II
 Eastern High School (Washington, D.C.) alumni

George D. Beveridge


"Critical Mass" is a science fiction short story by British writer Arthur C. Clarke, first published in 1949. This comic story describes the relationship between a village and a nuclear research facility located near it. On the day that the story takes place, a truck carrying a mysterious cargo has an accident, and the driver flees. The terrified villagers are about to begin an evacuation, when the narrator discovers that the cargo were merely hives of bees.

The piece was later published as the fifth story in Clarke's collection Tales from the White Hart (1957).

References

External links

Short stories by Arthur C. Clarke
1949 short stories
Tales from the White Hart

Critical Mass (Arthur C. Clarke short story)


Malcolm Simmons (20 March 1946 – 25 May 2014) was a motorcycle speedway rider from England.

Career
Simmons was born in Tonbridge, Kent. After starting in second-half races at New Cross, he made his Provincial League debut at Hackney Hawks in 1963 aged seventeen but was unable to break into the Hackney team regularly so moved to the newly re-opened West Ham Hammers for the 1964 season. In 1965 Simmons won a British League and British League Knockout Cup double with West Ham. In 1968 he moved to the King's Lynn Stars and stayed there for the next seven seasons. He was consistently at the top of the Stars averages and scored over 2112 points for the club.

Simmons signed for the Poole Pirates in 1975 from King's Lynn. In his first season for Poole in 31 league matches he achieved 16 maximum scores (15 full and 1 paid) and he became the first Poole rider to secure a 10-point average in the British League. Simmons topped the Pirates averages for the next six years and he came to be affectionately known by the Poole fans as 'Super Simmo'. In 1979 the Pirates were taken over by new owners and Simmons became unsettled, asking for a transfer in 1980. At a pairs event at Poole that year, Simmons was accused by the Poole management of not trying and he was subsequently sacked by the club.

He moved to Wimbledon in 1981, where he spent four seasons and moved to the Swindon Robins for one season in 1985. Simmons signed for former club Hackey, now renamed Hackney Kestrels, in 1986 for two years before he suffered a bad shoulder injury. He then made a couple of short come-backs at Arena Essex and King's Lynn.

Malcolm captained England and Great Britain at full international level. He finished runner-up to Peter Collins in the 1976 Speedway World Championship, but became World Pairs Champion with John Louis the same year. He again became World Pairs Champion in 1977 with Peter Collins, and again in 1978 with Gordon Kennett. Simmons became British Champion in 1976. He won the World Team Cup on four occasions—1973, 1974, 1975 and 1977—once with Great Britain and three times with England.

He signed as a rider for Mildenhall in 2001 to ride occasionally in the Conference League, aged 56.

World Final Appearances

Individual World Championship
 1975 -  London, Wembley Stadium - 7th - 10pts
 1976 -  Chorzów, Silesian Stadium - 2nd - 13pts
 1978 -  London, Wembley Stadium - 6th - 10pts

World Pairs Championship
 1976 -  Eskilstuna, Eskilstuna Motorstadion (with John Louis) - Winner - 27pts (10)
 1977 –  Manchester, Hyde Road (with Peter Collins) – Winner – 28pts (13)
 1978 -  Chorzów, Silesian Stadium (with Gordon Kennett) - Winner - 24pts (15+3)
 1979 -  Vojens, Speedway Center (with Michael Lee) - 2nd - 24pts (9)

World Team Cup
1973* -  London, Wembley Stadium (with Peter Collins / Ray Wilson / Terry Betts) - Winner - 37pts (8)
1974 -  Chorzów, Silesian Stadium (with Peter Collins / John Louis / Dave Jessup) - Winner - 42pts (8)
1975 -  Norden, Motodrom Halbemond (with Peter Collins / Martin Ashby / John Louis) – Winner – 41pts (11)
1977 -  Wrocław, Olympic Stadium (with Peter Collins / Michael Lee / Dave Jessup / John Davis) - Winner - 37pts (9)
1978 -  Landshut, Ellermühle Stadium (with Dave Jessup / Peter Collins / Gordon Kennett / Michael Lee) - 2nd - 27pts (8)
* 1973 for Great Britain. All others for England.

References

1946 births
2014 deaths
British speedway riders
English motorcycle racers
British Speedway Championship winners
Speedway World Pairs Champions
Hackney Hawks riders
Poole Pirates riders
King's Lynn Stars riders
West Ham Hammers riders
Wimbledon Dons riders
Swindon Robins riders
People from Tonbridge
Hackney Kestrels riders

Malcolm Simmons (speedway rider)


Battery is the intentional and offensive or harmful contact with another person. The exact definition varies by jurisdiction. In criminal law the elements of battery are physical contact that causes harm or offensive contact without that person's consent. Battery is often confused with assault which is threatening battery. Battery is when the threat (assault) is carried out and the person is harmed in some way. Criminal battery and civil battery may be the same or differ slightly depending on jurisdiction. In many cases the act of battery can result in both criminal and civil liability.

