The megapodes, also known as incubator birds or mound-builders, are stocky, medium-large, chicken-like birds with small heads and large feet in the family Megapodiidae. Their name literally means "large foot" and is a reference to the heavy legs and feet typical of these terrestrial birds. All are browsers, and all except the malleefowl occupy wooded habitats. Most are brown or black in color. Megapodes are superprecocial, hatching from their eggs in the most mature condition of any bird. They hatch with open eyes, bodily coordination and strength, full wing feathers, and downy body feathers, and are able to run, pursue prey, and in some species, fly on the same day they hatch.

Etymology
From the Greek  ( = great) and , ( = foot).

Description
Megapodes are medium-sized to large terrestrial birds with large legs and feet with sharp claws. Megapodes are of three kinds: scrub fowl, brush turkeys, and mallee fowl or lowan. The largest members of the clade are the species of Alectura and Talegalla. The smallest are the Micronesian scrubfowl (Megapodius laperouse) and the Moluccan scrubfowl (Eulipoa wallacei). They have small heads, short beaks, and rounded and large wings. Their flying abilities vary within the clade. They present the hallux at the same level of the other toes just like the species of the clade Cracidae. The other Galliformes have their  halluces raised above the level of the front toes.

Distribution and habitat
Megapodes are found in the broader Australasian region, including islands in the western Pacific, Australia, New Guinea, and the islands of Indonesia east of the Wallace Line, but also the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal. The distribution of the family has contracted in the Pacific with the arrival of humans, and a number of island groups such as Fiji, Tonga, and New Caledonia have lost many or all of their species. Raoul Island, a New Zealand territory and the main island of the Kermadec Islands, may also have once had a species of megapode, based on settler accounts.

Behaviour and ecology

Megapodes are mainly solitary birds that do not incubate their eggs with their body heat as other birds do, but bury them. Their eggs are unusual in having a large yolk, making up 50–70% of the egg weight. The birds are best known for building massive nest mounds of decaying vegetation, which the male attends, adding or removing litter to regulate the internal heat while the eggs develop. However, some bury their eggs in other ways; there are burrow-nesters which use geothermal heat, and others which simply rely on the heat of the sun warming the sand. Some species vary their incubation strategy depending on the local environment.

Although the Australian brushturkey was thought to exhibit temperature-dependent sex determination, this was later proven false; temperature does, however, affect embryo mortality and resulting offspring sex ratios.  The nonsocial nature of their incubation raises questions as to how the hatchlings come to recognise other members of their species, which is due to imprinting in other members of the order Galliformes. Research suggests an instinctive visual recognition of specific movement patterns is made by the individual species of megapode.

Megapode chicks do not have an egg tooth; they use their powerful claws to break out of the egg, and then tunnel their way up to the surface of the mound, lying on their backs and scratching at the sand and vegetable matter. Similar to other superprecocial birds, they hatch fully feathered and active, already able to fly and live independently from their parents. In megapodes superprecociality apparently evolved secondarily from brooding and at least loose parental care as more typical in Galliformes.
Eggs previously assigned to Genyornis have been reassigned to giant megapode species. Some dietary and chronological data previously assigned to dromornithids may instead be assigned to the giant megapodes.

Megapodes share some similarities to the extinct enantiornithes in terms of their superprecocial life cycle, though also several differences.

Species
The more than 20 living species are placed in seven genera. Although the evolutionary relationships between the Megapodiidae are especially uncertain, the morphological groups are clear:

Phylogeny

Taxonomy
 Genus †Mwalau Worthy et al. 2015
 †Mwalau walterlinii Worthy et al. 2015 (Vanuatu)
 Genus †Ngawupodius Boles & Ivison 1999
 †Ngawupodius minya Boles & Ivison 1999
 Scrubfowl group
 Genus: Macrocephalon
 Maleo, Macrocephalon maleo
 Genus: Eulipoa (sometimes included in Megapodius)
 Moluccan megapode, Eulipoa wallacei.
 Genus: Megapodius
 Tongan megapode, Megapodius pritchardii
 Micronesian megapode, Megapodius laperouse
 Marianas Island megapode, Megapodius laperouse laperouse
 Palau Island megapode, Megapodius laperouse senex
 Nicobar megapode, Megapodius nicobariensis
 Philippine megapode, Megapodius cumingii
 Sula megapode, Megapodius bernsteinii
 Tanimbar megapode, Megapodius tenimberensis
 Dusky megapode, Megapodius freycinet
 Forsten's megapode, Megapodius (freycinet) forstenii
 Biak scrubfowl, Megapodius geelvinkianus
 Melanesian megapode, Megapodius eremita
 Vanuatu megapode, Megapodius layardi
 New Guinea scrubfowl, Megapodius decollatus
 Orange-footed scrubfowl, Megapodius reinwardt
 †Pile-builder scrubfowl, Megapodius molistructor Balouet & Olson 1989
 †Viti Levu scrubfowl, Megapodius amissus Worthy 2000
 †Consumed scrubfowl, Megapodius alimentum Steatman 1989a
 †M. andamanensis Walter 1980 nomen dubium [oospecies]
 †M. burnabyi Gray 1861 nomen dubium [oospecies]
 †Raoul Island scrubfowl, M. sp.
 †'Eua scrubfowl (small-footed megapode), M. sp.
 †Lifuka scrubfowl, M. sp.
 †Stout Tongan megapode, M. sp.
 †Large Vanuatu megapode, M. sp.
 †Large Solomon Islands, M. sp.
 †New Caledonia megapode, M. sp.
 †Loyalty megapode, M. sp.
 †New Ireland scrubfowl (large Bismarck's megapode), M. sp.
 Malleefowl, group
 Genus: Leipoa
 Malleefowl, Leipoa ocellata
 Brushturkey group
 Genus: Alectura
 Australian brushturkey, Alectura lathami
 Genus: Aepypodius
 Wattled brushturkey, Aepypodius arfakianus
 Waigeo brushturkey, Aepypodius bruijnii
 Genus: Talegalla
 Red-billed brushturkey, Talegalla cuvieri
 Black-billed brushturkey, Talegalla fuscirostris
 Collared brushturkey, Talegalla jobiensis
 Genus: †Progura
 Progura gallinacea – Queensland, Pleistocene
 Progura campestris – South Australia, Pleistocene
 Genus: †Latagallina
 Latagallina naracoortensis formerly Progura naracoortensis – New South Wales, South Australia, Pleistocene
 Latagallina olsoni – South Australia, Pleistocene
 Incertae sedis
 Genus: †Garrdimalga
 Garrdimalga mcnamarai – South Australia, Pleistocene

Human uses
In their native Oceania, indigenous peoples protect their nesting sites, as their eggs are considered to be delicacies. Their eggs are about twice the size of chicken eggs and the yolks are roughly four times as massive.

See also
 List of recently extinct birds
 Late Quaternary prehistoric birds
 List of fossil bird genera

Footnotes

References

External links

Taxa named by René Lesson

Megapode


Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) persons in the U.S. state of Massachusetts enjoy the same rights as non-LGBT people. The U.S. state of Massachusetts is one of the most LGBT-friendly states in the country. In 2004, it became the first U.S. state to grant marriage licenses to same-sex couples after the decision in Goodridge v. Department of Public Health, and the sixth jurisdiction worldwide, after the Netherlands, Belgium, Ontario, British Columbia, and Quebec.

Massachusetts is regarded as one of the most advanced U.S. states in regards to LGBT rights legislation. Same-sex sexual activity has been legal since 1974, although Massachusetts still has not legislatively repealed its sodomy law. State law bans discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity in employment, housing, public accommodations, credit and union practices. In November 2018, it became the first state in the country to support transgender protections through popular vote. In addition, same-sex couples are allowed to adopt, and transgender people may change their legal gender without undergoing sex reassignment surgery. In April 2019, Massachusetts became the 16th US state to ban conversion therapy on LGBT minors.

Massachusetts is home to a vibrant and visible LGBT culture. Boston, the state capital, has been ranked one of the most LGBT-friendly cities in the United States, noted for its LGBT dating scene, events, nightlife, clubs and bars. Several towns located at the tip of Cape Cod are also famous internationally for their high LGBT acceptance and visibility, particularly Provincetown. Northampton, on the other hand, is the town with the most lesbian couples per capita in the entire United States.

Legality of same-sex sexual activity

In 1641, Nathaniel Ward's legal code was enacted in the state, which prohibited sodomy,

In Commonwealth v. Balthazar, in 1972, the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court ruled that the statute which prohibited "any unnatural and lascivious act with another person" was inapplicable to "private, consensual conduct of adults".

Massachusetts has not repealed its sodomy law and it remains on the books. The Massachusetts General Court has voted down bills in committee for years, to repeal and abolish sodomy laws within sections of both §34 and §35. During the 2018 session of the Massachusetts General Court, outdated laws on abortion, adultery and fornication were repealed, but not the laws on sodomy, anal sex, and oral sex still listed within sections 34 and 35. Presently, Massachusetts does not restrict private sexual behavior between consenting adults. It has two statutes that implicate homosexual activity: §34 prohibits the "abominable and detestable crime against nature" and §35 prohibits "any unnatural and lascivious act with another person."

Recognition of same-sex relationships

Marriage

Massachusetts authorized same-sex marriages within the state following the Supreme Judicial Court (SJC) ruling on November 18, 2003 in Goodridge v. Department of Public Health that it was unconstitutional under the state Constitution for state agencies to restrict marriage to heterosexual couples. The Court gave the state Legislature 180 days to enact laws pursuant to the judgment. In the absence of legislative action, Governor Mitt Romney ordered town clerks to begin issuing marriage certificates to same-sex couples beginning May 17, 2004. Attempts to enact an amendment to the state Constitution to prohibit same-sex marriage, the last in 2007, have been unsuccessful.

A 1913 state law that forbade non-residents from marrying in Massachusetts if their marriage would be void in their home state was repealed on July 31, 2008.

On July 26, 2012, the SJC ruled in Elia-Warnken v. Elia that the state recognizes a civil union established in a different jurisdiction as the equivalent of marriage. It termed a Massachusetts marriage entered into by a man who was already a party to a Vermont civil union with a third party "polygamy" and therefore void. On September 28, 2012, the SJC ruled in that "Because the parties to California [registered domestic partnerships] have rights and responsibilities identical to those of marriage", it is proper to treat such relationships "as equivalent to marriage" in Massachusetts.

Adoption and parenting
In May 1985, in response to a public controversy about same-sex couple Don Babets and David Jean, who were acting as foster parents, Massachusetts issued regulations designed to prevent such couples from serving as foster parents. The state rescinded those regulations in April 1990 as part of an out-of-court settlement of a suit brought by Gay & Lesbian Advocates & Defenders (GLAD) and the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), following a five-year campaign by an ad hoc group formed around the issue, Foster Equality. The state has allowed second-parent adoption by a parent of the same sex as the existing parent since a court decision, In re Adoption of Tammy, in 1993. In July 1999, the same court awarded visitation rights to each of two mothers after their separation.

