Joseph Hill Whedon (; born June 23, 1964) is an American screenwriter, director, producer, comic book writer, and composer. He is the founder of Mutant Enemy Productions, co-founder of Bellwether Pictures, and is best known as the creator of several television series: the supernatural drama Buffy the Vampire Slayer (1997–2003) and its spinoff Angel (1999–2004), the short-lived space Western Firefly (2002), the Internet musical miniseries Dr. Horrible's Sing-Along Blog (2008), the science fiction drama Dollhouse (2009–2010), the Marvel Cinematic Universe series Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. (2013–2020), and the science fiction drama The Nevers (2021).

After beginning his career in sitcoms, Whedon wrote the poorly received horror comedy film Buffy the Vampire Slayer (1992) – which he later adapted into the acclaimed television series of the same name – co-wrote the Pixar animated film Toy Story (1995), and wrote the science fiction horror film Alien Resurrection (1997). After achieving success as a television showrunner, Whedon returned to film to write and direct the Firefly film continuation Serenity (2005), co-write and produce the horror comedy film The Cabin in the Woods (2012), and write and direct the Shakespeare adaptation Much Ado About Nothing (2012). For the Marvel Cinematic Universe, Whedon wrote and directed the ensemble superhero film The Avengers (2012) and its sequel Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015). He also co-wrote the DC Extended Universe superhero film Justice League (2017), for which he also served as director for re-shoots, replacing Zack Snyder (who retained directorial credit).

Whedon has also worked as a composer (notably for the Buffy the Vampire Slayer musical episode "Once More, with Feeling" and Dr. Horrible's Sing-Along Blog) and comic book writer, both for comic book continuations of television series he created and for established franchises, such as Astonishing X-Men.

Since 2020, multiple actors have accused Whedon of abusive behavior on film and television sets, which he has denied. WarnerMedia investigated Justice League actor Ray Fisher's allegations and announced that it had taken "remedial action" in December 2020.

Early life
Born in New York City and raised on the Upper West Side as Joseph Hill Whedon, he would later become a third-generation TV writer as a son of Tom Whedon, a screenwriter for Alice in the 1970s and The Golden Girls in the 1980s, and a grandson of John Whedon, who worked on The Donna Reed Show in the 1950s and The Dick Van Dyke Show in the 1960s, as well as writing for radio shows such as The Great Gildersleeve. His mother, Ann Lee (née Jeffries) Stearns, originally from Kentucky, was an activist and a teacher at Riverdale Country School as Lee Whedon, in addition to being an aspiring novelist. Jessica Neuwirth, a former student of Stearns, has often cited her as her inspiration, describing her as a "visionary feminist". His parents both acted,  appearing in a play together at the Harvard Radcliffe Dramatic Club. The family would spend vacations reciting Shakespeare.

Whedon is the younger sibling of Samuel and Matthew Whedon and the older sibling of writers Jed and Zack Whedon. Whedon stated that his parents expected constant creativity from their children and were often verbally demeaning and gave them the silent treatment if he and his brothers were not amusing or  entertaining, or if they simply disagreed with them. He stated, however, that he was more afraid of his older brothers who constantly bullied him. At the age of 5, a friend (age 4) died by drowning in a pond on the Whedon's upstate property. His parents divorced when he was 9. Whedon cited his childhood trauma as having a direct influence in his relationships, addictions and behaviors into adulthood and has stated that he suffers from complex post traumatic stress disorder.

At a young age, he showed great interest in British television series shows like Masterpiece and Monty Python.
Whedon attended Riverdale Country School in New York City where his mother taught history. Starting at age 15, he spent three years at Winchester College, a boarding school in England. There, taking note of omnipresent bullying, he concluded, "it was clear to me from the start that I must take an active role in my survival". Whedon graduated from Wesleyan University in 1987, where he was awarded an honorary Doctor of Letters in 2013. There, he also studied under renowned academic Richard Slotkin. It was at Wesleyan he would meet Jeanine Basinger, a film scholar who became his mentor. After leaving Wesleyan, Whedon conceived the first incarnation of Buffy Summers, "Rhonda, the Immortal Waitress".

Career

1980s–1990s

Early work
From 1989 to 1990, Whedon worked as a staff writer on the sitcoms Roseanne and Parenthood. As a script doctor, Whedon was an uncredited writer on films including The Getaway, Speed, Waterworld, and Twister. Whedon worked on an early draft of X-Men which subsequently contained at least two of his contributions to dialogue exchanges, while the final cut of Speed retained most of his dialogue. While he was script consulting, he also wrote Buffy the Vampire Slayer (the film that would precede the series), Alien Resurrection and early drafts for Titan A.E. and Atlantis: The Lost Empire - but would subsequently express strong dissatisfaction with the released versions of the first three of these films. He co-wrote Toy Story, which earned him a shared Academy Award nomination for Best Original Screenplay. He became one of the highest paid screenwriters when he sold his Afterlife script to Columbia Pictures for $1.5 million.

Buffy the Vampire Slayer

In 1997, Whedon created his first television series, Buffy the Vampire Slayer. The series depicts Buffy Summers, the latest in a line of young women called to battle against vampires, demons, and other forces of darkness. The idea came directly from his aversion to seeing the Hollywood formula of "the little blonde girl who goes into a dark alley and gets killed in every horror movie". Whedon said he wanted to subvert the idea and create someone who was a hero. This conception came from "the very first mission statement of the show, which was the joy of female power: having it, using it, sharing it". The writing process came together from conversations about the emotional issues facing Buffy Summers, and how she would confront them in her battle against supernatural forces. Whedon usually directed episodes from his own scripts that held the most cathartic moments in Buffy's story.

The series received numerous awards and nominations, including an Emmy Award nomination for writing for the 1999 episode "Hush". The 2001 episode "The Body" was nominated for a Nebula Award in 2002, and the fall 2001 musical episode "Once More, with Feeling" was nominated for a Best Dramatic Presentation Hugo Award and a Best Script Nebula Award. The final episode "Chosen" was nominated for a Best Dramatic Presentation, Short Form Hugo Award in 2003. All written and directed by Whedon, they are considered some of the most effective and popular episodes of the series.

A. Asbjørn Jøn, an anthropologist and scholar, recognized that the series has shifted the way vampires have since been depicted in popular culture representations. Since the end of the series, Whedon has stated that his initial intention was to produce a "cult" television series and acknowledged a corresponding "rabid, almost insane fan base" that subsequently emerged. In June 2012, Slate identified it as the most written about popular culture text of all time. "[M]ore than twice as many papers, essays, and books have been devoted to the vampire drama than any of our other choices—so many that we stopped counting when we hit 200".

Whedon, a lifelong comic book fan, authored the Dark Horse Comics miniseries Fray, which takes place in the far future of the Buffyverse. Like many writers of the show, he contributed to the series' comic book continuation, writing for the anthology Tales of the Slayers, and also for the main storyline of the miniseries Tales of the Vampires. Whedon and the other writers released a new ongoing series, taking place after the series finale "Chosen", which he officially recognizes as the canonical eighth season. He returned to the world of Fray during the season eight-story arc "Time of Your Life". Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Nine was published from August 2011 to September 2013, for which Whedon wrote "Freefall, Part I–II" (with Andrew Chambliss).

Angel
As a result of the success of Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Whedon was given the opportunity to make Angel, his 1999 spin-off series of the show. David Greenwalt and Whedon collaborated on the pilot which was going to be developed for The WB Network. During the series' early expansion, efforts were made by the network to mitigate Whedon's original concept. "Corrupt", a precociously optioned second episode, was entirely abandoned due to the gloominess written into the script. The tone was then softened in the opening episodes, establishing Angel Investigations as an idealistic, shoestring operation. It follows Angel, who works as a private detective in order to "help the helpless".

Though praised for presenting a unique and progressive version of the archetypal noir hero as a sympathetic vampire detective, early in its run it was criticized as being lesser than its parent show, in the context of having devolved from a more popular original work. Despite that it won a Saturn Award for Best Network TV Series and three episodes, "Waiting in the Wings", "Smile Time" and "Not Fade Away", were nominated for Hugo Awards for Best Dramatic Presentation, Short Form in 2003 and 2005.

The WB Network announced on February 13, 2004, that Angel would not be brought back for a sixth season. Whedon said of the cancellation, "I believe the reason Angel had trouble on The WB was that it was the only show on the network that wasn't trying to be Buffy. It was a show about grown-ups". An official continuation of the story came later in the form of a comic book series. Following the successful eighth season of Buffy the Vampire Slayer, IDW Publishing approached Whedon about similarly producing a canonical sixth season for Angel. Angel: After the Fall released 17 issues written by Whedon and Brian Lynch.

2000s

Firefly
Whedon followed Angel with the space western Firefly, starring Nathan Fillion, Gina Torres, Alan Tudyk, Morena Baccarin, Adam Baldwin, Jewel Staite, Sean Maher, Summer Glau and Ron Glass. Set in the year 2517, Firefly explores the lives of the people who while on the outskirts of society, make their living as the crew of Serenity, a "Firefly-class" spaceship. The series' original concept progressed after Whedon read The Killer Angels, a book on the Battle of Gettysburg.

An ever-present element was Whedon's injection of anti-totalitarianism, writing into the show a historical analogy of the Battle of Gettysburg, the "Battle of Serenity Valley". The beaten soldiers were called "Browncoats" after the brown dusters they wore as their uniforms. Whedon said, "I wanted to play with that classic notion of the frontier: not the people who made history, but the people history stepped on—the people for whom every act is the creation of civilization". Firefly was written as a serious character study, encompassing what Whedon called "life when it's hard". He went on to elaborate that it was about "nine people looking into the blackness of space and seeing nine different things".