Civil vs Criminal battery
Civil battery is a tort. It is a wrong committed against another person that results in damage. It is also called an intentional tort. In most cases they are the result of negligence, caused by carelessness or recklessness. The person on whom the battery was committed, the victim, may bring a lawsuit in court to collect monetary damages.

Criminal battery is the result of breaking a law regarding harming another person. Criminal cases are prosecuted by the state. There are four elements to criminal battery:
 Touching which is harmful or offensive.
 Contact was to the victim's person.
 Intent, that the act was deliberate.
 Causation, that something happened as a result of the act.
If all four elements can be proved, a prima facie case exists to go ahead and prosecute the offender.

In most cases the civil lawsuit follows a criminal trial. A person found not-guilty in a criminal trial does not prevent the victim from filing a civil suit. The burden of proof is usually lower in a civil court than in a criminal court.

Aggravated battery vs simple battery
When a court refers to 'battery', what is usually meant is simple battery. Simple battery is more often a misdemeanor. The elements of simple battery include:
 The use of force that is unauthorized or unlawful.
 Battery to the person of another.
 There is a physical injury or touching in an offensive manner.

Aggravated battery is more serious than simple battery. In most jurisdictions aggravated battery is a felony.  What defines aggravated battery can vary, but most often in includes:
 The use of a deadly weapon.
 Cases where the result is serious bodily injury.
 The battery involves a hate crime
 Battery is committed against a vulnerable person: a child, an elderly person, or a pregnant woman.
 Battery committed against police officer is it usually considered aggravated battery.

References

Violence
Types of crime

Battery (crime)


Octurn is a Belgian polyrhythmic jazz ensemble led by Bo Van Der Werf (baritone saxophone and clarinet).  Its lineup as well as the composers are changed for every album.  They always play with at least 3 saxophones and from 2002 they have been playing with two basses and two drummers.

Members
Apart from the leader, Laurent Blondiau (trumpet and flugelhorn) is the only member who played on each Octurn release.  Other members are, on :
 saxophone: Ben Sluijs (alto), Jeroen Van Herzeele (tenor and soprano), Bart Defoort (tenor and soprano), Guillaume Orti (alto) and Patrick Zimmerli (tenor);
 flute: Magic Malik, Ben Sluijs and Pierre Bernard;
 trombone: Ilja Reijngoud and Geoffroy De Masure;
 piano: Jozef Dumoulin, Ron Van Rossum, Kris Defoort and Fabian Fiorini;
 guitar: Nelson Veras,  Jacques Pirotton, Pierre Van Dormael and Ben Monder;
 bass: Piet Verbist, Nicolas Thys, Otti Van Der Werf and Jean-Luc Lehr;
 drums: Félix Simtaine, Stéphane Galland and Chander Sardjoe;
 percussion: Michel Seba.

Toots Thielemans (harmonica) and Kenny Werner (piano) also appeared on a track.

Discography
 1996: Chromatic History
 1997: Ocean
 2000: Round
 2002: The Book Of Hours
 2002: Dimensions

References
 Jazz in Belgium page
 Official website

Progressive big bands

Experimental big bands
Belgian jazz ensembles
Avant-garde jazz ensembles

Octurn


Route 53 is a  south–north state highway in southeastern Massachusetts. Its southern terminus is at Route 3A in Kingston and its northern terminus is at Route 3A in Quincy. Along the way it intersects Route 3 in Hanover.

History
Route 53 follows the former routing of the Kingston to Quincy section of Route 3 which was moved onto the Southeast Expressway and Pilgrim's Highway expressway when they were fully completed in 1963. The remaining former sections of Route 3 became extensions of Route 3A.

For a period of time, from at least the early 1930s through 1967, a mile of what is now Route 53, between Derby Street and Main Street (Route 228), was also coextensive with Route 128.  In 1967 that route was cut back to the Braintree Split, and again in 1997 it was officially cut back to the I-95/I-93 junction in Canton.

Queen Anne's Corner
The intersection of Route 53 with Route 228 on the Hingham–Norwell town line is known as Queen Anne's Corner or historically Queen Ann's Corner and the nearby section of Route 53 has also been known as Queen Anne's (or Ann's) Turnpike. The name comes from Anne Whiton, a local tavern owner who in the mid-1700s, along with her daughters, had an "unsavory reputation" and was called quean with the archaic meaning of the word as prostitute.

Route description

Route 53 begins in Kingston at Route 3A, just a third of a mile west of where that route meets Route 3 at Exit 10.  It heads north, almost immediately entering the town of Duxbury.  It passes through the southwestern part of that town before meeting Route 14 just over the line into Pembroke.  The two routes pass concurrently for over a mile and a half before splitting in the area of North Pembroke.  Route 53 is alone for just over a mile and a quarter before becoming concurrent with Route 139.  The two routes pass over the North River into Hanover together before splitting.