In 2004, following the legalization of same-sex marriage in Massachusetts, Governor Mitt Romney prevented the state's Registry of Vital Records from revising its birth certificate forms to allow for options other than one mother and one father, instead requiring hand-written changes to the documents only after receiving approval from the Governor's legal counsel. The forms were changed when Governor Deval Patrick took office in 2007.

In March 2006, Catholic Charities of Boston announced it would no longer provide adoption services because it could not comply with Massachusetts law prohibiting discrimination against homosexuals.

In February 2011, Massachusetts Health Commissioner John Auerbach announced plans by the end of March to standardize birth certificates, formerly designed by each city or town, by providing hospitals with electronic forms with fields labeled "mother/parent" and "father/parent". He called the system "more sensitive to the circumstances of the family and to the children."

City of Boston
In August 2023, the City of Boston removed all gender and sex on marriage licence forms and documents.

Discrimination protections
Since 1989, Massachusetts has prohibited discrimination based on sexual orientation in credit, public and private employment, union practices, housing, and public accommodation. It was the second state to add sexual orientation to its anti-discrimination statute, following Wisconsin in 1982.

On February 17, 2011, Governor Deval Patrick issued an executive order banning discrimination on the part of the state or its contractors against transgender employees of the state Government. He reiterated his support for legislation to extend similar protection to all transgender persons in the state. Massachusetts enacted such legislation prohibiting discrimination based on gender identity in credit, public and private employment, union practices and housing—but not public accommodations—on November 23, 2011, effective on July 1, 2012. By the end of 2015, a bill was pending to prohibit discrimination based on gender identity in public accommodations, but its future was still uncertain. Finally, on May 12, 2016, the state Senate voted 33–4 to approve the bill. The Massachusetts House of Representatives on July 7, 2016 passed a bill by a vote of 117–36 to include gender identity to the public accommodations law. The bill was signed into law the next day, by Massachusetts Republican Governor Charlie Baker, and scheduled to take effect on October 1, 2016. In October 2016, however, anti-transgender activists submitted the minimum number of signatures necessary, to the Secretary of the Commonwealth, to put the law up for repeal on a statewide ballot measure. Voters decided on November 6, 2018 to retain the law, with 67.8% in favor of upholding law, and 32.2% opposed. The Massachusetts Gender Identity Anti-Discrimination Initiative was the first-ever statewide ballot question of its kind in the United States.

In June 2012, on instructions from Worcester's Roman Catholic Bishop Robert McManus, diocesan officials declined to sell a property owned by the diocese to a same-sex couple and in July lied about what happened when questioned about the sale. In September, the couple filed suit against the bishop and other parties to the negotiations.

On January 29, 2014, Matthew Barrett represented by GLAD filed a complaint with the Massachusetts Commission Against Discrimination against Fontbonne Academy, a Catholic secondary school, because in July 2013 the school had withdrawn an offer of employment as food service manager when officials learned he was in a same-sex marriage. The case moved to Massachusetts Superior Court, and on December 16, 2015, Judge Douglas H. Wilkins ruled in Barrett v. Fontbonne Academy that the Academy had violated the state's laws against discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation and gender.

Anti-bullying legislation was enacted in May 2010. It "requires schools to adopt clear procedures for reporting and investigating cases of bullying, as well as methods for preventing retaliation against those who report problems."

Since August 2021, the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court made a ruling that sexual orientation is a protective class - for picking a system of LGBTQ juries within Massachusetts.

Hate crime law

Massachusetts added sexual orientation to the categories protected by its 1983 hate crime legislation in June 1996. The state defines a hate crime as "any criminal act coupled with overt actions motivated by bigotry and bias, including, but not limited to, a threatened, attempted or completed overt act motivated at least in part by racial, religious, ethnic, handicap, gender or sexual orientation prejudice, or which otherwise deprives another person of his constitutional rights by threats, intimidation or coercion, or which seek to interfere with or disrupt a person's exercise of constitutional rights through harassment or intimidation."

Massachusetts adopted the Hate Crimes Reporting Act in 1990. The legislation created a Crime Reporting Unit to collect hate crime incident reports from law enforcement and required the unit to summarize and report on the information. Regulations establish criteria for determining whether a crime is a hate crime, provide a means for advocacy organizations to report hate incidents, specify the content of crime and incident reports, and specify the content of the annual report. The crime report unit of the State Police must also collect, summarize and report hate crime data to the state Attorney General and to several legislative committees. The reports are available on public record.

In 1991, the Governor created the Task Force on Hate Crimes. The task force's principal tasks are (1) developing regulations to implement the Hate Crimes Reporting Act, (2) coordinating training efforts, (3) increasing submission of hate crime data, and (4) working with community organizations and victims' groups. Initiatives for 2000 include pilot programs in high schools, youth diversion programs, a new correctional diversity awareness program, outreach coordination, a victimization survey in schools, public awareness, creating civil rights investigative teams, encouragement of reporting by law enforcement, and continued training.

The term "gender identity" was added to the state's hate crime statute, effective July 1, 2012.

Gender identity and expression
Massachusetts allows transgender individuals to amend their birth certificate to reflect their gender identity. Sex reassignment surgery is not a requirement.

Non-binary driver licences

In November 2019, it was announced that both Massachusetts I.D.s and driver licences had upgraded software by the Massachusetts RMV - to include the non-binary option of "gender X" (alongside male and female on forms and applications) effective immediately. For years bills on gender X drivers licences never passed the Massachusetts General Court - to implement these policies, so it was done by internal regulation and policy instead.

Non-binary birth certificates
In September 2021, the Massachusetts Senate passed a bill to allow gender X (alongside male and female) on an individual's birth certificate. The Massachusetts House of Representatives is yet to vote on the bill.

Reaffirmed gender healthcare law
In July 2022, an extensive bill passed both houses of the Massachusetts General Court - that codifies "reaffirmed gender healthcare protections" embedded within Massachusetts legislation. The Governor of Massachusetts signed the bill into law. The law went into effect immediately, due to an "emergency clause" within the bill - bypassing the usual 90-day period Massachusetts laws go into effect after enactment from the Governor.

Intersex rights
In October 2020, Boston Children's Hospital announced they would stop performing clitoroplasties and vaginoplasties in intersex infants without meaningful conversation and consent from the child. This broke from decades old medical protocol which included medical and surgical intervention to alter the physical appearance of the infant's genitals but carried risks of loss of sensation, fertility issues, pain during intercourse and incontinence.

Conversion therapy

In June 2018, the Massachusetts House of Representatives passed a bill by a vote of 137–14 to legally ban conversion therapy practices on minors. The bill, however, failed to pass the Massachusetts Senate before it adjourned sine die.

On March 13, 2019, the Massachusetts House of Representatives passed H140, which would ban conversion therapy on minors, by a vote of 147–8. The bill was approved by the state Senate with amendments by a vote of 34–0 on March 28, 2019. An engrossed bill was enacted on April 4, 2019, and awaited consideration by Massachusetts Governor Charlie Baker, who indicated he was "inclined to support" such legislation. The Governor signed the bill into law on April 8, 2019 and it went into effect immediately.

Public opinion and attitudes

According to a 2017 Public Religion Research Institute (PRRI), 80% of Massachusetts residents supported same-sex marriage, whereas 13% were opposed and 7% were undecided. This was the highest support recorded in the United States, tied with Vermont. The PRRI poll also showed that support for anti-discrimination laws covering sexual orientation and gender identity enjoyed wide popular support. Likewise, 80% were in favor of such laws, while 13% were opposed. 70% also expressed opposition to religious-based refusals to serve LGBT people. 23% expressed support.

A 2020 PRRI Institute poll found 77% of Massachusetts residents supported same-sex marriage and 19% opposed.

Summary table

See also

Hurley v. Irish-American Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Group of Boston
Politics of Massachusetts
Law of Massachusetts
LGBT culture in Boston

References

LGBT rights in Massachusetts


Town & Country Surf Designs: Wood & Water Rage is a skateboarding and surfing game published by LJN for the Nintendo Entertainment System in February 1988. The game shares its name with the world famous surfboard manufacturer, Town & Country Surf Designs, and features the company's mascot characters, known as "Da Boys".

Gameplay
Town & Country Surf Designs: Wood & Water Rage is divided into three events. "Street Skate Session", "Big Wave Encounter", and "Wood and Water Rage". In Street Skate Session, players choose either Joe Cool or Tiki Man and attempt to complete a timed linear obstacle course on a skateboard, evading obstacles and scoring points. The player can control their skater's speed and steer them with the D-pad. The B Button gains speed if tapped, while the A button jumps. If Left on the D-Pad is held, the skater will grip the back end of their skateboard, gradually slowing them down. If the A button is pressed while in this state, the skater will perform an ollie, clearing pitfalls and other obstacles that would stop the skateboard. Performing an ollie against a railing will make the skater grind across it, while timing an ollie over a ramp will launch the skater a much longer distance. If the skater bails, the player loses a life. Completing a course adds bonus points to the player's score based on the amount of time and number of lives remaining. The game continues until the player runs out of time.

Big Wave Encounter is the surfing event, played with either Kool Kat or Thrilla Gorilla. Unlike Street Skate Session, the goal is to survive surfing on a large wave rather than compete against a clock. Players move their surfer with the D-pad and jump at the top of the wave with the B button, steering away from hazards that enter the wave while picking up bananas for extra points. Going too deep into the wave, suffering a collision with an obstacle, or leaving the wave entirely results in the loss of a life. Eventually, the wave will approach a pier which the player must surf past to end the round. Completing a round adds a 1,000 point bonus, as well as 100 points per remaining life.

Wood and Water Rage is a mixed skateboarding and surfing event, alternating between skateboarding and surfing with every Round. Players pick a team of two characters to play in each respective sport: either Joe Cool paired with Thrilla Gorilla, or Tiki Man paired with Kool Kat. Each sport plays identically to Street Skate Session and Big Wave Encounter respectively, and the players' scores are carried over between the two sports.

Sequel
A follow-up game was released in North America in March 1992 entitled Town & Country II: Thrilla's Surfari. While it shared a common title and characters, the gameplay diverged away from its predecessor to take on more action and platforming elements.

References

External links

1988 video games
Advergames
Atlus games
LJN games
Multiple-sport video games
Nintendo Entertainment System games
Nintendo Entertainment System-only games
North America-exclusive video games
Skateboarding video games
Side-scrolling video games
Surfing video games
Video games developed in Japan
Video games scored by Tsukasa Masuko
Video games set in Hawaii


Werner Dollinger (10 October 1918 – 3 January 2008) was a German politician and economist, a member of the Christian Social Union in Bavaria (CSU). He served as Federal Minister for the Treasury from 1962 to 1966, Federal Minister for Economic Cooperation in 1966, Federal Minister for Post and Telecommunications from 1966 to 1969, and as Federal Minister of Transport from 1982 to 1987.

