Honoré-Victorin Daumier (; February 26, 1808February 10, 1879) was a French painter, sculptor, and printmaker, whose many works offer commentary on the social and political life in France, from the Revolution of 1830 to the fall of the second Napoleonic Empire in 1870. He earned a living throughout most of his life producing caricatures and cartoons of political figures and satirizing the behavior of his countrymen in newspapers and periodicals, for which he became well known in his lifetime and is still known today. He was a republican democrat who attacked the bourgeoisie, the church, lawyers and the judiciary, politicians, and the monarchy. He was jailed for several months in 1832 after the publication of Gargantua, a particularly offensive and discourteous depiction of King Louis-Philippe. Daumier was also a serious painter, loosely associated with realism.

Although he occasionally exhibited his paintings at the Parisian Salons, his work was largely overlooked and ignored by the French public and most of the critics of the day. Yet the poet and art critic, Charles Baudelaire and Daumier's fellow painters noticed and greatly admired his paintings, which were to have an influence on a younger generation of impressionist and postimpressionist painters. Later generations have come to recognize Daumier as one of the great French artists of the 19th century.

Daumier was a tireless and prolific artist who produced more than 100 sculptures, 500 paintings, 1,000 drawings, 1,000 wood engravings, and 4,000 lithographs.

Life

Early life: 1808–1830

Daumier was born in the south of France, in Marseille, to Jean-Baptiste Louis Daumier and Cécile Catherine Philippe. His father Jean-Baptiste was a glazier (corresponding nowadays to a framer), a poet and a minor playwright whose literary aspirations led him to move to Paris in 1814, followed by his wife and the young Daumier in 1816. Although Daumier's father succeeded in publishing a book of verse and having an amateur troupe of actors perform his play in 1819, financial success was minimal and the family lived in poverty. At the approximant age of twelve (–21), Daumier started to work because of his father's breakdown. His father found him a job working as an errand boy for a huissier de justice. Later he found employment at Delaunay's, a well established bookstore at the Palais-Royal, a hub of Parisian life, where he began to meet artists, develop an interest in art, and started drawing. He spent much of his free time in the Louvre. In 1822 he became protégé to Alexandre Lenoir, a friend of Daumier's father and the founder of the Musée des Monuments Francais (now Musée national des Monuments Français), who trained Daumier in the fundamentals of art. The following year he entered the Académie Suisse where he was able to draw from live models and develop friendships with other students including Philippe Auguste Jeanron and Auguste Raffet.

Lithography was a relatively new form of printmaking in the early 19th century, invented in Germany in the late 1790s. It was a fast and cheap method of mass-producing prints compared to the traditional practices of engraving and etching. Likewise, the art of the caricature, which was relatively established and popular in England (e.g. William Hogarth, Thomas Rowlandson), was just coming into vogue in France about this time. Lithography studios were emerging in Paris to fill demands for inexpensive illustrated papers and periodicals in a time of social and political upheaval. Daumier learned lithography from Charles Ramelet (1805–1851) and found work with Zéphirin Belliard (1798–1861), producing (often anonymously), miscellaneous illustrations, advertisements, street scenes, portraits, and caricatures in the mid to late 1820s, albeit honing his craft through the years.

Career: 1830–1864

After the "Three Glorious Days" of the July Revolution of 1830 (it is unknown if Daumier participated in actual street fighting), a number of new illustrated satirical journals emerged in Paris. These were left-wing publications, intended for the working classes. They were largely driven by the idea that the 1830 Revolution which brought Louis Philippe to power, was largely fought and won by the workers, but had been commandeered by the ruling class and bourgeoisie for their own gains and benefits, who in turn were favored by the king. Daumier's first works of note appeared in La Silhouette, the first illustrated weekly satirical paper in France which ran from December 1829 to 2 January 1831. Daumier eagerly threw in his support and began to express his political convictions as a working class republican in opposition to the new monarchy, its bureaucracy, and the bourgeoisie that supported and profited from it. The editors of La Silhouette were prosecuted and jailed for a time during the short run of the paper. Charles Philipon and Gabriel Aubert, founded another satirical paper, La Caricature in 1830, starting up just as La Silhouette was folding under pressure from the monarchy. La Caricature invited Daumier to join its staff, a formidable group including  Achille Devéria, Jean Ignace Isidore Gérard (J. J. Grandville),  Auguste Raffet. and a young Honoré de Balzac as a literary editor, who is reported to have said of Daumier's lithographs "Why, this fellow's got Michelangelo in his blood !"

Daumier's caricature of King Louis Philippe, titled Gargantua, was published in December 1831. He was brought to court in February 1832 and charged with "inciting to hatred and contempt of the government and insulting the king" and sentenced to six months imprisonment with a fine of 500 francs. However, his sentence was suspended at that time and Daumier returned to work where he continued to produce provocative and antagonistic lithographs for the papers. It was at this time he started work on his first sculptures, the Célébrités du Juste Milieu (1832 - 1835). Later that year, his cartoon The Court of King Pétaud (1832) was published and he was arrested at his parents apartment in August 1832 and placed in the prison of Sainte-Pélagie to serve his six months. Daumier remained defiant in prison and wrote a number of letters indicating that he was producing lots of drawings "just to annoy the government." The publication of Gargantua and his imprisonment brought Daumier considerable notoriety, and great popularity among some segments of the public, but little financial gain.

After his release from prison on February 14, 1833, Daumier, who had been living with his parents up that time, moved into an artist phalanstery on Rue Saint-Denis, where his friends included Narcisse Virgilio Díaz, Paul Huet, Philippe Auguste Jeanron, Alexandre-Gabriel Decamps, and Antoine-Augustin Préault. He resumed work at La Caricature and continued to publish critical and uncompromising lithographs including Rue Trensnonain, Freedom of the Press, and Past, Present, Future (all 1834) and spent long hours in the Louvre. The founder and editor of La Caricature, Charles Philipon, also endured a number of convictions and spent more time in prison than in his office during its run, as did many editors, authors, and illustrators of the opposition papers of the period. In 1834 La Caricature followed La Silhouette and collapsed after relentless prosecutions and fines from the monarchy. However, Philipon had already started another journal, Le Charivari in December 1832, which continued on with much the same content, and even many of the same staff members, including Daumier. On the fifth anniversary of the July Revolution (July 28, 1835), there was an unsuccessful assassination attempt on King Louis Philippe, the "Fieschi attentat". A couple of months later the "September Laws" were passed, which imposed drastically higher fines and longer, oppressive prison sentences for publications criticizing the king and his regime. Under the new laws limiting the freedom of the press, criticisms and caricature of the monarchy had to be indirect, veiled, and oblique. Louis Philippe was often represented as a pear or with a pear for head. The tone and subjects of Le Charivari and Daumier's lithographs began to change, turning away from direct political affronts, to lighter and humorous cartoons satirizing broader aspects of society, the bourgeoisie, at times scathingly, at other times affectionately. From 1835 to 1845 Daumier lived in the vicinity of Rue de l'Hirondelle and Ile de la Cite. Debt and financial issues were a recurring concern in his life. In one incident in April 1842 his furniture was auctioned off by order of the court to settle his debts.

On February 2, 1846, a seamstress named Alexandrine Dassy gave birth to Daumier's illegitimate son, who was named Honoré Daumier. The couple were married on April 16, 1846. They moved to 9 Quai d'Anjou, on the Ile Saint-Louis in 1846 where they lived until 1863. One author described the Ile-Saint-Louis at that time as "still a place apart, 'a little provincial town' in the midst of Paris.", where toll bridges discouraged casual traffic and artists could find freedom and inexpensive rent. Although Daumier had been doing some painting for a number of years, it was in the late 1840s that he begin to focus and became increasingly dedicated to painting. He exhibited at the Salon for the first time in 1849, showing The Miller, his Son and the Ass. The painter Boissard de Boisdenier was a neighbor with an apartment in the Hôtel Lauzum (a.k.a. Hôtel Pinodan), which was a gathering place for writers, poets, painters, and sculptors where Daumier met many prominent artist of the day. It was there he made the acquaintance of Charles Baudelaire, who soon became a close friend and advocate of his work. Baudelaire contributed to a set of essays published in 1852 celebrating Daumier's lithographs and prints calling him "one of our leading men, not only in caricature, but in modern art." In time, Daumier gained the respect and was on friendly terms with artist such as Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot, Gustave Courbet, Eugène Delacroix, Jean-François Millet, and Théodore Rousseau who, in contrast to the public, often admired Daumier's paintings more than his lithographs. Delacroix thought enough of Daumier's drawings to make copies of them to study.

The Revolutions of 1848 brought allied liberal, democratic leaders to power in France for a time.  When a painting competition for an allegory of the new Republic was announced, Gustave Courbet abstained, and encouraged his friend Daumier to submit a piece. About one hundred artist submitted sketches and designs anonymously to a jury that included Alexandre-Gabriel Decamps, Eugène Delacroix, Paul Delaroche, Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, Philippe Auguste Jeanron, Alphonse de Lamartine, Ernest Meissonier, and Théophile Thoré-Bürger. Daumier presented an oil sketch, The Republic (now in the Musée d'Orsay) that was very well received, and included among the 20 finalist. The finalist were expected to enlarge and articulate their submissions into more finalized designs. However Daumier, who was notorious for failing deadlines and poor punctuality, never followed through with an advanced painting. The following year, he received a commission for a painting from the Ministry of the Interior, via the Académie des Beau-Arts, requesting a sketch for approval, for a sum of 1,000 francs. Five months later the sum was raised to 1,500 francs. The Académie des Beau-Arts pursued the issue for 14 years, yet Daumier never produced a sketch or a painting, although he had accepted advances in payment. Ultimately he gave the government a gouache in 1863, The Drunkenness of Silenus (1849, Musée des Beaux-Arts, Calais), that had been exhibited in the solon of 1850.