Route 53 heads northwards through the eastern part of Hanover until it passes the Hanover Mall and meets Route 3 once more, at Exit 13. From Route 3 it bends northwestward, going through the western portion of Norwell before meeting Route 228 just over the town line into Hingham.  The route passes through the southwest corner of that town before entering Weymouth.  In Weymouth, the route bisects the town from southeast to northwest, passing Whitman's Pond and the northern end of Route 18.  Route 53 then enters Braintree, crossing the Monatiquot River before entering Quincy, passing the site of the Fore River Shipyard.  After just a mile, Route 53 ends at Route 3A, with that route resuming the former route of Route 3.

Major intersections

References

053
Streets in Braintree, Massachusetts
Duxbury, Massachusetts
Kingston, Massachusetts
Pembroke, Massachusetts
Hanover, Massachusetts
Norwell, Massachusetts
Hingham, Massachusetts
Weymouth, Massachusetts
Quincy, Massachusetts
Transportation in Norfolk County, Massachusetts
Transportation in Plymouth County, Massachusetts

Massachusetts Route 53


Charles Robert Starrett (March 28, 1903 – March 22, 1986) was an American actor, best known for his starring role in the Durango Kid westerns. Starrett still holds the record for starring in the longest series of theatrical features: 131 westerns, all produced by Columbia Pictures.

Early years
Starrett was born in Athol, Massachusetts, where his grandfather had built a prosperous tool works. He attended Worcester Academy, then graduated from Dartmouth College.

Career
A graduate of Worcester Academy in 1922, Starrett went on to study at Dartmouth College. While on the Dartmouth football team he was hired to play a football extra in the film The Quarterback (1926). Bitten by the acting bug, Starrett played minor roles in films and leading roles in stage plays. In 1928, he was a member of the Walker Company, a repertory theatre troupe headed by Stuart Walker.

He played the romantic lead in his first movie, Fast and Loose (1930), which starred Frank Morgan, Miriam Hopkins, and Carole Lombard. Starrett starred in the Canadian production The Viking (1931), a rugged outdoor adventure filmed on location in Newfoundland, which had begun as a Paramount Pictures project.

Starrett was very active for the next two years, playing juvenile leads for both major and minor studios. He was featured in Our Betters (1933), Murder on the Campus (1933), and as a young doctor named Orion in "Along Came Love", opposite Irene Hervey. Of Starrett's early character appearances, today's viewers may be most familiar with the Will Rogers picture Mr. Skitch (1933), featuring Starrett as the romantic lead.

Offscreen, Charles Starrett helped organize the Screen Actors Guild. He held membership card #10.

Cowboy star
In 1935, Columbia Pictures wanted to replace its incumbent western star Tim McCoy with a younger actor. Starrett heard about this and interviewed with Columbia producers. Starrett recalled that studio chief Harry Cohn was indifferent, caring about only one thing: "Can he ride a horse?" Starrett could, and got the job. His first western was Gallant Defender (1935). Starrett ultimately signed four contracts with Columbia, becoming the studio's number-one cowboy star. He cast an appealing figure with his tall stature (6' 2"), strong jawline, confident voice, and air of quiet authority.

Starrett hadn't planned on making an entire career out of westerns, and agreed to make them for two years, with the understanding that his bosses would then cast him in plainclothes roles. When they didn't, he walked out on his contract after the two years. "I sat out the waltz one year, thinking I'd like to make a change from westerns. That waltz cost me $60,000 [the dollar value of his original agreement]. But you know when you're raising a family -- I had two young boys, twins -- you can't always do what you want to do... And I think an actor's life is very much like an athlete's. It's youth. You've got to make it while you can. So after that year, I went back and went along with it." Theater exhibitors around the world were attracting big crowds with Charles Starrett westerns, so Columbia gave him a new contract with the actor insisting on appearing in a non-western. He finally got his chance—once—in 1937, for the collegiate musical comedy Start Cheering (released 1938). In a curious reflection of his own situation, Starrett played a disenchanted movie hero who wanted to do something different with his life. But Starrett's success in westerns established him firmly in outdoor fare and sealed his fate professionally. For the rest of his career he made Columbia westerns exclusively.

The musical westerns of Gene Autry inspired every Hollywood studio to have its cowboy personalities use their musical talents—but not Charles Starrett. He could carry a tune but left the songs to professional vocalists (his vocals in Start Cheering were dubbed by Robert Paige). Columbia solved the problem by hiring an entire singing group to support Starrett: the Sons of the Pioneers.

Charles Starrett made two dozen westerns under his new contract, and they tend to resemble each other because the production unit was very close-knit. The same company of technicians and players worked in film after film: almost always Iris Meredith as the leading lady, Dick Curtis as the villain, Hank Bell as the sidekick, Edward LeSaint as the senior character of father, rancher, marshal, etc., and the Sons of the Pioneers as the chorus. Very occasionally, Columbia reassigned Meredith to other productions, so various contract starlets took the ingenue roles, among them Lorna Gray and Ann Doran.

