Cornelis van Steenoven (also known as Cornelius Steenoven; died April 3, 1725, in Leiden) was a Dutch Roman Catholic priest who later served as the seventh Old Catholic Archbishop of Utrecht from 1724 to 1725. Consecrated without the permission of the pope, Steenoven was at the center of the 18th-century controversy between national churches and what many considered to be the overreaching powers of the papacy.

Education and early ministry

Steenoven was educated in Louvain, then in Rome, where he received his Doctor of Theology. He was ordained a priest in 1689. Steenoven served as a pastor in Amersfoort from 1692 to 1719. Beginning in 1700, Steenoven served as a canon of the Cathedral Chapter of Utrecht, which was suspended by Rome in 1700 after a conflict during the time of Petrus Codde, the former Archbishop of Utrecht, whom Steenoven came to know in Rome. Like van der Croon, a later Old Catholic Archbishop of Utrecht, van Steenoven was one of 300 priests in six diocese who had previously signed a protest in support of Archbishop Petrus Codde in 1700 or 1701. In 1719, Steenoven was elected vicar general of the Chapter of Utrecht and served in this capacity together with Gisbert van Dyck under the Chapter's dean, John Christian van Erkel.

Election as Archbishop of Utrecht

The Chapter of Utrecht convened at The Hague on April 27, 1723. All eight canons were present: John Christian van Erkel (dean), Steenoven and Gilbert van Dyck (vicars general), Daellenoort, Oosterling, van der Croon, Kemp, and Broedersen. In addition to the canons, other priests were present, including Jacob Krys and van Haen. After the Mass of the Holy Ghost, the canons prepared to advance the rights of the Catholic episcopate over the papacy by electing their own archbishop. They adopted a measure to proceed with an election by scrutiny; Jacob Krys served as protonotary of the election, and two non-canon priests served as witnesses. Steenoven received the majority of votes and was named Archbishop-elect of Utrecht.

Requests for consecration

The Chapter of Utrecht and the archbishop-elect asked Pope Innocent XIII to permit the consecration of Steenoven, but they received no response. The election of Steenoven as Archbishop-elect of Utrecht became the conversation of the European Roman Catholic Church, with various voices wondering whether Rome would allow the election, whether the canons would persevere in advocating for their right to elect their own archbishop, whether three bishops could be found to consecrate the archbishop-elect, and whether a single bishop would dare to perform the consecration alone. French Bishop and Jansenist theologian Pierre de Langle (of the Diocese of Boulogne in Northern France), wrote: "I can think of nothing except the present state of the glorious church of Utrecht."

On August 4, 1723, the Chapter of Utrecht sent a second letter to the pope. Having received no response to their previous two communications, they sent a third letter to the pope on December 29, 1723. In the meantime, van Erkel kept the conversation alive on the rights of national churches to elect their own prelates. Ultramontane voices favoring the power of the papacy penned responses, including a dialogue between Warmond and Regthart, and a letter from a doctor in Louvain to a friend in Holland on the supposed rights of "the so-called Chapter of Utrecht."

On March 9, 1724, the Chapter of Utrecht sent a letter to all Roman Catholic bishops on the sufferings of the Church of Utrecht, then received news of the death of Pope Innocent XIII on March 7. Pope Innocent XIII did not confirm Steenoven's election, but neither did he condemn it; the hope was had that his successor might more kindly look upon the plight of the Church of Utrecht. Steenoven and van Dyck, in their capacity as vicars general of the Chapter, published a pastoral letter asking for the prayers of the faithful for the deceased pope. The next day, on April 8, 1724, the cardinals of the Roman Catholic Church met in conclave and issued a letter in which they reproached the Chapter of Utrecht. The Internuncio also denounced the work of the Chapter of Utrecht in a widely-disbursed pamphlet addressed to all Roman Catholics in Holland. The Chapter responded with a firm reply to the Internuncio. The Chapter also issued a letter to all Catholic deans and chapters, urging them to stand against the papacy's invasion of local church rights; they also wrote to the universities of Louvain, Douai, Paris, Rheims, Nantes, Caen, Poitiers, Cologne, Vienna, Prague, and Strasbourg. On the dearth of replies to the communications of the Chapter of Utrecht, Kemp wrote: "Verily, they were all dumb dogs—they could not bark! Let them all, let bishops, canons, universities, be silent! Such a silence, noble clergy and illustrious Chapter [of Utrecht], is a clear proof that your Archbishop has been well and validly elected, and that you may proceed with full assurance to his consecration."

On May 29, 1724, Cardinal Orsini was elected to the vacant see as Pope Benedict XIII. Having appealed to him and received no response, the Chapter of Utrecht asked neighboring bishops to come to their aid and consecrate Steenoven. The well-known French bishop and Jansenist Charles de Caylus is said to have replied: "If I were in the country, I wouldn't have the slightest difficulty in imposing my hands [on the archbishop-elect]." The Bishops of Antwerp, Arras, and Saint-Omer (or Audomar) expressed sympathy for the plight of the Church of Utrecht. On July 30, the Bishop of Antwerp consecrated his brother as titular bishop of Rhodes, presumably with papal approval, but made the shrewd move of doing so alone, without the assistance of any other bishop, as if to encourage another bishop to act alone in assisting the Church of Utrecht.