Starting around 1853 and onward, he often spent summer months visiting Valmondois and Barbizon, where Corot, Daubigny, Millet, Rousseau, and others were painting, deepening his ties and friendships with the artist of the Barbizon School. By the mid to late 1850s Daumier had reached new levels of artistic maturity and increasingly wished to devote himself to painting. He was growing tired and weary of the grind and endless routine of producing  new cartoons at a steady rate of two, three, sometimes as many as eight a week, yet he was dependent on the income. After 30 years of steadfast production, his caricatures were declining in popularity with the public, and in 1860 Le Charivari dropped him from their staff and ceases to publish his cartoons. While the next few years were a time of financial hardship and struggle, they were also years with free time to devote to painting, and a time of great productivity and artistic growth. Daumier exhibited regularly at the official Salon, although in this period of time it was only held once every two or three years. He suffered a serious illness in 1858.
By 1863 Daumier was selling his furniture to raise funds and he left the Ile-Saint-Louis and moved to a succession of lodgings and apartments in Montmartre, losing contact with many friends and associates. Le Charivari presented him with a new contract in 1864 and he returned to making caricatures and cartoons for a living, and found a receptive audience when he did. By the mid 1860s, a few collectors were starting show some interest in his drawings and watercolors.

Later years: 1865–1879

Daumier spent the summer of 1865 in Valmondois, north of Paris with Théodore Rousseau, who was in declining health, and soon he left Montmartre permanently and rented a small cottage in Valmondois, where he lived for the remainder of his life. Although he had touched on the theme as early as 1850, he started working on Don Quixote in earnest about 1866 or 1867, painting many canvases on the subject over the next few years. He started experiencing failing eyesight around 1865 or 1866 which progressed with time, although he was still producing drawings and poster designs as late as 1872. He continued to exhibit at the Paris Salons for several years, although the canvases he submitted were often over ten years old. In 1864 he had made 100 lithographs and received 400 francs a month, but with very little time to paint. In 1866 he was producing 70 lithographs a year and earning 200 francs a month. In 1870, during the Franco-Prussian War, the newspapers stopped publishing and Daumier was signing promissory notes for his debts. His loyal friend, Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot, secretly bought the house Daumier had been renting in 1868 and bestowed it to him as a surprise, in a letter reading: "Dear old comrade: I had a little house at Valnondois, near Isle-Adam, which was of no use to me. It occurred to me to offer it to you, and finding this was a good idea, I had it registered with the notary. It's not for your sake I am doing this, but to annoy the landlord."

Although he was living a humble life away from Paris, in poverty and debt, and with failing eyesight, some belated recognition of his life's work begin to appear in the last years and months of his life. The Second French Empire intended to award Daumier the Legion of Honor; however, he discreetly declined, feeling it was inconsistent with his political ideals and oeuvre. The French Third Republic again offered Daumier the Legion of Honor and again he declined, although he was later granted a pension of 200 francs a month (2,400 annually) in 1877, which was increased to 400 a month (4,800 annually) in 1878. A circle of his friends and admirers arranged a large exhibition of his paintings at the Durand-Ruel Gallery in Paris. Although the public had seen an occasional canvas in the salons, this was the first time the full scope and range of Daumier's work was exhibited. It was not the financial success his friends had hoped for, but it was very well received by both the public and critics, and a decisive turning point in the perception of Daumier as an important painter. He died several months later, on 11 February 1879.

Art

Paintings

As a painter, Daumier was one of the pioneers of realistic subjects, which he treated with a point of view critical of class distinctions.
Although associated with the realist movement, he did not identify himself as realist or advocate the ideology of realism in the way Gustave Courbet and others did. The art historian Maurice Raynal commented on his relationship with realism "this was not outcome of methods he deliberately chose or took from others. The truth is that realism was both a second nature with him and the consequence of the life he led, Actually, however, he never set up as an adept of realism, indeed it never occurred to him to apply the term to his art: still less to repudiate it" At least one art historian, H. W. Janson placed him among the romantics, calling him "the one great Romantic artist who did not shrink from reality", in contrast to the historic, literary, and the Near Eastern subjects that characterized much of romantic painting. Jean Leymarie wrote "With the temperament of a Romantic and the approach of a Realist, Daumier belongs to the Barbizon generation, except that his domain was the human figure and not landscapes"

Daumier's paintings were radical for the time. One author stated " The uncouthness that some connoisseurs of the time saw in Rembrandt's painting, which was described as "ridiculous" and "disgraceful," was accepted in his prints, which did not have the same function or the same public  (just as for some people Daumier the lithographer excused the painter, while for others the painter ennobled the lithographer)".

Daumier would often set out with a new idea, painting the same subject repetitively, as many as 20 times, until he felt satisfied the theme was exhausted. Some of the subjects he repeatedly explored include: doctors, lawyers and the judicial system, theater and carnival subjects often in stage lighting (including actors, musicians, audiences, and backstage scenes), painters and sculpture in their studios, print and art collectors and connoisseurs, working people on the streets of Paris, the working class at leisure around a table (eating, drinking, playing chess), first and third class carriages, emigrants or refugees in flight, and Don Quixote.

His paintings did not meet with success until 1878, a year before his death. Except for the searching truthfulness of his vision and the powerful directness of his brushwork, it would be difficult to recognize the creator of Robert Macaire, of Les Bas bleus, Les Bohémiens de Paris, and the Masques, in the paintings of Christ and His Apostles (Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam), or in his Good Samaritan, Don Quixote and Sancho Panza, Christ Mocked, or even in the sketches in the Ionides Collection at South Kensington.

Sculptures

Daumier was not only a prolific lithographer, draftsman and painter, but he also produced a notable number of sculptures in unbaked clay. In order to save these rare specimens from destruction, some of these busts were reproduced first in plaster. Bronze sculptures were posthumously produced from the plaster. The major 20th-century foundries were F. Barbedienne Barbedienne, ,  and .

Eventually Daumier produced between 36 busts of French members of Parliament in unbaked clay. The foundries involved from 1927 on to produce a bronze edition were Barbedienne in an edition of 25 & 30 casts and Valsuani with three special casts based on the previous plaster castings from the gallery Sagot - Le Garrec clay collection. These bronze busts are all posthumous, based on the original, but frequently restored unbaked clay sculptures. The clay in its restored version can be seen at the Musée d'Orsay in Paris.

From the early 1950s on, some baked clay 'Figurines' appeared, most of them belonging to the Gobin collection in Paris. It was Gobin who decided to have a bronze cast done by Valsuani in an edition of 30 each. Again, they were posthumous and there is no proof, in contrast to the busts mentioned above, that these terra cotta figurines really were done by Daumier himself. The American school (J.Wasserman from the Fogg-Harvard Museum) doubts their authenticity, while the French school, especially Gobin, Lecomte, and Le Garrec and Cherpin, all somehow involved in the marketing of the bronze editions, are sure of their Daumier origin. The Daumier Register (the international center of Daumier research) as well as the National Gallery of Art in Washington DC would consider the figurines as 'in the manner of Daumier' or even 'by an imitator of Daumier' (NGA)

Daumier created many figurines that he subsequently used as models for his paintings. One of Daumier's most well-known figurines, titled The Heavy Burden, features a woman and her child. The woman is carrying something, possibly a large bag; the figurine is about 14 inches tall. Oliver W. Larkin states that "One sees in the clay the mark of Daumier's swift fingers as he nudged the skirt into windblown folds and used a knife blade or the end of a brush handle to define the clasped arms and the wrinkles of the cloth over the breast. In oil, he could only approximate this small masterpiece most successfully in two canvases were once owned by Arsene Alexandre."

Daumier made several paintings of The Heavy Burden. The woman and her child look like they are being pushed by the wind, and Daumier used this as a metaphor of the greater forces they were actually fighting against. The woman and her child in the painting are outlined by a very dark shadow.

Prints and graphics

Daumier produced his social caricatures for Le Charivari, in which he held bourgeois society up to ridicule in the figure of Robert Macaire, hero of a popular melodrama. In another series, L'histoire ancienne, he took aim at the constraining pseudo-classicism of the art of the period. In 1848 Daumier embarked again on his political campaign, still in the service of Le Charivari, which he left in 1863 and rejoined in 1864.

Around the mid-1840s, Daumier started publishing his famous caricatures depicting members of the legal profession, known as 'Les Gens de Justice', a scathing satire about judges, defendants, attorneys and corrupt, greedy lawyers in general. A number of extremely rare albums appeared on white paper, covering 39 different legal themes, of which 37 had previously been published in the Charivari. It has been said that Daumier's own experience as an employee in a bailiff's office during his youth may have influenced his rather negative attitude towards the legal profession.

In 1834 he produced the lithograph Rue Transnonain, 15 April 1834 depicting the massacre in the rue transnoin which was part of the April 1834 riots in Paris. It was designed for the subscription publication L'Association Mensuelle. The profits were to promote freedom of the press and defrayed legal costs of a lawsuit against the satirical, politically progressive journal Le Charivari to which Daumier contributed regularly. The police discovered the print hanging in the window of printseller Ernest Jean Aubert in the Galerie Véro-Dodat (passageway in 1st arrondissement) and subsequently tracked down and confiscated as many of the prints they could find, along with the original lithographic stone on which the image was drawn. Existing prints of Rue Transnonain are survivors of this effort.

Legacy

Baudelaire noted of him: l'un des hommes les plus importants, je ne dirai pas seulement de la caricature, mais encore de l'art moderne. (One of the most important men, not only, I would say, in caricature, but also in modern art.) Vincent van Gogh was also a great admirer of his work. The first of many monographs on Daumier was published less than ten years after his death, by Arsène Alexander, Honoré Daumier, l'hommé et l'oeuvre, in 1888. An exhibition of his works was held at the École des Beaux-Arts in 1901. Daumier's works are found in many of the world's leading art museums, including the Louvre, the Metropolitan Museum of Art and the Rijksmuseum.  He is celebrated for a range of works, including a large number of paintings (500) and drawings (1000) some of them depicting the life of Don Quixote, a theme that fascinated him for the last part of his life.

A version of Don Quixote and Sancho Panza was found as part of the 2012 Munich Art Hoard.

Daumier's 200th birthday was celebrated in 2008 with a number of exhibitions in Asia, America, Australia and Europe. There is a room-full of caricatures in the museum Am Römerholz in Winterthur.

The Daumier website lists all Daumier exhibitions starting from 1848 to present day. Daumier website

Complete catalogue
The Daumier Register, an internet access to all known oil paintings, drawings, lithographs, woodcuts and sculptures by Daumier, with in-depth research results, provenance information, exhibitions, publications and numerous search functions, was launched in April 2011.