When Starrett's new contract lapsed in July 1940, he withdrew from westerns and Columbia disbanded the unit. Iris Meredith left the studio, and the Sons of the Pioneers moved to Republic Pictures, where they reunited with their former lead singer Roy Rogers.

Again, exhibitors petitioned Columbia for more Charles Starrett westerns, so the studio came through with a new contract at an increased salary. Starrett finally accepted his permanent cowboy status, and returned to Columbia in March 1941 as "The Medico":  Steven Monroe, cowboy doctor.

The Medico series lapsed after only three features. Columbia then added former Hopalong Cassidy co-star Russell Hayden and comedian-musician Cliff Edwards to the Starrett company, following the "trigger trio" format popular at the time: three name stars in a western series, like The Three Mesquiteers, The Rough Riders, and The Range Busters. Hayden and Edwards were featured alongside Starrett during the 1941-42 season. Columbia gave Hayden his own starring series in 1942; Edwards left Columbia for RKO to work with Tim Holt.

The Durango Kid
After playing assorted rancher, ranger, and sheriff roles, Charles Starrett was cast as The Durango Kid in 1940. The character was an upright citizen known and liked by the townsfolk, but he masqueraded as a notorious, black-garbed horseman to terrorize the local criminals and foil their plans. The film was successful but not much different from some of Starrett's earlier good guy-chasing-bad-guy roles.

The character was revived five years later in The Return of the Durango Kid, which caught on very quickly. Starrett played an amiable cowpoke named Steve (the last name varied but he was always Steve to his friends), who would become angered by an injustice and go after the villains as the mysterious, elusive Durango Kid. Steve's paint horse was named "Bullet" and Durango's white horse was "Raider." A follow-up film was made, and then a series. One favorite device became a signature: the masked Durango Kid suddenly materializing like Superman, always catching the villains by surprise. The Durango Kid rejuvenated Charles Starrett's career, winning him a new generation of loyal fans, a new five-year contract, and even a comic-book adaptation, Charles Starrett as the Durango Kid (1949-1955), published by Magazine Enterprises. The film series was also a useful training ground for novice actresses and fashion models, who would be signed to six-month contracts and cast as cowgirls in Starrett westerns.

Dub Taylor, as comic sidekick "Cannonball", worked with Starrett until 1946. At that time, Smiley Burnette, who had been a very popular sidekick to Gene Autry, was brought in to replace Taylor. Burnette, appropriately enough, played a character called "Smiley Burnette." The Durango Kid films combined vigorous action sequences—often with spectacular stunts performed by Ted Mapes and later Jock Mahoney—and western music. Each film featured musical specialties by Burnette, and by a guest artist or group from records or radio.

By 1949, the series faced a challenge. Production costs kept rising, but the financial return was limited. So Columbia resorted to shooting less new material, and borrowing scenes from older Durango Kid pictures to coax the running time up to the usual length. Columbia was starting to use this same recycling gambit in its adventure serials and Three Stooges comedies. Sometimes the scripting and editing were very clever, most memorably in Cyclone Fury (1951), in which footage from four older Starrett westerns is worked into the plot. The final Durango Kid feature was The Kid from Broken Gun (1952), with the new footage set in a courtroom and the old footage illustrating the testimony of the various characters.

Charles Starrett retired at age 48, when his last Columbia contract lapsed. As Starrett had once taken over Columbia's westerns from Tim McCoy, Jock Mahoney took over the reins from Starrett, co-starring with Smiley Burnette in a new series. The pilot feature was completed but never released, so Columbia's long history of B westerns ended with Charles Starrett. Columbia serviced the still-strong demand for Starrett by reissuing his 1937-1940 westerns with the Sons of the Pioneers. These proved just as popular as the Durango series, and Columbia kept dozens of the Starrett features in theaters for several years.

Later years
Although his agent, Sam Jaffe, tried to interest movie and TV producers in hiring Starrett, the actor no longer needed or wanted a show-business career; he was independently wealthy from wise investments and his family fortune. In retirement he traveled widely with his wife, favoring tropical islands.

NBC-TV brought the Charles Starrett westerns to network television in 1956, under the program title Cowboy Theater. Starrett himself was approached to host the program, and he liked the idea but disapproved of the logistics: he would have to appear live in the studio every Saturday afternoon, and the studio was in New York City. Starrett, long established as a California resident, was understandably reluctant to commute across the country every week, and asked if his segments could be filmed in California. The network said no, because the show was to be broadcast live from New York, along the lines of NBC's popular Howdy Doody show under the same producer, Bob Rippen. Cowboy Theater went on with another host, Monty Hall, then a new face on American television. Cowboy Theater premiered on Saturday, September 15, 1956, at 12 noon Eastern time, and the first episode was a slightly edited version of Starrett's first Columbia feature, Gallant Defender (1935). The Starrett series ran for almost seven months, through March 9, 1957. Later that year, NBC revived Cowboy Theater as a Sunday-evening summertime series. This edition of the show did without a live host, presenting only the films; some of them were the 1941-42 theatrical series starring Charles Starrett and featuring Russell Hayden and Cliff Edwards. The revived Cowboy Theater ran from June 30 to September 15, 1957, at 6:30 p.m. Eastern time.