Fox chose to play the episodes of the series out of order, running "The Train Job" first, and not airing the pilot until a dozen episodes later, resulting in some confusion from viewers. The series was also promoted as a comedy, not a science fiction drama, and placed in the infamous "Friday night death slot". The show was praised by critics overall, but some objected to the fusion of American frontier and outer space motifs. Faced with these hurdles, the show had an average of 4.7 million viewers at the time and was ranked 98th in Nielsen ratings. The series was cancelled by Fox before all of the episodes had aired. Whedon took to Universal Pictures as a means of achieving a continuation of the story. Following Firefly was Serenity, a follow-up film taking place after the events of the final episode. Serenity developed into a franchise that led to graphic novels, books and other media. New Scientist magazine held a poll in 2005 to find "The World's Best Space Sci-Fi Ever", and Firefly and Serenity took first and second place, respectively. It also received an Emmy shortly after its cancellation, as well as a number of other awards. Since being canceled, Firefly has attained cult status.

Marvel Comics
In 2004, Whedon created the comic book line Astonishing X-Men. He finished a 24 issue run in 2008 and then handed over the reins as a writer to Warren Ellis. One storyline from the comic, the notion of a cure for mutation being found, was also an element in the third X-Men film, X-Men: The Last Stand. In February 2009 Astonishing X-Men #6, which depicted the return of Colossus to the title and concluded Whedon's first story arc, was named by readers as #65 in Marvel's Top 70 Comics of all time.

Taking over after series creator Brian K. Vaughan completed his run on the series, Whedon became the second writer of the Marvel comic Runaways. Having already been a committed reader, he had a letter published in the first volume, which was included in the Volume 1 hardcover edition. He also wrote short pieces for Stan Lee Meets Spider-Man and Giant-Size Astonishing X-Men #1, and he was the subject of an issue of the comic book, Marvel Spotlight (alongside artist Michael Lark). As part of a panel of writers, he contributed to Marvel Comics' Civil War crossover event lending advice on how to tell the story and also how to end it. In March 2016, Whedon contributed a story for the 75th anniversary issue of Captain America: Sam Wilson with Astonishing X-Men collaborator John Cassaday. He introduced several new characters into the Marvel Universe such as the villainous Ord, X-Men Ruth "Blindfold" Aldine and Hisako "Armor" Ichiki, Runaway Klara Prast, and Special Agent Abigail Brand along with S.W.O.R.D., the organization Brand commands.

Serenity
After Universal Pictures acquired the film and distribution rights from Fox, Whedon began writing the screenplay for Serenity. Transforming the series into a film, he says, "... was the hardest piece of writing I've ever done ... It had to be self-contained and work as a movie, which meant I had to cope with problems like introducing nine main characters who'd already met!" The script was based on unused story ideas for Fireflys unfilmed second season. On writing the dialogue, Whedon felt that part of it came from "getting to invent the language", which "once I had... reads like a kind of poetry". The narrative centered on Captain Malcolm Reynolds as the hero accompanied by River Tam acting as the catalyst for what he does.

The score was composed by David Newman, and according to Whedon was intended to "deglorify space — to feel the intimacy of being on a ship as opposed to the grandeur". He used two long steadicam shots for several minutes of the film's opening sequence to establish "a sense of safety in space". In 2006, it won a Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation, Long Form. The elements of science fiction that Whedon wanted to convey were essentially different in kind, and held "a sort of grittiness" and "realism", which he said, together, "get the most exciting kind of film-making". Critic Roger Ebert observed, "Like Brave New World and 1984, the movie plays like a critique of contemporary society, with the Alliance as Big Brother, enemy of discontent". The film received the 2005 Nebula Award for Best Script, the 2006 Prometheus Special Award, and was voted the best sci-fi movie of all time in a poll set up by SFX magazine. There have since been multiple rumors regarding sequel possibilities.

The limited three-issue comic book series called Serenity: Those Left Behind, the story of which was written by Whedon, was released in 2005 as a tie-in to Serenity. Set between Firefly and the film, it was intended to connect the two storylines. Serenity: Better Days also spanned three issues and was written by Whedon and Brett Matthews. Whedon later co-wrote The Shepherd's Tale with his half-brother Zack.

Freelance directing and Sugarshock!
As a guest director, he contributed two 2007 episodes of The Office ("Business School" and "Branch Wars") and a 2010 episode of Glee ("Dream On"). Denoting this period, Whedon has said, "I had free time, but I'm pretty sure I mean my career was on the skids".

In collaboration with Fábio Moon, Whedon created the free webcomic titled Sugarshock!, as part of the revival of Dark Horse Presents, which was launched on Myspace. Whedon later executive produced another free comic book on the Internet, Serenity: The Other Half.

Dr. Horrible's Sing-Along Blog

As a response to the 2007–08 Writers Guild of America strike, Whedon directed, co-wrote and produced Dr. Horrible's Sing-Along Blog. It tells the story of Dr. Horrible, an aspiring supervillain, who shares a love interest in a girl named Penny with his nemesis, Captain Hammer. To Whedon the miniseries was "a project of love", an accomplishment that from their excitement would be embellished with passion and "ridiculousness". His half-brothers Zack and Jed and sister-in-law Maurissa Tancharoen share the other writing credits. Whedon said it was a "glorious surprise" to him to discover how well they worked together.

After having attended meetings with companies discussing the prospect of producing something for the Internet and faced with negative feedback on his ideas, he realized that as long as the strike was still in progress, acquiring corporate funding was an unlikely prospect. Whedon himself funded the project investing just over $200,000 and earned more from it than he did directing The Avengers. He enjoyed the independence he gained from Dr. Horrible's Sing-Along Blog as it provided him the freedom to include content without the expectancy of lessening it on behalf of the runtime. He and Jed composed the music, parts of which were influenced by Stephen Sondheim.

The miniseries was nominated and won numerous awards. Whedon was awarded Best Directing and Best Writing for a Comedy Web Series at the Streamy Awards, a Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation, Short Form, and a Creative Arts Emmy Award in 2009.

Dollhouse
In 2009, Whedon created his fourth television series Dollhouse, and explored themes throughout the show that were initially present in an unproduced spec script of his called Afterlife. The series follows Echo, whose brain is programmed to accomplish various assignments, on her journey towards self-awareness. As stated by Whedon, Dollhouse was about "the sides of us that we don't want people to see", sexuality and, on some level, a celebration of perversion, which he equates to obsession, "the thing that makes people passionate and interesting and worthy".

Despite low ratings in its first season, the series was renewed for a second and final season. The reason for the renewal given by Fox's president of entertainment was to avoid any backlash that would have resulted from its cancelation. In reflection of Fox's disruptive involvement, Whedon lamented the loss of ideas with identity and moral culpability, saying they were dancing around them in the process which then devolved the series into a procedural show.

2010s

The Cabin in the Woods
Whedon co-wrote and produced a horror-comedy film titled The Cabin in the Woods with director Drew Goddard,  finishing production in 2009 though the film was not released until 2011. Whedon and Goddard intended to make a film that exemplified horror movies while still preserving the fun and frightening elements necessary to being a horror film. The script was written in three days and they produced a minimum of 15 pages a day. Whedon described it as an attempt to revitalize horror, calling it a "loving hate letter" to the genre, continuing:

Whedon thought part of what distinguished it from other horror films was that people were not disposable – "As a culture, for our own entertainment, we tend to assume that they are (expendable)". He reiterated a sentiment that the introduction of torture porn into this genre was becoming an exercise in nihilism and misogyny as a means to promote distress and instead of trying to scare its audience.

Marvel Studios

In July 2010, it was confirmed that Whedon would write and direct The Avengers, a live-action adaptation of the superhero team of the same name. Of his desire to take on the film, he explained that the core of the movie was about "finding yourself from community" and the togetherness derived from a group that ultimately doesn't belong together.

It became the fourth-highest-grossing film of all time at the North American box office, and it received considerable praise from critics. In retrospect, Whedon thought the film had "imperfections", begrudging its quality in comparison to that of The Matrix and The Godfather Part II. Nonetheless, he felt he "pulled off" the endeavor of making a summer movie reminiscent of those from his childhood.

In March 2012, Whedon stated that although television involves more compromise than film:

In August 2012, Whedon signed a deal to develop the Marvel TV show Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. for ABC. The series focuses on the secret military law-enforcement agency featured throughout the Marvel Cinematic Universe. Created by Whedon, Jed Whedon and Maurissa Tancharoen, the show involves individuals who possess powers within the spectacle of science fiction, while also focusing on "the peripheral people ... the people on the edges of the grand adventures." The character Phil Coulson was resurrected after his death in The Avengers to helm the show.

Whedon spoke about certain complications that factored in with making the show for Marvel, noting confusion between him and the company regarding the degree to which they wanted him to create it, citing their demand that he prioritize Avengers: Age of Ultron. He once expressed regrets for having brought back Phil Coulson, feeling that his death had lost meaning as a result, but later clarified that he did not regret this decision.

Whedon returned to write and direct the sequel to The Avengers, following the deal with Marvel Studios, which expired in June 2015. On the matter of approaching a sequel, Whedon reasoned not to go "bigger" but "deeper", and likened it to digging with a scalpel to cause pain. He said of the film's characters, "Strong but damaged by power describes every person in this movie. It may, in fact, describe what the movie is about ... the more power that we have, the less human we are." Whedon discerns that Age of Ultron "is an odd film" that proved challenging when it came to finding the rhythm between both its calm and exciting moments. Drawing parallels to a symphony, he wanted to bring about "grace in the middle of ultimate chaos".