Life
Born in Neustadt an der Aisch in Middle Franconia, Dollinger studied economics and social sciences in Nuremberg, at the Goethe University Frankfurt and at the Technische Hochschule München. He obtained a MBA (Diplom-Kaufmann) degree in 1940 and two years later gained his doctorate. From 1943 to 1945, Dollinger served in the Wehrmacht armed forces during World War II.

Back in his hometown after the war, he joined his father-in-law's brickyard business. He became chairman of the local Chamber of Commerce in 1948 and of the Middle Franconian clay industry association in 1952. As a Protestant, Dollinger was a synod member of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Bavaria from 1965 to 1995 and of the Evangelical Church in Germany from 1971 to 1991.

Politics
In 1946 Dollinger was one of the founding members of the Christian Social Union branch in Neustadt an der Aisch. He was elected city councillor and deputy in the district assembly. He also acted as CSU district chairman from 1951 to 1972, as a councillor in the party's district committee, and joined the state executive in 1957. At the 1953 federal elections, Dollinger was elected to the West German Bundestag parliament. He joined the CDU/CSU group executive committee, became vice chairman in 1957 and head of the CSU regional group in 1961. Re-elected several times, he remained a Bundestag MP until 1990. In 1956 he also joined the Common Assembly of the European Coal and Steel Community.

On 14 December 1962 Dollinger was appointed Federal Minister for the Treasury in the last cabinet of Chancellor Konrad Adenauer, an office he retained under Adenauer's successor Ludwig Erhard. In 1966 he also served as Minister for Economic Cooperation, after Minister Walter Scheel and his FDP cabinet colleagues had resigned. In the succeeding grand coalition cabinet of Chancellor Kurt Georg Kiesinger, Dollinger was appointed Federal Minister for Post and Telecommunications. He lost his office when Willy Brandt formed the social–liberal coalition after the 1969 federal elections.

13 years later, Dollinger once again entered the Federal Government, when he was appointed Federal Minister of Transport in the cabinet of Chancellor Helmut Kohl on 4 October 1982. He finally retired after the 1987 elections. He died at his home in Neustadt an der Aisch.

Honours
Bavarian Order of Merit (1961)
Grand Cross of Merit with Star of the Federal Republic of Germany (1969)
Grand Decoration of Honour in Gold with Sash for Services to the Republic of Austria (1969)
Grand Cross of Merit with Star and Sash of the Federal Republic of Germany (1973)

References

External links

1918 births
2008 deaths
People from Neustadt (Aisch)-Bad Windsheim
Members of the Bundestag for Bavaria
Members of the Bundestag 1987–1990
Members of the Bundestag 1983–1987
Members of the Bundestag 1980–1983
Members of the Bundestag 1976–1980
Members of the Bundestag 1972–1976
Members of the Bundestag 1969–1972
Members of the Bundestag 1965–1969
Members of the Bundestag 1961–1965
Members of the Bundestag 1957–1961
Members of the Bundestag 1953–1957
Transport ministers of Germany
Economic Cooperation ministers of Germany
Grand Crosses with Star and Sash of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Members of the Bundestag for the Christian Social Union in Bavaria
German military personnel of World War II

Werner Dollinger


Tich Gwilym (10 September 1950 – 19 June 2005), born Robert Gwilliam, was a Welsh rock guitarist who was most notable for his Hendrix inspired version of the Welsh national anthem, Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau, considered one of the most famous renditions of the song.

Musical career
Tich was born in Llwynypia, in the Rhondda Valley on 10 September 1950. One of Tich's earliest bands was Kimla Taz, who he played with during the late 1960s. Although the band never gained any mainstream success, they were popular in South Wales and in 1969 played at the Croeso '69 Blues Festival at Abergavenny, alongside the likes of Fleetwood Mac and Jethro Tull.

Tich found fame in the 1970s, when as part of Geraint Jarman a'r Cynganeddwyr, he recorded the Welsh national anthem on the electric guitar. The Jimi Hendrix inspired version, which first appeared on Jarman's 1978 album also called Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau, became synonymous with Tich and has appeared on compilation albums of Welsh artists. In 2006, an eight track recording of the Welsh national anthem was 'discovered' in London. At the time it was alleged that this was a lost version by Hendrix, though others claimed that it was a rendition by Tich. When approached, ex-band member Geraint Jarman dismissed both claims, stating that 'It's definitely not Tich because his style was more like Hendrix's than the actual tape'. It was later discovered that the version was a hoax, perpetrated by record producer Martin Davies and ex-guitarist of The Vibrators, John Ellis.

In 1989, Tich formed three-piece band the Superclarks with Burke Shelley of Welsh band Budgie. Burke - later replaced by Peter Morgan - was bass player and lead vocalist. The band lasted until 1993 when Morgan moved to the USA. In the 1990s Tich also played alongside Welsh folk singer Siân James, joining her on a tour of Japan in 1998.

Death
In 2005, Tich was staying in a house in Canton in Cardiff. A fire broke out, after an unattended candle lit by the owner accidentally set clothes alight. Tich became trapped in the attic and was overcome by thick smoke and poisonous gases. An inquest into the fire in 2006 recorded a verdict of accidental death. A memorial concert was held for Tich at the Coal Exchange in Cardiff, and featured Welsh acts such as Man and Racing Cars.

Notes

1950 births
2005 deaths
Welsh rock guitarists
People from Llwynypia
Deaths by smoke inhalation
20th-century British guitarists
Deaths from fire
Accidental deaths in Wales

Tich Gwilym


Stephen Keshi
Dem bon Stephen Okechukwu Keshi for 23 January 1962. For 7 June 2016, im be one of di player for Naija football club and na manager too. Na defender Im be wen e be dey play ball for Naija foot ball team, and E get 60 caps for Naija national team, na im make am be di Naija second player wey get cap well well for di time wey e retire.
E represent Naija for 1994 FIFA World Cup and for the 1994 Africa Cup of Nations,
For Dat time wey Super Eagle win, na im be captain of dem. E play for klub for country
wey reach five, E play for Belgium club well well, where im win di Belgian league championship with R.S.C. Anderlecht for 1991.
Keshi na manager wey dey lucky to qualify for Togo FIFA World Cup wey e show face for their for im histori for 2006.
But im later comot for di position for di tournament and dem com carri Otto Pfister put for e position. And E com later be coach for im contri wey be Naija, na for their e take be one for the two
pesins wey be Mahmoud ElGohary, wey win diAfrica Cup of Nations wen e bin dey as player and wen e bin coach. Afta Im playing Karia for klub where e win the Belgian league championship wit R.S.C. Anderlecht in 1991. E come go for im coach training for United States.

Im Karia wen E be Coach
For 1996, Augustine Eguavoen wey don be coach for Naija football team before com join am. Dem play togeda for California as backbone for di short-lived Sacramento Scorpions.

Keshi don be staff coach for Naija foot ball team, and na head coach Im be for di Junior Eagles for the 2001 African Youth Championship wey make dem qualify for di 2001 FIFA World Youth Championship wey dem no win am.

For 2004 go reach 2006 Keshi be coach for di Togo national team, and na surprise e be for dem for di number one time  wey dem fit show face for di World Cup tournament, Germany 2006 wen Im be dia coach. Togo com change am wit one coach wey com from Germany wey be Otto Pfister becos of say E no meet up wit dem want from am, before dem go di World Cup finals, wit how Togo show dia self for strong way, dem later fail for di  knock out stage for di   2006 Africa Cup of Nations in Egypt. Pfister no com teh for Togo coach wen e be say na one World Cup campaign wey nealy reach not to pay am again, im com comot, and Togo com just dey like dat reach February 2007 wen dem call Keshi back for di friendly match wit Cameroon.

E com gree to be manager for two year for Mali national team wen dem don collect am for April 2008. Dem comot Keshi as manager for Mali national team for 2010 wen Mali quick drop for di group stage for 2010AfricaCup of Nations.

For  2011, Keshi com be coach for Naija national team. E com make dem to fit go for di 2013 Africa Cup of Nations and dem beat Burkina Faso wit 1–0 for di final. For di second day Keshi drop Im letter say Im wan resign, but e com later change e mind and e no resign again. Na dat one com make am fit carri Naija team go for di 2013 Confederations Cup, dem com beat Tahiti 6-1, and Uruguay com beat dem 2-1 for di second game, and Spain com beat dem 3-0 for di World Cup winners, for dia final group game.

For 16 November 2013, Keshi make Naija qualify to fit go play di 2014 World Cup afta dem don win Ethiopia 4-1 for dia aggregate for dia play-off.

For Africa, Keshi make a record to be di first coach to qualify for two nation wey wey (Naija and Togo) wey qualify to go for di World Cup Finals for 2005 and for 2013. Im still help Naija to be di number one country for Africa to collet di African Cup of Nations Trophy and qualify for World Cup for 2013. Naija com try reach di stage of knockout for 2014 World Cup. Dem start di World Cup wit 0-0 draw wit Iran, And dem win Bosnia and Herzegovina 1-0. Argentina come beat dem 3-2 for di final group stage, but dem still make am to di knockout stage afta dem wit 3-1 over Iran. France com win di Super Eagle for di first knockout round. Na afta di match Keshi com talk say Im don resign to be Super Eagle coach, but Im no com later resign again wen di Naija Football Federation com sign anoda new contract wit am. For di Morocco 2015 African Cup of Nations Im team no so well for dia, na e com make e talk say Im wan resign for coach work go look for anoda work to do if to say the pressure dey plenti for am more more from som bad mouth pipu wey e no mention dia name becos dem de try spoil e name. But Im com later talk say dat one no go make am stop to be di Naija coach, becos e get love for di team and e country wey be Naija.

Afta di Naija team be don come back from World Cup for July 2014, na im di contract wey Keshi get wit di Naija Football Federation finish and dem no renew am again. Di NFF Executive Committee com talk say dia decision na afta dem don check Im report and look Im matter well well for di NFF Disciplinary Committee and for di NFF Technical and Development Committee wey dem chek well for di tins dem wey Stephen Keshi don do and for e performance wen Im be dey as Super Eagles' Head Coach, NFF see say Im no put bodi for di work well wey go don make e fit get wetin di Federation want wen dey be wan give am di contract of coach.

Im Personal Life
Dem born Keshi for on di 23 January 1962 for Azare wey be one Citi for Bauchi State. Im grow for Illah  for Oshimili North Local Government Area for Delta State and na Igbo pipu area. Na Saint Paul's Catholic Nursery and Primary School, for Apapa Road, Lagos State e go. For 1976, E com enta Saint Finbarrs' College for Akoka, Lagos State. Keshi marri Im wife wey her name na Kate (née Aburime) for 30 years. She com die on di 10 December 2015, on top say she get one bad sickness wey dem dey call cancer and na for three years she take fight wit di bad sickness before she com die put, Dem bon four pikin. Dia senior pikin na Kos Keshi wey dey play football. Keshi com get heart attack and e die for road wen dem be dey cari am go hospital for 7 June 2016 for Benin City, na 54 years e dey wen e die. E wife die for last December. Google com give Keshi honor wit doodle as wetin
e suppos collect wen e be wan do im 56 years birthday.