Charles Starrett's fans never forgot him, and corresponded with him in later years. Starrett was pleased by the interest and made guest appearances at a few film conventions and revivals. Starrett died of cancer in Borrego Springs, California, in 1986, six days short of his 83rd birthday.

Selected filmography

 Fast and Loose (1930)
 The Royal Family of Broadway (1930)
 Damaged Love (1931)
 The Viking (1931)
 Silence (1931)
 The Age for Love (1931)
 Touchdown (1931)
 Sky Bride (1932)
 Lady and Gent (1932)
 The Mask of Fu Manchu (1933)
 Jungle Bride (1933)
 Our Betters (1933)
 The Return of Casey Jones (1933)
 The Sweetheart of Sigma Chi (1933)
 Murder on the Campus (1933)
 Mr. Skitch (1933)
 Stolen Sweets (1934)
 Three on a Honeymoon (1934)
 This Man Is Mine (1934)
 Green Eyes (1934)
 Call It Luck (1934)
 Desirable (1934)
 Gentlemen Are Born (1934)
 Undercover Men (1934)
 The Silver Streak (1934)
 Sons of Steel (1934)
 A Shot in the Dark (1935)
 One New York Night (1935)
 One in a Million (1935)
 What Price Crime (1935)
 So Red the Rose (1935)
 Make a Million (1935)
 Gallant Defender (1935)
 The Mysterious Avenger (1936)
 Secret Patrol (1936)
 Code of the Range (1936)
 Along Came Love (1936)
 The Cowboy Star (1936)
 Stampede (1936)
 Dodge City Trail (1936)
 Westbound Mail (1937)
 Trapped (1937)
 Two Gun Law (1937)
 Two-Fisted Sheriff (1937)
 One Man Justice (1937)
 The Old Wyoming Trail (1937)
 Outlaws of the Prairie (1937)
 Cattle Raiders (1938)
 Start Cheering (1938)
 Call of the Rockies (1938)
 Law of the Plains (1938)
 West of Cheyenne (1938)
 South of Arizona (1938)
 The Colorado Trail (1938)
 West of the Santa Fe (1938)
 Rio Grande (1938)
 The Thundering West (1939)
 Texas Stampede (1939)
 North of the Yukon (1939)
 Spoilers of the Range (1939)
 Western Caravans (1939)
 The Man from Sundown (1939)
 Riders of Black River (1939)
 Outpost of the Mounties (1939)
 The Stranger from Texas (1939)
 Two-Fisted Rangers (1939)
 Bullets for Rustlers (1940)
 Blazing Six Shooters (1940)
 Texas Stagecoach (1940)
 The Durango Kid (1940) 1st Durango Kid film
 West of Abilene (1940)
 Thundering Frontier (1940)
 The Pinto Kid (1941)
 Outlaws of the Panhandle (1941)
 The Medico of Painted Springs (1941)
 Thunder Over the Prairie (1941)
 Prairie Stranger (1941)
 The Royal Mounted Patrol (1941)
 Riders of the Badlands (1941)
 West of Tombstone (1942)
 Lawless Plainsmen (1942)
 Down Rio Grande Way (1942)
 Riders of the Northland (1942)
 Bad Men of the Hills (1942)
 Overland to Deadwood (1942)
 Riding Through Nevada (1942)
 Pardon My Gun (1942)
 The Fighting Buckaroo (1943)
 Law of the Northwest (1943)
 Frontier Fury (1943)
 Robin Hood of the Range (1943)
 Hail to the Rangers (1943)
 Cowboy in the Clouds (1943)
 Cowboy Canteen (1944)
 Sundown Valley (1944)
 Riding West (1944)
 Cowboy from Lonesome River (1944)
 Cyclone Prairie Rangers (1944)
 Saddle Leather Law (1944)
 The Return of the Durango Kid (1945) 2nd Durango Kid film
 Both Barrels Blazing (1945)
 Sagebrush Heroes (1945)
 Rough Ridin' Justice (1945)
 Rustlers of the Badlands (1945)
 Outlaws of the Rockies (1945)
 Blazing the Western Trail (1945)
 Lawless Empire (1945)
 Texas Panhandle (1945)
 Frontier Gunlaw (1946)
 Roaring Rangers (1946)
 Gunning for Vengeance (1946)
 Galloping Thunder (1946)
 Two-Fisted Stranger (1946)
 The Desert Horseman (1946)
 Heading West (1946)
 Landrush (1946)
 Terror Trail (1946)
 The Fighting Frontiersman (1946)
 South of the Chisholm Trail (1947)
 The Lone Hand Texan (1947)
 West of Dodge City (1947)
 Law of the Canyon (1947)
 Prairie Raiders (1947)
 The Stranger from Ponca City (1947)
 Riders of the Lone Star (1947)
 Buckaroo from Powder River (1947)
 Last Days of Boot Hill (1947)
 Six-Gun Law (1948)
 Phantom Valley (1948)
 West of Sonora (1948)
 Whirlwind Raiders (1948)
 Blazing Across the Pecos (1948)
 Trail to Laredo (1948)
 El Dorado Pass (1948)
 Quick on the Trigger (1948)
 Challenge of the Range (1949)
 Desert Vigilante (1949)
 Laramie (1949)
 The Blazing Trail (1949)
 South of Death Valley (1949)
 Bandits of El Dorado (1949)
 Horsemen of the Sierras (1949)
 Renegades of the Sage (1949)
 Trail of the Rustlers (1950)
 Outcast of Black Mesa (1950)
 Texas Dynamo (1950)
 Streets of Ghost Town (1950)
 Across the Badlands (1950)
 Raiders of Tomahawk Creek (1950)
 Frontier Outpost (1950)
 Lightning Guns (1950)
 Prairie Roundup (1951)
 Pecos River (1951)
 Ridin' the Outlaw Trail (1951)
 Fort Savage Raiders (1951)
 Snake River Desperadoes (1951)
 Bonanza Town (1951)
 Cyclone Fury (1951)
 The Kid from Amarillo (1951)
 Smoky Canyon (1952)
 The Hawk of Wild River (1952)
 Laramie Mountains (1952)
 The Rough, Tough West (1952)
 Junction City (1952)
 The Kid from Broken Gun (1952)

