The Royal Academy of Music Museum (previously known as the York Gate Collections) is a museum of musical instruments and artefacts and a research centre of the Royal Academy of Music in London.

The building
The building was designed in 1822 as part of the main entrance to Regent's Park, and was an important feature in John Nash's architectural designs for Regency London. The interior of York Gate was largely destroyed by bomb damage in the 1940s, but the Nash exterior has Grade 1 listed building status. The Royal Academy of Music moved to Marylebone Road in 1911, and held a lease on part of York Gate during the 1920s and 1930s. A grant from the Heritage Lottery Fund enabled the Academy to acquire and refurbish the building to house studios and practice rooms and a museum.

The galleries
The Museum has three permanent galleries, alongside regularly changing displays and exhibitions. Together they cover an array of eras, instruments and subjects, including stringed instruments from the 16th century onwards.  The galleries act as a showcase for the work of performers, composers, instrument makers and scholars from a wide range of musical and other relevant disciplines.

The Ground Floor Gallery
The Museum has recently undergone refurbishment  and now contains a 'History of the Academy' display that includes items from notable musicians associated with the Academy: one of Sir Henry Wood's conducting batons, letters by Felix Mendelssohn  and the restored Alexander horn which was played by Dennis Brain, damaged in the crash which killed him, and subsequently restored by Paxman of London.

The Ground floor gallery also houses regularly changing temporary exhibitions.
These have included "Yehudi Menuhin: Journeys with a Violin", which was drawn from the extensive Foyle Menuhin Archive held by the Academy. It accompanied the 2016 Menuhin Competition in London and marks 100 years since the birth of Yehudi Menuhin.

The Strings Gallery

A selection of Cremonese instruments is on display in the Strings gallery. The exhibition features examples of instruments by makers Stradivari and Amati, as well as historical information, prints and engravings. The exhibition includes the 'Viotti ex-Bruce' violin by Stradivari which was saved for the nation in 2005.
The instruments on display form part of the Royal Academy of Music's fine collection of over 250 stringed instruments from the violin family. The collection includes examples of the work of the finest and most influential makers. These instruments are frequently played in concerts and recordings but are normally kept in the Academy.
The present form of the collection can be said to date from 1890 when John Rutson (1829–1906) gave an important group of instruments to the Academy. The Rutson Collection includes the Archinto viola (1696), the Rutson violin (1694) and the Maurin violin all by Stradivari, as well as instruments by members of the Amati family, Pressenda and other influential makers.

The Piano gallery
The exhibition features pianos placed on loan by Kenneth and Mary Mobbs, Oswald de Sybel, Andrew Hunter-Johnston, the Beare family, and the Stodart grand piano bequeathed by Frank Brown.

The collections
Since its foundation in 1822 the Academy has acquired important collections of instruments, manuscripts, letters, performance editions, artworks, teaching materials, memorabilia and other objects. Within this are many collections named after individuals, including those relating to the conductors John Barbirolli, Otto Klemperer, Henry Wood and Charles Mackerras, pianist Harriet Cohen, the concert agent Norman McCann, lutenist and scholar Robert Spencer, composer Arthur Sullivan, jazz star Kenny Wheeler and the Foyle Menuhin Archive. The collections also include items concerning the history of the institution such as student registers, programmes, prize boards, certificates, medals and commemorative photographs.

Manuscripts
The Academy houses original manuscripts by Purcell, Schubert, Mendelssohn, Liszt, Brahms, Sullivan and Vaughan Williams, musical memorabilia and other exhibits.

String instruments
The Academy holds a collection of more than 200 stringed instruments from the violin family. These have been acquired for the benefit of students and recent leavers and they are maintained by the Academy's resident luthier. The collections include several instruments of the Stradivarius family, including the Rutson (1694), Kustendyke (1699), Viotti-ex-bruce (1709),  Maurin (1718), and the Habeneck (1734), violas Archinto (1699), cello Marquis de Corberon-ex-Loeb (1726). Other instruments include Nicolo Amati violin (1662), Girolamo II violin (c.1671) and violin (1719), violin by Antonio and Girolamo Amati (1629) and a Hieronymus Amati violin (1719). In 2005 the Academy acquired the famous "Viotti ex-Bruce" violin, made by Stradivarius in 1709, on behalf of the nation.

Other collections
Other collections include the Foyle Menuhin archive (letters, music, photographs, artworks and more collected by Yehudi Menuhin over his lifetime), Jenny Lind (1820–1887) Collection, David Munrow (1942–1976) Collection, the Priaulx Rainier (1903–1986) Collection and The McCann Collection.

See also
 List of music museums

References

External links
Royal Academy of Music museum website

Royal Academy of Music
Music museums in London
Museums of the University of London
Museums in the City of Westminster
Musical instrument museums in England
Grade I listed buildings in the City of Westminster

Royal Academy of Music Museum


Shoreham-by-Sea (often shortened to Shoreham) is a seaside town and port in West Sussex, England. The town is bordered to its north by the South Downs, to its west by the Adur Valley and to its south by the River Adur and Shoreham Beach on the English Channel. The town lies in the middle of the ribbon of urban development along the English south coast. It is about half-way between  Brighton and Hove to the east and Worthing to the west. Shoreham covers an area of  and has a population of 20,547 (2011 census).

Famous people born in Shoreham-by-Sea
Leo Sayer-English-born, Australian singer, famous for a number of hits mainly during the 1970s and early 1980s.
Towns in West Sussex

Shoreham-by-Sea


The North Pacific Fur Seal Convention of 1911, formally known as the Convention between the United States and Other Powers Providing for the Preservation and Protection of Fur Seals, was a treaty signed on July 7, 1911, designed to manage the commercial harvest of fur-bearing mammals (such as Northern fur seals and sea otters) in the Pribilof Islands of the Bering Sea.  The treaty, signed by the United States, Great Britain (also representing Canada), Japan, and Russia, outlawed open-water seal hunting and acknowledged the United States' jurisdiction in managing the on-shore hunting of seals for commercial purposes.  It was the first international treaty to address wildlife preservation issues.

Terms of the treaty

The two most significant terms of the treaty were the banning of pelagic seal hunting and the granting of jurisdiction to the United States in managing on-shore hunts.  In exchange for granting jurisdiction to the United States, the other signatories to the treaty were guaranteed payments and/or minimum takes of seal furs while the treaty remained in effect, subject to certain conditions.

The treaty also provided an exemption to aboriginal tribes which hunted seals using traditional methods and for non-commercial purposes including food and shelter.  Aboriginal tribes specifically mentioned in the treaty include the Aleut and Aino (Ainu) peoples.

Authorship and ratification
The treaty was co-authored by environmentalist Henry Wood Elliott and United States Secretary of State John Hay in 1905, although the treaty was not signed for another six years.  The treaty was signed at Washington, on July 7, 1911, with ratifications by each signatory on the following dates:
United States: Ratification advised by the Senate on July 24, 1911, and ratified by President William Howard Taft on November 24, 1911
Great Britain: August 25, 1911
Russia: October 22 / November 4, 1911
Japan: November 6, 1911

Ratifications were then exchanged at Washington on December 12, 1911, and the treaty was proclaimed two days later on December 14.

Enactment and legacy
Following ratification, the U.S. Congress enacted an immediate five-year moratorium on hunting, to allow for recovery of the decimated herds.  The treaty remained in effect until hostilities erupted among the signatories in World War II.  However, the treaty set precedent for future national and international laws and treaties, including the Fur Seal Act of 1966 and the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972.  On the 100th anniversary of the treaty in 2011, the Pribilof Fur Seal Monument was erected.

References

Further reading
 Bailey, Thomas A. "The North Pacific Sealing Convention of 1911." Pacific Historical Review 4.1 (1935): 1–14. online, a standard scholarly history
 Castree, Noel. "Nature, economy and the cultural politics of theory: the 'war against the seals' in the Bering Sea, 1870–1911." Geoforum 28.1 (1997): 1–20. online
 Irwin, Robert. "Canada, Aboriginal Sealing, and the North Pacific Fur Seal Convention." Environmental History 20.1 (2015): 57–82.
 Dorsey, Kurkpatrick. The dawn of conservation diplomacy: US-Canadian wildlife protection treaties in the progressive era (U of Washington Press, 2009). excerpt
 Gluek Jr, Alvin C. "Canada's Splendid Bargain: the North Pacific Fur Seal Convention of 1911." Canadian Historical Review 63.2 (1982): 179–201.
 Townsend C.H Notes on certain Pinnepeds with data respecting their present commercial importance Annual Report of the New York Zoological Society. (1905)  15, 105–116
 Young, Oran R., and Gail Osherenko  Polar politics: creating international environmental regimes Cornell studies in political economy Cornell University Press, (1993)

External links
Full text of the treaty, as provided by the Edwin Ginn Library at The Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy, Tufts University

1911 in the environment
Treaties entered into force in 1911
Treaties concluded in 1911
Treaties of the Empire of Japan
Treaties of the Russian Empire
Treaties of the United States
1911 in Japan
1911 in the Russian Empire
1911 in the United States
Treaties of the United Kingdom (1801–1922)
Treaties extended to Canada
Treaties extended to the Territory of Alaska
1911 in Washington, D.C.
Seal conservation


The Russian Tax Debate of 1870–1871 was a debate between the Russian central government and the Zemstva about replacing the newest soul tax policy with an income tax.

Soul tax

In 1725, a tax policy was created by Czar Peter the Great called the "soul tax". Land was awarded based on the number of factors or "economic units" a household had: this could include a 'tyaglo' (man and wife pair), 'soul' (adult male), 'worker' (adult male or female), or 'eater' (household member of any age). Before 1861, the tyaglo tended to be only on private estates and the 'soul' on state land. The idea continued to grow after the serfs were freed from the land, but an adult male counted for two souls. These ideas were very similar, and a Russian male mainly looked for a partner that could not only work in the fields, but help the household with fiscal obligations as well.

The "soul tax" applied to alcohol and salt, and also included a head tax on Russian men. This created an issue because most of the consumers of salt and alcohol were among the peasantry. Therefore, petty merchants were directly affected by both forms of the tax, whereas the higher classes in the Russian economic ladder were untouched by the indirect tax and only had to worry about the head tax.