Im Beta Example
Google honor Keshi wit doodle wetin sopos be for im 56 years birthday.
Honors.

Wia E don play wen e be player
New Nigeria Bank

West African Club Championship: 1983, 1984

Stade d'Abidjan Coupe Houphoet Boigny: 1985

Africa Sports

Côte d'Ivoire Premier Division: 1986

Côte d'Ivoire Coupe:1986

West African Club Championship:1986

Coupe Houphoet Boigny:1986AnderlechtBelgian First Division: 1986–87, 1990–91
Belgian Cup: 1988–89, 1989–90
Belgian Supercup: 1987
European Cup Winners' Cup: 1989-90 (runners-up)
Bruges Matins: 1988Nigeria'''

Africa Cup of Nations: 1994
Nigeria
Africa Cup of Nations: 2013
Confederations of African Football – African Coach of the Year 2013.

Wia we see pruf

Stephen Keshi


Swami Shankarāshram II (Devanagari: स्वामी शङकर्ाश्रम्, ) was the fourth head guru or Mathādhipati (head of the matha or monastery) of the Chitrapur Saraswat Brahmin community. He reigned from 1770 to 1785.

He was a great scholar who was well versed with the Vedas and the Upanishads. His yogic powers were extraordinary and he was regarded and revered as an avatār (incarnation) of Lord Dattātreya (). Very many miracles have been attributed to him (See Miracles). Many people in that period experienced that in case of difficulty, if they prayed earnestly for his help, his help never fails to come. He also founded the matha (monastery) at Mallāpur.

In this article henceforth Swamiji will refer to Swami Shankarāshram II.

Pattābhishekha ("Crowning Ceremony")
Swami Shankarāshram was crowned as the head guru or Mathādhipati (Head of the Chitrapur Math) of the Sāraswats after the Mahā-samādhi (death) of his guru Swami Parijnānāshram II (on Ekadashi day of the Bhādrapad month in 1770).

During the Anushthān (ceremony), Swamiji was suffering from high fever due to Malaria. But his yogic powers were so great that he transferred his fever onto the danda (stick) that he carried so that the ceremony could be performed without inconvenience. Being the true Yogi that he was, after the ceremony, he transferred the sickness back onto him. When devotees asked him why he would not keep the illness in the danda permanently he replied "Even a Jnāni (All-knowing one) has to go through the ups and downs of life. Even the Lord ordains that and this is a fact of life."

Swamiji was a person who was always absorbed in spiritual pursuits. He was continuously seeking more knowledge so much so that he would neglect his health. His diet was frugal and he wished for only simple porridge (mostly as Bhikshāor meal offered by devotees).

Shri Gurumath, Mallāpur
Under Swami Shankarāshram II, a new matha ('Monastery') was established in the hamlet of Kumta near Mallapur. This place is a small valley tucked away amidst lots of greenery. It was named Shri Gurumath. Swamiji started residing there after the construction was over.

Everyday Swamiji would go for a walk in the mornings to Hoovinhittal a place near the Chandāvar village. There he would meditate for long hours in a garden that was full of Jasmine flowers. Devotees would wait on the road-side for his darshan and blessings. Swamiji would randomly point to a devotee, who would then offer Swamiji bhiksha. Swamiji preferred simple porridge and some payasa (sweet rice pudding). The samādhi (shrine) of Swami Shankarāshram II is located in the premises of the Guru Matha.

Swamiji would constantly hold satsangs ("gatherings for discussions of the scriptures") at the Chitrapur Matha. Devotees would "flock to listen to the discourses filled with wisdom". Swamiji would educate all the people about the essence of the Indian scriptures.

Shishya Sweekār
The frail health of Swamiji had the devotees anxious with fear. They requested Swamiji to choose a shishya (disciple) who would continue the Guru Parampara. So the search started for a suitable disciple. Eventually Swamiji chose a young man from the Kandlūr family to be his successor.

In the month of Maagha in 1781, Swamiji ordained the new shishya and named him Keshavāshram. Records say that the Shishya Sweekār ceremony took place at the Shri Ganapati Temple at Mallāpur.

Miracles
Swami Shankarāshram has been attributed to many miracles. Two of the most popular ones are mentioned here.

The unfried Vadas
Swamiji preferred to have only porridge as his meals. But during the Punyatithī (death anniversary) of his guru, Swami Parijñānāshram II, his shishya (disciple) Keshavāshram asked the cooks not to prepare porridge.
(It is customary in Sāraswat Brahmins tradition that during the death anniversary of a person, a grand feast is prepared and it is first eaten by crows. Crows are supposed be an embodiment of persons who have died and hence a grand feast is prepared to honour the ancestors).'

The shishya forgot to tell Swamiji about this. The cooks were preparing Vada but however much they tried, the Vadas would stick to the bottom of the frying pan and just would not get fried. When Swamiji got to know of it, he said "As the fire within is burning intensely, perhaps the Vadas are not getting fried". Keshavāshram  Swami suddenly understood his folly and asked the cooks to prepare the porridge immediately and serve Swamiji. Once Swamiji was served with the porridge, the Vadas were frying crisp and hot.

This incident (miracle) has also resulted in the Ksheeranna Seva (a special Seva or service) at the Shri Guru Matha at Mallāpur. Ksheeranna means rice gruel (porridge) in Kannada.

Priest from Narsobawādi
Even after his death, the shrine of Swamiji was supposed to be powerful. People go with in deep agony and return with a sense of calmness.

In the village of Narsobawādi there lived a priest, who along with his son, were afflicted by a strange disease that could not be cured by any medication. One night, in a dream, a holy saint (known as Narasimha Saraswat Swami) appeared and asked the priest and his son to go to Mallāpur and pray with full devotion at the shrine of Swamiji. The grace of the guru was such that both father and son were cured of their illness.

Renovation of Samādhi
Under Swami Pandurangāshram (The Eighth Head of the community) the shrine (samādhi) of Swami Shankarāshram II was renovated. During the renovation work, the stone slab covering the samādhi was removed. Everyone was surprised to find leaves of Tulsi and Bael that were placed hundreds of years ago still fresh. The fragrance of tulsi spread all across the shrine when it was uncovered. The leaves had defied age and were preserved intact.

Death
In 1785, Swamiji went to Gokarn to pray at the shrine of Ādi Parijñānāshram despite being in very poor health. On the way back to Chitrāpur, the residents of Mallāpur asked Swamiji to stay at the Guru Matha at Mallapur for a few days to bless the people. It was during this stay that Swamiji's health took a turn for the worse very rapidly.

Swami Shankarāshram II died on the Shudh Tritiya (Holy 3rd day) of the month of Maagha in 1785 with his shishya Keshavāshram by his side. His samādhi (Shrine) is located at Mallāpur.

Avatar of Lord Dattātreya
There lived a very famous Avatar of Lord Dattātreya in Akkalkot in Maharashtra by the name Swāmi Samarth Maharāj. He died in 1878. A devotee of his by name Sahasrabudhe Maharāj got a vision in Pune in 1983. In that vision Swami Samarth Maharāj advised him to visit a sacred samādhi of a Datt avatar in Mallāpur. In the vision, Swami Samarth Maharāj showed him the shrine of the Datt Avatar at Mallāpur and told him that urgent repairs were due at the shrine. Sahasrabudhe Maharāj had not even heard of this place.

The vision was too strong and compelling to be ignored. So he figured out where this place was and when he reached Mallāpur, he found the samādhi just as it was shown in his vision. After offering his services to the shrine, Sahasrabudhe Maharaj became a devotee of Swamiji. This proved that Swami Shankarāshram was a true avatār of Lord Dattātreya.

References

18th-century Hindu religious leaders
1785 deaths
Year of birth unknown
Scholars from Karnataka

Shankarashram II


The Northern Army was a White Army that operated in the Northern Front of the Russian Civil War from 1918 to 1920.

History
After the October Revolution, numerous counter-revolutionary governments formed to fight against the Bolsheviks. In August 1918, a leftist regime called the Supreme Administration of the Northern Region was formed in Arkhangelsk, led by the veteran Populist Nikolai Tchaikovsky. In January 1919, Tchaikovsky was replaced by Yevgeny Miller.

In the Northern Region, an Army was formed with support of the Allies. Major-General Vladimir Marushevsky became commander-in-chief of the White Northern Army. Due to the low influx of volunteers into the Army, the Supreme Administration of the Northern Region introduced general military service. Despite this, the strength of the troops grew rather slowly. In addition, the discipline of the Northern Army was very poor. By the summer of 1919, the Northern army numbered 25,000 men, of whom 14,000 were captured Red Army soldiers. In September 1919, the Northern Army launched an offensive on the Northern Front, during which land in the Komi Territory was seized.

By February 1920, the troops of the Northern region had 1,492 officers, 39,822 combatant and 13,456 non-combatant lower ranks, with a total complexity of 54,700 men with 161 guns and 1,600 machine guns. Despite this, after the Allies had withdrawn, the Northern Army  quickly collapsed when the Red Army launched a counter-offensive in December 1919.

Many soldiers capitulated and the remnants of the Army were evacuated from Arkhangelsk in February 1920.

Strength
 3,000 (August 1918)
 9,500 (January 1919)
 25,000 (summer of 1919)
 54,700 (February 1920)

Commanders

 Vladimir Marushevsky (November 1918 - May 1919)
 Yevgeny Miller (May 1919 - February 1920)

Chief of staff

 Mikhail Kvetsinsky (January 1919 - February 1920).

Military units and formations of White Russia (Russian Civil War)
Russian Civil War

Northern Army (Russia)


Outwitting the Devil is a work of non-fiction that was written in 1938 by Napoleon Hill, which was considered too controversial to be published in its era. The book is written as an interview between Hill (Mr. Earthbound) and the devil (our inner dark self), wherein Hill attempts to uncover the secrets to freedom and success by evaluating the greatest obstacles that humans face in order to attain their personal goals in life. Outwitting the Devil was released by Sterling Publishing in June, 2011, with annotations by Sharon Lechter.

Summary
Throughout the story, "Mr. Earthbound" interrogates "Your Majesty", to find out how people limit their success and how Satan achieves his manipulation.

Topics discussed in Outwitting the Devil include:
 The difference between drifters and non-drifters
 Maintaining a definiteness of purpose
 Finding one's other self
 Hill's seven principles
 The law of hypnotic rhythm

History
After the release of Think and Grow Rich, Hill began writing Outwitting the Devil as an explanation of why some were still seeing failure after following all of the steps in Think and Grow Rich. His wife, Annie Lou, did not want the book published because of the role the Devil played in it. When Hill died in 1970, the manuscript went into the possession of Annie Lou, who died in 1984.  After her death, the manuscript went into the hands of Dr. Charles Johnson, who was Annie Lou's nephew and president of the Napoleon Hill Foundation. While Dr. Johnson believed the book's message to be powerful, his wife, Frankie Johnson, shared Annie Lou's feelings and told Dr. Johnson that she did not want the manuscript published while she was alive. After Frankie's death, Dr. Johnson passed the manuscript to Don Green, CEO of the Napoleon Hill Foundation. Sharon Lechter was then asked to edit the manuscript, and after several years of annotations and reviews, it was released in June, 2011.