Whedon also served as a creative consultant on the films in the Marvel Cinematic Universe leading up to Age of Ultron. He rewrote some dialogue for Thor: The Dark World, directed the mid-credits scene of Captain America: The Winter Soldier, and suggested that James Gunn make Guardians of the Galaxy "weirder" after reading an early draft. Whedon said it was unlikely that he would return to make another sequel, stating that he "couldn't imagine doing this again". He remarked that not having created his own fictional universe in over five years felt wrong and intended to use the proceeds made from Avengers: Age of Ultron for such ventures. In January 2016, Whedon announced that he will no longer work with Marvel. Marvel Studios CEO Kevin Feige would be cited in MCU: The Reign of Marvel Studios, released in October 2023, that he would never work again with Whedon.

Much Ado About Nothing
To create Much Ado About Nothing in 2012, Whedon established Bellwether Pictures. He filmed it in black-and-white on digital video over a period of 12 days at his residence in Santa Monica, California. The film was scripted, produced, directed, edited and composed by Whedon, based on William Shakespeare's play of the same name. His idea to adapt the play for the screen originated from having "Shakespeare readings" at his house with several of his friends, years prior. Despite the play's comedy, he discovered that there were elements in the text "of debauchery" that brought out a core darkness, and said the visual nature of film influenced him to permeate a motif of sexuality into the script.

In Your Eyes and Twist

Whedon wrote and executive produced the paranormal romance film In Your Eyes, the second feature by Bellwether Pictures. The film tells the story of Rebecca Porter and Dylan Kershaw who can feel each other's emotions, but are ultimately strangers. Whedon's script marked a theme of human connection as the metaphor for the couple's mysterious link. He conceived the idea in the early 1990s, and had written drafts of the screenplay since then.

In summer 2014, Whedon encountered artist Shawnee Kilgore on Kickstarter. Whedon funded her album and when Kilgore contacted him about his fulfillment reward, he suggested they make a song together. She agreed, and the collaboration was later repurposed into producing an EP.

At the 2015 San Diego Comic-Con International, Whedon announced Twist, which was described as a comic book about "a Victorian female Batman".

In 2017, Whedon directed Unlocked, a short film in support of Planned Parenthood.

Justice League
In May 2017, Whedon took over post-production duties for Justice League, including writing and directing additional photography for the film. He received a co-writing credit for his contributions to the film, which was released in November 2017. Despite reshooting a majority of the film and largely changing the tone from what Zack Snyder had originally intended, Snyder retained sole credit as director of the film. After Snyder's original cut was released in 2021, fans began to refer to the theatrical cut as the "Whedon Cut" and "Josstice League".

2020s

The Nevers
On July 13, 2018, HBO announced that the network had obtained the rights to The Nevers, an "epic science fiction drama about a gang of Victorian women who find themselves with unusual abilities, relentless enemies, and a mission that might change the world", on which Whedon was going to serve as writer, director, executive producer, and showrunner. Production on the series started in July 2019 in London where scenes are filmed at Trinity Church Square and the New Wimbledon Theatre area. By 2020, production was completed on five episodes before being shut down due to the COVID-19 pandemic, only resuming in September of that year to complete six of the season's ten-episode order. On November 25, 2020, HBO announced that Whedon had exited the project.

Accusations of workplace harassment
In July 2020, Justice League actor Ray Fisher accused Whedon of showing "gross, abusive, unprofessional, and completely unacceptable" behavior toward the cast and crew of the film, going so far as to invite Whedon to sue him for slander if he believed the allegations were untrue. A virtual panel for the 2020 at-home San Diego Comic-Con focusing on Whedon's work was cancelled following Fisher's statements. The following month, it was reported that WarnerMedia had begun an investigation into Whedon's behavior during the production of Justice League. Jason Momoa posted in support of Fisher, writing about "the shitty way [they] were treated" on Justice League reshoots and saying that "serious stuff went down". In December 2020, WarnerMedia announced that its investigation had concluded and that "remedial action" had been taken.

Fisher also claimed that Whedon's exit from the HBO Max series The Nevers was a result of HBO parent company WarnerMedia's inquiry. He said on Twitter that "I have no intention of allowing Joss Whedon to use the old Hollywood tactic of 'exiting'" and claimed, "This is undoubtedly a result of [the investigation]." HBO had announced on November 25, 2020 that the company had "parted ways" with Whedon, and Whedon released his own statement, claiming the departure was due to the COVID-19 pandemic. HBO chief Casey Bloys declined to elaborate on the decision to part ways, but said HBO had received no complaints about Whedon's behavior. Nonetheless, in what Bloys acknowledged was an unusual step, Whedon's name has not been used in marketing for the series, though he remained credited in the series itself.

Gal Gadot told the Los Angeles Times in December 2020 that her experience with Whedon had not been "the best" but that she had taken it "to the higher-ups and they took care of it". Grace Randolph later reported that Whedon had asked Gadot to film a sexually charged scene in Justice League, but that Gadot had refused and a body double was used in her place.

In February 2021, Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Angel actress Charisma Carpenter alleged that Whedon had "abused his power on numerous occasions", calling him a "vampire" and "casually cruel". In a tweeted statement, Carpenter said that Whedon had called her "fat" and asked her "if [she] was going to keep it" upon learning of her pregnancy, mocked her religious faith, and repeatedly threatened to fire her, which he ultimately did. Carpenter also revealed that she had participated in WarnerMedia's Justice League investigation.

Buffy co-stars Amber Benson and Michelle Trachtenberg corroborated Carpenter's allegations. On social media, Benson wrote: "Buffy was a toxic environment and it starts at the top. [Carpenter] is speaking truth". Trachtenberg wrote that "we know what he did" and alleged that his behavior toward her when she was a teenager was "Very. Not. Appropriate." Trachtenberg later stated on social media that there was a rule on set preventing Whedon from being in a room alone with her.  Buffy star Sarah Michelle Gellar also lent her support and distanced herself from Whedon. Jose Molina, a writer on Firefly, also spoke out against Whedon's behavior saying that "casually cruel" was a "perfect" description and that "He thought being mean was funny. Making female writers cry during a notes session was especially hysterical. He actually liked to boast about the time he made one writer cry twice in one meeting." Other Buffy and Angel costars voiced their support for the alleged victims including David Boreanaz, James Marsters, Anthony Stewart Head, Eliza Dushku, J. August Richards, and Amy Acker. Marsters said, however, that he thought that Whedon's intensity toward the Buffy cast was because "he put an enormous amount of pressure on himself ... trying to accomplish something that was a very high bar".

In April 2021, in light of Fisher's accusations, Gadot told The Hollywood Reporter that "I had my issues with Whedon and Warner Bros handled it in a timely manner." A knowledgeable source stated that Gadot "had multiple concerns with the revised version of the film, including 'issues about her character being more aggressive than her character in Wonder Woman. She wanted to make the character flow from one movie to the next,'" the report said. "The biggest clash, sources say, came when Whedon pushed Gadot to record lines she didn't like, threatened to harm Gadot's career and disparaged Wonder Woman director Patty Jenkins." The following month, Gadot added that Whedon "threatened" her career during the reshoots, saying, "if I did something, he would make my career miserable and I just took care of it instead." In October of that year, Gadot went on to say that she was "shocked" by the way Whedon spoke to her, adding, "You're dizzy because you can't believe this was just said to you. And if he says it to me, then obviously he says it to many other people."

In January 2022, Whedon claimed Gadot "misunderstood" him due to English not being her first language and called Fisher a "bad actor in both senses". He also said he had never worked with "a ruder group of people" than the rest of the Justice League cast. Gadot responded to this by stating that she "understood perfectly" and would not work with Whedon again in the future.

In October 2023, screenwriter Zak Penn wrote in the book MCU: The Reign of Marvel Studios that during the process of writing the script for The Avengers and finding a director for the project, "All the other directors we had been talking about, Joss wasn't on the list. I heard he was going to rewrite the script himself. He didn't even want to meet with me - which, by the way, I always call the writer I'm replacing. I feel like that's courtesy." When Penn reached out to Whedon personally, "He said to me, 'No, it's not awkward for me. I'm rewriting you.' It became pretty apparent that he had less than zero interest in, in any way, having me involved with the movie." Penn also called Whedon, "a d*ck as well as "a bad person."

Unrealized projects

Early in his career, Whedon sold two spec scripts that were not produced, Suspension and Afterlife. He sold Suspension for $750,000, with an additional $250,000 if production had commenced. In September 2014, Empire suggested the script was being made, with Liam Neeson attached to the project. In 1994, he sold Afterlife for $1.5 million, with an additional $500,000 if production had commenced. In 2000, Andy Tennant was in talks to direct and rewrite. In Afterlife there were precursors to themes Whedon would later explore in Dollhouse. The script was about Daniel Hoffstetter, a government scientist, who awakes after dying to discover his mind has been imprinted on a mind-wiped body.

Whedon had a number of planned Buffy the Vampire Slayer spinoffs that became stuck in development or terminally stalled. Among these were Buffy the Animated Series, a set of television movies for The WB based on Angel and Buffy characters, a Spike spin-off film, and Ripper, a proposed BBC pilot about Rupert Giles.