Exhibitions
A list of almost 1,500 Daumier Exhibitions starting as early as 1849 until present time in the Daumier Website: Daumier exhibits and conferences

Galleries
Paintings

Sculpture

Prints and graphics

References

Since 2000, there has been a comprehensive, trilingual digital catalogue raisonné, the Daumier Register. It contains all of Daumier's works with detailed specifications and background information (lithographs, woodcuts, sculptures, drawings, oil paintings, lithographic stones, woodblocks) and is constantly updated with new findings.   Daumier-Register

External links

Daumier works at National Gallery of Art
Daumier Website, complete website on Daumier's life and work; Bibliography, Exhibitions etc.
 Daumier-Register comprehensive, trilingual digital catalogue raisonné containing all of Daumier's works with detailed specifications and background information (lithographs, woodcuts, sculptures, drawings, oil paintings, lithographic stones, woodblocks) and is constantly updated with new findings.
Daumier's biography, style and critical reception
Web Gallery of Art
Daumier Lithographs and some information at Brandeis University
Prints at the Art Institute of Chicago
Honoré Daumier (French, 1808 – 1879) on MutualArt.com
Works at the Musée d'Orsay: paintings and especially good selection of sculptures
 A not so serious guide to an exhibition of 19th century French caricatures by Honoré Daumier, supplied by the Daumier-Register

Website featuring a selection of Daumier videos by the Daumier Register and 500 photographs of Daumier lithographs
Daumier Drawings, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF)

1808 births
1879 deaths
19th-century French painters
Artists from Marseille
Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery
French caricaturists
French editorial cartoonists
French satirists
French male painters
French printmakers
French wood engravers
Legion of Honour refusals
Realist artists
Cartoon controversies
Political controversies in France
Lèse-majesté
19th-century French male artists

Honoré Daumier


Enactivism is a position in cognitive science that argues that cognition arises through a dynamic interaction between an acting organism and its environment. It claims that the environment of an organism is brought about, or enacted, by the active exercise of that organism's sensorimotor processes. "The key point, then, is that the species brings forth and specifies its own domain of problems ...this domain does not exist "out there" in an environment that acts as a landing pad for organisms that somehow drop or parachute into the world. Instead, living beings and their environments stand in relation to each other through mutual specification or codetermination" (p. 198). "Organisms do not passively receive information from their environments, which they then translate into internal representations. Natural cognitive systems...participate in the generation of meaning ...engaging in transformational and not merely informational interactions: they enact a world." These authors suggest that the increasing emphasis upon enactive terminology presages a new era in thinking about cognitive science. How the actions involved in enactivism relate to age-old questions about free will remains a topic of active debate.

The term 'enactivism' is close in meaning to 'enaction', defined as "the manner in which a subject of perception creatively matches its actions to the requirements of its situation". The introduction of the term enaction in this context is attributed to  Francisco Varela, Evan Thompson, and Eleanor Rosch in The Embodied Mind (1991), who proposed the name to "emphasize the growing conviction that cognition is not the representation of a pre-given world by a pre-given mind but is rather the enactment of a world and a mind on the basis of a history of the variety of actions that a being in the world performs". This was further developed by Thompson and others, to place emphasis upon the idea that experience of the world is a result of mutual interaction between the sensorimotor capacities of the organism and its environment. However, some writers maintain that there remains a need for some degree of the mediating function of representation in this new approach to the science of the mind.

The initial emphasis of enactivism upon sensorimotor skills has been criticized as "cognitively marginal", but it has been extended to apply to higher level cognitive activities, such as social interactions. "In the enactive view,... knowledge is constructed: it is constructed by an agent through its sensorimotor interactions with its environment, co-constructed between and within living species through their meaningful interaction with each other. In its most abstract form, knowledge is co-constructed between human individuals in socio-linguistic interactions...Science is a particular form of social knowledge construction...[that] allows us to perceive and predict events beyond our immediate cognitive grasp...and also to construct further, even more powerful scientific knowledge."

Enactivism is closely related to situated cognition and embodied cognition, and is presented as an alternative to cognitivism, computationalism, and Cartesian dualism.

Philosophical aspects

Enactivism is one of  a cluster of related theories sometimes known as the 4Es. As described by Mark Rowlands, mental processes are:
 Embodied involving more than the brain, including a more general involvement of bodily structures and processes.
 Embedded functioning only in a related external environment.
 Enacted involving not only neural processes, but also things an organism does.
 Extended into the organism's environment.

Enactivism proposes an alternative to dualism as a philosophy of mind, in that it emphasises the interactions between mind, body and the environment, seeing them all as inseparably intertwined in mental processes. The self arises as part of the process of an embodied entity interacting with the environment in precise ways determined by its physiology.   In this sense, individuals can be seen to "grow into" or arise from their interactive role with the world.
"Enaction is the idea that organisms create their own experience through their actions. Organisms are not passive receivers of input from the environment, but are actors in the environment such that what they experience is shaped by how they act."

In The Tree of Knowledge Maturana & Varela proposed the term enactive "to evoke the view of knowledge that what is known is brought forth, in contraposition to the more classical views of either cognitivism or connectionism. They see enactivism as providing a middle ground between the two extremes of representationalism and solipsism. They seek to "confront the problem of understanding how our existence-the praxis of our living- is coupled to a surrounding world which appears filled with regularities that are at every instant the result of our biological and social histories.... to find a via media: to understand the regularity of the world we are experiencing at every moment, but without any point of reference independent of ourselves that would give certainty to our descriptions and cognitive assertions.  Indeed the whole mechanism of generating ourselves, as describers and observers tells us that our world, as the world which we bring forth in our coexistence with others, will always have precisely that mixture of regularity and mutability, that combination of solidity and shifting sand, so typical of human experience when we look at it up close."[Tree of Knowledge, p. 241] Another important notion relating to enactivism is autopoiesis. The word refers to a system that is able to reproduce and maintain itself. Maturana & Varela describe that "This was a word without a history, a word that could directly mean what takes place in the dynamics of the autonomy proper to living systems" Using the term autopoiesis, they argue that any closed system that has autonomy, self-reference and self-construction (or, that has autopoietic activities) has cognitive capacities. Therefore, cognition is present in all living systems. This view is also called autopoietic enactivism.

Radical enactivism is another form of enactivist view of cognition. Radical enactivists often adopt a thoroughly non-representational, enactive account of basic cognition. Basic cognitive capacities mentioned by Hutto and Myin include  perceiving, imagining and remembering. They argue that those forms of basic cognition can be explained without positing mental representations. With regard to complex forms of cognition such as language, they think mental representations are needed, because there needs explanations of content. In human being's public practices, they claim that "such intersubjective practices and sensitivity to the relevant norms comes with the mastery of the use of public symbol systems" (2017, p. 120), and so "as it happens, this appears only to have occurred in full form with construction of sociocultural cognitive niches in the human lineage" (2017, p. 134). They conclude that basic cognition as well as cognition in simple organisms such as bacteria are best characterized as non-representational.

Enactivism also addresses the hard problem of consciousness, referred to by Thompson as part of the explanatory gap in explaining how consciousness and subjective experience are related to brain and body.  "The problem with the dualistic concepts of consciousness and life in standard formulations of the hard problem is that they exclude each other by construction". Instead, according to Thompson's view of enactivism, the study of consciousness or phenomenology as exemplified by Husserl and Merleau-Ponty is to complement science and its objectification of the world. "The whole universe of science is built upon the world as directly experienced, and if we want to subject science itself to rigorous scrutiny and arrive at a precise assessment of its meaning and scope, we must begin by reawakening the basic experience of the world of which science is the second-order expression" (Merleau-Ponty, The phenomenology of perception as quoted by Thompson, p. 165). In this interpretation, enactivism asserts that science is formed or enacted as part of humankind's interactivity with its world, and by embracing phenomenology "science itself is properly situated in relation to the rest of human life and is thereby secured on a sounder footing."

Enaction has been seen as a move to conjoin representationalism with phenomenalism, that is, as adopting a constructivist epistemology, an epistemology centered upon the active participation of the subject in constructing reality. However, 'constructivism' focuses upon more than a simple 'interactivity' that could be described as a minor adjustment to 'assimilate' reality or 'accommodate' to it. Constructivism looks upon interactivity as a radical, creative, revisionist process in which the knower constructs a personal 'knowledge system' based upon their experience and tested by its viability in practical encounters with their environment. Learning is a result of perceived anomalies that produce dissatisfaction with existing conceptions.

Shaun Gallagher also points out that pragmatism is a forerunner of enactive and extended approaches to cognition. According to him, enactive conceptions of cognition can be found in many pragmatists such as Charles Sanders Peirce and John Dewey. For example, Dewey says that "The brain is essentially an organ for effecting the reciprocal adjustment to each other of the stimuli received from the environment and responses directed upon it" (1916, pp. 336–337). This view  is fully consistent with enactivist arguments that cognition is not just a matter of brain processes and brain is one part of the body consisting of the dynamical regulation. Robert Brandom, a neo-pragmatist, comments that "A founding idea of pragmatism is that the most fundamental kind of intentionality (in the sense of directedness towards objects) is the practical involvement with objects exhibited by a sentient creature dealing skillfully with its world" (2008, p. 178).

How does constructivism relate to enactivism? From the above remarks it can be seen that Glasersfeld expresses an interactivity between the knower and the known quite acceptable to an enactivist, but does not emphasize  the structured probing of the environment by the knower that leads to the "perturbation relative to some expected result" that then leads to a new understanding. It is this probing activity, especially where it is not accidental but deliberate, that characterizes enaction, and invokes affect, that is, the motivation and planning that lead to doing and to fashioning the probing, both observing and modifying the environment, so that "perceptions and nature condition one another through generating one another." The questioning nature of this probing activity is not an emphasis of Piaget and Glasersfeld.

Sharing enactivism's stress upon both action and embodiment in the incorporation of knowledge, but giving Glasersfeld's mechanism of viability an evolutionary emphasis, is evolutionary epistemology. Inasmuch as an organism must reflect its environment well enough for the organism to be able to survive in it, and to be competitive enough to be able to reproduce at sustainable rate, the structure and reflexes of the organism itself embody knowledge of its environment. This biology-inspired theory of the growth of knowledge is closely tied to universal Darwinism, and is associated with evolutionary epistemologists such as Karl Popper, Donald T. Campbell, Peter Munz, and Gary Cziko. According to Munz, "an organism is an embodied theory about its environment... Embodied theories are also no longer expressed in language, but in anatomical structures or reflex responses, etc."