Bibliography
 Outwitting the Devil: the Secret to Freedom and Success, by Napoleon Hill and Sharon L. Lechter. New York: Sterling Publishing, 2011.
 JM Emmert. Rich Man, Poor Man in SUCCESS, January 11, 2010.
 Douglas Paul Alp. Napoleon Hill - Outwitting the Devil on It's About Your Success, June 18, 2011.
 A Brief Essay by Dr. Hill About Life on The Napoleon Hill Foundation.
 Kimberley Mosher. Book Review: 'Outwitting the Devil', after over 70 years on TNGG // The Next Generation, June 18, 2011.

References

1938 non-fiction books
Self-help books
Sterling Publishing books

Outwitting the Devil


Saturn (1936 – 22 May 2020) was an American alligator. He lived in the Moscow Zoo. He was known as an urban myth that he was Adolf Hitler's "pet alligator". He was born in the state of Mississippi, United States. He survived the Berlin bombing.

Saturn was brought to the Berlin Zoological Garden. It was here that Hitler reportedly enjoyed visiting the zoo and especially liked the alligator. However, while Hitler may have viewed Saturn at the zoo, he was never Hitler's personal pet.

During World War II, the Berlin Zoo was destroyed, but Saturn was discovered by British soldiers, who then gave the alligator to the Soviets in 1946.

He lived at the Moscow Zoo until 22 May 2020, when he died of old age at the age of 83–84.

References

1936 births
2020 deaths
Individual animals

Saturn (alligator)


Our Mother of Perpetual Succour (Latin: Nostra Mater de Perpetuo Succursu) (colloquially known as Our Lady of Perpetual Help) is a Roman Catholic title of the Blessed Virgin Mary associated with a fifteenth-century Byzantine icon and a reputed Marian apparition. The image has been enshrined in the Church of San Matteo in Via Merulana since 27 March 1499, and is today permanently enshrined in the Church of Saint Alphonsus of Liguori in Rome, where the novena to Our Mother of Perpetual Help is prayed weekly.

Pope Pius IX granted a pontifical decree of canonical coronation along with its official formalized title Nostra Mater de Perpetuo Succursu on 5 May 1866. The Latin Patriarch of Constantinople, Cardinal Ruggero Luigi Emidio Antici Mattei, executed the rite of coronation on 23 June 1867.

The Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer serve as custodians of the icon. The image is alternatively named as "The Virgin of the Passion" in Eastern Orthodoxy. Novena prayers are held before its feast day on 27 June every year. Due to promotion by the Redemptorist priests, the image has gained popularity among Roman and Eastern Catholics. Modern reproductions are often displayed in residential homes, commercial establishments, and public transportation.

History of the Marian title

The Cretan image originated as an Eastern Orthodox icon of the Passion called Amolyntos which depicted the Madonna and Child along with two angels carrying the Holy Instruments of the Passion of Jesus Christ.

The current title derives from the external door tymphanum of the Augustinian Church of San Matteo in Via Merulana. where the antiquated inscription from 1579 once bore the invocation:

The Order of Saint Augustine already had a devotion to this Marian title based on a namesake cloistered monastery "Our Lady of Help" (Italian: Madonna del Soccorso) in Corleone, Palermo, Sicily.

This posthumous title was formalized by Pope Pius IX based on the history of the older church that housed the icon in the present accorded title "Holy Mother of Perpetual Succour" (Latin: Sancta Mater de Perpetuo Succursu). Today, the same decorative style is presently reconstructed in its current original shrine.

Claims of Origin

Painted by Andreas Rizo of Candia

Accordingly, the image was painted by the Cretan iconographer Andreas Rizo de Candia (1421—1492), who lived and travelled in Rome during the time and created several works bearing high resemblance to the icon.

A pious tale later emerged through the published  account of Jesuit Catholic priest, Father Concezio di Carroci whom later alleged that the image was originally stolen from Lasithi, Crete by an anonymous Roman merchant. This pious account was popularized by the sensationalized tale of a Marian apparition to a young maiden, now related to the icon being transferred to the Church of San Matteo in Via Merulana.

The former Archpriest of Saint Peter's Basilica, Cardinal Francesco Nerli Jr. also praised the icon for its miraculous claims of glorious wonder (Latin: Miraculorum Gloria Insignis).

The Monastery of Kardiotissa
According to the Keras Kardiotissas Monastery, the icon was painted by Saint Lazarus Zographos (810—865 AD) and was known as the Panagia Kardiotissa (Greek: Παναγίας Καρδιώτισσας), due to the depiction of the Mother of God holding the Child Jesus near her heart. Historian Stergios Spanakis had argued that the miraculous icon was the reason for the founding of the monastery. The Italian Franciscan priest and traveler  Cristoforo Buondelmonti visited Crete in 1415, wrote of a similar icon being miraculous:

Accordingly, the icon alleging to be the same image was claimed to be stolen from the monastery in 1498 The earliest written account of the icon after its abduction comes from a Latin and Italian plaque placed in the church of San Matteo in Via Merulana where it was first venerated by the public in 1499. The writer of the icon is unknown, but according to a parchment attached to the painting that accompanied the icon, it was stolen by a merchant sailing to Rome from the island of Crete. The image remained in the private possession of a Roman merchant and his family until 27 March 1499, when the icon was transferred to the church of San Matteo  where it remained for 300 years. The picture was then popularly called the "Madonna di San Matteo".

According to the Redemptorist Order

The Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer maintain a robust account of the icon and its passage from the private hands of a merchant family in Rome to its final and current location at Sant'Alfonso di Liguori, on the Esquiline Hill in Rome. The accounting includes the story of a merchant who secured the icon from Crete, and brought it to his family's home in Rome, during the late 15th century. The story includes a passage of a young member of the family, the six-year-old daughter of the merchant, who was visited by the Virgin Mary in a dream. Part of the accounting includes the following passage:

The icon remained at Saint Matthew's for three centuries. For at least the final 60 years of the 18th century, St. Matthew's was occupied by the Augustinian Order of the Catholic Church. When war broke out in Rome in 1798, the icon was moved to the Church of Saint Mary in Posterula, near the "Umberto I" bridge that crosses the Tiber River in Rome. The icon remained "hidden" there until Pope Pius IX granted the possession of the icon to the Redemptorists by Pontifical decree in 1865. The Church of Saint Mary in Posterula was later demolished in 1880.

According to the account by the Redemptorists: "In January 1866, Fathers Michael Marchi and Ernest Bresciani went to Saint Mary's in Posterula to receive the picture from the Augustinians.". The Redemptorists had purchased the property where the former Saint Matthew's had stood, and had established and built the modern Sant'Alfonso di Liguori, in honor of the founder of their congregation. Thus, the venerated icon of the Catholic Church was returned to the location described by the Virgin Mary in the dream of the merchant's daughter, that is, at the church between Saint Mary Major and Saint John Lateran.

Redemptorist tradition holds that Pope Pius IX declared, in 1866, that the Redemptorists make the icon known to the world, and so, several copies were made and sent to Redemptorist parishes around the world.

Translation (Transfer) of the image

In 1798, French troops under Prince Louis-Alexandre Berthier occupied Rome as part of the French Revolutionary Wars, establishing the
short-lived Roman Republic and taking Pope Pius VI prisoner. Among the several churches demolished during the French occupation was San Matteo in Via Merulana, which housed the icon. The Augustinian friars who rescued the icon first took it to the nearby Church of Saint Eusebius, then later set it up on a side altar in the Church of Santa Maria in Posterula.

In January 1855, the Redemptorist priests purchased Villa Caserta in Rome along the Via Merulana and converted it into their headquarters. Decades later, Pope Pius IX invited the Redemptorist Fathers to set up a Marian house of veneration in Rome, in response to which the Redemptorists built Sant'Alfonso di Liguori at that location. The Redemptorists were thus established on the Via Merulana, not knowing that it had once been the site of the Church of San Matteo and shrine of the once-famous icon.

Feast day and Custodianship

The memorialization of the 27th Feast day commemorates the official date of translation to the former Church of Saint Matthew on 27 March 1499. Pope Pius IX selected this very day in conjunction to the canonical coronation of the image for the month of 27 June as proposed by the Order of the Augustinians whom at the time maintained legal custodianship of the image.

Accordingly, the icon remained damaged and unrestored at the backside chapel of the Church of Saint Matthew, where an Augustinian monk, Agostino Orsetti complained that the devotees did not venerate the icon well enough due to an already existing image of "The Madonna of Grace"  venerated in the main altar. A younger friend of Orsetti, the Redemptorist missionary, Michael Marchi saw the opportunity for the Order of Redemptorists planning to build a new church in the Esquilline Hill. This proposal was brought to Father—General Nicholas Mauron who then petitioned Pope Pius IX for papal dispensation to transfer the custodianship of the original image.

Pope Pius IX sent a letter on 11 December 1865 to Father—General Nicholas Mauron, C.Ss.R., which ordered that the Marian image be once again publicly venerated in Via Merulana, the new designated church of Saint Alphonsus of Ligouri. The same pontiff directed the Augustinian friars to surrender the original icon to the Redemptorist priests, on condition that the Redemptorists must supply the Augustinian priests with another adequate picture in exchange as a gesture of goodwill.

The instructions of the Pontifical order to the Redemptorists were:

Upon its official transfer, Pope Pius IX finally gave his Apostolic Blessing and titled the icon Mater de Perpetuo Succursu (English: Mother of Perpetual Succour).

On 21 April 1866, the Redemptorist Superior General gave one of the first copies of the icon to Pope Pius IX. This copy is preserved in the chapel of the Redemptorists' Generalate in Rome.

On 5 May 1866, the image was granted a decree of  Canonical Coronation by the Dean of the Vatican Chapter in a solemn and official recognition of the Marian icon under that title. The Latin Patriarch of Constantinople, Cardinal Ruggero Luigi Emidio Antici Mattei, executed the rite of coronation on 23 June 1867.

The original icon remains under the care of the Redemptorist Fathers at the Church of St. Alphonsus of Ligouri with the latest restoration of the icon having taken place in 1990.

Restoration and carbon dating

Pope Pius IX tasked the Dean of the College of Cardinals, Costantino Patrizi Naro to restore the worn and damaged image on 26 April 1866. The icon underwent restoration by the Polish painter Leopold Nowotny (1822—1870).

In 1990, the icon was taken down from its altar for new photography and image restoration commissioned by the General Government of Redemptorists. The Redemptorist Order entered into contract with the Technical Department at the Vatican Museum to restore the icon and prevent further fungal damage to the icon. The restoration process involved X-ray, infrared scanning, technical analysis of the paint and ultra-violet testing along with a carbon-14-test which placed the icon between the year 1325–1480. Artistic analysis of the icon revealed that the facial structure of the icon was altered due to previous overpainting, resulting in a combination of "oriental and occidental" features of the image.