References

Further reading
 Horwitz, James, They Went Thataway'' (1976, E. P. Dutton; 1978, Ballantine Books) (Interview with Charles Starrett)

External links

 B-Western.com
 Filmography

 Charles Starrett - One Fan's Journey

American male film actors
Male Western (genre) film actors
Worcester Academy alumni
1903 births
1986 deaths
Deaths from cancer in California
People from Athol, Massachusetts
Male actors from Massachusetts
Dartmouth Big Green football players
20th-century American male actors
Columbia Pictures contract players

Charles Starrett


Ernst Julius Gunther Röhm (28 November 1887 ; in Munich,Bavaria,Germany– 1 July 1934 ; in Munich, Bavaria, Germany) was a leader and co-founder of the German Sturmabteilung, the Stormtroopers. He also was a member of the German Reichstag, where he was a minister from 1933 to 1934. He was murdered during the Night of the Long Knives, in 1934. Adolf Hitler gave the order to murder Röhm. He was gay.

During the First World War, Röhm fought as an officer. He was awarded the Iron Cross First Class.

Early life
Ernst Röhm was born in Munich on 28 November 1887. He was the third child of a chief train inspector, Julius Röhm, and his wife, Emilie Röhm. He had one older brother and one older sister. His sister's son was Bernhard Lippert, a German diplomat.

In 1906, after his Abitur (school exams) in Munich, Röhm joined the Bavarian army as a Fanjunkare. Two years later he became a Lieutenant.

First World War
In 1914, at the beginning of the First World War, he was an adjutant and fought on the Western Front. He was wounded three times, and was awarded the Iron Cross First Class. He was badly hurt in that year and lost a piece of his nasal bone. He worked for the Bavarian government in the War Department for the first time. Two years later, in 1918, he was given the rank of a captain (German: Hauptmann).

After the First World War, Röhm went to the Freikorps (Free Corps) of Franz Ritter von Epp. He wanted to fight against the Communists in Munich. With this group, he went to fight against the Bavarian Soviet Republic. In July 1919, the Freikorps became part of the Reichswehr.

Involvement in the Nazi Party

In 1919, Röhm joined the German Workers' Party (German: Deutsche Arbeiter Partei (DAP)). This was the precursor of the Nazi party. One year later, he became a member of the German Nazi Party. He received the membership number 623. Röhm helped Hitler establish relationships with the Bavarian politicians and the industrialists. Two years later, Röhm and Hitler started the Sturmabteilung (SA), attracting many men from the Freikorps. It was founded as a paramilitary group for the German Nazi Party. Hitler made Röhm the leader of the SA.

Röhm took a part in the Beer Hall Putsch in 1923. The Nazi Party tried to overthrow the government, but failed. Röhm was arrested and charged with high treason. The judges decided he was guilty on 1 April 1924. Röhm went to prison for five months and lost his job in the army. Following the court trial, both the Nazi Party and the Sturmabteilung became illegal.

In 1924, Röhm helped start the Frontbann, an alternative to the Sturmabteilung. After an argument with Adolf Hitler, Röhm retired as leader of the SA. He said that he was only a soldier and not a politician. Between 1928 and 1930, he worked for the Bolivian military as an advisor.