Goners was announced in 2005. According to Variety magazine, it was a fantasy thriller under development by Universal Pictures, and was to be produced by Mary Parent and Scott Stuber. From a 2006 interview with Fanboy Radio: "I've been seeing a lot of horror movies that are torture-porn, where kids we don't care about are mutilated for hours, and I just cannot abide them... it's an antidote to that very kind of film, the horror movie with the expendable human beings in it. Because I don't believe any human beings are".

Whedon was hired to write and direct a Warner Bros. adaptation of Wonder Woman. However, in February 2007, Whedon announced that he would no longer be involved with the project. "We just saw different movies, and at the price range this kind of movie hangs in, that's never gonna work. Non-sympatico. It happens all the time". Conversely, he stated, "the fact of the matter is, it was a waste of my time. We never [wanted] to make the same movie; none of us knew that". Whedon also pitched a screenplay to adapt Batman for the same company as development started on what would eventually become Batman Begins. It was described as having included a new, "more of a 'Hannibal Lecter' type" villain, and portrayed Bruce Wayne as "a morbid, death-obsessed kid" whose grief was overcome by protecting a girl from being bullied in an alley similar to where his parents were murdered. In March 2017, Whedon was in negotiations to direct, write, and produce Batgirl set in the DC Extended Universe. He withdrew from the project in February 2018, saying he didn't have a story for the movie.

The sequel to Dr. Horrible's Sing-Along Blog has been shelved on multiple occasions. In 2009, Whedon remarked upon the possibility of presenting it in the form of another miniseries or a feature film. The script was planned to be written in summer 2012 and the principal photography to take place the following year. However, production was delayed because of his commitment to projects at Marvel Studios.

Wastelanders, a web-based "end-of-the-world" project, once in development with author Warren Ellis, was postponed due to Whedon's preoccupation with The Avengers.

On October 20, 2016, Whedon revealed that he was writing a new project: a historical fiction/horror film set during World War II. He also expressed an interest in making a Star Wars movie after seeing the trailer of Rogue One.

Themes, style and influences

Thematically, Whedon's work often explores perspectives on existentialism, anti-authoritarianism, free will, power, powerlessness, sexuality, adulthood, sacrifice, atheism, misogyny and feminism. His projects usually revolve around an ensemble of protagonists, primarily focused on a loner hero who ends up working with others to accomplish a goal. He says of the recurring aspects of community, "Everything I write tends to turn into a superhero team, even if I didn't mean for it to. I always start off wanting to be solitary, because a) it's simpler, and b) that isolation is something that I relate to as a storyteller. And then no matter what, I always end up with a team". Examining a typical motif, he says, "I tend to write about people who are helpless or out of control who then regain or retake control".

Articulating his approach to screenwriting, Whedon has noted outlining and act structure as the hardest parts of storytelling, but emphasizes that he feels they are "completely essential". Many of Whedon's altered phrases and heavily popularized words have entered a common usage called "Slayer Slang", which PBS included an entire section of in their article series Do You Speak American?. In an issue of Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Eight, where Buffy travels to the future, Whedon writes Buffy's reaction to the future dialect of Manhattan; this allows Whedon to comment on the series' distinctive style of dialogue; "Buffy blames herself for what's happened to the English language, and there's a lot of hubris in that joke. I like to think that adding Y's to words that don't usually have Y's is going to destroy the whole fabric of our society". His use of self-aware dialogue to humanize characters, which relies heavily on dry humor and subtext, treating clichés subversively, using misogyny to define the trait of a villain, and the recurring theme of self-sacrifice led by subverting moral icons have been defining to his style of storytelling.

His penchant to kill off characters has been widely acknowledged. Whedon has admitted extreme tiredness to the criticism, explaining, "The percentage of people who die... is a lot. I think it's pretty near everybody. The percentage of people that I kill—not so many. I think the reason that my rep is so nasty is that I tend to do it... unexpectedly, or to someone people are recently invested in, and that is a real mission statement for me, because, death doesn't leave a card. Death doesn't take Hitler. It doesn't work according to story plans, and when a death feels like a loss, gives you grief... then you have told a story that involves death." Dramatic effect is used to convey the sense of realism and shock value that comes from fatal circumstances.

Whedon has kept ambivalent on whether to shoot on film or digital video, saying that he has "no allegiance to film as film. If the story is in front of me, I'm fine". In terms of visual aesthetics, he prefers to incorporate as many practical effects as possible when using computer-generated imagery, so people "really don't know where one begins and the other ends". On working with high or low budgets, he remarked that both offer "the exact same job" and whether one has $100 million or $100,000, "you're trying to hit someone in the gut with an emotional moment." Whedon determines that, although giving actors notes for guidance, he also aims to assuage their concerns when communicating the reasons and outcomes of a scene.

Whedon has cited Ray Bradbury, James Cameron, Rod Serling, William Shakespeare, Stephen Sondheim, Steven Spielberg, Charles Dickens, Stan Lee, Robert Klein, Jerome Robbins, Frank Borzage, Steve Gerber, Steven Bochco, Frances Hodgson Burnett and John Williams as influences. When asked about his five favorite films, Whedon listed The Matrix, Once Upon a Time in the West, The Bad and the Beautiful, Magnolia and The Court Jester.

Feminism

Elements of feminism are present throughout much of Whedon's work and he gives his mother credit for inspiring this. The character Kitty Pryde from the X-Men comics was an early model for Whedon's strong teenage girl characters. He said, "If there's a bigger influence on Buffy than Kitty, I don't know what it was. She was an adolescent girl finding out she has great power and dealing with it." Kitty Pryde later played a central role in Whedon's run on Astonishing X-Men. In his 2006 Equality Now address, Whedon said that journalists frequently ask him why he writes such strong female characters. In his speech he provided several answers, concluding with, "Because you're still asking me that question."

In college, Whedon studied a theory called "womb envy", a concept he says observes "a fundamental thing that women have something men don't, the obvious being an ability to bear children. Men not only don't get what's important about what women are capable of, but in fact they fear it, and envy it, and want to throw stones at it, because it's the thing they can't have." In 2007, Whedon expressed his outrage over the murder of Du'a Khalil Aswad, and because the act was caught on video, was prompted to attack the underlying attitude he felt led to the murder, comparing the video to torture porn.

In late 2013, Whedon spoke at an Equality Now event, where he issued a pointed dissection of the word "feminist". He begins to say, "I have the privilege living my life inside of words ... but part of being a writer is also living in the very smallest part of every word." Arguing against the suffix "-ist", he continues, "you can't be born an –ist. It's not natural." Whedon explains that because of this, the word "includes the idea that believing men and women to be equal ... is not a natural state. That we don't emerge assuming that everybody in the human race is a human. That the idea of equality is just an idea that's imposed on us..." This sparked an unfavorable reaction from the feminist community, but also an appreciation for Whedon's arguments' thought provocation.

News website Digital Spy released in early 2015 an interview they had conducted with Whedon, during which he criticized the entertainment industry for its "genuine, recalcitrant, intractable sexism, and old-fashioned quiet misogyny". Whedon exemplified The Hunger Games film series as an argument for female-led franchises, and hoped Marvel Studios would pursue production of more such franchises. However, critics noted an almost stereotypical lack of feminist ideals in his writing decisions and portrayal of Black Widow, one of two female protagonists in Marvel's 2015 Avengers: Age of Ultron, played by Scarlett Johansson.

In August 2017, Whedon's ex-wife, Kai Cole, published an essay on an industry trade site accusing Whedon of 15 years of multiple infidelities and the hypocrisy of touting feminist ideals while using their marriage "as a shield" for his misuse of power. A Whedon spokesperson said the essay contained "inaccuracies and misrepresentations", but did not clarify what those were.

Frequent collaborators
Whedon has repeatedly hired the same actors for his projects and has been described as "the gravitational center of the Whedonverse, a galaxy that spins recurring actors and themes through an orbital system of TV shows, films and comic books that all share similar traits: a unique brand of witty dialogue, relatable characters and fantasy/sci-fi mythology".

Note: Due to Whedon's frequent casting of the same actors in various projects, the above list only includes those who have played two or more different roles in Whedon productions; actors that only played one role in multiple Whedon productions are not included.

Personal life
In 2013, Whedon said that he is a workaholic. This arose during the time that followed the completion of Much Ado About Nothing, which was made in the span of a two-week vacation from The Avengers, and after making the pilot for Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. amidst the pre-production for Avengers: Age of Ultron. "It is actually a problem. Sometimes it's adorable ... and sometimes it's not ... Not to get all dark and weird, but it is something I need to address." He has been a member of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences in its Writers' branch since 2017.

Marriages
In 1995, Whedon married Kai Cole, an architect, producer and co-founder of Bellwether Pictures. They have two children together. Whedon and Cole separated in 2012 and divorced in 2016. In 2017, Cole claimed that Whedon had repeatedly been unfaithful to her and that he "does not practice what he preaches" in regard to feminism.

Whedon married Canadian artist Heather Horton in February 2021.

Religious and philosophical views
Whedon has identified himself as an atheist. In an interview with The A.V. Club Whedon elaborated on his nonbelief in gods.
Whedon has identified as an absurdist and existentialist. A committed humanist, Whedon was presented with the Outstanding Lifetime Achievement Award in Cultural Humanism by the Humanist Chaplaincy at Harvard University in 2009. He has spoken about existentialism, explaining in detail how it, and more specifically Jean-Paul Sartre's Nausea, was used as a basis for the Firefly episode "Objects in Space". He called it "the most important book" he ever read, and said it was given to him right after he saw Steven Spielberg's Close Encounters of the Third Kind, whose impact, he recalls, had made him an existentialist.