Composition of the image
The original wooden icon is suspended on the altar, measures 17" × 21" inches, on a wood panel with a gold leaf background. The image depicts the following symbols:
 The Blessed Virgin Mary — wearing a dress of dark red, in Byzantine iconography the color of the Empress.
 The subject shows Mary looking towards the faithful while pointing at the Child Jesus, frightened by the instruments of crucifixion and is depicted with a fallen sandal.
 The left side is Saint Michael Archangel —  carrying the lance and sponge of the crucifixion of Jesus.
 On the right side is Saint Gabriel Archangel carrying a 3-bar cross and nails.
 The Virgin Mary has a star on her forehead signifying her role as Star of the Sea while the cross on the side has been claimed as referring to the Greek monastery which produced the icon.

Byzantine depictions of the Blessed Virgin Mary in art have three stars, one star each on the shoulder and one on the forehead. This type of icon is called Hodegetria, where Mary is pointing to her Son, known as a Theotokos of the Passion.

Mary is depicted with a long slender nose, thin lips, and smoothly arched eyebrows, evidence of being made by a Greek artist. The veil and her face itself are rounded, indicating holiness. The size of the mother is also out of proportion to her son, a deliberate intent by the artist to show Mary as larger than life.

The Greek inscriptions read MP-ΘΥ (Μήτηρ Θεοῦ, Mother of God), ΟΑΜ (Ὁ Ἀρχάγγελος Μιχαήλ, Michael the Archangel), ΟΑΓ (Ὁ Ἀρχάγγελος Γαβριήλ, Gabriel the Archangel) and IC-XC (Ἰησοῦς Χριστός, Jesus Christ), respectively.

The icon has a gold ground on a walnut panel, believed to be from Crete. The Cretan School was the source of the many icons imported into Europe from the late Middle Ages through the Renaissance. The gold background represents the Kingdom of God. The round halo surrounding the Virgin Mary's head as well as details on the robes were created through Estofado, which is an artistic effect created by scraping the paint to reveal the gold background, additional effects are achieved by chasing designs on the gold. The icon was cleaned and restored once in 1866 and again in the year 1940.

Pontifical approbations
 Pope Pius IX tasked Cardinal Costantino Patrizi Naro the first restoration to the image on 26 April 1866. The same pontiff later granted a Pontifical decree of Canonical Coronation to the original image along with its present title on 5 May 1866. The Latin Patriarch of Constantinople, Cardinal Ruggero Luigi Emidio Antici Mattei, executed the rite of coronation on 23 June 1867. The same pontiff designated the current feast day as 27 June, the month of Pontifical coronation and the 27th day of its original translation to its shrine.
 Pope Pius XII decreed this Marian title the Patroness of Haiti (1942) and Almoradi, Spain (1945).
 Pope John Paul II offered a Catholic Mass towards the icon venerated in Baclaran, Philippines as the Archbishop of Krakow on 18 February 1973 just before his trip to Melbourne, Australia. He later visited the shrine as Pontiff in 1981 during an Apostolic Visit to the Philippine islands. He further granted a canonical coronation for the following venerated images:
 In the Church of Our Mother of Perpetual Succour in Podgórze, Poland which merited a Pontifical decree Sacra illa Parœcialis signed on 14 May 1994. The rite of coronation was executed in 26 June 1994.
 The venerated icon in the Minor Basilica of the Holy Presentation of the Blessed Virgin Mary in Wadowice, the birthplace of the Pope, was crowned by his decree Una Altra Volta on 16 June 1999. The Marian image was displayed in the public square for the rite of coronation and is now permanently enshrined at the "Chapel of the Holy Cross" within the basilica.
 In Mostyska, Ukraine which was crowned on 2001
Pope Francis granted a Pontifical decree of coronation for the namesake image venerated in the monastery of the Redemptorist Order in  Gliwice on 22 June 2014.

Veneration
Our Lady of Perpetual Help has been venerated across many cultures and thus bears several titles in different languages, such as:

 Mother of Perpetual Succour (Anglicized)
 Unsere Liebe Frau von der immerwährenden Hilfe (Saxony)
 Nuestra Señora del Perpetuo Socorro (Spanish)
 Notre-Dame du Perpétuel Secours (Francais)
 Mater de Perpetuo Auxilio (Latinized variant)
 Ina ng Laging Saklolo (Philippines).

India
On 8 September 1948, the Perpetual Succour Novena was started at St. Michael's Church, Mumbai, India. Father Edward Fernandes brought back with him a copy of the image for public devotion from Ireland. The widespread devotion continues today in multiple dialects and languages at the shrine.

The Philippines
Our Lady of Perpetual Help is widely venerated by Filipino Catholics and Overseas Filipino communities. A German copy of the icon is venerated in the National Shrine of Our Mother of Perpetual Help in Baclaran, Parañaque City, Metro Manila – the country's centre of devotion to the icon. Since 1958, the Church has been authorized to remain open 24 hours a day.   Cardinal Karol Józef Wojtyła offered a Catholic Mass at the shrine in February 1973 and later visited the country again as Pope John Paul II in 17 February 1981.

The veneration of this icon is culturally unique to Philippine religiosity due to the absolute fact that all Catholic churches and petite chapels in the Philippines have a replica of the icon, often enshrined in a side altar. Similar to the archetype of the Last Supper in a Filipino dining room, this enshrinement has been a culture phenomenon unique to all Filipino Catholic shrines and churches, even sometimes caricatured as a cultural satire. The areas enshrined in this icon are either found in the foyer entrance of a church, a side altar or a freestanding chapel in a larger sized church.  Copies of the icon can also be found in countless houses, businesses, and even public utility vehicles.

Every Wednesday, many congregations hold services where they publicly recite the rosary and the icon's associated novena, along with a priest delivering Benediction and celebrating a votive Mass in its honor. Devotees today still use the same Novena booklet first published by Irish Redemptorists, who introduced the icon and its devotion to the Philippines in the early 1900s. The Filipino Diaspora continue keeping the Wednesday Novena, holding novena services in their respective parishes overseas.

In Saint John the Baptist Church, Garcia Hernandez, Bohol, the feast of the image is held on 27 April instead of the usual liturgical date. The 48 sub-chapels in the parish participate in the annual feast, while every 27th of the month has each chapel's respective congregations holding a procession of the icon. This form of devotion began in 1923 when two missionary priests, a Dutchman named Thomas and a German named Jorge, brought the icon to the town. The original icon can still be seen in a chapel of the parish; its reverse bears a Latin inscription attesting to its dedication.

In the Nueva Ecija province, Our Lady of Perpetual Help is widely venerated. Yearly, a first-class relic is exposed to the faithful from 18 June until 27 June.

Ukraine

Devotion to the Mother of God of Perpetual Help was propagated by the Greek Catholic Redemptorists, who arrived in Ukraine in 1913 at the invitation of Metropolitan Andrew Sheptytsky.

Blessed hieromartyr Nicholas Charnetsky, CSsR, and Blessed hieromartyr Vasyl Velychkovsky, CSsR were devoted to the Mother of God of Perpetual Help. Charnetsky was ordained on 8 February 1931 in the presence of the original icon in Rome and died while invoking the aid of the Mother of God of Perpetual Help. Velychkovsky wrote a book about the icon titled, A History of the Miraculous Icon of our Mother of Perpetual Help in 1968, for the centennial of the public veneration of the icon in 1866.

The city of Lviv had two crowned copies of Mother of God of Perpetual Help at one time. The first, crowned on 30 October, 1927, was taken to Poland on 14 October 1945 and placed in the chapel of the theological seminary in Warsaw. The second, crowned on 25 June, 1939, was taken to Poland in 1943. It is now kept at the Carmelite monastery in Kalisz-Niedźwiady.  This copy was crowned a second time on 7 June, 1991, by Pope Saint John Paul II.

An akathist composed by Fr. Roman Bachtalowsky, CSsR, was published in 1931.

Another copy of the Perpetual Help icon was kept in the Redemptorist monastery in Lviv. In 1939, a Soviet soldier entered the monastery chapel and shot at the icon. The bullet pierced the board just above the head of the Christ Child. The soldier would later be shot and killed by a bullet of unknown origin. The icon was kept hidden during the years of persecution.  On 7 April 2009, the icon was translated to the Greek Catholic church of Saint Josaphat, where the relics of Blessed Nicholas Charnetsky are enshrined.

On 24 June, 2015, a copy of the Mother of God of Perpetual Help was blessed by Pope Francis and brought to Ukraine on pilgrimage.

On 11 December 2017, Major Archbishop Sviatoslav Shevchuk proclaimed that the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church will celebrate the feast day of the Mother of God of Perpetual Help each year on the first Sunday of July.

United States

The Redemptorist parish, Saint Mary's in Annapolis, Maryland, received a copy of the icon from Rome in 1868. The image is prominently displayed within the sanctuary of the parish.

In 1878, the Basilica and Shrine of Our Lady of Perpetual Help in Boston, Massachusetts, obtained a certified copy of the icon being the first in the United States.

Between 1927 and 1935, the first American novena service dedicated to the icon was recited in Saint Alphonsus "The Rock" church in St. Louis, Missouri, and various other Redemptorist stations around the United States.

There is a shrine Church of the Most Holy Redeemer in Manhattan; and at the Basilica of Our Lady of Perpetual Help (Brooklyn) and Ybor City, Tampa, Florida.

Patronage
The town of Almoradí in the Valencian Country of Spain invokes the patronage of Our Mother of Perpetual Help. In 1918, the son of the Marquis of Ríoflorido, José Carlos, fell ill with pleurisy. His mother, Lady Desamparado Fontes, fed him a silk fabric cloth touched to the icon of Perpetual Help in Rome, which resulted in instantaneous healing later claimed to be miraculous. As a token of thanksgiving, Fontes officially donated funds to begin the Confraternity of Almoradí. On 29 May 1919, Our Lady of Perpetual Help was officially enthroned in Saint Andrew's Parish as the official patroness of the town. In 1945, Pope Pius XII confirmed this patronage by a pontifical decree. On its 50th anniversary in 1969, a public diocesan coronation of this image was held, directed by the town mayor and its authorities, with the crowns made by Santero artist José David.

Our Lady of Perpetual Help is also the principal patroness of Haiti. According to Roman Catholic bishop Guy Sansaricq, former Haitian president Élie Lescot and his cabinet petitioned the Holy See to make Our Mother of Perpetual Help the Patroness of Haiti in 1942. Many Haitians credit the Virgin Mary under this title with performing miracles to prevent a smallpox outbreak which ravaged the country in 1882. The Holy See approved the request for patronage under the Pontificate of Pope Pius XII. Our Lady of Perpetual Help is also present in numerous Haitian public stamps used by the Office des Postes d'Haiti. In January 2010, Pope Benedict XVI invoked Our Lady of Perpetual Help for Haiti's earthquake relief through Archbishop Louis Kébreau.