Leader of the Sturmabteilung

On 1 November 1930, he went back to Germany and joined the Nazi Party a second time. In January 1931, Adolf Hitler placed Röhm in charge of the Sturmabteilung. In just over a year, he expanded it from 70,000 to 170,000 members. In April 1932, Chancellor Heinrich Brüning banned the SA again. Franz von Papen, who was chancellor after Heinrich Brüning, annulled the ban in June. In 1933, Ernst Röhm became a Reichsminister, a minister of the Reichstag. In 1934, the SA had over 4,500,000 members. The power of the SA increased. Because of this, Adolf Hitler and the Schutzstaffel (SS) started a new dispute with Röhm. The SA was about 20 times greater in membership than the Reichswehr; Röhm was dreaming to take over the Reichswehr.

Hitler was afraid of Röhm's power. Röhm wanted to merge the Sturmabteilung with the general army, with him as leader. He also wanted a "second Nazi revolution" to make Germany more socialist. He was an anticapitalist, and at this time, Hitler was trying to befriend Germany's industrialists. Hitler planned to kill Röhm.

Night of the Long Knives
Röhm arranged with Hitler that the Sturmabteilung would get four weeks holiday during the summer of 1934. The holiday started on 1 July 1934. Röhm wanted to go to Bad Wiessee for rest. On 29 June 1934, Röhm was arrested, yet had no trial. He was given the choice by Theodor Eicke: to commit suicide or be killed. On 1 July, Theodor Eicke shot Röhm as instructed by Hitler. Röhm was buried in the Munich western cemetery.

Many Sturmabteilung leaders were killed on that same night, mostly by the Schutzstaffel and Gestapo. It was called the "Night of the Long Knives". The next day the German parliament passed a law with only one paragraph making the murders at the Night of the Long Knives legal.

References

Other websites

1887 births
1934 deaths
Executed German people
Executed Nazis
Gay men
German LGBT people
Assassinated German politicians
Government ministers of Nazi Germany
LGBT politicians
Members of the Reichstag (Nazi Germany)
Members of the Reichstag (Weimar Republic)
Murders by firearm in Germany
Politicians from Munich
Politicians of the Nazi Party
Sturmabteilung people

Ernst Röhm


James Raymond Creeggan (born February 12, 1970) is the bassist for Canadian alternative rock band Barenaked Ladies.

Early life
Creeggan was born in the Toronto suburb of Scarborough, Ontario. His mother taught piano lessons to neighbourhood children, which Creeggan credits as part of the reason for his interest in music.

Career
Creeggan has played the double bass since he was in school. He was a member of a variety of school bands, as well as local youth symphony groups. He also attended the University of Toronto for bass performance, though he did not complete a degree. Creeggan, along with his brother Andy, was invited to play with Ed Robertson and Steven Page (then performing as Barenaked Ladies as a duo) at a Christmastime show in Toronto, and the pair was asked to join the band permanently. Creeggan has been with the band ever since, while his brother left the band in 1995. He and Andy formed a group together named The Brothers Creeggan before Andy left BNL. They continued to play following his departure, and went on a hiatus in the early 2000s.

He regularly plays a double bass, both bowed and pizzicato. He has also played Electric double bass (including a Zeta bass circa Maybe You Should Drive, and a couple Ned Steinbergers later on), and bass guitar for BNL. He won the 1999 best male bassist award from the Gibson Guitar Corporation. He uses a French bow for his double bass. He has occasionally played guitar on some Barenaked Ladies songs; mainly on songs which he sings lead (though he also plays bass on some of those). Creeggan has also contributed to albums with each of the other members of the violin family, and has orchestrated musical charts for various band instruments to be recorded by session musicians.

Creeggan made minor contributions to the writing of the band's first two albums, in the form of several co-writes. His first major songs contributed to an album was for the band's third release, 1996's Born on a Pirate Ship, which featured both "Spider In My Room" and "In The Drink"; two songs written exclusively by Creeggan, and both with him on lead vocals. He would record another song, "Inline Bowline" for 2000's Maroon, but the track was left off the album (later released as a b-side/bonus track). The band instituted a new, more open writing process for their next album, and several of Creeggan's song ideas were expanded into songs featured on 2003's Everything to Everyone.

2004's Barenaked for the Holidays featured a holiday tune, "Christmas Pics", sung by Creeggan, and 2006's Barenaked Ladies Are Me features Creeggan singing lead on "Peterborough and the Kawarthas", among other Creeggan co-written songs included. The band's 2008 children's album, Snacktime! features Creeggan co-writes "Louis Loon" and "Pollywog In A Bog", the latter of which he sang. Creeggan wrote and sang lead on two songs from the band's 2010 album All in Good Time, "On The Lookout" and "I Saw It", as well as a bonus track titled "She Turned Away". Creeggan wrote and sang a song for 2013's Grinning Streak, titled "Who Knew?", that was left off the album and released as a bonus track. Creeggan wrote and sang a song titled "Narrow Streets" for the 2015 album Silverball.