Political views
In July 2012, at the San Diego Comic-Con International, in response to one woman who noted the anti-corporate themes in many of his films and asked him to give his economic philosophy in 30 seconds or less, Whedon spoke out against capitalism, saying that America is "turning into Tsarist Russia".

Endorsing Barack Obama in the 2012 United States presidential election, Whedon satirically equated Mitt Romney's future as president with a zombie apocalypse, quipping, "Romney is ready to make the deep rollbacks in health care, education, social services and reproductive rights that will guarantee poverty, unemployment, overpopulation, disease, rioting—all crucial elements in creating a nightmare zombie wasteland."

In 2015, Whedon signed a petition as part of a political campaign calling for Elizabeth Warren to run for President of the United States.

In January 2017, after actress Nicole Kidman publicly suggested that America should accept that Donald Trump is president, Whedon tweeted a photograph of plastic puppet Lady Penelope Creighton-Ward alongside an image of Kidman, an action some interpreted as mocking and objectifying Kidman's physical appearance. That same month, Whedon also received criticism for reportedly comparing Ivanka Trump to a dog and for wishing that Paul Ryan would be raped to death by a rhinoceros. Referring to Ivanka's husband Jared Kushner and Trump, he tweeted: "He's a Voldemort in training, & unlike the Pekingese he married under, can play the long game." Whedon stated that he had been referring to Donald Trump. In April 2017, Whedon took a shot at Republicans by criticizing the physical appearance of teenage cancer survivors who were visiting then–Speaker of the House Paul Ryan. He later apologized on Twitter.

Bibliography

Dark Horse Comics
Buffy the Vampire Slayer:
Fray #1–8 (with Karl Moline, 2001–2003) collected as Fray (tpb, 216 pages, 2003, )
Angel: Legacy Edition Book Two (tpb, 304 pages, Boom! Studios, 2020, ) includes:
 Angel vol. 2 #1–4 (co-written by Whedon and Brett Matthews, art by Mel Rubi, 2001–2002)
 Also collected as Angel: Long Night's Journey (tpb, 104 pages, 2002, )
 Also collected in Angel Omnibus (tpb, 480 pages, 2011, )
 Dark Horse Extra #36–38 (untitled three-page story co-written by Whedon and Brett Matthews, art by Mel Rubi, 2001)
Buffy the Vampire Slayer: Tales (hc, 296 pages, 2011, ; tpb, 2018, ) includes:
 Tales of the Slayers (anthology graphic novel, 96 pages, 2002, ) featured three short stories by Whedon:
 "Prologue" (with Leinil Francis Yu)
 "Righteous" (with Tim Sale)
 "Tales" (with Karl Moline)
 Tales of the Vampires #1–5: "Tales of the Vampires" (with Alex Sanchez, leading feature in the anthology, 2003–2004)
 In addition to the leading feature, Whedon also wrote "Stacy" (art by Cameron Stewart), a short story published in issue #1 (2003)
 The entire 5-issue limited series was also collected as Tales of the Vampires (tpb, 144 pages, 2004, )
Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Eight:
 Volume 1 (hc, 304 pages, 2012, ) includes:
 "The Long Way Home" (with Georges Jeanty, in #1–4, 2007)
 "The Chain" (with Paul Lee, in #5, 2007)
 "Anywhere but Here" (with Cliff Richards, in #10, 2008)
 MySpace Dark Horse Presents #24: "Always Darkest" (with Jo Chen, digital anthology, 2007)
 Volume 2 (hc, 320 pages, 2012, ) includes:
 "A Beautiful Sunset" (with Georges Jeanty, in #11, 2008)
 "Time of Your Life" (with Karl Moline, in #16–19, 2008)
 Buffy the Vampire Slayer: Willow (with Karl Moline, one-shot, 2009)
 Volume 4 (hc, 320 pages, 2013, ) includes:
 "Turbulence" (with Georges Jeanty, in #31, 2010)
 "Last Gleaming" (with Georges Jeanty, in #36–40, 2010–2011)
Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Nine #1: "Freefall, Part One" (with Georges Jeanty, 2011) collected in Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Nine Volume 1 (hc, 304 pages, 2015, )
Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Eleven: Giles #1–4 (co-written by Whedon and Erika Alexander, art by Jon Lam, 2018) collected as Giles: Girl Blue (tpb, 104 pages, 2018, )
Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Twelve #1–4 (scripted by Christos Gage from a plot by Whedon and Gage, art by Georges Jeanty, 2018)
Serenity (plotted by Whedon, scripted by others):
Firefly: Legacy Edition Book One (tpb, 288 pages, Boom! Studios, 2018, ) includes:
 Serenity #1–3 (written by Brett Matthews, drawn by Will Conrad, 2005) also collected as Serenity: Those Left Behind (tpb, 80 pages, 2006, ; hc, 96 pages, 2007, )
 Serenity: Better Days #1–3 (written by Brett Matthews, drawn by Will Conrad, 2008) also collected as Serenity: Better Days (tpb, 80 pages, 2008, ; hc, 128 pages, 2010, )
 Serenity: The Shepherd's Tale (written by Zack Whedon, drawn by Chris Samnee, graphic novel, 56 pages, 2010, )
MySpace Dark Horse Presents #1–3: "Sugarshock!" (with Fábio Moon, digital anthology, 2007) collected in MySpace Dark Horse Presents Volume 1 (tpb, 176 pages, 2008, )
Twist (unreleased 6-issue limited series starring "a Victorian female Batman" — initially announced in 2015)
Dr. Horrible: Best Friends Forever (with José Maria Beroy and Sara Soler, one-shot, 2018) collected in Dr. Horrible and Other Horrible Stories (tpb, 136 pages, 2019, )

Marvel Comics
X-Men:
Astonishing X-Men vol. 3 (with John Cassaday, 2004–2008) collected as:
 Ultimate Collection: Astonishing X-Men Volume 1 (collects #1–12, hc, 320 pages, 2006, ; tpb, 2012, )
 Ultimate Collection: Astonishing X-Men Volume 2 (collects #13–24 and the Giant-Sized Astonishing X-Men one-shot special, hc, 344 pages, 2008, ; tpb, 2012, )
 Astonishing X-Men by Joss Whedon and John Cassaday Omnibus (collects #1–24 and the Giant-Sized Astonishing X-Men one-shot special, hc, 672 pages, 2009, )
Giant-Size X-Men #3: "Teamwork" (with Neal Adams, co-feature, 2005) collected in Giant-Size X-Men: 40th Anniversary (hc, 440 pages, 2015, )
Stan Lee Meets Spider-Man: "Some Steves" (with Michael Gaydos, co-feature in one-shot, 2006) collected in Stan Lee Meets... (hc, 240 pages, 2007, )
Runaways vol. 2 #25–30: "Dead-End Kids" (with Michael Ryan, 2007–2008) collected in Runaways: The Complete Collection Volume 3 (tpb, 528 pages, 2015, )
Captain America: Sam Wilson #7: "Presentation" (with John Cassaday, co-feature, 2016) collected in Captain America: Sam Wilson — The Complete Collection Volume 2 (tpb, 504 pages, 2021, )

Other publishers
Superman/Batman #26 (with John Cassaday, two-page sequence among other writers and artists, DC Comics, 2006) collected in Superman/Batman Volume 2 (tpb, 336 pages, 2014, )
Angel: After the Fall (scripted by Brian Lynch from plots by Whedon and Lynch, art by Franco Urru, Tim Kane (#6–8), Nick Runge (#9–12) and Stephen Mooney (#12–14), IDW Publishing, 2007–2009) collected as:
Volume 1 (collects #1–5, hc, 144 pages, 2008, ; tpb, 2009, )
Volume 2 (collects #6–8, hc, 104 pages, 2008, ; tpb, 2009, )
Volume 3 (collects #9–12, hc, 128 pages, 2009, ; tpb, 2010, )
Volume 4 (collects #13–17, hc, 136 pages, 2010, ; tpb, 2011, )
Premiere Edition Volume 1 (collects #1–17, hc, 432 pages, 2011, )

Selected accolades

Notes

 His first name was changed to "Joss" once he broke into the writing industry.
 Sandollar Productions acquired the television rights to the 1992 film, and in the mid-1990s, executive Gail Berman approached Whedon to adapt it as a series based on the success of Clueless.
 In the Battle of Serenity Valley, the Independents were defeated by The Alliance, an authoritarian regime.
 Whedon confirmed in April 2015 that it was indeed his screenplay being considered.

References

Further reading

 Havens, Candace (2003). Joss Whedon: The Genius behind Buffy. BenBella Books. .
 Davidson, Joy, and Wilson, Leah, eds. (2007). The Psychology of Joss Whedon: An Unauthorized Exploration of Buffy, Angel, and Firefly. BenBella Books. .
 Koontz, K. Dale (2008). Faith and Choice in the Works of Joss Whedon. McFarland. .
 Comeford, AmiJo and Burnett, Tamy (2010). The Literary Angel: Essays on Influences and Traditions Reflected in the Joss Whedon Series. McFarland. .
 Waggoner, Erin B. (2010). Sexual Rhetoric in the Works of Joss Whedon: New Essays. McFarland. .
 Espenson, Jane and Wilson, Leah, eds. (2010). Inside Joss' Dollhouse: Completely Unauthorized, from Alpha to Rossum. Smart Pop. .
 Leonard, Kendra Preston, ed. (2010). Buffy, Ballads, and Bad Guys Who Sing: Music in the Worlds of Joss Whedon. Scarecrow Press. .
 Pascale, Amy (2014). Joss Whedon: The Biography. Chicago Review Press. .
 Macnaughtan, Don (2018). The Whedonverse Catalog: A Complete Guide to Works in All Media''. McFarland. .