In 1725, half of state revenues came from the soul tax, although a century later that number dropped to 30 percent.  By 1856, the alcohol taxes outweighed the direct tax, by 36 percent to 20 percent of revenues.

Due to a financial crisis in the 1870s, peasants were forced to pay higher taxes. Clergy and nobles were also taxed in order to close the deficit, leading the government to reform their policies.

On May 26, 1870 the Committee of Ministers recommended printing the commission's proposal and distributing it to the local governors, who would then show it to their respective zemstva (local governments instituted during the great liberal reforms by Alexander II of Russia) for consideration.

On June 10 of that year, Alexander II confirmed this recommendation; two days later a proposal was sent to the governors along with a circular from the Minister of Finance.

During the preceding three years, peasants had paid an average of 286,000 rubles in state taxes for local needs versus 440,000 rubles for the new approach, more than a 50 percent increase.

Zemstvo Congress of 1871

Various proposals circulated in the zemstvo committees, trying to frame appropriate responses to the central government's taxation plan.

 The Tambov commission favored property taxes on land and homes plus a per capita assessment on adult workers.
 Committees in other provinces gravitated toward a graduated income tax to be levied on the entire population, while still other committees tried to combine income taxes on the merchants and other targets on the peasants and nobility, so as to reduce the strain on peasant merchants that had existed under the old tax reforms.

The Imperial Decision

The congress lasted three days, from March 15 to 17, 1871, and the government dropped its proposal to replace the soul tax with other assessments. Although it was not completely eliminated until 1887 under other economic circumstances, the idea of income tax gained favor in the central government.

References

Sources

Russian history articles needing expert attention
Tax codes
1870 in the Russian Empire
1871 in the Russian Empire

The Russian Tax Debate of 1870–1871


The Charles Gates Dawes House is a historic house museum at 225 Greenwood Street in Evanston, Illinois.  Built in 1894, this Chateauesque lakefront mansion was from 1909 until his death the home of Charles Gates Dawes (1865–1951) and his family.  Dawes earned the 1925 Nobel Peace Prize for his plan to alleviate the crushing burden of war reparations Germany was required to pay after World War I.  Dawes served as U.S. Vice President under Calvin Coolidge, a general during World War I, and as United States Ambassador to Great Britain.  Dawes was a descendant of William Dawes, who along with Paul Revere, rode to alarm the colonists that the British regulars were coming on the night before the Revolutionary War began. The house, a National Historic Landmark, is now owned by the Evanston History Center (formerly known as the Evanston Historical Society), which offers tours.

History
Charles G. Dawes and family lived here from 1909 to 1951. He donated the house to Northwestern University in 1944 with the understanding that it be used as the home of the Evanston Historical Society, now known as the Evanston History Center. The Dawes family continued to occupy it until Mrs. Caro Blymer Dawes' death in 1957, and it became home to the Historical Society in 1960. In 2009, Northwestern University donated the house to the Evanston History Center.

Architect
The house was built in 1894 for Robert Sheppard, treasurer and business manager of Northwestern University, and designed by H. Edwards Ficken (1844–1929) of New York.

Ficken was born in London and educated in Europe.  He came to the United States in 1869 and began his career as an architectural renderer, and was the partner of Boston architect Charles D. Gambrill at the time of the latter's suicide in September 1880.
Gambrill had been a partner of Henry Hobson Richardson from 1867 to 1878.

Ficken's career included several distinguished commissions, including ones for the New York Athletic Club and Yale University and, for the last thirteen years of his life he was the supervising architect and engineer for Woodlawn Cemetery on Long Island. Ficken is perhaps best known, however, as the architect for Pepperidge Hall (1896), a 120-room house built for Christopher Roberts II on  of property that was adjacent to Idle Hour, the 60-room Tudor mansion of William K. Vanderbilt that was designed by Richard Morris Hunt and located on  in Oakdale, New York.

The architecture

The house is considered to be an example of the Chateauesque style of architecture, but in many respects it is not typical.

The style was introduced to the United States in 1882 by Richard Morris Hunt, the first American architect to attend the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris, when he built a palace in the style at 660 Fifth Avenue in New York for Alva and William Kissam Vanderbilt (demolished, 1926). Architects of the time who attempted to create pure examples of the style emulated the features of the 16th Century chateaux of the Loire Valley in France, usually sheathing the buildings with limestone and decorating them with elaborate Renaissance carving.  Perhaps the best example of this style remaining in Chicago is the house at 1801 S. Prairie Ave. (see picture) that was designed in 1890 by Solon Spencer Beman and built for the piano manufacturer William W. Kimball at a reputed cost of one million dollars. The house, which the noted author and essayist Thomas Schlereth from The University of Notre Dame called "a brilliant exercise in the chateau style", was designed using exterior features from the 16th Century remodeling of the Chateau de Josselin in Brittany. Certainly the best example ever built in the United States is the 225-room Biltmore House (1888–1895), the home of George Washington Vanderbilt II constructed in Asheville, NC, which was also designed by Hunt.

The detailing of the Dawes house represents more the flavor of rural French architecture, and in this respect has more in common with the rustic character of Grey Towers, the much larger home of Gifford Pinchot outside of Milford, Pennsylvania that was designed largely by Hunt in 1886, but in which Ficken had a hand in some of the details. Even a quick study of the Dawes house, Grey Towers, and the more formally detailed John A. McGill house (1892) in Chicago (see picture) will show how closely they are all related to each other and to their French antecedents, especially to the Château de Chambord at Chambord, Loir-et-Cher in France.

Richard Morris Hunt became the leading proponent of French-inspired architecture after his return to the United States from his studies in Europe in 1855.  In 1873 he received both his first urban commission and his first commission in the city of Chicago when he built a house in the related Second Empire style for the iconic Chicago retailer Marshall Field at 1905 S. Prairie Ave that was considered to be the "first really artistic dwelling house" in Chicago, and although the country's enthusiasm for French-styled buildings that he was largely responsible for creating waned in the early years of the 20th century, interest in it remains with us to this day.

Gallery

Landmark status
The house was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1976.

Evanston History Center
The Evanston History Center (EHC), formerly the Evanston Historical Society, maintains its headquarters at the Charles Gates Dawes House.  The house is open to the public by docent-led tours, featuring a walk through the library, dining room, kitchen, and great hall which are decorated with period furnishings and artwork once belonging to the Dawes family. The EHC also runs public events, workshops, lectures, and a research room containing documents, books, photographs, maps and other historical archival material related to Evanston history.www.evanstonhistorycenter.org

See also
List of National Historic Landmarks in Illinois
National Register of Historic Places listings in Cook County, Illinois

References

External links

Evanston History Center

Historic house museums in Illinois
Houses completed in 1894
Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Cook County, Illinois
Museums in Evanston, Illinois
National Historic Landmarks in Illinois

Charles G. Dawes House


École de management de Normandie is an European higher studies establishment. The school is in 5 places, in Paris, in Le Havre, in Caen, in Oxford and in Dublin. It is has been created in 1871.

EM Normandie is specialist in the fields of economics, social sciences and management.

References

Further reading
 EM Normandie website

Education in France
Le Havre

École de management de Normandie


"Time Will Reveal" is a single by DeBarge and released in September 1983 as the first single off the group's third album, In a Special Way on the Gordy label.  It was also the group's biggest hit prior to the group's 1985 hit, "Rhythm of the Night".

Overview

Recording
By 1983, DeBarge was riding off the crossover success of their 1982 second album, All This Love, which included the title track and "I Like It". Boosted by its success, the group recorded a similar album with In a Special Way. Among the songs chosen for a single was the crossover hit "Time Will Reveal", which was written by sister Bunny DeBarge & brothers El and Bobby.

Reception
Much like their two previous singles, DeBarge found a hit with "Time Will Reveal", which reached number one on the Billboard R&B singles chart and number 18 on the US pop singles chart. The success of this record and the preceding singles helped the group attain an opening slot for Luther Vandross' U.S. tour of 1984, in which by then DeBarge had become a national attraction, with its early success being compared to the earlier Motown family act, The Jackson 5.

Charts

Personnel
 Lead vocals and keyboards by El DeBarge
 Background vocals by El DeBarge, Randy DeBarge and Bunny DeBarge
 Drums - Ricky Lawson
 Bass - Nathan East
 Percussion - Paulinho Da Costa
 String Arrangement by Benjamin F. Wright, Jr.
 Produced by El DeBarge
 Written by El DeBarge and Tommy DeBarge
 Associate Producer - Tommy DeBarge
 Engineer - Barney Perkins

In popular culture
 The Game, a comedy-drama television series, played the song on Season 4: Episode 6 "Men in Crisis" in 2011.

Cover versions

 In 1996, R&B group Blackstreet covered the song in the closing track on their second studio album Another Level, as "The Lord is Real".
 In 1997, R&B group Shades covered the song on their debut album Shades.
 In 2004, Boyz II Men covered the song on their Throwback, Vol. 1 album.
 In 2004, Jed Madela covered the song on his album Songs Rediscovered.
 In 2005, soul singer Janelle Monáe did a cover of the song on the album Got Purp? Vol. 2 by the Purple Ribbon All-Stars after originally featuring the recording on her 2003 demo album, The Audition.
 In 2008, Filipino R&B/pop singer Jay R covered the song on his album Soul in Love.
 In 2011, American singer Mayer Hawthorne covered the song on the album Stones Throw Direct to Disc #1 recorded live directly to vinyl at Capsule Labs in Los Angeles.
 In 2016, saxophonist Kim Waters covered the song on his album Rhythm and Romance with James Robinson as background vocalist.

See also
 List of number-one R&B singles of 1983 (U.S.)

References

1983 singles
DeBarge songs
Songs written by El DeBarge
Gordy Records singles
1983 songs
Contemporary R&B ballads
1980s ballads

Time Will Reveal (song)


Robert Palmer (July 16, 1934 – January 16, 2009) was an American advertising executive who became a vintner and one of the pioneering developers of the wine industry on the North Fork of New York's Long Island.