Our Lady of Perpetual Help is also the patroness of the Diocese of Salina, Kansas in the United States, of the Diocese of Middlesbrough & the Roman Catholic Diocese of Leeds in England, and of the Catholic Diocese of Issele-Uku in Nigeria.

See also
 Virgin of Mercy
 Titles of Mary

References

Citations

Sources

Further reading
 Ferrero, Fabriciano. The Story of an Icon: The Full History, Tradition and Spirituality of the Popular Icon of Our Mother .., of Perpetual Help. Redemptorist Publications, 2001. .
 Milliner, Matthew, Mother of the Lamb: The Story of a Gloabal Icon, Fortress Press, 2022.  .
 Coyle, John B: Our Lady of Perpetual Succour and Ireland, 1913

External links

Titles of Mary
Byzantine art
Paintings of the Madonna and Child
Perpetual Help
Paintings depicting Michael (archangel)
Paintings depicting Gabriel

Our Lady of Perpetual Help


George Robertson Reeves (January 3, 1826 – September 5, 1882) was a former Speaker of the House of the State of Texas and a Colonel in the Confederate States's 11th Texas Cavalry Regiment during the American Civil War. He also served as a pioneering member of Grayson County, Texas in which he also served as a Sheriff and tax collector.

Ancestry

The Reeves family was of English ancestry with Lord Robert Ryves (birth name Reve) (pronounced Reeves) (1490-1551), owning two primary estates, Randleston purchased in 1545 and Damory Court in Blandford Forum in 1548. George Reeves's 9th great-grandfather purchased both of these properties from Henry VIII of England as a member of the King's court. Lord Ryves made his living primarily in wool and textiles and is buried at St. Peter and St. Paul Church in Blandford Forum, Dorset, England.

Colonel Reeves's 5th great-grandfather, Timothy Rives, immigrated from England to Virginia, USA, in the mid-1600s, and within a few generations the family would leave Virginia and move west, settling in Tennessee.  Oral history of the Reeves family indicates that Colonel Reeves's father, William Steele Reeves (1794-1872), was very close to, if not partially raised by his aunt, Charlotte Reeves and her husband, General James Robertson. General Robertson was commissioned as a United States military officer by President George Washington and was the co-founder of Fort Nashborough in Tennessee, later named Nashville. William is listed as a family member in the James Robertson family bible.

Personal life

George Robertson Reeves was born in Hickman County, Tennessee. He married Jane Moore in 1844 while living in Arkansas, and between them had 12 children, with seven surviving his death in 1882. Jane Moore's great-great-grandfather was noted pioneer and co-founder of what is now the State of Tennessee, Colonel William Bean, an acquaintance of famous frontiersmen Daniel Boone and David Crockett. Bean was a founding member of the Watauga Association. Jane Moore's great-grandfather, Jesse Bean, was purported to have made several rifles from his black-smithing cave in Caney Hollow Branch, Franklin County, Tennessee and it is suspected that one of those rifles was used at the Battle of the Alamo and now resides in its museum. Moore's great uncle, Russell Bean, was the first white child born in what is now the state of Tennessee.

George Robertson Reeves donated 10 acres of land in Pottsboro, Texas to establish Georgetown Cemetery. His infant daughter, Mary, was the first to be buried there. One of Reeves's youngest sons, Alvin Robertson Reeves (1872-1946), was awarded the 1938 Pugsley Medal (Bronze)
for his work as the director of the Division of State Parks in Oklahoma. Alvin Reeves was responsible for drafting the bill in the State of Oklahoma establishing the State Game and Fish Commission. As state game warden, Reeves purchased the first sites later to be designated state parks in Oklahoma.

Career and accomplishments

In addition to farming, one of Reeves first occupations in Grayson County, Texas was that of tax collector (1848-1850).  Public service suited him enough that he became the Sheriff of Grayson County, Texas in 1850 and served until 1854.

In May 1861 with the first shots of the Civil War at Fort Sumter less than a month old, Reeves organized a company within the 11th Regiment of the Texas Cavalry. Despite Grayson County voting against secession from the northern states, Texas as a whole voted to join the Confederacy. Reeves then donated land which would be used as Camp Reeves in support of the 11th Texas Cavalry and the Confederate States cause. Reeves, a captain, was promoted to Colonel after the death of the Regiment's first Commander, William C. Young. While the 11th had a handful of commanding officers, none served the 11th as its leader longer than Colonel George R. Reeves.

The Texas 11th Cavalry during the course of the war was involved in approximately 150 battles and skirmishes. One report said that as many as 500 men fought and less than 50 returned home at the end of the war. Among the biggest battles in which Reeves commanded the 11th Cav was the Chattanooga Campaign, Wheeler's Raid through middle Tennessee, the Atlanta Campaign, the Knoxville Campaign, and the Battle of Chickamauga, the last being the second bloodiest battle of the war behind only Gettysburg, and the largest battle victory for the Confederate States. The 11th Texas Cavalary, during most of its military history, reported to Reeves's good friend and fellow Texan, General John A. Wharton and up to Georgian Joseph "Fighting Joe" Wheeler.

Reeves resigned his commission shortly before the end of the war due to conflicts with commanding officers. His resignation letter stated differences between him and his Brigade Commander and that "I feel that I could more efficiently serve my country in some other capacity than the one I occupy now." His resignation was signed off by Major General Joseph Wheeler and eventually sent to the Secretary of War, James Seddon.
Back in Texas Reeves became active in various post-war veteran's activities as well as the Old Settlers' Association in Grayson County. Reeves was elected to the Texas State Legislature in 1866, 1873, 1878, and 1880. In 1881 he became the Speaker of the House of Representatives for the State of Texas. Under his watch as Speaker of the House, the legislature helped to found the University of Texas in Austin.

Death and legacy

In 1882 while visiting home, Reeves was bitten by a rabid dog. Reeves family oral history states that he saw a young child in danger from the animal and jumped off his horse to protect the young one when he was bitten. In his remaining days, Reeves was placed in a wooden shed padded with mattresses to protect him from the potential self-inflicted violent tendencies associated with the disease. He died of hydrophobia in September 1882, only three years before Louis Pasteur and Emile Roux discovered a vaccine for rabies. He is buried on the land he once owned, Georgetown Cemetery in Pottsboro, Texas.

Two years after his death, a 2,642 square mile county in West Texas was renamed for Reeves. Reeves County, Texas is the home to the city of Pecos, Texas its county seat. In addition, the Masonic Lodge in Pottsboro was named after the former politician and soldier, as is the Sons of Confederate Veterans Camp #349 in the Sherman/Denison, Texas area.
Several of Colonel Reeves's relatives still live in Grayson County as well as Tyler and Dallas, Texas, Oklahoma City, Louisiana, Colorado and California.

References

Sources

 George Robertson REEVES\Jane MOORE (MRIN:2055)
 REEVES, GEORGE ROBERTSON

 The 11th Texas Cavalry, CSA
State of Texas Biographical Sketches, 1879
Biographical Souvenir of the State of Texas, Chicago, FA Battey & Company, 1889
Reliques of the Rives (Ryves), James Rives Childs, Heritage Books, 1929
Texas Politics Project, University of Texas Austin, 2017

Speakers of the Texas House of Representatives
1826 births
1882 deaths
19th-century American politicians
American slave owners
American people of English descent
Confederate States Army officers
People of Texas in the American Civil War
People from Hickman County, Tennessee
People from Grayson County, Texas
Infectious disease deaths in Tennessee
Neurological disease deaths in Tennessee
Deaths from rabies
Texas sheriffs
Military personnel from Texas

George R. Reeves


The Dodge Power Wagon was a four wheel drive light truck that was produced in various model series from 1945 to 1981 by Dodge. It was also produced as a nameplate for the Dodge Ram from 2005 to 2013, and, most recently, as an individual model marketed by Ram Trucks.

The original version was based on Dodge's 3/4 ton WC series of World War II military trucks. The civilian Power Wagon continued the production of four wheel drive trucks from the 1930s. It is a significant predecessor to the many four wheel drive trucks in modern use today.

History (as Dodge Power Wagon)
As a version of the Dodge 3/4 ton WC series World War II military trucks, the Power Wagon was introduced in 1946 as the first civilian 4×4.  It was meant to compete with military-based Ford/Marmon-Herrington and GMC trucks. The Power Wagon had an enclosed all-weather cab and an 8-foot cargo bed. It had a 126 inch (3,200 mm) up to a 147" wheelbase chassis. The Power Wagon had a 230 cubic inch flathead inline-six engine. It had a two-speed transfer case. It came with a 4-speed manual transmission with a power take off (PTO) which would send power front or rear for operating auxiliary equipment. It had 9.00/16-8 ply tires on 16×6.50 inch 5-bolt wheels. In 1961 the 230 engine was replaced with the 251 cubic-inch flat head six.

The one-ton rated Power Wagon's gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR) was 8,700 pounds. Its maximum payload was 3,000 pounds.  It was discontinued in 1968 (against the wishes of the United States Forest Service) due to the expense of new safety and emission requirements. They were, however, exported until 1978.

Second generation
In 1967, Dodge released a Power Wagon pickup version better suited for the pickup truck market. It was based on Dodge's pickup truck line. A big-block 383 V8 engines became an option starting in 1967. From 1961 to 1971 the body was called the "Sweptline". It then offered a more modern body image from 1972 through 1980 with varied grilles and paint colors.  In 1975, the 4-wheel drive became full-time with a 2-speed transfer case. This was changed back to part-time 4-wheel drive in 1980 due to the energy crisis.  A huge boost in sales followed the 1974 release of the extended "Club Cab," popular with families and camper towing.  The 4-door Crew Cab was far less common and is quite desirable for collectors.  Utility and function was unmatched by few competing models, as the towing, payload, and snow plowing capacity of the Power Wagon equipped with "Dana 60" 8-lug axles was very popular with road maintenance crews.

The Power Wagon was sold through the 1980 model year. A number of engineering and styling improvements were made over the years as the truck grew in size and weight but the basic truck remained generally constant throughout its life and underwent one last major body change in 1972.

RAM 2500 Power Wagons
For 2005, Dodge brought back the Power Wagon name on a version of the Dodge Ram 2500.  It was a special off-road version of the Ram 2500 with a 5.7L Hemi V8 as the only engine option. The truck interior remain similar to standard production Ram. As of 2010, the Power Wagon was only available as a Crew Cab Short Bed model. As of 2014, the engine was upgraded to a 6.4L Hemi. The 2014 RAM 2500 Power Wagon got coil springs at all four corners. It is available only with the six-speed automatic transmission.