In their first show since the 2009 departure of Steven Page from the band, Creeggan took over some of Page's harmony vocals, and his lead vocals on the song "Maybe Katie"; a song Creeggan originated with vocals split between Page and Robertson.

Creeggan has played bass as a guest on a number of albums; mostly of Canadian artists. He also commonly joins artists opening for Barenaked Ladies who do not play with a full band. He has done this on the band's Ships and Dip cruises as well.

Song list
Songs written/co-written by Creeggan include the following:
with Barenaked Ladies
 "Grade 9" (with Andy Creeggan, Steven Page, Ed Robertson, Tyler Stewart)
 "Wrap Your Arms Around Me" (with Steven Page, Ed Robertson)
 "I Love You" (with Andy Creeggan, Steven Page, Ed Robertson)
 "Great Provider" (with Steven Page, Ed Robertson)
 "Spider in My Room"
 "In the Drink"
 "Inline Bowline"
 "Maybe Katie" (with Steven Page, Ed Robertson)
 "Next Time" (with Steven Page, Ed Robertson, Kevin Hearn)
 "Long While"
 "Christmas Pics"
 "Everything Had Changed" (with Steven Page, Ed Robertson)
 "Peterborough and the Kawarthas"
 "Pollywog in a Bog" (with Ed Robertson)
 "Louis Loon" (with Ed Robertson)
 "On the Lookout"
 "I Saw It"
 "She Turned Away"
 "Narrow Streets"
 "Who Knew?"
 "We Took the Night"

References

Canadian folk rock musicians
Canadian male songwriters
Canadian double-bassists
Rock double-bassists
Singers from Toronto
1970 births
Living people
People from Scarborough, Toronto
Barenaked Ladies members
20th-century Canadian bass guitarists
21st-century Canadian bass guitarists
20th-century Canadian double-bassists
Male double-bassists
21st-century Canadian double-bassists
Canadian rock bass guitarists
20th-century Canadian violinists and fiddlers
21st-century Canadian violinists and fiddlers
20th-century Canadian male singers
21st-century Canadian male singers
20th-century Canadian guitarists
21st-century Canadian guitarists
20th-century Canadian multi-instrumentalists
21st-century Canadian multi-instrumentalists
Canadian male violinists and fiddlers
Canadian rock violinists

Jim Creeggan


Napoléon-Louis Bonaparte (11 October 1804 – 17 March 1831) was King of Holland for less than two weeks in July 1810 as Louis II (). He was a son of Louis Bonaparte (King Louis I) and Queen Hortense. His father was the younger brother of Napoleon I of France who ruled the Napoleonic Kingdom of Holland from 1806 to 1810. His mother was the daughter of Josephine de Beauharnais, Napoleon's first wife. His younger brother, Louis-Napoléon, became Emperor of the French in 1852 as Napoleon III.

Biography
Napoléon Louis's brother, Napoléon Charles, died in 1807 at the age of four. On his death, Napoléon Louis became Prince Royal of Holland. It also made Napoléon Louis the second eldest nephew of Emperor Napoléon I, who at the time had no legitimate children, and he was his uncle's likely eventual successor. He lost this presumptive status on 20 March 1811 when his uncle's second wife, Marie Louise, gave birth to a son, Napoléon François Joseph Charles Bonaparte, who was styled the King of Rome and later the Duke of Reichstadt.

In 1809, Napoléon I appointed him as Grand Duke of Berg, a status he kept until 1813.

On 1 July 1810, Louis I of Holland abdicated his throne in favour of Napoléon Louis. For the nine days between his father's abdication and the fall of Holland to the invading French army in July 1810, Napoléon Louis reigned as Lodewijk II, King of Holland.

When Napoléon I was deposed in 1815 after the Battle of Waterloo, the House of Bourbon was restored to the throne of France. Napoléon Louis fled into exile, but the Bonapartes never abandoned the thought of restoring the Napoleonic Empire.

On 23 July 1826 Napoléon Louis married his first cousin, Charlotte, who was the daughter of Joseph Bonaparte, eldest brother of Napoléon I. He and his younger brother Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte settled in Italy, where they espoused liberal politics and became involved with the Carbonari, an organization fighting Austria's domination of northern Italy.

On 17 March 1831, while fleeing Italy due to a crackdown on revolutionary activity by Papal and Austrian troops, Napoléon Louis, suffering from measles, died in Forlì. Eventually, the French Empire would be restored by Napoléon Louis's younger brother, Charles-Louis Napoléon, who became Napoléon III in 1852.

Napoléon Louis is buried at Saint-Leu-La-Foret, Île-de-France.

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Napoleon Louis Bonaparte
Napoleon Louis Bonaparte
Napoleon Louis Bonaparte
Grand Dukes of Berg and Cleves
People from the Kingdom of Holland
1804 births
1831 deaths

Napoléon Louis Bonaparte