One objection to enactive approaches to cognition is the so-called "scale-up objection". According to this objection, enactive theories only have limited value because they cannot "scale up" to explain more complex cognitive capacities like human thoughts. Those phenomena are extremely difficult to explain without positing representation. But recently, some philosophers are trying to respond to such objection. For example, Adrian Downey (2020) provides a non-representational account of Obsessive-compulsive disorder, and then argues that ecological-enactive approaches can respond to the "scaling up" objection.

Psychological aspects
McGann & others argue that enactivism attempts to mediate between the explanatory role of the coupling between cognitive agent and environment and the traditional emphasis on brain mechanisms found in neuroscience and psychology.  In the interactive approach to social cognition developed by De Jaegher &  others, the dynamics of interactive processes are seen to play significant roles in coordinating interpersonal understanding, processes that in part include what they call participatory sense-making. Recent developments of enactivism in the area of social neuroscience involve the proposal of The Interactive Brain Hypothesis where social cognition brain mechanisms, even those used in non-interactive situations, are proposed to have interactive origins.

Enactive views of perception
In the enactive view, perception "is not conceived as the transmission of information but more as an exploration of the world by various means. Cognition is not tied into the workings of an 'inner mind', some cognitive core, but occurs in directed interaction between the body and the world it inhabits."

Alva Noë in advocating an enactive view of perception sought to resolve how we perceive three-dimensional objects, on the basis of two-dimensional input.  He argues that we perceive this solidity (or 'volumetricity') by appealing to patterns of sensorimotor expectations. These arise from our agent-active  'movements and interaction' with objects, or 'object-active' changes in the object itself. The solidity is perceived through our expectations and skills in knowing how the object's appearance would change with changes in how we relate to it. He saw all perception as an active exploration of the world, rather than being a passive process, something which happens to us.

Noë's idea of the role of 'expectations' in three-dimensional perception has been opposed by several philosophers, notably by Andy Clark. Clark points to difficulties of the enactive approach.  He points to internal processing of visual signals, for example, in the ventral and dorsal pathways, the two-streams hypothesis. This results in an integrated perception of objects (their recognition and location, respectively) yet this processing cannot be described as an action or actions. In a more general criticism, Clark suggests that perception is not a matter of expectations about sensorimotor mechanisms guiding perception. Rather, although the limitations of sensorimotor mechanisms constrain perception, this sensorimotor activity is drastically filtered to fit current needs and purposes of the organism, and it is these imposed 'expectations' that govern perception, filtering for the 'relevant' details of sensorimotor input (called "sensorimotor summarizing").

These sensorimotor-centered and purpose-centered views appear to agree on the general scheme but disagree on the dominance issue – is the dominant component peripheral or central. Another view, the closed-loop perception one, assigns equal a-priori dominance to the peripheral and central components. In closed-loop perception, perception emerges through the process of inclusion of an item in a motor-sensory-motor loop, i.e., a loop (or loops) connecting the peripheral and central components that are relevant to that item. The item can be a body part (in which case the loops are in steady-state) or an external object (in which case the loops are perturbed and gradually converge to a steady state). These enactive loops are always active, switching dominance by the need.

Another application of enaction to perception is analysis of the human hand. The many remarkably demanding uses of the hand are not learned by instruction, but through a history of engagements that lead to the acquisition of skills. According to one interpretation, it is suggested that "the hand [is]...an organ of cognition", not a faithful subordinate working under top-down instruction, but a partner in a "bi-directional interplay between manual and brain activity." According to Daniel Hutto: "Enactivists are concerned to defend the view that our most elementary ways of engaging with the world and others - including our basic forms of perception and perceptual experience - are mindful in the sense of being phenomenally charged and intentionally directed, despite being non-representational and content-free." Hutto calls this position 'REC' (Radical Enactive Cognition): "According to REC, there is no way to distinguish neural activity that is imagined to be genuinely content involving (and thus truly mental, truly cognitive) from other non-neural activity that merely plays a supporting or enabling role in making mind and cognition possible."

Participatory sense-making

Hanne De Jaegher and Ezequiel Di Paolo (2007) have extended the enactive concept of sense-making into the social domain. The idea takes as its departure point the process of interaction between individuals in a social encounter. De Jaegher and Di Paolo argue that the interaction process itself can take on a form of autonomy (operationally defined). This allows them to define social cognition as the generation of meaning and its transformation through interacting individuals.

The notion of participatory sense-making has led to the proposal that interaction processes can sometimes play constitutive roles in social cognition (De Jaegher, Di Paolo, Gallagher, 2010). It has been applied to research in social neuroscience and autism.

In a similar vein, "an inter-enactive approach to agency holds that the behavior of agents in a social situation unfolds not only according to their individual abilities and goals, but also according to the conditions and constraints imposed by the autonomous dynamics of the interaction process itself". According to Torrance, enactivism involves five interlocking themes related to the question "What is it to be a (cognizing, conscious) agent?" It is:
1. to be a biologically autonomous (autopoietic) organism
2. to generate significance or meaning, rather than to act via...updated internal representations of the external world
3. to engage in sense-making via dynamic coupling with the environment
4. to 'enact' or 'bring forth' a world of significances by mutual co-determination of the organism with its enacted world
5. to arrive at an experiential awareness via lived embodiment in the world.

Torrance adds that "many kinds of agency, in particular the agency of human beings, cannot be understood separately from understanding the nature of the interaction that occurs between agents." That view introduces the social applications of enactivism. "Social cognition is regarded as the result of a special form of action, namely social interaction...the enactive approach looks at the circular dynamic within a dyad of embodied agents."

In cultural psychology, enactivism is seen as a way to uncover cultural influences upon feeling, thinking and acting.  Baerveldt and Verheggen argue that "It appears that seemingly natural experience is thoroughly intertwined with sociocultural realities." They suggest that the social patterning of experience is to be understood through enactivism, "the idea that the reality we have in common, and in which we find ourselves, is neither a world that exists independently from us, nor a socially shared way of representing such a pregiven world, but a world itself brought forth by our ways of communicating and our joint action....The world we inhabit is manufactured of 'meaning' rather than 'information'.

Luhmann attempted to apply Maturana and Varela's notion of autopoiesis to social systems. "A core concept of social systems theory is derived from biological systems theory: the concept of autopoiesis. Chilean biologist Humberto Maturana come up with the concept to explain how biological systems such as cells are a product of their own production." "Systems exist by way of operational closure and this means that they each construct themselves and their own realities."

Educational aspects
The first definition of enaction was introduced by psychologist Jerome Bruner, who introduced enaction as 'learning by doing' in his discussion of how children learn, and how they can best be helped to learn. He associated enaction with two other ways of knowledge organization: Iconic and Symbolic.

"Any domain of knowledge (or any problem within that domain of knowledge) can be represented in three ways: by a set of actions appropriate for achieving a certain result (enactive representation); by a set of summary images or graphics that stand for a concept without defining it fully  (iconic representation); and by a set of symbolic or logical propositions drawn from a symbolic system that is governed by rules or laws for forming and transforming propositions (symbolic representation)"
The term 'enactive framework' was elaborated upon by Francisco Varela and Humberto Maturana.

Sriramen argues that enactivism provides "a rich and powerful explanatory theory for learning and being." and that it is closely related to both the ideas of cognitive development of Piaget, and also the social constructivism of Vygotsky. Piaget focused on the child's immediate environment, and suggested cognitive structures like spatial perception emerge as a result of the child's interaction with the world. According to Piaget, children construct knowledge, using what they know in new ways and testing it, and the environment provides feedback concerning the adequacy of their construction. In a cultural context, Vygotsky suggested that the kind of cognition that can take place is not dictated by the engagement of the isolated child, but is also a function of social interaction and dialogue that is contingent upon a sociohistorical context.  Enactivism in educational theory "looks at each learning situation as a complex system consisting of teacher, learner, and context, all of which frame and co-create the learning situation." Enactivism in education is very closely related to situated cognition, which holds that "knowledge is situated, being in part a product of the activity, context, and culture in which it is developed and used." This approach challenges the "separating of what is learned from how it is learned and used."

Artificial intelligence aspects

The ideas of enactivism regarding how organisms engage with their environment have interested those involved in robotics and man-machine interfaces. The analogy is drawn that a robot can be designed to interact and learn from its environment in a manner similar to the way an organism does, and a human can interact with a computer-aided design tool or data base using an interface that creates an enactive environment for the user, that is, all the user's tactile, auditory, and visual capabilities are enlisted in a mutually explorative engagement, capitalizing upon all the user's abilities, and not at all limited to cerebral engagement. In these areas it is common to refer to affordances as a design concept, the idea that an environment or an interface affords opportunities for enaction, and good design involves optimizing the role of such affordances.

The activity in the AI community has influenced enactivism as a whole. Referring extensively to modeling techniques for evolutionary robotics by Beer, the modeling of learning behavior by Kelso, and to modeling of sensorimotor activity by Saltzman, McGann, De Jaegher, and Di Paolo discuss how this work makes the dynamics of coupling between an agent and its environment, the foundation of enactivism, "an operational, empirically observable phenomenon." That is, the AI environment invents examples of enactivism using concrete examples that, although not as complex as living organisms, isolate and illuminate basic principles.

Mathematical formalisms

Enactive cognition has been formalised in order to address subjectivity in artificial general intelligence.

A mathematical formalism of AGI is an agent proven to maximise a measure of intelligence. Prior to 2022, the only such formalism was AIXI, which maximised "the ability to satisfy goals in a wide range of environments". In 2015 Jan Lieke and Marcus Hutter showed that "Legg-Hutter intelligence is measured with respect to a fixed UTM. AIXI is the most intelligent policy if it uses the same UTM", a result which "undermines all existing optimality properties for AIXI", rendering them subjective.