References

Dodge automobiles
Pickup trucks

Dodge Power Wagon


Ana Nora Escobar (January 5, 1938 – April 21, 2008), known professionally as Monna Bell, was a Chilean singer who enjoyed a successful career in Spain, Mexico and other parts of Latin America. She was reportedly one of Juan Gabriel's muses. Bell was born in Santiago, Chile, in 1938. In the mid-1950s, she was barely in her teens when she won a talent contest held at Radio Mineria in Santiago, one of the most popular radio stations, and became a regular at the station's live broadcasts.  Her voice caught the attention of band leader Roberto Inglez who, in 1956,  hired her as a vocalist for his group and took her on a three-week gig at New York's Waldorf Astoria.  They went over so well that the band and its brand new singer stayed for a year. Next they toured Europe and in Madrid Monna had such a phenomenal reception that she decided to go solo becoming a big sensation at the Pasapoga, the city's most fashionable night club.

In 1959 she performed a jazzy novelty tune titled "Un Telegrama" at the First Benidorm International Song Festival. The song won all the top awards and became an international major hit when Monna recorded it for the Hispavox label. It was the first of many hits that made her a recording sensation both in Europe and Latin America. She toured the world and decided to settle down in Mexico where she branched out into films and married cinematographer Alex Phillips Jr. It was not an enduring marriage but it produced daughter Jennifer and son Alex III who is currently a rock musician.

In the late 1960s she continued recording highly successful albums for the Musart label and did a lot of television work in Mexico and abroad.  In the 1970s she signed with Orfeon and her recordings began suffering due to mediocre material and backing, however she continued touring on the strength of her old hits.  By the 1980s her career was over and she decided to retire.  Singer-composer Juan Gabriel tried to remedy the situation by writing and producing Monna Bell Ahora, an album released in 1993 by Sony which went nowhere.  Monna went back to retirement and in the 2000s moved next to her daughter in Tijuana, Baja California.

Diehard fans kept waiting for a successful return but their hopes where crushed when the singer died of cardiac arrest after a successful colon cancer surgery on April 21, 2008.  After her death many of her old recordings were released in CD format and are the best witness of Monna Bell's greatness as one of the most creative Latin singers in history.  Pedro Almodóvar used one of Bell's songs, "Estaba Escrito", in his 1980 film, Pepi, Luci, Bom and Other Girls on the Heap (Pepi, Luci, Bom Y Otras Chicas Del Monton).

Death
Monna Bell died of a stroke on April 21, 2008, in Tijuana, Mexico, at the age of 70.

References

External links

 Chilean Singer Monna Bell, Dead at 70
 El Economista: Monna Bell, muse of Juan Gabriel, dies
 A Tribute to Monna Bell

1938 births
2008 deaths
Musicians from Santiago
People from Tijuana
20th-century Chilean women singers
Women in Latin music

Monna Bell


Conviviality
The English word "conviviality" means "the enjoyment of festive society, festivity", or, as applied to people, "convivial spirit or disposition".

French root ()
One root of conviviality originated in 19th‐century France.  is very common in contemporary French and has also established itself in English as a loanword, as well as more recently as a term in discussions about cohabitation in immigrant societies. Its coinage can be traced back to Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin and his book Physiologie du goût from 1825. The gastrophilosopher understood conviviality as the situation, common at the table, when different people come together over a good long meal, and time passes swiftly in excited conversations.

Spanish root ()
In Spanish,  has long been interpreted literally as "living in the company of others" but in 1948 Américo Castro introduced  to mean the peaceful coexistence between different religious groups in Spain between the eighth and fifteenth centuries.

See also

"Conviviality" in degrowth-oriented political philosophy

Conviviality, or Convivialism, is the ability of individuals to interact creatively and autonomously with others and their environment to satisfy their own needs. This interpretation is related to, but distinct from, several synonyms and cognates, including in French the enjoyment of the social company of others (), Catalan social cohesion policy (), and its contemporary understanding in English of living together with difference and diversity.

This interpretation was introduced by Ivan Illich as a direct contrast to industrial productivity that produces consumers that are alienated from the way that things are produced. Its focus on joyful simple living, the localisation of production systems, links to Marxist economics, and Illich's simultaneous criticism of overconsumption have resulted in conviviality being taken up by a range of academic and social movements, including as a pillar of degrowth theory and practice.

Ivan Illich
As described here, the term conviviality was introduced by Ivan Illich in his 1973 book, Tools for Conviviality. Illich recognised that the term in English was more likely to be associated with "tipsy jolliness" but derived his definition from the French and Spanish cognates, resulting in an interpretation that he felt was closer to a modern version of . Illich introduced the term as the opposite of industrial productivity, with conviviality indicating a society where individual autonomy and creativity dominated. He contrasted this with industrialised societies where individuals are reduced to "mere consumers", unable to choose what is produced or how things are made in a world governed by a "radical monopoly" that divided the population into experts that could use the tools and laypeople that could not.

As the title of the book suggests, the initial focus for Illich was how industrial tools and the expertise required to operate them constrained individuals' autonomy. He also argued that these tools alienated individuals from the production processes of goods and services that shape our daily lives and led to the distortion of use values into exchange values.

Illich broadly interpreted tools as rationally designed devices. These include hardware used to produce goods and services that ranged from small scale items like drills to "large machines like cars and power stations", but also productive institutions (like factories) and also productive systems that created what he called "intangible commodities… [like] education, health, knowledge or decisions". Examples of non-convivial tools that Illich was railing against included open-pit mines, road networks and schools, this last example linking to his previous work critiquing mass education systems, Deschooling Society. By contrast, convivial tools were those that promoted and extended autonomy, including most hand tools, bicycles, and telephones. Convivial tools share many similarities with the intermediate technology or 'technology with a human face' described in Small is Beautiful by Illich's contemporary E.F. Schumacher. In his 2012 book La sociedad de la abundancia frugal Serge Latouche also highlights the "human scale" of convivial tools.

In the 1978 collection of essays published as Towards a History of Needs Illich moved away from a focus on the tools of conviviality to explore the politics of conviviality which he defined as "the struggle for an equitable distribution of the liberty to generate use-values" that prioritised the liberty of those "least advantaged". Herein, he focused on socially critical  that delimited whether conviviality was possible and argued that such thresholds should be translated into society-wide limits.

Contemporary uses in academia
In the early 21st Century, the term conviviality has been used in a variety of contexts and with a variety of interpretations. However, there is a common understanding which is dominant in the definitions and interpretations of the term: the idea of living together with difference. This concept is employed to analyse the everyday experiences, social encounters, interdependencies and community integration of people living in diverse communities or urban settings. This understanding of conviviality is used in the open access book Conviviality at the Crossroads: The Poetics and Politics of Everyday Encounters, which was published in 2020 and focuses on how people live with and are at ease with each other's differences in diverse societies. It claims there is an urgent need to bring the three concepts of conviviality, cosmopolitanism, and creolisation back into focus and into dialogue with each other.

Recent understandings of conviviality also often include analyses of racial difference, structural inequality, and divergent histories within a multicultural or multi-racial community or urban space, and how these factors impact conviviality and community cohesion in both positive and negative ways. Scholars also analyse the use of public space and architecture in terms of its impact on conviviality in such diverse communities. The focus on these issues has been referred to as the "convivial turn" in academia.

Conviviality has also been applied to online contexts, in analyses of the ways in which people relate to each other and build communities online.

Contemporary movements

Anti-Utilitarian Movement and Convivialism
Alain Caillé, a French sociologist and founding member of the Anti-Utilitarian Movement in Social Sciences (MAUSS), defines convivialism as a broad-based humanist, civic, and political philosophy that spells out the normative principles that sustain the art of living together at the beginning of the twenty-first century. The "ism" in "convivialism" makes clear that, , the systematization of social and political-theoretical perspectives must . The focus is consequently a dual one: convivialism can be seen as a social scientific or political idea, while conviviality can be seen as a lived praxis. Alain Caillé published in 2020 The Second Convivialist Manifesto: Towards a Post-Neoliberal World, signed by three hundred intellectuals from thirty-three countries.

Degrowth
Conviviality is one of the core concepts of the Degrowth movement, appearing in representative texts such as Degrowth: A Vocabulary for a New Era. The understanding of conviviality within degrowth is strongly influenced by the work of Ivan Illich (discussed above), namely his critique of development and overconsumption and his promotion of a society that values "joyful sobriety and liberating austerity", creating and using "responsibly limited" convivial tools. Illich's understanding of convivial tools as emancipatory, democratic, and responsive to direct human needs contrasts with society's current dependence on , experts, and the growth-based capitalist model of production for its tools and technologies. These ideas, and particularly this conceptualisation of conviviality, are a central part of Degrowth theory: as such, Illich's work is considered one of the early "intellectual roots of Degrowth".

Most texts that discuss conviviality in the recent Degrowth literature are focused on technologies (including digital technologies), as an expansion or adaptation of Illich's focus on convivial tools. It is generally accepted within this literature that any technologies suitable for a degrowth society must be convivial. To this end, Andrea Vetter has developed the Matrix for Convivial Technology (MCT) as a Degrowth-oriented (convivial) tool for assessment of tools and technologies, political education, and research.

Conviviality is also employed in the Degrowth literature to describe things such as public spaces, goods, conservation movements, and even humans. For example, Giorgos Kallis, a prominent Degrowth scholar, refers to "...convivial goods, such as new public squares, open spaces, community gardens, etc." and the "convivial yet simple and content, enlightened human" as the ideal "Degrowth human". Although less common than Degrowth literature that explores conviviality in terms of tools and technologies, there are various examples of conviviality being used as a characteristic of many aspects of a Degrowth society, including society itself. Indeed, some scholars describe the transition to a convivial society as one of the three core objectives of Degrowth.

Appropriate Technology Movement
Based on the "intermediate technology" by the economist Ernst Friedrich "Fritz" Schumacher in his work Small is beautiful, the Appropriate Technology movement encompasses convivial technological choice, to promote characteristics such as autonomy, energy efficiency, decentralization, local production, and sustainable development.

Incompleteness
Francis Nyamnjoh uses the concept of conviviality in his essay on incompleteness. For Nyamnjoh incompleteness is "the normal order of things", and that "things, words, deeds, and beings are always incomplete, not because of absences but because of their possibilities". It is because of these possibilities that we are driven us towards collaboration, interconnectedness, and interdependency as we try supplement our own desire to fulfill our endless possibilities through conviviality.

See also

Conviviality in art and design
The various interpretations of conviviality also attracted the attention of artists and designers across the world. Recent exhibitions and collaborations centred on one or more interpretations of conviviality include:

 2009: The way of tea: an art of conviviality at Kube in Poole, U.K.
 2012: Tools for Conviviality at The Power Plant in Toronto, Canada
 2013: Gordian Conviviality at Import Projects, Berlin, Germany
 2017–2021 4Cs: From Conflict to Conviviality through Creativity and Culture. An international collaboration between artists and academics
 2018: 'Convivial Tools' at The Design Museum, in London, U.K.
 2018: 'Community, Care and Conviviality: Freemasonry in Lithgow' at Eskbank House Museum, in Lithgow, Australia
 2020: Anna Ehrenstein - Tools for Conviviality at C/O Berlin in Berlin, Germany

References

Anti-consumerism
Degrowth
Management cybernetics
Simple living

Conviviality