He was born Robert Joseph Prignano on July 16, 1934, in Forest Hills, Queens. He adopted the surname Palmer when he started working as he felt people found it too hard to spell. He went to school in Queens Village, Queens and attended Chaminade High School in Mineola, New York. He did not attend college and started employment in the advertising industry in his early teens. By 1970, he was president and chief executive of Kelly Nason, growing its billings from $14 million to $140 million by the time he left the position in 1978. He started a media buying service, called RJ Palmer, in 1979, which he sold in the 1990s but remained active in the business until two years before his death.

After selling his interest in Kelly Nason, he bought land for his vineyard in 1983 in Aquebogue, in Suffolk County, New York, despite knowing almost nothing about the wine business. The winery he opened in 1986 was one of the most modern in the nascent wine-growing business on the North Fork of Long Island, and he made his business one of the most friendly to visitors. One of the first major investors in the area, Palmer Vineyards produces up to 16,000 cases of wine annually, specializing in Cabernet Franc and sauvignon blanc. His company was one of the first to export wine grown on Long Island internationally. His wines have been served on American Airlines and at restaurants from California to Walt Disney World to Gallagher's Steak House in Manhattan, where it is served as the house wine.

Despite a personal preference for martinis, Palmer would taste all of his own wines and exercise final approval on his products, but did not otherwise prefer to drink wine. He had been impressed with people who could accurately identify wines while blindfolded by vineyard and a vintage, which led him to pursue wine tasting as a hobby.

Palmer died at age 74 on January 16, 2009, of a blood infection. He was survived by the former Lorraine Wittmer, his wife of 50 years, four daughters and three grandsons.

References

1934 births
2009 deaths
American advertising people
Deaths from sepsis
People from Forest Hills, Queens
Wine merchants

Robert Palmer (vintner)


Ildır is a neighbourhood in the municipality and district of Çeşme, İzmir Province, Turkey. Its population is 758 (2022). It is a picturesque sea-side village on the Aegean Sea coast, located about twenty-five kilometers north of Çeşme town, facing Chios.

The important Ancient Greek city of Erythrai was located here from the Hellenistic period, and throughout the ancient Roman and Byzantine periods. The ruins are situated within the modern-day village and the site was explored in depth in the 1960s by Professor Ekrem Akurgal, leading to valuable discoveries, but has since been somewhat neglected.

Despite being close to Çeşme, the village has not been affected by the tourism boom that has overtaken its administrative center, and a calm and introverted lifestyle prevails in the village, supplemented only by a number of summer-house owners and retirees, mostly from İzmir.

References

Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Turkey
Roman sites in Turkey
Neighbourhoods in Çeşme District

Ildır


Charles Lawrence Brewster (December 27, 1916 – October 1, 2000) was a right-handed shortstop in Major League Baseball for the Chicago Cubs, Cincinnati Reds, Philadelphia Phillies, and Cleveland Indians. He also made two appearances as a second baseman in his brief career.

Early life and minor leagues
Brewster played college baseball at Southern Arkansas University. His minor league career began with the Class-D Abbeville A's in 1936. He gradually moved his way up the minor league ranks, and throughout the war years spent most of his time with the Nashville Sounds.

Cincinnati
Cincinnati originally obtained Brewster through the Rule 5 Draft, selecting him from a Milwaukee minor league team in 1942. He debuted with the Reds on May 2, 1943, going 1-for-8 at the plate in seven games with the club. Cincinnati quickly traded Brewster to the Phillies on June 6 in exchange for Dain Clay.

Philadelphia
With Philadelphia, Brewster found a job as a shortstop, platooning with Glen Stewart. His bat was light, however; in 49 games he hit just .220 and managed only two extra-base hits (both doubles) and 12 RBI.

Chicago and Cleveland
Brewster surfaced with the Cubs in 1944, appearing in ten games and hitting .250 (11-for-44) with two doubles and 2 RBI. After going missing from the major leagues for a year, he had a brief stint with Cleveland in 1946, going 0-for-2 in three games. His final major league appearance was on May 29, 1946, and he played in the minor leagues until his retirement in 1954. Brewster died on October 1, 2000, in Alma, Georgia.

References

External links

 Stats at The Baseball Cube

1916 births
2000 deaths
Baseball players from Louisiana
Chicago Cubs players
Philadelphia Phillies players
Cleveland Indians players
Cincinnati Reds players
Major League Baseball shortstops
Abbeville A's players
Savannah Indians players
Waycross Bears players
Atlanta Crackers players
Durham Bulls players
Nashville Vols players
Los Angeles Angels (minor league) players
Milwaukee Brewers (minor league) players
Rochester Red Wings players
St. Hyacinthe Saints players
Gainesville G-Men players
Leesburg Packers players
DeLand Red Hats players

Charlie Brewster


A sidearm is an individual-served weapon that is kept at one's side and can be rapidly accessed if needed. A sidearm may be carried alone or as an ancillary weapon to a more frequently-used primary weapon. The term historically referred to swords, daggers, and similar small melee weapons kept at one's side in a sheath, and in modern combat dominated by ranged weapons, sidearms are often defined as handguns that are similarly kept in a holster.

A sidearm is typically required equipment for military officers and may be carried by law enforcement personnel. Usually, uniformed personnel of these services wear their weapons openly, while plainclothes personnel have their sidearms concealed under their clothes.

Uses

In many contemporary armies, the issue of a sidearm in the form of a service pistol is a clear sign of authority and is the mark of a commissioned officer or senior NCO. In the protocol of courtesy, the surrender of a commander's sidearm is the final act in the general surrender of a unit. If no ill will is meant, and a strict interpretation of military courtesy is applied, a surrendering commander may be allowed to keep their sidearm in order to exercise their right of command over their men. Similarly, many commanders on a local level have been anecdotally cited as having used the threat of their sidearms to motivate troops, to varied effect.

An important purpose of the sidearm is to be used if the primary weapon is not available (damaged or lost), if it has run out of ammunition, or if it malfunctions. Many soldiers armed with a long gun such as a rifle or submachine gun may also have a semi-automatic pistol as a sidearm. Personal defense weapons are often issued as personal sidearms to combat personnel who operate in cramped spaces in which a rifle or carbine would be impractical, such as truck drivers, helicopter pilots, and vehicle crews.

See also
 Ancillary weapon
 Service pistol
 Wakizashi, a short sword used by Japanese samurai as a sidearm

References

Handguns
Personal weapons

Sidearm (weapon)


The artsdepot is a multi-purpose cultural centre located in North Finchley, in the London borough of Barnet. It was officially opened on 23 October 2004 for the enjoyment and development of the arts in North London.

Activities
The venue comprises two main theatre spaces, The Pentland Theatre with 395 seats and a Studio Theatre with 148 seats. The building also contains dance and drama studios, a gallery space and a cafe. The programme of performances ranges from theatre, to live music, comedy, dance, visual art, spoken word and children's events.

The London Studio Centre shares the artsdepot building. There is also a programme of an educational courses for children and adults. Outreach programmes include working with local schools, artistic companies, other venues, and festivals.

History

The artsdepot was initially conceived in 1996 at the Barnet 2000 conference, which addressed what new and improved services the borough's residents would like to see in Barnet at the new Millennium. What emerged from Barnet 2000 was a need for more professional arts facilities to supplement the facilities at the existing Bull Arts Centre in High Barnet, which was at that time the only professional, if small, arts centre in the borough.

Barnet Council officers worked on the feasibility of using the Tally Ho site and brought together partners including Old Bull Arts Centre, Barnet College and Community Focus. After a capital lottery bid failed, The London Borough of Barnet sought a commercial developer to work with. They also contracted ACT theatre consultants to design the theatre spaces. The developers contracted architects Ruddle Wilkinson. The design was a result of close working with the main partners and the artistic vision was developed largely by The Bull Arts Centre's director, Alison Duthie. The developers Taylor Woodrow then developed plans for the Tally Ho regeneration in which artsdepot is located. Most of the construction costs came from the commercial development. The site on which artsdepot was built had been empty, apart from a weekly market that was relocated to the nearby Lodge Lane car park, for over 20 years since the Gaumont cinema closed down in 1980 (and later demolished in 1987).

In December 2001, the project was officially launched with the name "artsdepot" by the Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport, Tessa Jowell, when the building works began.

The venue was opened to the public for the first time on Saturday 23 October 2004 receiving over 2,500 visitors for its Community Open Day. The building was officially opened on 26 November 2004 by The Earl of Wessex.

References

External links

Theatres in the London Borough of Barnet
Art museums and galleries in London
Museums established in 2004
Arts centres in London
Tourist attractions in the London Borough of Barnet
2004 establishments in England

Artsdepot


"Spidey Meets the President!" is a backup feature in The Amazing Spider-Man #583, written by Zeb Wells, with art by Todd Nauck and Frank D'Armata. The cover of the issue shows Barack Obama giving a thumbs-up to Spider-Man. The comic book was published the week before Obama's inauguration in January 2009.

Plot
The story begins with Peter Parker standing among other reporters on the presidential inauguration of Barack Obama, photographing this historic moment. Suddenly a limo pulls up and reveals another Obama. The Secret Service does not know what to do, so Peter, who quickly dons his Spider-Man costume, asks both questions that only the real Barack Obama would be able to answer. When he asks what his nickname was during his college days, the actual Barack says his true name, and the fake one is confused and angry, causing him to reveal his true form, which turns out to be the super-villain known as the Chameleon. This gives Spider-Man the opportunity to capture the Chameleon and the Secret Service arrests him. Obama tells Spider-Man that he is a fan of the hero and thanks him. Afterward, as Obama swears his oath as President, Spider-Man is shown sitting at the top of the Washington Monument, where he thinks Biden notices him.

Prologue
This story was prepended in The Amazing Spider-Man Presidents Day Special digital comic. The additional pages depict the minutes before the original story took place, with Obama getting ready for the inauguration. The Chameleon, disguised as Obama's tailor, locks him inside and takes his place, driving to the inauguration in the presidential limousine. However, the real Obama escapes and is driven to the ceremony in a second limousine by his soon-to-be Vice President Joseph Biden. Meanwhile, outside the capital, Peter Parker is running late to the inauguration ceremony and has forgotten his press credentials. So, he enters the area stealthily by using his spider-like abilities to climb over a high wall. However, he is spotted by Senator John McCain and a few Secret Service agents. The senator recognizes as him as the photographer from The Daily Bugle and even provides him with a spare press credential. Parker then joins the press corps and the prequel story connects to the main story.