See also

Action-specific perception
Autopoesis
Biosemiotics
Cognitive science
Cognitive psychology
Computational theory of mind
Connectivism
Cultural psychology
Distributed cognition
Embodied cognition
Embodied embedded cognition
Enactive interfaces
Extended cognition
Extended mind
Externalism#Enactivism and embodied cognition
Mind–body problem
Phenomenology (philosophy)
Practopoiesis
Representationalism
Situated cognition
Social cognition

References

Further reading

 Di Paolo, E. A., Rohde, M. and De Jaegher, H., (2010). Horizons for the Enactive Mind: Values, Social Interaction, and Play. In J. Stewart, O. Gapenne and E. A. Di Paolo (eds), Enaction: Towards a New Paradigm for Cognitive Science, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, pp. 33 – 87.
Gallagher, Shaun (2017). Enactivist Interventions: Rethinking the Mind. Oxford University Press.
 Hutto, D. D. (Ed.)  (2006).  Radical Enactivism: Intentionality, phenomenology, and narrative.  In R. D. Ellis & N. Newton (Series Eds.), Consciousness & Emotion, vol. 2.
 McGann, M. & Torrance, S. (2005).  Doing it and meaning it (and the relationship between the two).  In R. D. Ellis & N. Newton, Consciousness & Emotion, vol. 1: Agency, conscious choice, and selective perception. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Merleau-Ponty, Maurice (2005). Phenomenology of Perception. Routledge.  (Originally published 1945)
Noë, Alva (2010). Out of Our Heads: Why You Are Not Your Brain, and Other Lessons from the Biology of Consciousness. Hill and Wang.

(fr) Domenico Masciotra. (2023) Une approche énactive des formations, Théorie et Méthode. En devenir compétent et connaisseur. ASCAR Inc.

Notes

External links

 Slides related to a chapter on haptic perception (recognition through touch):

 An overview of the rationale and means and methods for the study of representations that the learner constructs in his/her attempt to understand knowledge in a given field. See in particular §188.8.131.52 Toward social representations (p. 24)
 An extensive but uncritical introduction to the work of Francisco Varela and Humberto Maturana
 Entire journal issue on enactivism's status and current debates.

Action (philosophy)
Behavioral neuroscience
Cognitive science
Consciousness
Educational psychology
Emergence
Epistemology of science
Knowledge representation
Metaphysics of mind
Motor cognition
Neuropsychology
Philosophy of perception
Philosophical theories
Philosophy of psychology
Psychological concepts
Psychological theories
Sociology of knowledge

Enactivism


The Ponte della Libertà (Liberty Bridge) is a road bridge connecting the islands that form the historical centre of the city of Venice to the mainland part of the city.

Designed in 1932 by engineer Eugenio Miozzi, it was opened by Benito Mussolini in 1933 as Ponte Littorio ("Lictor's bridge") – a name used during the Fascist era for several other Italian bridges.
At the end of World War II it was renamed Ponte della Libertà to honour the end of the Fascist dictatorship and of the Nazi occupation.

The bridge is the only vehicular access to the historical centre of the Venice.
 The eastern end of the road terminates in the Piazzale Roma, the bus depot for the historical centre.
 The western end reaches mainland Venice and becomes the Via Libertà, which divides the Venetian boroughs () of Mestre (north) and Marghera (south). It is final section of the old Public Road 11, the .

It is  long and has two lanes (but no emergency lane) with a tram track each way. There is also a pedestrian and cycle path on the southern side.  It was built alongside the Venice Railway Viaduct, which had been constructed in 1846. This has two tracks each way and is still in use.

In popular culture
The bridge was a major location for the White Album fight in the manga and anime JoJo's Bizarre Adventure: Golden Wind.

See also
The Causeway, Bermuda: A similar bridge in Bermuda

References

Bridges in Venice
Ponte della Libertà
Road bridges in Italy
Ponte della Libertà
Ponte della Libertà
Ponte della Libertà
Mestre

Ponte della Libertà


Workplace listening is a type of active listening that is generally employed in a professional environment. Listening skills are imperative for career success, organizational effectiveness, and worker satisfaction. Workplace listening includes understanding the listening process (i.e. perception, interpretation, evaluation, and action) and its barriers that hamper the flow of that process. Like other skills, there are specific techniques for improving workplace listening effectiveness. Moreover, it is imperative to become aware of the role of nonverbal communication in communicating in the workplace, as understanding messages wholly entails more than simple verbal messages.

See also

References
 Anderson. P.A. (2008). Nonverbal Communication Forms and Functions (2nd ed.). Long Grove: Waveland Press Inc.
 Guffey, M.E., Rhodes, K., & Rogin, P. (2006). Business Communication: process and product (3rd ed.). Mason: Thomson South-Western.

Counseling
Behavioural sciences
Workplace

Workplace listening


Kugozha kana kuwoma (be difficult) kureva kusava nyore kunzwisisa kana kuita.

Kukonza (be difficult, hard) apa zvichireva kuwoma kana kugozha. Zvichida ndipo panobva mazita anonzi Mukonzo kana Mukonza?
Kureruka (adj. easy, light).

Kurerutsa Mutauro

Chiripo here chinonyanya kukonza kunaMambo Mwari? Is anything too hard for the Lord God? (Genesis 18:14).
Chiro chaanobvunza mambo chakakonza kakurutu...: The king is asking a difficult thing... (Daniel 2:11, Bhaibheri reChiNdau).
Hakunazve chakafishika chinokukonzera: ... no mystery is too difficult for you (Daniel 4:9, Bhaibheri reChiNdau).
Asi apo mwoyo wake wadzikudza, nomweya wake wakonzeswa ngokudzikudza, wakabviswa padendemaro roumambo hwake..: But when his heart became arrogant and hardened with pride, he was deposed from his royal throne.... (Daniel 5:11, Bhaibheri reChiNdau).

Mitauro yeBantu

VaLenje vanoti konsha (v. be firm, strong, be strong).
VaKikuyu vanoti kuoma (to be difficult) vachireva kuwoma.
VaGwere vanoti bugosi (n. difficulty, complexity, complicatedness) vachireva hugozhi.

Dzidzo

Kugozha


William Osborne Greenwood FRSE (1873–1947) was a curious (and perhaps unique) Briton qualified both as a surgeon and a minister of religion. He wrote on both subjects. Issues covering both fields included debates on the agony of childbirth. His book Biology and Christian Belief ran to several editions.

Life

He was born in Halifax, West Yorkshire. He attended Skipton Grammar School then the University of Leeds before studying medicine at  the University of London, graduating MB BS in 1903.

In 1922 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. His proposers were John William Ballantyne, James Haig Ferguson, Sir John Halliday Croom and Alexander Hugh Freeland Barbour.

In 1930 he began a completely new career and was ordained as a deacon in the Church of England. He became curate of Spofforth, North Yorkshire.

He died on 8 January 1947.

Publications

A Study in Twilight Sleep (1916)
Scopolamine-morphine: Semi-Narcosis During Labour (1919)
Biology and Christian Belief (1938)
Christianity and the Mechanists (1941)

References

Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
British surgeons
Alumni of the University of London
1873 births
1947 deaths
Alumni of the University of Leeds

William Osborne Greenwood


Ujjain is a city in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh, India. Ujjain is a very old city, and one of the seven holy cities of the Hindus. It was an important city of Ancient India.it is known for the Mahakaleshwar Temple, a towering structure with a distinctively ornate roof. Nearby, Bade Ganesh Temple houses a colorful statue of Ganesh, the elephant-headed Hindu deity. Harsiddhi Temple features a pair of tall dark pillars studded with lamps.

Cities in Madhya Pradesh

Ujjain


Swedish Romantic literature denotes Swedish literature between 1809 and 1830. In Europe, the period from circa 1805–1840 is known as Romanticism. It was also strongly featured in Sweden, based on German influences. During this relatively short period, there were so many great Swedish poets, that the era is referred to as the Golden Age of Swedish poetry. The period started around 1810 when several periodicals were published that contested the literature of the 18th century. An important society was the Gothic Society (1811), and their periodical Iduna, a romanticised retrospect to  Gothicismus.

One significant reason was that several poets for the first time worked towards a common direction. Four of the main romantic poets that made significant contributions to the movements were: the professor of history Erik Gustaf Geijer, the loner Erik Johan Stagnelius, professor of Greek language Esaias Tegnér and professor of aesthetics and philosophy P.D.A. Atterbom.

Geijer (1783–1847) was one of the earliest and most prominent members of the neo-gothicist Gothic Society. As a professor he published two cultural-historical works: "Svea rikes hävder" and "Svenska folkets historia", where he gave support to the idea of the Viking Age being a cultural height that was suppressed during the Middle Ages. Stagnelius (1793–1823) spent his short adult years living as an outsider in Stockholm. Many of his poems deal with the beauty in nature, encompassing the loneliness of the soul, and it is both for his beauty and his mysticism that Stagnelius's works were to attain recognition. The fame of Atterbom (1790–1855) comes from his flower poetry: Lycksalighetens ö ("Island of Bliss"), 1824–1827, and a collection of poetry called Blommorna.

Esaias Tegnér (1782–1846) has been described as the first modern Swedish man, in the sense that very much is known about both his life and his person, and that he left an extensive correspondence. His greatest success was Frithiof's Saga (1820–1825), a romanticized version of the Icelandic sagas but in a modern dress. The work was translated into several languages, put to music in Sweden, where it had status of a national epos until the realism of the 1880s obsoleted it.

Early liberalism
Fredrika Bremer (1801–1865) was the first writer of realism novel, in the spirit of Jane Austen, and her most important contribution is that she introduced the novel in Swedish on a large scale. Her most important novel was her last: Hertha, in 1856. Hertha is not so much a novel as it is a political debate of women's rights.

Viktor Rydberg (1828–1895) was a key figure in the Swedish culture between 1855 and the modern breakthrough in 1879. In the spirit of Dickens, Rydberg wrote adventurous novels and stories that in reality were dealing with the poor and exposed people of society. Several works tried to define a world where Christianity became integrated with humanistic ideals of ancient Greece. Rydberg was also noted for groundbreaking historical and theological works.

When Sweden lost Finland in 1809, Finnish literature moved in its own direction. For the remainder of the 19th century however, it was still the educated Swedish speaking minority in Finland that authored most of Finland's literature. A key figure was the Swedish speaking Johan Ludvig Runeberg (1804–1877), was established himself as Finland's national poet, a distinction he has kept into modern times. His most important work was The Tales of Ensign Stål (1848–1860), an epic poem about the Finnish War (1808–1809), the first verse of which became Finland's national anthem. After Runeberg, it was Zacharius Topelius (1818–1898) who took the role of national Finnish author. Although he wrote both novels and poetry, his most important contributions were children's books with Läsning för barn (Reading for Children, 1865–1896).