External links

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Joss Whedon


The U.S. state of Indiana is divided into Eastern and Central time zones. The official dividing line has generally moved progressively west from its original location on the Indiana–Ohio border, to a position dividing Indiana down the middle, and finally to its current location along much of the Indiana–Illinois border. In April 2006, several southwestern and northwestern counties reverted to Central time, although by late 2007 all but two had returned to Eastern time.

As much of Indiana is on the western frontier of the Eastern time zone, there was opposition from many in the state to observing daylight saving time there for decades. In 2005, the Indiana General Assembly reached a decision to implement daylight saving time state-wide beginning in April 2006.

Time zones

Indiana observes Eastern Time, except for 12 of its 92 counties, which observe Central Time. Six of these counties are in northwestern Indiana, near Chicago (which observes Central Time), and six are in southwestern Indiana, near Evansville, where the metro area includes portions of southeastern Illinois and western Kentucky, which also observe Central Time. The twelve counties are:

Northwestern Indiana (Chicago-Gary metropolitan area):
Jasper
Lake
LaPorte
Newton
Porter
Starke
Southwestern Indiana (Evansville Metro Area):
Gibson
Perry
Posey
Spencer
Vanderburgh
Warrick

Since April 2, 2006, all counties in Indiana observe daylight saving time.

tz database

The tz database lists 11 time zones for Indiana, where each zone is defined as a geographic area that observed the same offsets from UTC since January 1, 1970 (the UNIX epoch). The diagrams in this article are colored to show these 11 zones and a key is provided below. Indiana is covered by the following zones in the tz database. Columns marked with * contain the data from zone.tab.

History
The most extensive study of time zone history in Indiana was published in The American Atlas (1978) by Thomas G. Shanks, in which the author identified 345 areas in the state with a different time zone history for each.

Pre-1918
Before 1883 in the United States, most towns and cities set their own local time to noon when the sun was at its highest point in the sky. Since the sun reaches "high noon" four minutes later for every degree of longitude traveled towards the west, the time in every town was different. In Indiana, local mean time varied from GMT-5:39 in the east to GMT-5:52 in the west. With the emergence of the railroads, hundreds of miles could be traveled in a much shorter time, causing a train passenger to apparently experience several slight changes in time over the course of even a short rail trip. By 1883, the major railroads in the US agreed to coordinate their clocks and begin operating on "standard time" with four "time zones" established across the (then 38-state) nation, centered on the 75th, 90th, 105th, and 120th meridians west. On November 18, 1883, telegraph lines transmitted GMT to major cities, where each city was to adjust their official time to their proper zone. The state capital in Indianapolis lies at approximately the 86th meridian (U.S. Census Bureau), closer to the center of the Central Time Zone at the 90th meridian than the center of the Eastern Time Zone at the 75th meridian.

1918 to 1948

Time zones were first adopted by the United States Congress with the Standard Time Act of 1918. All of Indiana was located in the Central Time Zone. It was at this time the dividing line between Eastern Time and Central Time was moved from the Pennsylvania-Ohio and West Virginia-Ohio state lines. The Ohio-Indiana state line became the time zone line in 1927 (north of US Route 40) and 1935 (from US Route 40 to the Ohio River). Daylight saving time (DST) was included in the original Standard Time Act. A year later, Congress repealed daylight saving time from the Standard Time Act of 1918, though some communities continued to follow it. During World War II, daylight saving time was once again mandated by Congress to conserve energy. After the war, the mandate to observe daylight saving time was lifted again.

1949 to 1959
In 1949, in a heated rural vs. city debate, the Indiana General Assembly passed a law to put all of Indiana on Central Standard Time and to outlaw daylight saving time. However, the law had no enforcement power, and it was largely ignored by communities that wanted to observe Eastern Standard Time. The General Assembly passed a law to make Central Time the official time zone of the state in 1957, but permitted any community to switch to daylight saving time during the summer. The law did, however, make it illegal for communities to observe "fast time" (i.e., daylight saving time) during the winter months. Governor Harold W. Handley vowed to enforce the law by withdrawing state aid from communities that attempted to observe "fast time" during the winter, though legal obstacles forced the governor to back down from his stance. Once again, the law was not enforceable, and individual communities continued to observe whichever time zone they preferred.

1960 to 1977
 In 1961, the legislature repealed the 1957 law making Central Time the official time of Indiana, which allowed any community to observe DST. The Interstate Commerce Commission divided Indiana between the Central Time Zone and the Eastern Time Zone. This made more of the Michigan-Indiana (first changed in 1931) and Kentucky-Indiana (first changed in 1935 and additionally in 1957) state lines the time zone boundaries. Neither the time zone line nor daylight saving time were uniformly observed (see ). The United States Congress later passed the Uniform Time Act of 1966 ( April 13, 1966; ; ) to specify where and when daylight saving time was applied in the U.S., and authority was shifted to the United States Department of Transportation (USDOT). Prior to the passing of this law, each state was permitted to decide this issue for itself. Having the state split in two time zones was inconvenient, however, so Governor Roger D. Branigin petitioned the USDOT to place all of Indiana back in the Central Time Zone a year later.

Over the next two years, the USDOT conducted several hearings in response to Branigan's petition. Citizens of northwest and southwest Indiana appeared to favor the Central Time Zone with observance of DST, while those from other areas of the state favored the Eastern Time Zone with no observance of DST. The USDOT chose to divide Indiana between the Central Time Zone and the Eastern Time Zone. Six counties near Chicago (Lake, Porter, LaPorte, Jasper, Newton, and Starke) and six counties near Evansville (Posey, Vanderburgh, Warrick, Spencer, Gibson, and Pike) were placed in the Central Time Zone with observance of DST. The remainder of the state was placed in the Eastern Time Zone; the state was given special dispensation to exempt parts of itself from DST. Most portions of the state that were in the Eastern Time Zone did not observe DST. However, Floyd, Clark, and Harrison counties, which are near Louisville, Kentucky, and Dearborn and Ohio counties, which are near Cincinnati, Ohio, unofficially observed DST due to their proximity to those major cities that observed DST.

While the USDOT was considering where the time zone line should be, several broadcast companies filed a federal lawsuit in 1968 to compel the USDOT to enforce the observance of daylight saving time in Indiana, which they won. As a result, the USDOT was ordered to stop informing Indiana residents that the Uniform Time Act would not be enforced and to provide a plan for its enforcement (see , Time Life being the owner of WFBM-TV (Channel 6) in Indianapolis).

In 1972, the Indiana General Assembly overrode a veto from Governor Edgar Whitcomb to place the northwest and southwest corners of Indiana in the Central Time Zone on daylight saving time, and to place the rest of the state on Eastern Standard Time, upon federal approval (see ). Congress approved an amendment (;) to the Uniform Time Act of 1966 to permit a state that lay in two time zones to exempt part of the state from daylight saving time, and President Richard Nixon signed it into law. The final changes to the Michigan-Indiana time zone boundary occurred in 1973, when Michigan (also affected by the 1972 amendments to the Uniform time act) adopted its current daylight saving and time zone boundary laws. Several eastern Indiana counties (Ohio and Dearborn counties, near Cincinnati; and Floyd, Clark, and Harrison counties, near Louisville) chose to unofficially observe daylight saving time, despite the Indiana statute.

County petitions (1977 to 1991)
Starting in 1977, several counties and the state began petitioning USDOT to switch time zones and Daylight Savings Time observance.

Pike County asked the USDOT to move it from the Central Time Zone to the Eastern Time Zone in 1977; the request was approved. Four years later, Starke County asked the USDOT to move it from the Central Time Zone to the Eastern Time Zone; in this case, however the USDOT did not find a sound reason for the move, and declined the request (see  and ). In 1985, the Indiana General Assembly, in Senate Concurrent Resolution 6, asked the USDOT to move five counties in southwest Indiana (Posey, Vanderburgh, Warrick, Spencer, and Gibson) from the Central Time Zone to the Eastern Time Zone. The USDOT denied the request, finding that the change would not serve the convenience of commerce (see , , and ). By 1986–87, Jasper County, along with Starke County, which was making a time zone change request for the second time in four years, petitioned the USDOT to move them from the Central Time Zone to the Eastern Time Zone in 1987–1989. Those petitions of the counties were denied (see  and ).

Attitudes began to change in the 1990s, as Indiana's time zone situation was seen as impeding the state's economic growth. Interstate travel and commerce were difficult as people wondered, "what time is it in Indiana?" In 1991, Starke County petitioned the USDOT to move it from the Central Time Zone to the Eastern Time Zone for the third time. This time, the petition was granted, effective October 27, 1991 (see  and ).

2005 to 2007

On April 29, 2005, with heavy backing from Governor Mitch Daniels' economic development plan, and after years of controversy, the Indiana General Assembly passed a law stating that, effective April 2, 2006, the entire state of Indiana would become the 48th state to observe daylight saving time. The bill was also accompanied by Senate Enrolled Act 127, which required Governor Daniels to seek federal hearings from the USDOT on whether to keep Indiana on Eastern Time with New York City and Ohio or whether to move the entire state back to Central Time with Chicago.