Reception
Typical sales for The Amazing Spider-Man are about 70,000 copies per issue. Issue #583 sold over 350,000 copies and went to five printings. It was the highest-selling regular series book of the 2000s.

Collected edition

References

Cultural depictions of Barack Obama
2009 comics debuts
Individual stories from issues of anthology comics

Spidey Meets the President!


James McGarrell (February 22, 1930 – February 7, 2020) was an American painter and printmaker known for painting lush figurative interiors and landscapes.

Biography

James McGarrell was born in Indianapolis, Indiana, and began painting in the basement of his parents' house at age 20. His first formal art studies were at Indiana University and at the Skowhegan School of Painting and Sculpture in Skowhegan, Maine. He then entered the graduate painting program at the University of California, Los Angeles. In 1955 McGarrell had his first solo exhibition at the Frank Perls Gallery in Beverly Hills and received a Fulbright grant to the State Academy of Fine Arts Stuttgart, Germany.

After returning from Germany in 1956, McGarrell began a long distinguished academic career at Reed College in Portland, Oregon. Three years later he returned to Indiana University to direct the graduate painting program. In 1981 he accepted a position in the St. Louis School of Fine Arts at Washington University, where he remained until his retirement from teaching in 1993. He has also been an artist in residence at many institutions for short periods, most notably at Skowhegan, the International School in Umbria, Rice University, the University of Utah, Arizona State University, and Dartmouth College.

During the past half century McGarrell had more than a hundred solo exhibitions at galleries and museums in America, England, France, and Italy. His paintings, prints, and drawings have been included in hundreds of exhibitions in the United States, South America, Europe, and Japan.

He was a member of the National Academy and Correspondent Member of the Académie des Beaux-Arts de l'Institut de France. In 1995 he was the recipient of the Jimmy Ernst Lifetime Achievement Award from the American Institute of Arts and Letters.

McGarrell held residencies, grants, and fellowships from the National Endowment for the Arts, the John Simon Guggenheim Foundation, and the study centers of the Bogliasco Foundation outside Genoa and the Rockefeller Foundation at Bellagio in Italy. He was also senior resident at the Roswell Artist-in-Residence program in New Mexico.
His work has been included in: five Whitney Annuals and Biennials; the  Carnegie International exhibition twice (1958 and 1983); New Images of Man at the Museum of Modern Art, New York City (1960); the Dunn International at the Tate Gallery, London (1963 and 1964); Documenta III (1964)in Kassel, Germany; and USA Art Vivant at the Musée des Augustins, Toulouse, France. He was one of five painters selected for The Figurative Tradition in American Art at the U.S. pavilion of the 1968 Venice Biennale. In 2003 several of his paintings were included in La creazione ansiosa: da  Picasso a Bacon, a survey exhibition of later 20th-century art at the Palazzo Forti, Verona, Italy.

McGarrell's paintings are in the permanent collections of the Museum of Modern Art, the Whitney Museum of American Art, the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, the Art Institute of Chicago, the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, the Portland Museum of Art, the St. Louis Art Museum, the Santa Barbara Museum of Art, the Centre Georges Pompidou, the Hamburg Museum of Art, and many other public and private collections in America and Europe. He was represented in New York by the George Adams Gallery.

Family
While he was artist in residence at Dartmouth College in the spring term of 1993, McGarrell and his wife, the writer and translator Ann McGarrell, discovered and purchased an early 19th-century house in Newbury, Vermont where they lived with a number of cats until her death in 2016 and his death February 7, 2020.

The McGarrells' son, Flo McGarrell was an installation artist, filmmaker and writer (1974–2010), who was killed in the January 12, 2010 Haitian earthquake at the age of 35.

Bibliography
 Gerrit Henry "James McGarrell at George Adams", Art in America, March 2003
 Esplund, Lance. "James McGarrell at George Adams", Art in America, May 2000
 Williams, Jonathan. "Flip Sides of a Vision", Modern Painters, Spring 1998
 Benton, William. Marmalade (poetry, limited edition) with original prints by McGarrell, 1993

References

External links
 James McGarrell's website

20th-century American painters
American male painters
21st-century American painters
21st-century American male artists
Artists from Indianapolis
1930 births
2020 deaths
Indiana University alumni
UCLA School of the Arts and Architecture alumni
Rice University staff
University of Utah staff
Arizona State University alumni
People from Newbury, Vermont
20th-century American male artists

James McGarrell


A stream pool, in hydrology, is a stretch of a river or stream in which the water depth is above average and the water velocity is below average.

Formation

A stream pool may be bedded with sediment or armoured with gravel, and in some cases the pool formations may have been formed as basins in exposed bedrock formations. Plunge pools, or plunge basins, are stream pools formed by the action of waterfalls. Pools are often formed on the outside of a bend in a meandering river.

Dynamics
The depth and lack of water velocity often leads to stratification in stream pools, especially in warmer regions. In warm arid regions of the Western United States, surface waters were found to be 3–9 °C higher than those at the bottom

Habitat
This portion of a stream often provides a specialized aquatic ecosystem habitat for organisms that have difficulty feeding or navigating in swifter reaches of the stream or in seasonally warmer water. Such pools can be important fish habitat, especially where many streams reach high summer temperatures and very low-flow dry season characteristics. In warm and arid regions, the stratification of stream pools provide cooler water for fish that prefer low water temperatures, such as the redband trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) in the Western United States. Mosquito larvae, which prefer still and often stagnant water, can be found in stream pools due to the low water velocity.

See also
 Pond
 Reach (geography)
 Riffle
 Stream gradient
 List of waterfalls by flow rate
 List of waterfalls by type

Notes

External links
 USGS: Stream Modeling website

Water streams
Hydrology
Bodies of water

Stream pool


Lieutenant General Themba Matanzima  is a former South African Army officer, serving as Military Ombudsman.

He was born on 2 February 1953 in Cofimvaba. He joined the Transkei Defence Force in January 1977.

Army career
Matanzima transferred to the South African National Defence Force on integration in 1994. After a period on the Joint Military Coordinating Committee that oversaw the integration process, he then became General Officer Commanding Eastern Province Command in 1996. In 1998 he became Chief of Army Personnel.

In 1999 he was appointed  Chief of Personnel and promoted to the rank of lieutenant general. In 2000, the SANDF restructured and he was appointed into a newly created post of Chief of Joint Support.

In 2004 he was appointed Chief of Corporate Staff until 2005, when he became Chief Human Resources.

He was appointed Chief of Joint Operations on 1 September 1, 2007 after the death of Lt Gen Sipho Binda in car accident in 2006.

In 2010 he served as acting Secretary for Defence and Acting CSANDF on a number of  occasions.

Honours and awards

He has been awarded the following:

References

1953 births
Living people
South African Army generals
Graduates of the Royal College of Defence Studies

Themba Matanzima


High Pasture Cave (Gaelic: Uamh An Ard-Achaidh) is an archaeological site on the island of Skye, Scotland. Human presence is documented since the Mesolithic, and remains, including Iron Age structures, point to ritual veneration of either the landscape or deities associated with the place. The cave system extends to about  of accessible passages

Site
The cave is about  southeast of the village of Torrin, near Kilbride. The entrance of the cave lies in a narrow valley on the northern slopes of the mountain of Beinn Dùbhaich, east of the Red Cuillin hills, and is formed by erosion of Durness limestone.

The interior is accessed via a natural shaft about  deep that leads into the main cave, which appears to have been in use between 1,200 BC and 200 BC (mid-Bronze Age to late Iron Age). After about  there is a fork, with a rocky, dry passage on the right. In 2002 the cave explorer Steven Birch discovered broken crockery and bones. Previous visitors to the cave had thrown this material aside in the attempts to find new ways. Birch recognized the value of the find as well as the importance of the cave.

Excavations
The cave system was originally excavated in 1972 by students of the University of London Speleological Society.  A full year of excavation then took place in 2003, mainly supported by Historic Scotland, and continuing project work was under the supervision of Steven Birch and Martin Wildgoose.

Finds
A wide variety of artifacts has been recovered from the cave and its surroundings, including stone items, bone, antler and residue of metalworkings along with well-preserved faunal remains.

Arrowheads left behind by nomadic hunters suggest occupation during the Mesolithic period (about 6,000 to 7,000 years ago). It was only occasionally occupied during the Neolithic and the Bronze Age until about 800 BC, when the site became more frequented and a large fireplace was set up in front of its entrance. The entrance area also seems to have been used for ceremonies or storage of personal items.

During the following 1000 years, activities and ash deposits of the fire site threatened to block the entrance of the cave. A staircase about  in length was built to permit entry to the cave. Hundreds of finds (bronze, bone and antler needles, glass and ivory beads) around the fire pit and the cave floor point to a place of intense activity. This lasted until about 40 BC, when the stairs were completely filled with boulders and earth. The skeleton of a woman along with a four to five month-old fetus and a nine to ten month-old child were placed on top of the filling.

In 2012 a piece of carved wood thought to be the bridge of a lyre was discovered. The small burnt and broken piece has been dated to approximately 300 BC and is the earliest find of a stringed instrument in western Europe. The notches where the strings would have been placed can be easily distinguished and according to Graeme Lawson of Cambridge Music Archaeological Research the find "pushes the history of complex music [in Britain] back more than a thousand years". If dating and attribution are confirmed, this object may indicate contacts between local Celtic people and Mediterranean cultures.

Notes

References

External links
 High Pasture Cave website

Landforms of the Isle of Skye
Archaeological sites in the Northern Inner Hebrides
Landforms of Highland (council area)
Caves of Scotland

High Pasture Cave


The Villa Ephrussi de Rothschild, also called Villa Île-de-France, is a French seaside villa located at Saint-Jean-Cap-Ferrat on the French Riviera. Designed by the French architect Aaron Messiah, it was built between 1907 and 1912 by Baroness Béatrice de Rothschild (1864–1934).