Notes and references

 Algulin, Ingemar, A History of Swedish Literature, published by the Swedish Institute, 1989.
 Gustafson, Alrik A History of Swedish Literature (2 volumes), 1961.
 Tigerstedt, E.N., Svensk litteraturhistoria (Tryckindustri AB, Solna, 1971)

Swedish literature
Romanticism

Swedish Romantic literature


In 1917, games started to be played in the National Hockey League. In the first two seasons, there were only three teams, but now, there are thirty-one. Over the time that it has been around the NHL has added and lost teams many times. This is the complete history of organizational changes in the NHL.

Early Years
The first four NHL teams were the Montreal Canadiens, Montreal Wanderers, the original Ottawa Senators and the Toronto Arenas, but after only playing four games, the Wanderers arena was burned down. This made them leave the league.

In the 1919-20 NHL season, the NHL added its first new team - the Quebec Bulldogs. Also, the Toronto Arenas changed their name to the St. Patricks. In the 1920-21 NHL season, the Quebec Bulldogs moved to Hamilton and became the Tigers.

Two new teams joined the league in the 1924-25 NHL season - the Boston Bruins and the Montreal Maroons.

The next season, the NHL added another new team - the  Pittsburgh Pirates. Also, the Hamilton Tigers moved to New York City and became the New York Americans.

The NHL continued to add teams the next season, adding the Chicago Black Hawks, the Detroit Cougars and the New York Rangers. This means the league finished its first season with three teams in 1917, but ended up with more than three times more by the end of their first decade. Also, during this season, the Toronto St. Patricks changed their name to the Maple Leafs. In the 1930-31 NHL season, the Pirates moved to Philadelphia and became the Quakers, while the Detroit Cougars changed their name to the Falcons.

The NHL finally lost a team four the first time in fourteen seasons. The Philadelphia Quakers and Ottawa Senators did not play in the 1931-32 NHL season.

In the 1932-33 NHL season, the Ottawa Senators rejoined the league and the Detroit Falcons were renamed the Red Wings. In the 1934-35 NHL season, the Ottawa Senators moved to St. Louis and became the Eagles.

The NHL lost the Eagles after playing just one season in St. Louis and the league was again an eight-team league for three seasons.

The league lost the Montreal Maroons in the 1938-39 NHL season, bringing the number of teams to seven, the same number of teams there were 12 years before. There were seven teams for four seasons. The last season there was this many teams was 1941-42. That year, the New York Americans moved to Brooklyn and left the league the next season.

Original Six
When the league lost the Brooklyn Americans in 1943, a new era began called the Original Six era. For the next 25 years, there were no organization changes.

Expansion Years
The 1966-67 NHL season was the last year of the Orginal Six era because in the 1967-68 NHL season, there were 12 teams, or twice as many as there were the year before. The new six teams were the California Seals, the Los Angeles Kings, the Minnesota North Stars, the Philadelphia Flyers, the Pittsburgh Penguins and the St. Louis Blues. During this season, California was renamed the Oakland Seals.

The Oakland Seals were then renamed the California Golden Seals for the 1970-71 NHL season. The same year, the league added two new teams - the Buffalo Sabres and the Vancouver Canucks.

Two more teams joined the NHL two years later - the New York Islanders and the Atlanta Flames.

Again, after two years, two more teams joined the NHL - the Washington Capitals and the Kansas City Scouts. Two years later, the California Golden Seals moved to Cleveland and became the Barons. The Kansas City Scouts moved also to Denver and became the Colorado Rockies.

In the 1978-79 NHL season, the members of the Cleveland Barons franchise became part of the Minnesota North Stars. This was the forced time since 1942 that the league lost a team.

In 1979, the World Hockey Association (WHA) ended and four teams from the league joined the NHL. They were the Edmonton Oilers, the New England Whalers (who became the Hartford Whalers after joining the league), the Quebec Nordiques and the Winnipeg Jets. At this point, the NHL had three Canadian teams, but with three of the teams coming from the WHA being Canadian, there were then twice as many Canadian teams as before.

Twenty-one teams
In the 1980-81 NHL season, the Atlanta Flames moved to Calgary Flames. Then, in the 1982-83 NHL season, the Colorado Rockies moved to Newark and became the New Jersey Devils. In the 1986-87 NHL season, the Chicago Black Hawks changed the spelling of their name to Black Hawks.

Further Expansion
In 1991, lots of teams were beginning to be added to the NHL. That year, it started with the San Jose Sharks.

Two new teams joined the league the next season - the Ottawa Senators and the Tampa Bay Lightning.

The next season, another two teams joined the league - the Florida Panthers and the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim. Also, the Minnesota North Stars moved to Dallas Stars and dropped the word "north" from their name. In the 1995-96 NHL season, the Quebec Nordiques moved to Denver and became the Colorado Avalanche. The next season, the Winnipeg Jets moved also to Phoenix and became the Coyotes. The season after that, the Hartford Whalers moved to Raleigh and became the Carolina Hurricanes.

The Nashville Predators joined the league for the 1998-99 NHL season.

For next season, another team joined the league - the Atlanta Thrashers.

Thirty Teams
The NHL added the Columbus Blue Jackets and the Minnesota Wild for the 2000-01 NHL season, bringing the number of teams to thirty. This was the number of teams there were for 17 seasons. The Mighty Ducks of Anaheim changed their name to the Anaheim Ducks in the 2006-07 NHL season. Then, the Atlanta Thrashers moved to Winnipeg to become the Jets in the 2011-12 NHL season. Finally, the Phoenix Coyotes changed their name to the Arizona Coyotes in the 2014-15 NHL season.

Modern Expansion
In the 2017-18 NHL season, the Vegas Golden Knights joined the league. The Seattle Kraken will join the league in the 2021–22 season.

National Hockey League

History of organizational changes in the NHL


The flag of the State of Utah was adopted in February 2011 and consists of the seal of Utah encircled in a golden circle on a background of dark navy blue. It replaced a previous, albeit rather similar flag that had been in use since 1913. It is one of the state flags of the United States.

From 2018 to 2023, the state legislature worked on legislation to assess the need for a new flag and to design a new flag with citizen input. The new flag design was passed during the 2023 legislative session and will become official in March 2024.

Symbolism

A bald eagle, the national bird of the United States, symbolizes protection in peace and war. The sego lily, the state flower of Utah, represents peace. The state motto "Industry" and the beehive represent progress and hard work. The U.S. flags show Utah's support and commitment to the United States. The state name "Utah" appears below the beehive. The date 1847 represents the year the Mormon pioneers entered the Salt Lake Valley, while 1896 represents the year that Utah was admitted as the 45th state to the Union. The six arrows represent the six Native American tribes that live in Utah (Shoshone, Goshute, Navajo, Paiute, Northern Utes, and White Mesa Utes). David Rindlisbach (Art Director) placed 45 stars on the flag this time to represent Utah is the 45th state to join the Union, though the current design has 46 stars (23 on each flag).

Alternatively, the sego lily, a flowering plant that survives in the arid Great Basin climate, provided food to the early pioneer colony, helping the settlers survive the harsh winters after their arrival in the Salt Lake Valley.  Thus it became the state flower.  The eagle and flanking flags are also important symbols; Utah's is one of the few state flags to carry the American flag as part of the design.  This is because the Mormon settlers were thought not to be loyal to the United States, which was one of the reasons statehood was not granted to Utah until nearly 50 years after the original settlements.

It is one of ten U.S. state flags to feature an eagle, alongside those of Illinois, Iowa, Michigan, Missouri, New York, North Dakota, Oregon, Pennsylvania and Wyoming. It is also one of two U.S. state flags to contain an image of the Stars and Stripes flag, the other being that of New Hampshire.

History

Pre-statehood

Members of the Church of Jesus Christ Pioneers Flag

Flag designed by council in 1848, this flag was the first flag designed to unify the Saints as they celebrated their first pioneer day. This flag was lost in the 1850s but later recreated by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in 2002 and has flown on Ensign Peak since.

Flag of the State of Deseret

According to most descriptions, the flag of the State of Deseret was similar to the flag of the State of Utah, but as it was not standardized, multiple other secular and religious alternatives were also used.

Utah Territory

Blue fabric with the old coat of arms of Utah Territory.

State of Utah

1903 design

The flag's basic design uses the Seal of Utah which was adopted by the state legislature on April 3, 1896. The seal was designed by artist Harry Edwards, and has similarities with the seal of the Utah Territory. The state's first flag was created in March 1903 to be used at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition in St. Louis, Missouri. Heber M. Wells, the governor of Utah, asked the Utah State Chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution to oversee the creation of a flag. On May 1, 1903, the governor and his delegation marched, under the new flag, in the parade of states. The flag was blue, with the state seal and the year '1896' hand-embroidered in white thread in the flag's center. Initially, this flag was known as the "Governor's Flag" until Senate Joint Resolution 17 was passed by the legislature on March 9, 1911, making it the official state flag.

There is currently no evidence that the Utah Territory flag was made into an actual flag to fly during the Territory's existence (1850–1896), though copies have since been made.

1913 design

In 1912, the Sons and Daughters of Utah Pioneers ordered a custom made copy of the newly adopted flag to be presented to the recently commissioned battleship . When the flag arrived, the group discovered that the shield on the flag was in full color instead of white, and the manufacturer had added a gold ring around the shield. Rather than have the flag remade, Annie Wells Cannon introduced HJR 1 and the Utah legislature changed the law to allow the manufacturer's changes to become part of the official flag. Prior to being received by the Ship on June 25, 1913, the new flag was displayed at the state capitol in January 1913, then in the ZCMI windows on Main Street and at a ball held in honor of the flag.

During the 59th state legislative session in 2011, a Concurrent Resolution (HCR002) was adopted requiring flag makers to fix a mistake found on all current Utah state flags. The mistake originated in 1922 when a flag maker misplaced the year 1847, by stitching it just above the year 1896, instead of in its correct position on the shield. It is believed every flag made since 1922 used this flag as a model, and the mistake persisted for 89 years. Later that same 2011 session, House Bill #490 passed the legislature, making March 9 an annual Utah State Flag day.