As a result of a review by the USDOT, eight counties were moved from the Eastern Time Zone to the Central Time Zone, effective April 2, 2006. These were Starke and Pulaski counties in the northwest and Daviess, Dubois, Knox, Martin, Perry, and Pike counties in the southwest.

The placement of Martin County into the Central Time Zone, while leaving adjoining Greene and Lawrence Counties in the Eastern Time Zone presented a particular problem for Naval Surface Warfare Center Crane, a large US Navy base that straddles all three counties. With the Eastern/Central dividing line running through the base, NSWC Crane was unable to fully comply with the realigned time zones. The base opted to recognize Central Time, since the portion in Martin County was larger than the portions in Greene and Lawrence combined. This decision presented a larger regional problem, for even though NSWC Crane is Martin County's largest employer, two-thirds of the base's employees live in Greene, Lawrence, Monroe, and other Eastern Time Zone counties. This meant that the vast majority of Crane's employees would live in one time zone but work in another. Furthermore, a business park under construction at Crane's west gate would also straddle the new dividing line, with businesses on one side of the street being in a different time zone from those on the other. After one year under this awkward arrangement, Martin County reconsidered their bid to be placed in the Central Time Zone and formally petitioned for a return to the Eastern Time Zone.

Independent from the situation facing Martin County, Pulaski County also formally petitioned for a return to the Eastern Time Zone. Pulaski County Commissioners and County Council both voted unanimously on February 6, 2006, to declare home rule and stay on Eastern Time if a federal agency did not grant an appeal to change the time zone ruling. However, the county conceded on March 27, 2006, officially accepting Central Time and switching time zones on April 2, 2006. After some residents pledged to unofficially continue observing Eastern Time, the county changed work hours for most county employees so that they were in sync with Eastern Time work hours. Dubois, Daviess, Knox, and Pike counties also decided to ask the federal government to return them to the Eastern Time Zone, and Dubois did so on April 27, 2006. The confusion involving the time status of these counties led to their being dubbed the "seesaw six." St. Joseph, Marshall, and Fulton counties overtly expressed interest in making another attempt to be changed to Central Time as of the end of 2006.

Pulaski County returned to Eastern Time on March 11, the date when daylight saving time resumed. When standard time resumed on November 4, the five southwestern counties (Daviess, Dubois, Knox, Martin, and Pike) returned to the Eastern Time Zone. A petition from Perry County to move to the Eastern Time Zone was denied.

With the exception of Perry and Starke counties, all counties that were moved to the Central Time Zone in 2006 were moved back to the Eastern Time Zone in 2007.

Ongoing controversy
The decades-long Indiana time zone debate remains controversial. Some argue that the entire state should move to Central Time, while some others would prefer to have the state return to the non-observance of DST.

Many farmers oppose DST because their days are controlled by the sun, not the clock. Farmers are often dependent on younger workers whose parents want them home by dinner, and when the sun is up later in the evening, farmers miss out on recreational activities that take place later in the day. When the sun is still up at 9 to 9:30 p.m., the farmer is still in the field, while others have been off work for hours.

Opponents of putting the entire state on one time zone often cite out-of-state cities as their reason of opposition. For example, counties in northwestern Indiana are part of the Chicago metropolitan area. Many residents commute to Chicago, which is on Central Time. Counties in the southeastern corner of the state are suburbs of cities such as Cincinnati, Ohio, and Louisville, Kentucky, which both observe Eastern Time. In the southwestern corner of the state, Evansville serves as the central hub of a tri-state area that includes southern Illinois and western Kentucky (both on Central Time).

Supporters of daylight saving time and a common time zone in Indiana often claim Indiana must adopt the time-keeping system of the eastern United States to preserve interstate business with that region. Some believe that Indiana businesses have lost hours of productive time with out-of-state colleagues because the time quirks are too confusing to keep track of on a daily basis. The confusion caused to outsiders featured prominently in the plot of an episode of The West Wing in which presidential aides unfamiliar with Indiana's non-observance of DST miss their return flight to Washington, D.C., on Air Force One and express consternation with the variances in the state's time measurement.

Detractors of daylight saving time claim that scientific studies assessing the impact of the time policy change to DST in Indiana have identified a significant increase in energy usage and spending on electricity by Indiana households. Indiana households paid an additional $8.6 million in electricity bills according to University of California, Santa Barbara economics professor Matthew Kotchen and Ph.D. student Laura Grant, while supporters of Daylight Saving Time point to studies such as Professor Kotchen, the Department of Transportation and organizations such as the California Energy Commission claim that the United States saves approximately 1% of energy when Daylight Saving Time is being observed.

Another wrinkle in the issue is the unnatural geographic location of this Eastern-Time-Zoned region. In the western Indiana counties where Eastern time is observed (South Bend and Lafayette south to Terre Haute and Vincennes), around the summer solstice, the sun neither sets until after 9:20 p.m., nor does it reach solar noon until almost 2:00 p.m. During the winter months when standard time is observed, school buses in western regions lose a valuable hour of the sun's rays as they pick up children in the morning. Another notable observation is that schools in the Eastern Time Zone of Indiana tend to have far more 2-hour delays, mainly due to the fact that sunlight is required for many road de-icing components to work. With the sun rising as late as 8:20 a.m. in some areas, available sunlight is inadequate to safely thaw the roads for school buses to pick up all their passengers on time. The argument is that if the same area were in its geographically natural Central time zone, the sun would be up an hour sooner, and it would have an additional hour to thaw the roads every morning.

See also
 Time in the United States
 List of counties in Indiana
 David Camm, whose wrongful conviction for murder involved — among other things — confusion regarding Indiana's time zones

References

External links
 Indiana Time Zone Map 13 KB PDF file is a graphical overview of what counties are on Central and Eastern Time Zones in the State of Indiana.

Geography of Indiana
Indiana
Indiana

Time in Indiana


Swar Khan also known as Swatkhan Bahar (born c. 1970) is a citizen of Afghanistan, who was held in extrajudicial detention in the United States's Guantanamo Bay detention camps, in Cuba.

Khan was a security official for the Hamid Karzai government prior to his capture.
His boss told reporters that his capture was due to false denunciations from a jealous rival, whose sons worked as interpreters for the Americans, and that he had tried to tell the Americans he should be set free—without success.

Writ of habeas corpus

Khan had a writ of habeas corpus, Swat Khan v. Bush, filed on his behalf in 2005.
He was represented by James Wyda and Martin Bahl, Federal Public Defenders in Maryland.

Repatriation
Khan was transferred to Afghanistan on Oct. 11, 2006.

McClatchy interview
On June 15, 2008, the McClatchy News Service published articles based on interviews with 66 former Guantanamo detainees. McClatchy reporters interviewed Khan.

Tom Lasseter, the lead McClatchy reporter, wrote that while his Tribunal President ruled that even though he had offered their phone numbers the witnesses he requested were not reasonably available but McClatchy reporters "had little trouble" phoning his boss at the Interior Ministry, Mohammed Mustafa. Mustafa confirmed he had been falsely denounced by a rival in the Afghan security services.

Khan told about being beaten in Bagram, and being hung from the ceiling by his wrists in an isolation cell.

Khan described making two suicide attempts in Guantanamo.
Following his repatriation the Governor of his Province offered him another position as a Police officer, but he declined.

See also
 Bagram torture and prisoner abuse
 Guantanamo Bay detention camp suicide attempts

References

External links
 The Guantánamo Files: Website Extras (12) – The Last of the Afghans (Part Two) Andy Worthington

Afghan extrajudicial prisoners of the United States
Living people
1970 births
Guantanamo detainees known to have been released
Year of birth uncertain
People from Khost
Bagram Theater Internment Facility detainees

Swar Khan


The Flatiron Institute is an American internal research division of the Simons Foundation, launched in 2016. It comprises five centers for computational science: the Center for Computational Astrophysics (CCA); the Center for Computational Biology (CCB); the Center for Computational Quantum Physics (CCQ); the Center for Computational Mathematics (CCM); and the Center for Computational Neuroscience (CCN). It also has a group called the Scientific Computing Core (SCC). The institute takes its name from the Flatiron District in New York City where it's based.

The mission of the Flatiron Institute is to advance scientific research through computational methods, including data analysis, theory, modeling, and simulation. The Flatiron Institute was dedicated with a ceremony on September 6, 2017.

Center for Computational Biology
 Launched in 2013 as the Simons Center for Data Analysis
 Director: Michael Shelley
 Mission: CCB's mission is to develop modeling tools and theory for understanding biological processes and to create computational frameworks that will enable the analysis of the large, complex data sets being generated by new experimental technologies.
 Research groups: Biophysical Modeling, Developmental Dynamics, Genomics, Structural and Molecular Biophysics, Systems Biology

Center for Computational Astrophysics
 Launched in 2016
 Director: Julianne Dalcanton
 Mission: CCA's mission is to create new computational frameworks that allow scientists to analyze big astronomical datasets and to understand complex, multi-scale physics in a cosmological context.
 Research groups: Astronomical Data, Compact Objects, Cosmology X Data Science, Dynamics, Galaxy Formation, Gravitational-Wave Astronomy, Planet Formation

Center for Computational Quantum Physics
 Launched in 2017
 Director: Antoine Georges; co-director: Andrew Millis
 Mission: CCQ's mission is to develop the concepts, theories, algorithms and codes needed to solve the quantum many-body problem and use the solutions to predict the behavior of materials and molecules of scientific and technological interest.