A member of the Rothschild banking family and the wife of the banker Baron Maurice de Ephrussi, Béatrice de Rothschild built her rose-colored villa on a promontory on the isthmus of Cap Ferrat overlooking the Mediterranean Sea. The Baroness filled the mansion with antique furniture, Old Master paintings, sculptures, objets d'art and assembled an extensive collection of rare porcelain. The gardens are classified by the Ministry of Culture as one of the Remarkable Gardens of France, whilst the villa itself has been classified as a monument historique since 1996.

Upon her death in 1934, the Baroness donated the property and its collections to the Académie des Beaux-Arts division of the Institut de France. It is now open to the public.

Gardens

The villa is surrounded by nine gardens, each on a different theme: French, Spanish, Japanese, Florentine, Provençal, exotic, a stone garden, a rose garden and a garden of Sèvres. They were created between 1905 and 1912 under the direction of landscape architect Achille Duchêne.

The garden was conceived in the form of a ship, to be viewed from the loggia of the house, which was like the bridge of a vessel, with the sea visible on all sides. It was inspired by a voyage she made on the liner Île de France, and the villa was given that name. The thirty gardeners who maintained the garden were dressed as sailors, with berets with red pom-poms.

The garden à la française is the largest and occupies the area behind the villa.  Next to the villa there is a terrace with a formal French garden and topiaries. Beyond the terrace is a park with palm trees and a long basin, ornamented with fountains, statues, and basins with water lilies and other aquatic plants.  On the far end of the park is a hill covered with cypress trees, surrounding a replica garden of the Temple of Love at the Petit Trianon palace in Versailles. The slope below the temple has a cascade of water in the form of a stairway, which feeds into the large basin.

A stairway from the French garden descends to the circle of gardens on the lower level. The Spanish garden features a shaded courtyard and fountain, with aromatic plants, Catalan amphorae, as well as a Gallo-Roman bench. The Florentine garden, facing the rade of Villefranche-sur-Mer, has a grand stairway, an artificial grotto and an ephebe of marble. Beyond the Florentine garden is the lapidary, or stone garden, with an assortment of gargoyles, columns and other architectural elements from ancient and medieval buildings. The Japanese garden has a wooden pavilion, a bridge and lanterns. The exotic garden features giant cactus and other rare plants. A rose garden with a statue surrounded by columns adjoins it, where pink, the favorite color of the owner, is the predominant colour. On the east side of the villa is a garden of native plants of Provence and a garden with decorations of Sèvres porcelain.

The villa was registered as a historical monument in 1996.

Events
Every year the Villa Ephrussi de Rothschild puts on The Painters' Day in June. The villa opens its doors to the artists who want to  find their inspiration and practise their art in one of the nine gardens of the site.

The villa is also the location of the annual summer opera festival Les Opera Azuriales.

See also
 Gardens of Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur

References

External links

 Official website of Villa Ephrussi
 Photo collection of Villa Ephrussi
  Opéra Les Azuriales Festival website

Houses in Alpes-Maritimes
Gardens in Alpes-Maritimes
Ephrussi de Rothschild
French Riviera
Historic house museums in Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur
Museums in Alpes-Maritimes
Rose gardens in France
Houses completed in 1912
Ephrussi family
Rothschild family residences
Monuments historiques of Alpes-Maritimes
1912 establishments in France

Villa Ephrussi de Rothschild


The Château de Chaumont (), officially Château de Chaumont-sur-Loire, is a castle (château) in Chaumont-sur-Loire, Centre-Val de Loire, France. The castle was founded in the 10th century by Odo I, Count of Blois. After Pierre d'Amboise rebelled against Louis XI, the king ordered the castle's destruction. Later in the 15th century Château de Chaumont was rebuilt by Charles I d'Amboise. Protected as a monument historique since 1840, the château was given into state ownership in 1938 and is now open to the public.

History

The name Chaumont derives from the French chauve mont, meaning "bald hill".  The first castle on this site, situated between Blois and Amboise, was built by Odo I, Count of Blois, in the 10th century, with the purpose of protecting his lands from attacks by his feudal rival, Fulk Nerra, Count of Anjou. On his behalf the Norman Gelduin received it, improved it and held it as his own. His great-niece Denise de Fougère, having married Sulpice d'Amboise, passed the château into the Amboise family for five centuries.

Pierre d'Amboise unsuccessfully rebelled against King Louis XI and his property was confiscated, and the castle was dismantled on royal order in 1465. It was later rebuilt by Charles I d'Amboise from 1465 to 1475 and then finished by his son, Charles II d'Amboise de Chaumont from 1498 to 1510, with help from his uncle, Cardinal Georges d'Amboise; some Renaissance features were to be seen in buildings that retained their overall medieval appearance.

The château was acquired by Catherine de Medici in 1550. There she entertained numerous astrologers, among them Nostradamus. When her husband, Henry II, died in 1559 she forced his mistress, Diane de Poitiers, to accept the Château de Chaumont in exchange for the Château de Chenonceau which Henry had given to de Poitiers. Diane de Poitiers only lived at Chaumont for a short while.

In 1594, at the death of Diane's granddaughter Charlotte de la Marck, the château passed to her husband, Henri de La Tour d'Auvergne, Duke of Bouillon, who sold it to a tax farmer Largentier, who had grown rich on gathering in the salt tax called the gabelle. Largentier eventually being arrested for peculation, the château and the title of sieur de Chaumont passed into a family originating at Lucca, who possessed it until 1667, when it passed by family connections to the seigneurs de Ruffignac.

Paul de Beauvilliers, duc de Beauvilliers and later duc de Saint-Aignan, bought the château in 1699, modernized some of its interiors and decorated it with sufficient grandeur to house the duc d'Anjou on his way to become king of Spain in 1700. His eventual heir was forced to sell Chaumont to pay his debts to a maître des requêtes ordinaire to Louis XV, Monsieur Bertin, who demolished the north wing built by Charles II d'Amboise and the Cardinal d'Amboise, to open the house towards the river view in the modern fashion.

In 1750, Jacques-Donatien Le Ray purchased the castle as a country home where he established a glassmaking and pottery factory. He was considered by the French as a "Father of the American Revolution" because he loved America. However, in 1789, the new French Revolutionary government seized Le Ray's assets, including his beloved Château de Chaumont.

Madame de Staël acquired the château in 1810. The Comte d'Aramon bought the neglected château in 1833, undertook extensive renovations under the architect Jules Potier de la Morandière of Blois, who was later inspector of the works at the château de Blois; M. d'Aramon installed a museum of medieval arts in the "Tour de Catherine de Médicis". By 1851 the "Chaumont suite" of the early-16th century Late Gothic tapestries with subjects of country life emblematic of the triumph of Eternity, closely associated with Chaumont and now at the Cleveland Museum of Art, was still hanging in the "Chambre de Catherine de Médicis"; the tapestries had been cut and pieced to fit the room.

The castle has been designated as a Monument historique since 1840 by the French Ministry of Culture. Marie-Charlotte Say, heiress to the Léon Say sugar fortune, acquired Chaumont in 1875. Later that year, she married Amédée de Broglie, who commissioned the luxurious stables in 1877 to designs by Paul-Ernest Sanson, further restored the château under Sanson's direction and replanted the surrounding park in the English naturalistic landscape fashion. She donated Château de Chaumont to the government in 1938. The Château de Chaumont is currently a museum and every year hosts a Garden Festival from April to October where contemporary garden designers display their work in an English-style garden.

Gallery

See also
List of castles in France

References

Further reading

External links

Official website for Chaumont
Photos of Château de Chaumont and other Loire castles

Castles in Centre-Val de Loire
Châteaux in Loir-et-Cher
Historic house museums in Centre-Val de Loire
Gardens in Loir-et-Cher
Museums in Loir-et-Cher

Château de Chaumont


Two Brass era automobiles named Richmond were produced in Richmond, Indiana.  A Steam car was made by the Richmond Automobile Company in 1902 and 1903.  The Wayne Works produced the Richmond automobile from 1904 to 1917.

Richmond Automobile Company
The Richmond steam car engine was claimed to be simple and the most compact steam vehicle engine on the market.  The two-cylinder engine had a 2.5" bore and 3.5" stroke and weighed just 46 pounds.  This engine produced its maximum 6 horsepower at 960 rpm.  The engine was believed to have been designed by Isham Sedgwick and the steam car was developed by R. L. Sackett.  Just the engine was manufactured in 1901, with production of the entire car commencing the following year.  The Richmond was a chain-driven dos-a-dos four-seater.  By 1903, Richmond Automobile Company ended automobile production, though it is believed that engine production continued past this date.

Wayne Works - Richmond Automobile

The Wayne Works, Inc. had been making farm implements since the 1870s, and supposedly in 1901 the company president, Walter W. Schultz, asked the chief engineer Jack St. John to design an automobile "because everyone else is."  Richmond, Indiana would be home to several car makes including Davis, Pilot and Westcott.  St. John designed a two-cylinder air-cooled touring car, which was sold to a local businessman.  A subsequent car was sold the next year, but full-scale manufacture did not begin until 1904.

The Richmond entered production with four-cylinder engines with round radiators for most of its production. The Richmond was a mid-priced car of the time, well regarded locally for its reliability and hill-climbing abilities.  The biggest change to the Richmond occurred in 1910, when the engine became water-cooled instead of air-cooled.  A  six-cylinder model was offered from 1914 until 1916, with outputs rising from 45-hp to 50-hp.  Horsepower for the earlier air-cooled fours ranged from 20 to 30-hp, while the water-cooled engines produced 22.5 to 40-hp.

In 1915 Herff-Brooks contracted with Wayne Works to provide Richmonds that would be badged as Herff-Brooks.  This ended in 1916.  In 1917, the automobile department was closed, and the Wayne Works continued production of commercial truck bodies and agricultural tools.  An estimated 1,348 Richmonds were built.

Three Richmonds are known to be extant. Two at the Wayne County Historical Museum and one in Spain at the Malaga Motor Museum.