History of redesign attempts

1927 redesign attempt

In 1927, then-Governor George Dern, during his address to the Utah State Legislature, requested the State adopt a much simpler flag that could be made quickly and cheaply and could fly alongside the American flag. Nothing was done, however, until in 1930 when flag enthusiast Lilliebell Falck, from Ogden, approached him with a few simplified designs. Her favorite was a white beehive with 28 lines to represent Utah's counties. However, with growing opposition to the design by the Sons and Daughters of Utah Pioneers, the design was eventually scrapped later that year.

Salt Lake Tribune design contest (2002)
In 2002, The Salt Lake Tribune, along with the North American Vexillological Association, solicited designs for a new state flag. Over 1,000 designs were collected, with the top 35 selected for judging. However, no flags from this contest were adopted by the state.

Utah State Flag Design Effort (2018–2023)
In 2018, State Representatives Steve Handy and Keven Stratton proposed 2 different approaches to updating the Utah flag. Representative Handy proposed creating a flag commission to receive input and designs from the public, with the ultimate goal of proposing a new flag to the legislature. Representative Stratton sponsored separate legislation to adopt a specific flag design. The Utah House of Representatives was more amenable to a proposal to involve the public with a commission, but ultimately both efforts failed in 2019.

Representative Handy proposed another bill in 2020, this time keeping the current flag as a "historical flag". However the effort stalled in the House Political Subdivions Committee on a tie vote.

After the 2020 defeat, State Senator Daniel McCay started the bill in the Utah Senate. To prepare for the debate, the House and Senate watched a Ted Talk by Roman Mars, "Why city flags may be the worst designed thing you've never noticed." In addition to the Ted Talk, the lead designer for the Utah Jazz, Ben Barnes, shared a set of prototype designs for lawmakers.In 2021, Senator McCay sponsored a bill to create a task force to redesign the Utah state flag. The bill also designated an official flag to commemorate the 125th anniversary of Utah's statehood. The bill passed in the House and the Senate and was signed into law by Governor Spencer Cox.

In 2022, the Utah State Flag Task Force accepted design submissions from the public. 5,703 designs were submitted, 2,500 of which were submitted by students. In September, 20 semifinalist designs were announced and Utahns were asked to submit their feedback. During the month-long comment period, 44,000 survey responses were given.

On November 10, 2022, the Task Force submitted a final proposal to the Utah State Legislature for adoption as the official state flag. On January 18, 2023, the Utah Senate Business and Labor Committee voted 6–1 to advance the flag to the State Senate, with McCay saying he hopes the new flag design will reach Spencer Cox's desk by March 3.

On January 30, 2023, the State Senate approved the bill 17–10, which advanced to the State House of Representatives for approval. However, the flag was slightly modified; the eight-pointed star was replaced by a five-pointed star after a Native American constituent expressed reservations over the former, saying it looked more like an asterisk from a distance. The eight pointed star represented the eight federally-recognized nations, while the five pointed star represents the five historical nations in Utah (Navajo, Shoshone, Goshute, Paiute and Ute).

On March 2, 2023, the Utah House of Representatives approved the bill 40-35, and the State Senate passed the concurrence vote 19-9-1, sending the bill to the governor's desk for signing.

Implementation and 2011 flag retention efforts
The bill was signed by Governor Cox on March 21, 2023, along with an executive order formalizing the change. The bill—and the new flag—will go into effect by March 9, 2024, thus providing a one-year phase-in period to gradually transition to the new flag. The bill also designates the prior design as the official historic flag which may continue to be used by all. The executive order mandates that the historic flag be flown above the state capitol every day of the year and once the bill goes into effect, the two flags should be flown from different flagpoles on capitol grounds. The order also petitions the legislature to amend the bill to allow the new flag to be flown below the historic flag when they are flown together.

Opponents of the new flag announced a campaign to initiate a referendum on the adoption on the flag, hoping to retain the old flag, in spite of language in the bill that retains the historic flag. The signature campaign failed, ultimately receiving only 21,030 verified signatures; official verification was halted after fewer than 50,000 signatures of the 134,298 required were submitted to county clerks. Flag opponents have since launched another signature campaign to put the issue on the 2024 ballot as an initiative.  At a Utah Republican Party convention held on April 22, an "overwhelming" number of the 2,000 delegates that attended voted to oppose the new flag. A public opinion poll conducted by the Hinckley Institute of Politics found that 48% of respondents supported the new flag, 35% opposed it, and 17% didn't know.

On May 17, 2023, the Utah State Capitol raised the new flag for the first time.

See also

 State of Utah
 Symbols of the State of Utah
 Great Seal of the State of Utah

References

Further reading

External links

 Utah State Flag

Utah
Symbols of Utah
Flags of Utah
2011 establishments in Utah
1913 establishments in Utah
2022 establishments in Utah
Utah
Utah
Utah
Utah

Flag of Utah


데이비드 S. 닥커리(David S. Dockery, 1952년 10월 28일~)는 일리노이드 주 디어필드에 있는  트리니티 국제 대학교의 총장이다. 2014년 2월 28일부터 총장직을 수행하고 있으며 그 전에는 유니온 대학에서 총장을 했다.  40개 이상의 저작을 집필했다.

교육
 University of Alabama-Birmingham - Bachelor's degree
 Grace Theological Seminary - Master's degree
 Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary - Master's degree
 Texas Christian University - Master's degree
 University of Texas system - Ph.D. in Humanities

작품
 The Doctrine of the Bible (Nashville: Convention Press, 1991; reprint, Nashville: Seminary Extension, 1998).
 Biblical Interpretation Then and Now (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1992, reprint 2000).
 Seeking the Kingdom: The Sermon on the Mount Made Practical, co-authored with David E. Garland (Wheaton: Harold Shaw, 1992).
 Christian Scripture: An Evangelical Perspective on Inspiration, Authority, and Interpretation (Nashville: B&H Publishing, 1995). Also translated into Romanian. Ephesians: One Body in Christ (Nashville: Convention, 1996). Our Christian Hope: Bible Answers to Questions About the Future (Nashville: Lifeway Press, 1998) Basic Christian Beliefs (Shepherd's Notes Series; Nashville: B&H Publishing, 1999). Holman Guide to Interpreting the Bible, with George H. Guthrie (Nashville: B&H Publishing, 2004). Building Bridges, with Timothy George (Nashville: Convention Press, 2007) Renewing Minds: Serving Church and Society Through Christian Higher Education (Nashville: B&H Publishing Group, 2007; Second Edition 2008) Southern Baptist Consensus and Renewal: A Biblical, Historical and Theological Proposal (Nashville: B&H Publishing, 2008) Ecclesiastes (Nashville: Lifeway Press, 2011) The Great Tradition of Christian Thinking, with Timothy George (Wheaton: Crossway, 2012) Books edited Baptist Theologians, co-editor and contributor with Timothy George (Nashville: Broadman, 1990) chapter on "Millard J. Erickson." Revell Bible Dictionary, consulting editor (Old Tappan: Fleming H. Revell, 1990). People of God: Essays on the Believers' Church, co-editor with Paul Basden (Nashville: Broadman, 1991). New Testament Criticism and Interpretation, co-editor and contributor with David Alan Black (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1991) chapter on "The History of New Testament Interpretation." Beyond the Impasse?: Scripture, Interpretation, and Theology in Baptist Life, co-editor with Robison B. James (Nashville: Broadman, 1992) chapter on "A People of the Book: The Crisis of Biblical Authority Today." Holman Bible Handbook, general editor and contributor (Nashville: Holman, 1992) sections on "Pauline Letters," "History of Biblical Interpretation," "Christian Faith and the Christian Community," and "The Lord's Supper." The Concise Bible Dictionary, consulting editor (Old Tappan: Fleming H. Revell, 1992). Holman Book of Biblical Charts, Maps and Reconstructions, contributing editor (Nashville: Holman, 1993). Southern Baptists and American Evangelicals: The Conversation Continues, editor and contributor (Nashville: Broadman, 1993) chapters on "Introduction to Southern Baptists and American Evangelicals" and "Evangelical Responses to Southern Baptists." Foundations for Biblical Interpretation, co-editor and contributor with Robert B. Sloan and Kenneth A. Mathews (Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 1994) chapter on "The Study and Interpretation of the Bible." The Challenge of Postmodernism: An Evangelical Engagement, editor and contributor (Grand Rapids: Baker/BridgePoint, 1995, revised edition 2001) chapter on "The Challenge of Postmodernism." The Best of A. T. Robertson, compiler (Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 1996). New Dimensions in Evangelical Theology: Essays in Honor of Millard J. Erickson, editor (Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1998). Chapter on "Millard J. Erickson." Holman Concise Bible Commentary, general editor (Nashville: B&H Publishing, 1998). Section on the "Pauline Epistles." Translated into Spanish. The Integration of Faith and Learning: A Basic Bibliography, editor and compiler (1998). The Future of Christian Higher Education, co-editor with David P. Gushee (B&H Publishing, 1999). Chapters on "The Future of Christian Higher Education: An Introduction," "The Great Commandment As a Paradigm for Christian Higher Education," "The Role of Professional Education in Christian Higher Education," and "The Grandeur of God and Real Education: A Strategy for Integrating Faith in a Post-Christian Culture." New Testament Interpretation, co-edited with David Alan Black (Nashville: B&H Publishing, 2000). Chapter on the History of New Testament Interpretation. Theologians of the Baptist Tradition, co-edited with Timothy George (Nashville: B&H Publishing, 2001). Chapters on John A. Broadus, A.T. Robertson, and Hershel Hobbs. Shaping a Christian Worldview, co-edited with Greg Thornbury (Nashville: B&H Publishing, 2002). Chapter on Shaping a Christian Worldview. John A. Broadus: A Living Legacy, co-edited with Roger Duke (Nashville: B&H Publishing, 2008). Chapter on "Mighty in the Scriptures." Southern Baptist Identity: An Evangelical Denomination Faces the Future (Wheaton: Crossway, 2009). Chapter on "Southern Baptists in the 21st Century." Christian Leadership Essentials, editor (Nashville: B&H Publishing, 2011) Southern Baptists, Evangelicals and the Future of Denominationalism, editor (Nashville: B&H Publishing, 2011) Faith and Learning: A Handbook for Christian Higher Education, editor (Nashville: B&H Publishing, 2012)

1952년 출생
미국의 대학 총장
살아있는 사람

데이비드 닥커리


Embleton is a small village and civil parish located in the Allerdale district in Cumbria, England. It is located east of Cockermouth on the A66 road, and within the boundaries of the Lake District National Park.