Center for Computational Mathematics
 Launched in 2018
 Director: Leslie Greengard
 Mission: CCM's mission is to create new mathematical approaches, algorithms and software to advance scientific research in multiple disciplines, often in collaboration with other Flatiron Centers.
 Research groups: Image and Signal Processing, Machine Learning and Data Analysis, Numerical Analysis

Center for Computational Neuroscience
 Launched in 2021
 Director: Eero Simoncelli
 Mission: CCN's mission is to develop models, principles and conceptual frameworks that deepen our knowledge of brain function—both in health and in disease.
 Research groups: Computational Vision, Neural Circuits and Algorithms, NeuroAI and Geometric Data Analysis, Statistical Analysis for Neural Data

Scientific Computing Core
 Co-directors: Nick Carriero and Ian Fisk
 Mission: SCC's mission is to develop and deploy the computing infrastructure—including new computational and statistical methods and storage and data handling system support—necessary for carrying out the research missions of CCA, CCB, CCM, CCN and CCQ.

References
Notes

Bibliography

External links

Research institutes in New York (state)
Computer science institutes in the United States

Flatiron Institute


Dundee Parish Church (St Mary's) is located in the east section of Dundee's "City Churches", the other being occupied by the Steeple Church. Both are congregations in the Church of Scotland, although with differing styles of worship.

Dundee played an important role in the Reformation, and John Knox asserts in his History of the Reformation that "the first face of a public church Reformed" was that of St Mary's in Dundee, by 1556.

The church dates back to 1190, when it was founded by David, Earl of Huntingdon, brother of William the Lion, King of Scots. The original buildings have not survived. In 1303 the church was burnt by an invading English army. Following a further invasion in 1547 the church was burnt down again.  In the late Middle Ages, Dundee's was the largest parish church in Scotland with the Old Steeple, built in the 1470s during the Provostship of George Spalding, the tallest tower.

In 1841 three of the City Churches were again destroyed by fire. Two were rebuilt, the South Church or St Paul's and the East Church or St Mary's. St Mary's, now known as Dundee Parish Church (St Mary's) was rebuilt being completed in 1844 to the design of William Burn.  In 1847 the rebuilt South Church was reopened under the name St Paul's (South) Church.

The Old Steeple dates back to the 1480s. Between 1782 and 1841 there were no fewer than four Church of Scotland congregations occupying the City Churches under one roof but with separate sanctuaries. After the post 1841 rebuilding there were three congregations, then two since the 1980s – namely Dundee Parish Church (St Mary's) and the Steeple Church.

Several past ministers have served as Moderators of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, most recently the late Very Reverend Dr William B. R. Macmillan in 1991.

Ministers from the Reformation to 1690
St Mary's was the sole parish church for Dundee until 1834. Before this several congregations met within different parts of St Marys. A second congregation, the Second Charge, was founded in 1590. A Third Charge was added in 1609. Therefore from the period 1609-1690 there were three clergyman simultaneously deemed minister of Dundee, all leading their congregations within the one church. The church was divided into sections for the different congregations to meet.

First Charge:
 Paul Methven 1558–1560
 William Christison 1560–1597 Moderator in 1569
 Robert Howie 1598–1605
 David Lindsay, MA 1606–1634
 Andrew Collace, MA 1635–1639
 Andrew Auchinleck, MA 1642–1663
 Henry Scrymgeour, MA 1664–1690

Second Charge (Also known as South Church, though this part of St Mary's was destroyed in a fire in 1645):

 James Robertson 1588–1623
 John Duncanson, MA 1624–1651
 George Martin, MA 1658–1660
 Alexander Mylne 1661–1665
 John Guthrie, MA 1667–1685
 Robert Norie, MA 1686–1689
 George Anderson, MA 1690–1690

Third Charge (This congregation became St Paul's parish in 1834):

 William Wedderburn, MA 1611–1616
 Colin Campbell, MA 1617–1638
 John Robertson, MA 1641–1662
 William Rait 1662–1679
 Robert Rait 1682–1689

Ministers since 1690
In 1690, following the Glorious Revolution the Church of Scotland permanently switched to Presbyterian Government. The incumbent minister of the Parish of  Dundee, Henry Scrymgeour demitted office in 1690 and the charge was declared vacant in 1694.  The charge was not filled until 1699.

Since that time the following have served as minister of the charge:

Samuel Johnstone MA 1699–1731
Thomas Davidson 1732–1760
Robert Small DD 1761–1808
Archibald McLachlan DD 1808–1848
Charles Adie DD 1848–1861
Archibald Watson MA DD 1862–1881 Moderator in 1880 (died in office)
Colin Campbell MA BD DD 1882–1905
William L. Wilson MA 1905–1911
Adam W. Fergusson MA BD 1911–1933
Alfred Ernest Warr BD 1933–1936
John Henry Duncan MA BPhil DD 1937–1951
Hugh O. Douglas MA DD LLD KVCO CBE 1951–1977
William B. R. MacMillan MA BD LLD DD 1978–1993
Keith F. Hall MA BD 1994–present

Memorials
The church includes a memorial to the soldiers of the 4th (City of Dundee) Battalion & 4/5th (Angus & Dundee) Battalion, the Black Watch, who died during the First World War. A new memorial and roll of honour to commemorate over 600 local seamen and women who died during the Great War was placed in the church in 2017. The memorial was unveiled by Her Royal Highness Anne, Princess Royal during a special service held in the church on 10 July 2017.

See also
List of Church of Scotland parishes

References

External links
Dundee Parish Church (St Mary's)

Church of Scotland churches in Scotland
Churches in Dundee
Category A listed buildings in Dundee
Churches completed in 1844
Protestant churches converted from Roman Catholicism
Rebuilt churches in the United Kingdom
19th-century Church of Scotland church buildings
Listed churches in Scotland

Dundee Parish Church (St Mary's)


Robert F. Dahlstrom (born c. 1958) is an American organizational theorist who is the Seibert Professor in the Miami University Department of Marketing. known for his work on international marketing.

Education
Dahlstrom obtained a Bachelor of Business Administration from Xavier University in 1980 and a PhD in marketing at the University of Cincinnati in 1990.

Career
Dahlstrom started his academic career at the University of Kentucky in 1990, where he became Bloomfield Professor of Marketing at the Gatton College of Business and Economics. He founded and directed its Douglas K. Von Allmen Center for Green Marketing, which aims "to expand the knowledge of green marketing practices among business owners, and to contribute to scholarly research on green marketing and sustainability." From 2000 to 2014 Dahlstrom was professor at the BI Norwegian Business School and the Joseph C. Seibert Professor of Marketing at the Farmer School of Business.

Selected publications
 Dahlstrom, Robert. Green marketing management. Cengage Learning, 2010.

 Lagace, Rosemary R., Robert Dahlstrom, and Jule B. Gassenheimer. "The relevance of ethical salesperson behavior on relationship quality: The pharmaceutical industry." Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management 11.4 (1991): 39-47.
 Dahlstrom, Robert, and Arne Nygaard. "An exploratory investigation of interpersonal trust in new and mature market economies." Journal of Retailing 71.4 (1996): 339-361.
 Ayers, Doug, Robert Dahlstrom, and Steven J. Skinner. "An exploratory investigation of organizational antecedents to new product success." Journal of Marketing Research (1997): 107-116.
 Dahlstrom, Robert, and Arne Nygaard. "An empirical investigation of ex post transaction costs in franchised distribution channel s." Journal of marketing Research (1999): 160-170.
 Flaherty, Theresa B., Robert Dahlstrom, and Steven J. Skinner. "Organizational values and role stress as determinants of customer-oriented selling performance." Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management 19.2 (1999): 1-18.

References

External links
 Miami University, Department of Marketing, chaired by Robert Dahlstrom.

1950s births
Living people
American business theorists
Xavier University alumni
University of Cincinnati alumni
University of Kentucky faculty
Academic staff of BI Norwegian Business School
Miami University faculty

Robert Dahlstrom


Geoffrey Laurence (born 1949) is an American realist painter. He lives and works in Santa Fe, New Mexico.

Laurence was born in Paterson, New Jersey. The child of Holocaust survivors, he was brought up and educated in London, England. He attended the Byam Shaw School of Art from 1965 to 1968, where he received the London Certificate in Art and Design and studied with Bridget Riley and Bill Jacklin. From 1968 to 1969, he studied graphic design under Tom Eckersley at the London College of Printing and then Saint Martins School of Art from 1969 to 1972 where he studied painting under Frederick Gore and received his BA. In 1992, he moved to New York and attended the New York Academy of Art where he studied with Eric Fischl, Wade Schuman and Vincent Desiderio and received his MFA Cum Laude in 1995. He is the recipient of grants from The George Sugarman Foundation, the Robert Rauschenberg Foundation, the Walter Erlebacher Award and a J. Epstein Travel Award. His paintings have been exhibited across the US and in Europe including the Las Vegas Art Museum, Yeshiva University Museum and the Arnot Art Museum. His work can currently be seen at the Museum of Biblical Art (Dallas) and the Fulginiti Pavilion at Anschutz Medical Campus.

References
 Geoffrey Laurence brief biography
 Interview with Geoffrey Laurence
 Center for Genocide and Holocaust Studies - University of Minnesota
 Center for Bioethics and Humanities, Fulginiti Pavilion - Colorado University

External links
 Artist's website

1949 births
Living people
20th-century American painters
American male painters
21st-century American painters
21st-century American male artists
Artists from Santa Fe, New Mexico
20th-century American male artists

Geoffrey Laurence