References

See also
 Richmond Model J at All-Andorra
 Old Cars Weekley article - 1907 Richmond

Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of the United States
Motor vehicle manufacturers based in Indiana
Defunct manufacturing companies based in Indiana
Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1902
Vehicle manufacturing companies disestablished in 1903
Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1904
Vehicle manufacturing companies disestablished in 1917
Steam cars
Veteran vehicles
Brass Era vehicles
1900s cars
1910s cars
Cars introduced in 1902
Cars introduced in 1904

Richmond (automobile)


Sourdough or sourdough bread is a bread made by the fermentation of dough using wild lactobacillaceae and yeast. Lactic acid from fermentation imparts a sour taste and improves keeping qualities.

History
In the Encyclopedia of Food Microbiology, Michael Gaenzle writes: "One of the oldest sourdough breads dates from 3700 BCE and was excavated in Switzerland, but the origin of sourdough fermentation likely relates to the origin of agriculture in the Fertile Crescent and Egypt several thousand years earlier", which was confirmed a few years later by archeological evidence. ... "Bread production relied on the use of sourdough as a leavening agent for most of human history; the use of baker's yeast as a leavening agent dates back less than 150 years."

Sourdough remained the usual form of leavening down into the European Middle Ages until being replaced by barm from the beer brewing process, and after 1871 by purpose-cultured yeast.

Bread made from 100% rye flour, popular in the northern half of Europe, is usually leavened with sourdough. Baker's yeast is not useful as a leavening agent for rye bread, as rye does not contain enough gluten. The structure of rye bread is based primarily on the starch in the flour as well as other carbohydrates known as pentosans; however, rye amylase is active at substantially higher temperatures than wheat amylase, causing the structure of the bread to disintegrate as the starches are broken down during baking. The lowered pH of a sourdough starter, therefore, inactivates the amylases when heat cannot, allowing the carbohydrates in the bread to gel and set properly. In the southern part of Europe, where panettone is still made with sourdough as leavening, sourdough has become less common in the 20th century; it has been replaced by the faster-growing baker's yeast, sometimes supplemented with longer fermentation rests to allow for some bacterial activity to build flavor. Sourdough fermentation re-emerged as a major fermentation process in bread production during the 2010s, although it is commonly used in conjunction with baker's yeast as leavening agent.

French bakers brought sourdough techniques to Northern California during the California Gold Rush, and it remains a part of the culture of San Francisco today. (The nickname remains in "Sourdough Sam", the mascot of the San Francisco 49ers.) Sourdough has long been associated with the 1849 gold prospectors, though they were more likely to make bread with commercial yeast or baking soda. The "celebrated" San Francisco sourdough is a white bread characterized by a pronounced sourness, and indeed the strain of Lactobacillus in sourdough starters is named Fructilactobacillus sanfranciscensis (previously Lactobacillus sanfranciscensis), alongside the sourdough yeast Kasachstania humilis (previously Candida milleri) found in the same cultures.

The sourdough tradition was carried into Department of Alaska in the United States and the Yukon Territory in Canada during the Klondike Gold Rush of 1898. Conventional leavenings such as yeast and baking soda were much less reliable in the conditions faced by the prospectors. Experienced miners and other settlers frequently carried a pouch of starter either around their neck or on a belt; these were fiercely guarded to keep from freezing. However, freezing does not kill a sourdough starter; excessive heat does. Old hands came to be called "sourdoughs", a term that is still applied to any Alaskan or Klondike old-timer. The significance of the nickname's association with Yukon culture was immortalized in the writings of Robert Service, particularly his collection of "Songs of a Sourdough".

In English-speaking countries, where wheat-based breads predominate, sourdough is no longer the standard method for bread leavening. It was gradually replaced, first by the use of barm from beer making, then, after the confirmation of germ theory by Louis Pasteur, by cultured yeasts. Although sourdough bread was superseded in commercial bakeries in the 20th century, it has undergone a revival among artisan bakers and, more recently, in industrial bakeries. In countries where there is no legal definition of sourdough bread, the dough for some products named or marketed as such is leavened using baker's yeast or chemical raising agents as well as, or instead of, a live sourdough starter culture. The Real Bread Campaign calls these products sourfaux.

Manufacturers of non-sourdough breads make up for the lack of yeast and bacterial culture by introducing into their dough an artificially-made mix known as bread improver or flour improver.

Modern culture

Sourdough baking has a devoted community today. Many devotees share starters and tips via the Internet. Hobbyists often proudly share their work on social media. Sourdough cultures contain communities of living organisms, with a history unique to each individual starter, and bakers can feel an obligation to maintain them. "Many like to think that their sourdough is unique, or their creation, or one that's been handed down for generations, or been over the Chilkoot Pass, et cetera. Because [starter] is 'alive' some tender hearts feel an obligation to its permanent health and survival." The different yeasts present in the air in any region also enter sourdough, causing starters to change depending on location.

Some devotees find interest in history. Sourdough expert Ed Wood isolated millennia-old yeast from an ancient Egyptian bakery near the pyramids of Giza, and many individual starters, such as Carl Griffith's 1847 starter, have been passed down through generations. "I like the throwback of traditional bread, the things our great grandmothers ate," writes professional baker Stacie Kearney. Some bakers describe starters generations old, though Griffith's seems exceptional.

Sourdough baking became more popular during the COVID-19 pandemic, as increased interest in home baking caused shortages of baker's yeast in stores, whereas sourdough can be propagated at home.

Sourdough baking requires minimal equipment and simple ingredients – flour, salt, and water – but invites practice. Purism is a part of the appeal. As described by one enthusiast, "If you take flour, water, (wild) yeast and salt, and play around with time and temperature, what comes out of the oven is something utterly transformed." Many bakers feed their starters on elaborate schedules, and many name them. Some approach sourdough as science, attempting to optimize flavor and acidity with careful measurements, experimentation, and correspondence with professional microbiologists. Some lineages of starter are freely shared, and others can be purchased, but many prefer to cultivate their own. Some techniques for doing so are fiercely debated, such as the use of commercial yeast to jump-start a culture while capturing wild yeasts, or adding grapes or milk.

Preparation

Starter
The preparation of sourdough begins with a pre-ferment (the "starter" or "leaven", also known as the "chief", "chef", "head", "mother" or "sponge"), a fermented mixture of flour and water, containing a colony of microorganisms including wild yeast and lactobacilli. The purpose of the starter is to produce a vigorous leaven and to develop the flavour of the bread. In practice there are several kinds of starters, as the ratio of water to flour in the starter (hydration) varies. A starter may be a liquid batter or a stiff dough.

Flour naturally contains a variety of yeasts and bacteria. When wheat flour comes into contact with water, the naturally occurring enzyme amylase breaks down the starch into the sugars glucose and maltose, which sourdough's natural yeast can metabolize. With sufficient time, temperature, and refreshments with new or fresh dough, the mixture develops a stable culture. This culture will cause a dough to rise. The bacteria ferment starches that the yeast cannot metabolise, and the by-products, chiefly maltose, are metabolised by the yeast, which produces carbon dioxide gas, leavening the dough.

Obtaining a satisfactory rise from sourdough takes longer than a dough leavened with baker's yeast because the yeast in a sourdough is less vigorous. In the presence of lactic acid bacteria, however, some sourdough yeasts have been observed to produce twice the gas of baker's yeast. The acidic conditions in sourdough, along with the bacteria also producing enzymes that break down proteins, result in weaker gluten and may produce a denser finished product.

Refreshment of the starter

As it ferments, sometimes for several days, the volume of the starter is increased by periodic additions of flour and water, called "refreshments". As long as this starter culture is fed flour and water regularly, it will remain active.

The ratio of fermented starter to fresh flour and water is critical in the development and maintenance of a starter. This ratio is called the refreshment ratio. Higher refreshment ratios are associated with greater microbial stability in the sourdough. In San Francisco sourdough, the ratio is 40% of the total weight, which is roughly equivalent to 67% of the new-dough's weight. A high refreshment ratio keeps acidity of the refreshed dough relatively low. Acidity levels of below pH 4.0 inhibit lactobacilli and favour acid-tolerant yeasts.

A starter prepared from scratch with a salted wheat-rye dough takes about 54 hours at  to stabilise at a pH between 4.4 and 4.6. 4% salt inhibits L. sanfranciscensis, while C. milleri can withstand 8%.

A drier and cooler starter has less bacterial activity and more yeast growth, which results in the bacterial production of more acetic acid relative to lactic acid. Conversely, a wetter and warmer starter has more bacterial activity and less yeast growth, with more lactic acid relative to acetic acid. The yeasts produce mainly CO2 and ethanol. High amounts of lactic acid are desired in rye and mixed-rye fermentations, while relatively higher amounts of acetic acid are desired in wheat fermentations. A dry, cool starter produces a sourer loaf than a wet, warm one. Firm starters (such as the Flemish Desem starter, which may be buried in a large container of flour to prevent drying out) tend to be more resource-intensive than wet ones.

Intervals between refreshments
A stable culture in which F. sanfranciscensis is the dominant bacterium requires a temperature between  and refreshments every 24 hours for about two weeks. Refreshment intervals of longer than three days acidify the dough and may change the microbial ecosystem.

The intervals between refreshments of the starter may be reduced in order to increase the rate of gas (CO2) production, a process described as "acceleration." In this process, the ratio of yeasts to lactobacilli may be altered. Generally, if once-daily refreshment-intervals have not been reduced to several hours, the percentage amount of starter in the final dough should be reduced to obtain a satisfactory rise during proof.

Faster starter processes, requiring fewer refreshments, have been devised, sometimes using commercial sourdough starters as inoculants. These starters generally fall into two types. One is made from traditionally maintained and stable starter doughs, often dried, in which the ratios of microorganisms are uncertain. Another is made from microorganisms carefully isolated from Petri dishes, grown into large, homogeneous populations in fermentors, and processed into combined baker's products with numerically defined ratios and known quantities of microorganisms well suited to particular bread styles.

Maintaining metabolically active sourdough with high leavening activity typically requires several refreshments per day, which is achieved in bakeries that use sourdough as sole leavening agents but not by amateur bakers that use the sourdough only weekly or even less frequently.