As of the 2001 census the parish had a population of 297, reducing slightly to 294 at the 2011 Census.

Embleton railway station opened in 1865, on the Cockermouth, Keswick and Penrith Railway, and was closed by British Rail in 1958 although the railway through the village survived until 1966.  The trackbed has now been used for the route of the A66 road.

Sometime around 1854 a schoolmaster digging in commonland at Embleton came across a hoard of weapons dating to the 1st century AD, the transition between the Late Iron Age and Early Roman period. It comprised three iron spearheads and two swords, one of which was in a decorated copper-alloy scabbard. The latter object can now be seen in the British Museum

Governance
Embleton is within the Copeland UK Parliamentary constituency,  Trudy Harrison is the Member of parliament.

Before Brexit, its residents were covered by the North West England European Parliamentary Constituency.

It has its own parish council, jointly with the parishes of Dubwath, Setmurthy  and Wythop, known as Embleton and District Parish Council.

See also

Listed buildings in Embleton, Cumbria
Embleton railway station

References

External links
Cumbria County History Trust: Embleton (nb: provisional research only – see Talk page)

Villages in Cumbria
Allerdale
Civil parishes in Cumbria

Embleton, Cumbria


Daniel Block ( – 1853) was a Jewish leader who founded the B'nai B'rith synagogue in St. Louis, Missouri. He lived for only four years in the United States but he made important contributions on the culture of the St. Louis Jewish community to which he belonged. Between his arrival in about 1848, and his death in 1853, he contributed greatly to the organization and development of B'nai El congregation.

Early life

Daniel Block was probably born in Bohemia in or around 1802 but no birth record has been located. In the 1850 United States City of St. Louis Census he stated his profession as butcher and his birthplace as Germany.

The 1850 census entry for his wife Sarah Wedeles and his children stated they were born in Germany. At this time the family lived in Ward 1 of the City of St. Louis, close to the Mississippi River and south of the Eads Bridge.

Later US census entries for his wife and children stated that they were born in Bohemia. Many Block family members went to St. Louis in the early 19th century from Bohemia, then a part of the Austrian Empire. Most came from Švihov, Klatovy District, in German Schwihau. This is a small town about 70 miles South West of Prague in the Klatovy region.

Synagogue development
Daniel Block did have a well-known and documented involvement in the founding in 1849 of synagogue B'nai B'rith. His actions were described in some detail in Zion in the Valley. This congregation was known as the "Bohemian shul" as it was founded by German speaking Bohemian Jews who lived in the southern part of St. Louis.

Daniel Block was named as the "first parnass" and referred to as "the father of the B'nai B'rith Congregation." Many of the other founding members were listed in Daniel Block's 1853 will. This congregation came into existence because recently emigrating liberal Bohemian German Jews considered the preexisting United Hebrew congregation too intolerant in religious matters and too Polish in habits and mannerisms and too exacting in financial matters.

B'nai B'rith purchased a lot inside the city upon which it hoped to build a synagogue, but in October 1850, unable to pay the balance on the land, they returned it to the Benjamin Soulard estate. Shortly thereafter, when Isidor Bush became president, new efforts resulted in successfully acquiring another plot of land on Jackson Street. Bush then appealed for funds from the entire country by publishing in the Rabbi Isaac Leeser paper in Philadelphia an open letter asking for money for a building. This letter was signed by Bush as president, M. Taussig as vice-president and by Ludwig Schwartzkopf as secretary.

Rabbi Leeser traveled throughout the US seeking to unify the Jewish people. He spoke to more than a hundred people at United Hebrew temple on Fifth Street in St. Louis on December 14, 1851. He pointed out the absurdity of maintaining three separate congregations.

As a result of this activity B'nai B'rith merged with Emanu-El and United Hebrew to form B'nai-El. During 1852 Daniel served on several committees that assisted in the merger of B'nai B'rith and Emanu El that preceded the merger with United Hebrew. On October 17, 1852, a document was ratified that created B'nai El. Daniel was appointed a Temporary Director along with Bush. Daniel, along with Fred Wolff, F. L. Dattelzweig, L. R. Strauss, Bernard Singer and Julius Epstein were placed on a fund raising committee. Later he was made a permanent Director along with Isidor Bush, William Walter, Alexander Suess, Bernard Singer, Isaac Lowman and Ludwig Schwartzkopf.

In 1853 he convinced the Directors to reject leasing a lot and to go ahead and purchase land and build a completely new building. The congregation concluded a deal shortly after his death to purchase land at Sixth and Gratiot near Cerre. The first synagogue constructed in St. Louis, and first west of the Mississippi had its cornerstone laid at this site on April 16, 1855. Over four hundred people attended the ceremony

Friends and family
His first son-in-law was Louis Schwarzkopf, probably from Susice Bohemia, also a part of the founding group at B'nai-B'rith. Louis is mentioned in Zion in the Valley as the chazzan from 1852 to 1857. Louis died at age 38 on December 18, 1863, leaving Daniel's daughter Dora a widow with four small children. Louis may be related to Abraham Schwarzkopf who was married to an earlier time period Block family member, Esther, sister of Eliezer S. Block and of Ellen Block who married Joseph Kohn.

Daniel Block died on September 3, 1853, and was buried in New Mount Sinai Cemetery (old section), St. Louis. He was the first person to be buried within this newly formed cemetery and is so noted on the web site introduction to the cemetery. His tombstone is a replacement donated by his children

Daniel Block's children were Heinrich, Jacob, Dora (born as Veronika), and Abraham.

References

Further reading
 Jewish Tribune November 23, 1883, Historical Sketches, The Jews in St. Louis, Isidor Bush.
 Makovsky, Donald I.  Origin and Early History of United Hebrew Congregation of St. Louis, 1841-1859. Master's Thesis Washington University in St. Louis 1958.
 Web site of present day Congregation B'nai El
 The Jewish Voice 5 December 1902. "persistence of Daniel Block, who had been one of B'nai B'rith's influential leaders"
 Ehrlich page 94 "merger of Emanu El and B'nai B'rith…October 17, 1852…Temporary directors …Daniel Block"

1800s births
1853 deaths
Date of birth unknown
American Jews
Jews from Bohemia
Emigrants from the Austrian Empire to the United States
Naturalized citizens of the United States

Daniel Block


In mathematics, an ordered semigroup is a semigroup (S,•) together with a partial order ≤ that is compatible with the semigroup operation, meaning that x ≤ y implies z•x ≤ z•y and x•z ≤ y•z for all x, y, z in S.

An  ordered monoid and an ordered group are, respectively, a monoid or a  group that are endowed with a partial order that makes them ordered semigroups. The terms posemigroup, pogroup and pomonoid are sometimes used, where "po" is an abbreviation for "partially ordered".

The positive integers, the nonnegative integers and the integers form respectively a posemigroup, a pomonoid, and a pogroup under addition and the natural ordering.

Every semigroup can be considered as a posemigroup endowed with the trivial (discrete) partial order "=".

A morphism or homomorphism of posemigroups is a semigroup homomorphism that preserves the order (equivalently, that is monotonically increasing).

Category-theoretic interpretation

A pomonoid  can be considered as a monoidal category that is both skeletal and  thin, with an object of for each element of , a unique morphism from  to  if and only if , the tensor product being given by , and the unit by .

References

T.S. Blyth, Lattices and Ordered Algebraic Structures, Springer, 2005, , chap. 11.

Ordered algebraic structures
Semigroup theory

Ordered semigroup


The Diocese of Mthatha is a diocese of the Anglican Church of Southern Africa in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa. Before 2006 it was known as the Diocese of St John's, and earlier still as that of Kaffraria. The diocese currently has 96 parishes.

History

When the Diocese of Grahamstown in the south under Bishop John Armstrong, and Diocese of Natal in the north-east under Bishop John William Colenso were founded, they each included part of an area which in 1872 became the diocese of St John's.

Bishop Henry Callaway was consecrated in Edinburgh in 1873 as the first bishop of the diocese.  In Bishop Callaway's new diocese, apart from the mission station he started at Clydesdale, there were five or six other centres of missionary work. The oldest being St Mark's.  The first part of Callaway's work was spent trying to find the best way to organise the diocese.  The chief problem was to link Clydesdale with the St Mark's group in the south. He first attempted to establish the See at Clydesdale, which was too far north, and then at St Andrew's, not far from Lusikisiki, which turned out to be inaccessible except by sea.  He finally settled on a place on the Mthatha River.  A town sprang up around the bishop's mission station and Pro-cathedral.

The first Pro-Cathedral of the diocese was built of wood and iron and was also the first church in Mthatha.  It could seat a congregation of 250. It was dedicated at the Diocese of St John's second synod on 24 June 1876.

By the turn of the twentieth century a stone-built cathedral had been erected on the top of a hill leading to the administrative and commercial centre of Mthatha. George Fellowes Prynne was the architect and originally designed an impressive looking cathedral. His plan shows a cruciform church, with a nave 147 feet in length, by 36 feet in width, divided into 7 bays. The chancel is 67 feet long by 30 feet wide. The north and south transepts from chapels accommodating 189 and 146 people respectively. East of the chapels are the vestries and organ chamber, the latter being over the clergy vestry, and speaking into the south chapel and chancel. Only the nave was completed, which is the present cathedral of St John the Evangelist.

In 2010 the southern part of the diocese, around Ngcobo and Butterworth, was separated and constituted as the new Diocese of Mbhashe.

List of bishops

Assistant bishops
In 1962, Alphaeus Zulu was Assistant Bishop of St John's.

Coat of arms
The diocese assumed arms around the time of its inception, and had them granted by the College of Arms in 1954: Azure, Saint John the Evangelist Argent holding a chalice Or.

Notes

References

Further reading
Sedding, E. D., ed. (1945) Godfrey Callaway, missionary in Kaffraria, 1892-1942: his life and writings. London: S. P. C. K. (Father Callaway, SSJE)
Callaway, Godfrey (1995) The Re-appearing Moon: letters of a missionary priest in Pondoland, 1892-1942; edited by Anne R. Kotzé, provincial archivist, Church of the Province of South Africa. Johannesburg: University of Witwatersand
Gibson, Alan (1891) Eight Years in Kaffraria

External links

 Contact details

1872 establishments in the Cape Colony
Anglican Church of Southern Africa dioceses

Anglican Diocese of Mthatha