Local methods
Bakers have devised several ways of encouraging a stable culture of micro-organisms in the starter. Unbleached, unbromated flour contains more micro-organisms than more processed flours. Bran-containing (wholemeal) flour provides the greatest variety of organisms and additional minerals, though some cultures use an initial mixture of white flour and rye or whole wheat flour or "seed" the culture using unwashed organic grapes (for the wild yeasts on their skins). Grapes and grape must are also sources of lactic acid bacteria, as are many other edible plants. Basil leaves are soaked in room-temperature water for an hour to seed traditional Greek sourdough. Using water from boiled potatoes is said to increase the activity of the bacteria by providing additional starch.

The piped drinking water supplied in most urban areas is treated by chlorination or chloramination, adding small amounts of substances that inhibit potentially dangerous micro-organisms but are harmless to animals. Some bakers recommend unchlorinated water for feeding cultures. Because a sourdough fermentation relies on microorganisms, using water without these agents may produce better results. Bottled drinking water is suitable; chlorine, but not chloramines, can be removed from tap water by boiling it for a time, or simply by leaving it uncovered for at least 24 hours. Chlorine and chloramines can both be removed by activated carbon filters.

Adding a small quantity of diastatic malt provides maltase and simple sugars to support the yeasts initially.

Bakers often make loaves with fermented dough from a previous batch (which they call "mother dough", "mother sponge", "chef", or "seed sour") rather than making a new starter every time they bake. The original starter culture may be many years old. Because of their pH level and the presence of antibacterial agents, such cultures are stable and able to prevent colonization by unwanted yeasts and bacteria. For this reason, sourdough products inherently keep fresh for a longer time than other breads, and are good at resisting spoilage and mold without the additives required to retard spoiling of other types of bread.

The flavour of sourdough bread varies from place to place according to the method used, the hydration of the starter and the final dough, the refreshment ratio, the length of the fermentation periods, ambient temperature, humidity, and elevation, all of which contribute to the microbiology of the sourdough.

Baking
The starter must be fed 4 to 12 hours prior to being added to dough, by mixing flour and water to the starter. This creates an active leaven, which should grow in size and is ready to use when it is bubbly and floats in water. The leaven is mixed with flour and water to make a final dough of the desired consistency. The starter weight is usually 13% to 25% of the total flour weight, though formulas may vary. The dough is shaped into loaves, left to rise, and then baked. A number of 'no knead' methods are available for sourdough bread. Due to the length of time sourdough bread takes to proof, many bakers may refrigerate their loaves prior to baking. This process is known as 'retardation' to slow down the proofing process. This process has the added benefit of developing a richer flavoured bread.

Because the rise time of most sourdough starters is longer than that of breads made with baker's yeasts, sourdough starters are generally unsuitable for use in a bread machine. However, sourdough that has been proved over many hours, using a sourdough starter or mother dough, can then be transferred to the machine, utilizing only the baking segment of the bread-making program, bypassing timed mechanical kneading by the machine's paddle. This may be convenient for single loaf production, but the complex blistered and slashed crust characteristics of oven-baked sourdough bread cannot be achieved in a bread making machine, as this usually requires the use of a baking stone in the oven and misting of the dough to produce steam. Furthermore, ideal crust development requires loaves of shapes not achievable in a machine's loaf tin.

Biology and chemistry of sourdough

Sourdough is a stable culture of lactic acid bacteria and yeast in a mixture of flour and water. Broadly speaking, the yeast produces gas (carbon dioxide) which leavens the dough, and the lactic acid bacteria produce lactic acid, which contributes flavor in the form of sourness. The lactic acid bacteria metabolize sugars that the yeast cannot, while the yeast metabolizes the by-products of lactic acid fermentation. During sourdough fermentation, many cereal enzymes, particularly phytases, proteases and pentosanases, are activated through acidification and contribute to biochemical changes during sourdough fermentation.

Lactic acid bacteria

Every starter consists of different lactic acid bacteria which are introduced to the starter through the environment, water, and flour used to create the starter.  The lactic acid bacteria are a group of gram-positive bacteria capable of converting carbohydrate substrates into organic acids and producing a wide range of metabolites. Organic acids, including propionic, formic, acetic acid, and lactic acid, create an unfavorable environment for the growth of spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms.

Lactic acid bacteria commonly found in sourdough include Leuconostoc, Pediococcus, Weissella and other genera. But by far, the most prevalent species belong to the very large and diverse genus, Lactobacillus.

Lactic acid bacteria are a group comprising aerotolerant anaerobes, meaning anaerobes that can multiply in the presence of oxygen, and microaerophiles, meaning microbes that multiply at levels of oxygen lower than atmospheric.

Major lactic acid bacteria in sourdough are heterofermentative (producing more than one product) organisms and convert hexoses by the phosphoketolase pathway to lactate, CO2 and acetate or ethanol; heterofermentative lactic acid bacteria are usually associated with homofermentative (producing mainly one product) lactobacilli, particularly Lactobacillus and Companilactobacillus species.

Yeasts
The most common yeast species in sourdough are Kazachstania exigua (Saccharomyces exiguous), Saccharomyces cerevisiae, K. exiguus and K. humilis (previously Candida milleri or Candida humilis).

Type I sourdough

Traditional sourdoughs used as sole leavening agent are referred to as Type I sourdough; examples include sourdoughs used for San Francisco Sourdough Bread, Panettone, and rye bread. Type I sourdoughs are generally firm doughs, have a pH range of 3.8 to 4.5, and are fermented in a temperature range of . Fructilactobacillus sanfranciscensis was named for its discovery in San Francisco sourdough starters, though it is not endemic to San Francisco. F. sanfranciscensis and Limosilactobacillus pontis often highlight a lactic-acid bacterial flora that includes Limosilactobacillus fermentum, Fructilactobacillus fructivorans, Levilactobacillus brevis, and Companilactobacillus paralimentarius. The yeasts Saccharomyces exiguus, Kasachstania humilis, or Candida holmii usually populate sourdough cultures symbiotically with Fructilactobacillus sanfranciscensis. The perfect yeast S. exiguus is related to the imperfect yeasts C. milleri and C. holmii. Torulopsis holmii, Torula holmii, and S. rosei are synonyms used prior to 1978. C. milleri and C. holmii are physiologically similar, but DNA testing established them as distinct. Other yeasts reported found include C. humilis, C. krusei, Pichia anomaola, C. peliculosa, P. membranifaciens, and C. valida. There have been changes in the taxonomy of yeasts in recent decades. F. sanfranciscensis requires maltose, while C. milleri is maltase negative and thus cannot consume maltose. C. milleri can grow under conditions of low pH and relatively high acetate levels, a factor contributing to sourdough flora's stability.

In order to produce acetic acid, F. sanfrancisensis needs maltose and fructose. Wheat dough contains abundant starch and some polyfructosanes, which enzymes degrade to "maltose, fructose and little glucose." The terms "fructosan, glucofructan, sucrosyl fructan, polyfructan, and polyfructosan" are all used to describe a class of compounds that are "structurally and metabolically" related to sucrose, where "carbon is stored as sucrose and polymers of fructose (fructans)." Yeasts have the ability to free fructose from glucofructans which compose about 1–2% of the dough. Glucofructans are long strings of fructose molecules attached to a single glucose molecule. Sucrose can be considered the shortest glucofructan, with only a single fructose molecule attached. When L. sanfrancisensis reduces all available fructose, it stops producing acetic acid and begins producing ethanol. If the fermenting dough gets too warm, the yeasts slow down, producing less fructose. Fructose depletion is more of a concern in doughs with lower enzymatic activities.

A Belgian study of wheat and spelt doughs refreshed once every 24 hours and fermented at  in a laboratory environment provides insight into the three-phase evolution of first-generation-to-stable sourdough ecosystems. In the first two days of refreshment, atypical genera Enterococcus and Lactococcus bacteria highlighted the doughs. During days 2–5, sourdough-specific bacteria belonging to the genera Lactobacillus, Pediococcus, and Weissella outcompete earlier strains. Yeasts grew more slowly and reached population peaks near days 4–5. By days 5–7, "well-adapted" Lactobacillus strains such as L. fermentum and Lactiplantibacillus plantarum had emerged. At their peaks, yeast populations were in the range of about 1–10% of the lactobacilli populations or 1:10–1:100. One characteristic of a stable dough is that the heterofermentative have outcompeted homofermentative lactobacilli. F. sanfranciscensis has typically not been identified in spontaneous sourdoughs, even after multiple cycles of back-slopping; it was rapidly introduced in wheat sourdoughs, however, when plant materials were used to start the fermentation.

Investigations of wheat sourdough found that S. cerevisiae died off after two refreshment cycles. S. cerevisiae has less tolerance to acetic acid than other sourdough yeasts. Continuously maintained, stable sourdough cannot be unintentionally contaminated by S. cerevisiae.

Type II sourdough
In Type II sourdoughs, baker's yeast or Saccharomyces cerevisiae is added to leaven the dough; L. pontis and Limosilactobacillus panis in association with Lactobacillus species are dominant members of type II sourdoughs. They have a pH less than 3.5, and are fermented within a temperature range of  for several days without feedings, which reduces the flora's activity. This process was adopted by some in industry, in part, due to simplification of the multiple-step build typical of Type I sourdoughs.

In Type II sourdoughs, yeast growth is slowed or stopped due to higher fermentation temperatures. These doughs are more liquid and once fermented may be chilled and stored for up to a week. They are pumpable and used in continuous bread production systems.

Type III sourdough
Type III sourdoughs are Type II sourdoughs subjected to a drying process, usually either spray or drum drying, and are mainly used at an industrial level as flavoring agents. They are dominated by "drying-resistant [lactic acid bacteria] such as Pediococcus pentosaceus, L. plantarum, and L. brevis." The drying conditions, time and heat applied, may be varied in order to influence caramelization and produce desired characteristics in the baked product.

Types of bread

There are many breads that use techniques similar to that used in the making of sourdough bread. Danish rugbrød (rye bread) is a dense, dark bread best known from its use in the Danish smørrebrød (open-faced sandwiches). The Mexican birote salado started out in the city of Guadalajara as a short French baguette that replaces the yeast with a sourdough fermentation process, yielding a bread that is crunchy outside but soft and savory inside. Amish friendship bread uses a sourdough starter that includes sugar and milk. It is also leavened with baking powder and baking soda. An Amish sourdough is fed with sugar and potato flakes every 3–5 days. German pumpernickel is traditionally made from a sourdough starter, although modern pumpernickel loaves often use commercial yeasts, sometimes spiked with citric acid or lactic acid to inactivate the amylases in the rye flour. Flemish desem bread (the word means 'starter') is a whole-wheat sourdough. Whole-wheat sourdough flatbreads are traditionally eaten in Azerbaijan. In Ethiopia, teff flour is fermented to make injera. A similar variant is eaten in Somalia, Djibouti, and Yemen (where it is known as lahoh). In India, idlis and dosa are made from a sourdough fermentation of rice and Vigna mungo.

Possible fermentation effects

Sourdough bread has a relatively low glycemic index compared with other types of bread. The activity of cereal enzymes during sourdough fermentation hydrolyses phytates, which improves the absorption of some dietary minerals and vitamins, most of which are found in the bran.

Sourdough fermentation reduces wheat components that may contribute to non-celiac wheat sensitivity and irritable bowel syndrome. Sourdough fermentation and lactic acid bacteria may be useful to improve the quality of gluten-free breads, such as by enhancing texture, aroma, and shelf life.

See also

 List of sourdough breads
 Biga, a pre-fermentation technique in Italian baking
 Herman cake
 History of California bread
 Kyselo, Czech soup made from sourdough
 List of microorganisms found in sourdough
 Salt-rising bread
 Sour mash
 Sour rye soup, Polish soup (zurek) made with rye flour soured in the same process that occurs in the forming of sourdough
 Injera

Notes

References

External links

Doughs
Fermented foods
Californian cuisine

Sourdough


Economic Calculation in the Socialist Commonwealth is an article by Austrian School economist Ludwig von Mises. Its critique against economic calculation in a planned economy triggered the decades-long economic calculation debate.

The article was first published 1920 in German under the title Die Wirtschaftsrechnung im sozialistischen Gemeinwesen and based on a lecture Mises gave in 1919 as a response to a book by Otto Neurath, arguing for the feasibility of central planning. Two years later, the essay was incorporated into Mises's book Socialism: An Economic and Sociological Analysis.

Synopsis
Mises laid out that economic calculation requires 2 fundamental things

 A medium of exchange (i.e money)
 Markets

According to Mises, although it is possible to perform economic calculation in a proficient manner without these two requirements present, very few circumstances exist. These circumstances include economic calculation within a household.

To him, cost-benefit analysis is not hard to do on a personal scale. It is not hard to pick between a certain amount of wine and a certain amount of oil. However, because marginal utility is not homogeneous and universal, people will have different preferences. For example, a teetotaler may prefer oil to wine, whereas an alcoholic may prefer wine. Thus the central planner or bureaucrat will have trouble distributing resources as prices cannot be set without markets as prices reflect the supply and demand of goods, labour and resources. Buying and selling consumer goods within a socialist state will simply be internal transfers of goods and not "objects of exchange", which sets the price mechanism out of order.

Mises thought that Economic Calculation is only possible (outside of extremely limited circumstances) by information provided by market prices, which reflects the changes of individual subjective values. Bureaucratic, centrally planned methods of resource allocation are inherently irrational and do not allocate resources in the most efficient method, which means that economic calculation in a socialist commonwealth is impossible. Because of the economist's idea that cost-benefit analysis is imperative and crucial, the socialist economy is also impossible.

Criticisms

Left Wing Criticism
Marxist computer programmer Paul Cockshott argues that economic calculation is possible within a socialist state as long as computational devices are used. In "Towards a New Socialism'''s "Information and Economics: A Critique of Hayek" and "Against Mises", he argues that central planning is simplified by the use of computers in calculating the component of price not accounted for by Marxian labor theories of value.

 Right Wing Criticism
One of the few "non-Austrian" Anarcho-Capitalists, Bryan Caplan, argues that Mises is unable to prove why the socialist economy would be "impossible". While agreeing with the concept of a calculation problem he argues that the Austrian School employs it indistinctly. Caplan argues that:"Ever since Mises, Austrians have overused the economic calculation argument. In the absence of detailed empirical evidence showing that this particular problem is the most important one, it is just another argument out of hundreds on the list of arguments against socialism. How do we know that the problem of work effort, or innovation, or the underground economy, or any number of other problems were not more important than the calculation problem?

The collapse of Communism has led Austrians to loudly proclaim that 'Mises was right.' Yes, he was right that socialism was a terrible economic system - and only the collapse of Communism has shown us how bad it really was. However, current events do nothing to show that economic calculation was the insuperable difficulty of socialist economies. There is no natural experiment of a socialist economy that suffered solely from its lack of economic calculation. Thus, economic history as well as pure economic theory fails to establish that the economic calculation problem was a severe challenge for socialism."

 Influence
Many consider Economic Calculation in the Socialist Commonwealth to be Mises's most influential work, while others view Human Action: A Treatise on Economics to be more important of a book, as it fills the magnum opus'' role.

Joseph T Salerno, an American Austrian school economist considers it to be among his best works. He writes:"The significance of Mises's 1920 article extends far beyond its devastating demonstration of the impossibility of socialist economy and society. It provides the rationale for the price system, purely free markets, the security of private property against all encroachments, and sound money. Its thesis will continue to be relevant as long as economists and policy-makers want to understand why even minor government economic interventions consistently fail to achieve socially beneficial results. "Economic Calculation in the Socialist Commonwealth" surely ranks among the most important economic articles written this century."

See also

 Economic calculation problem
 Socialist calculation debate
 Cost–benefit analysis
Austrian School
Ludwig von Mises
Criticism of Socialism

References

External links

 Full text in HTML and PDF (1990 ed.)

1920 documents
Austrian School publications
Economics articles
Economic planning
Free market


Somethin' Bout Love is the third studio album of keyboardist Brian Culbertson released in 1999 on Atlantic/WEA Records. The album reached No. 3 on the Billboard Contemporary Jazz Albums chart and No. 8 on the Billboard Top Jazz Albums chart.

Singles
Get'n Over You got to No. 16 on the Billboard Adult R&B Songs chart. I'm Gonna Miss You also reached No. 21 on the Billboard Adult R&B Songs chart.

Tracklisting

References

1999 albums
Atlantic Records albums
Brian Culbertson albums

Somethin' Bout Love


Aquilegia  longissima, the long-spur columbine, is a rare perennial herb that is native to northern Mexico, Trans-Pecos Texas and southern Arizona.   In the original species description by Asa Gray in 1883, Aquilegia longissima is distinguished from the shorter-spurred golden columbine Aquilegia chrysantha based on the extremely long spur over 10 cm long, narrow spatulate petals and very slender spurs that usually hang straight down.  The petal spurs have been known to reach 16 cm in length,  the longest nectary spurs of any Eudicot. The plants typically flower in the fall after monsoon rains and are found in oak-pine-juniper woodlands in shaded canyons near intermittent streams or on talus slopes.

William Trelease hypothesized in 1883  that the most likely pollinator of A. longissima would be the giant sphinx moth, Cocytius antaeus. The giant sphinx moth is a rare stray in west Texas and has been collected in Big Bend National Park near long-spur columbine populations;  however, the common pollinators are likely large hawkmoths in the genera Manduca and Agrius with tongue lengths from 9–14 cm long.

Hybridization is common in the genus Aquilegia and populations with intermediate spur lengths from 7–9 cm are found near some long-spur columbine populations.  In a multivariate analyses of floral characteristics, the intermediate plants with spurs 7–9 cm long cluster with the more common golden columbine.   One population with intermediate spur lengths is found at Cattail Falls in Big Bend National Park.  The plants at the base of the falls and along the stream flower in the spring, while much further up the canyons are small populations of long-spur columbine that flower after monsoon rains in the fall.

References

longissima
Flora of Mexico
Flora of Arizona
Flora of Texas

Aquilegia longissima


Helena of Oświęcim (; 1478/80 – after 1524), was a Polish princess member of the House of Piast from the Oświęcim branch and ruling Duchess of Karniów since 1506 until 1523.

She was the only child of Duke Jan IV of Oświęcim by his second wife Barbara, daughter of Duke Nicholas V of Karniów.

Life
Helena's father lost his Duchy of Oświęcim in 1456 and the rest of his lands in 1482. In 1491 her parents were invested with the Duchy of Karniów by the Bohemian King, because Helena's mother was the last representative of the Ducal line, extinct after the death of Duke Jan IV the Elder in 1483.

In 1492 Helena married with Baron George of Schellenberg. One year later (in 1493), Helena's parents were dispossessed from Karniów when the King Władysław II Jagiellon bestowed the Duchy to Baron Johann II, Helena's father-in-law.

Johann II died in 1506 and was succeeded by his son George, who also ruled by right of his wife, as the last heir of the Karniów branch of the Piast dynasty.

During her marriage, Helena gave birth four children: three sons (George, Johann III and Jarosław) and one daughter (Alena or Helena).

In 1523 Duke George sold Karniów with Głubczyce to George, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach. Helena probably died shortly afterwards.

References

1470s births
1520s deaths
Polish Roman Catholics
Piast dynasty

Helena of Oświęcim


David Burgess is a former association football player who represented New Zealand at the international level.

Burgess made his full All Whites debut in a 2-0 win over Ghana on 7 June 1983 and ended his international playing career with four A-international caps to his credit, his final cap a substitute appearance in a 0-2 loss to South Korea on 22 April 1984.

He has since become a journalist, with stints at newspapers including The Dominion Post in Wellington where he was the local council reporter. He also maintains a keen interest in the Wellington Phoenix football franchise, which he covered for the paper.

References

External links

Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
New Zealand men's association footballers
New Zealand men's international footballers
Miramar Rangers AFC players
20th-century births
Men's association football midfielders

David Burgess (footballer)