Dom Thierry de Viaixnvs seems to have inquired into the thoughts of French bishops on the matter. In a letter to the Chapter of Utrecht dated September 10, 1724, he shared that the Bishops of Montpelier, Senez and Auxerre were in favor of Steenoven's consecration, and that, as far as he could tell, the bishops of Bayeux, Pamiers, Macon, Rhodez, Angoulerne, Metz, Troyes, and the ex-bishop of Tourney were of the same opinion. Eighteen months after the election of the archbishop-elect, on October 13, 1724, the Chapter of Utrecht wrote to Dominique Marie Varlet, former Bishop of Babylon, who now resided in Amsterdam. They restated their case, saying: "We are as sheep that have no shepherd who may be Christ's vicar in our Church: by [God], then, Who is the Shepherd and Bishop of our souls, we beseech, entreat, and conjure you to give us the desire of our hearts. What will be your praise in the Catholic Church, if you raise up again a Church that has almost fallen...that when [God] shall renew His signs, and shall do wondrously, it may minister to the execution of His counsels?" Varlet consented to consecrate Steenoven as Archbishop of Utrecht.

Consecration as Archbishop of Utrecht

Two days later, on Sunday, October 15, 1724, in the presence of the Chapter of Utrecht, Steenoven was consecrated by Varlet in the bishop's private chapel in Amsterdam. The consecration took place at 6:00 a.m., to accommodate parish priests (viz., Jacob Krys, Luke Ahuys, and Theodore Doncker) who celebrated Sunday services in their parishes later in the morning. Varlet was assisted during the ceremony by van Erkel and Daellenoort. Letters of congratulations were penned by several Roman Catholic bishops, including Charles-Joachim Colbert de Croissy of Montpellier, Charles de Caylus of Auxerre, de Lorraine of Bayeux, de Tilladet of Mâcon, de Verthamon of Pamiers, Soanen of Senez Tourourre of Rhodez, Dreuillet of Bayonne, d'Arbreuve of Dax, de Corslin of Tarbes, Meaupon of Lombez, Beaujen of Castres, de Verthamon of Lugon. Through the consecration of Steenoven without papal approval, it was a definite break with from the Roman Catholic Church.

Censure by the Roman Catholic Church

After his consecration, Archbishop Steenoven wrote to Pope Benedict XIII and other chief Roman Catholic bishops to inform them of his consecration. He wrote a manifesto explaining the principles on which he and his clergy had acted, appealing to a future General Council of the church. On February 21, 1725, Pope Benedict XIII issued a brief declaring the election of Steenoven null and void, calling his consecration "illicit and execrable," and censuring Bishop Varlet. The "Utrecht Schism" resulted in the birth of the Old Catholic Church of the Netherlands, which was also known as the "Jansenistenkerk."

Death

By the time the papal brief reached The Netherlands, Steenoven was seriously ill. He died on April 3, 1725, less than six months after his consecration as Archbishop of Utrecht. He was buried in the Reform Church of Warmond.

Citations

References

18th-century Dutch clergy
Canons (priests)
Year of birth missing
1725 deaths
Dutch Old Catholic bishops
Former Roman Catholics

Cornelius van Steenoven


Raz Degan is an actor, director, and cinematographer, born in a Kibbutz of Sde Nehemia in Israel to Ilan and Adina Degan; he has two brothers who also live and work abroad. At the age of 21, and after three years military service in the Israeli Army, he became a male model and began traveling. He has had exhibitions throughout 2014–2016 in Italy, Israel, and Indonesia.

Career
Degan was initially discovered in New York City as a male model, and subsequently worked in the film industry.  By the mid-1990s, Degan was based in Italy and starred in a series of Italian commercials; he also had roles in several television films and played minor parts in cinematographic films.   In 1994 he had a cameo role in Robert Altman's 1994 film Prêt-à-Porter.  In 2004, he secured the role of Darius III in Oliver Stone's film Alexander. In 2005 Degan played the lead role in Ermanno Olmi's film One Hundred Nails which opened the 2007 Cannes Film Festival. In 2008-2009, he continued to star in various Italian film productions playing different roles including hero and villain. In 2009 he co-starred in Barbarossa, starring Dutch actor Rutger Hauer in the title role. During 2010, Degan played in the French film Forces spéciales alongside Diane Kruger and Djimon Hounsou. After filming was completed, Degan continued travelling in Tajikistan and Afghanistan across the Pamir Mountains range, and then into Tibet and Nepal shooting short documentaries for Italian television. Also in 2010 Degan hosted "Mistero" on  Italia1 for two seasons, making several documentaries.

In 2013, Degan worked as the director of photography for the documentary The Green Prince, which received several awards including the Audience Award for World Cinema – Documentary at the Sundance Film Festival. He was also nominated for several awards for his cinematography. Degan made his directorial debut in 2016 after spending a few years travelling through the Peruvian Amazon working on an international feature documentary called The Last Shaman. The film was executive produced by Leonardo DiCaprio and was released in 2017.

Filmography

Films

Television

References

External links

 Interview on Italian television program Verissimo on Canale5

1968 births
Living people
Israeli expatriates in Italy
Israeli male film actors
Israeli male models
Israeli male television actors
Jewish male models

Raz Degan


Texas is a 1985 novel by American writer James A. Michener (1907–1997), based on the history of the Lone Star State. Characters include real and fictional characters spanning hundreds of years, such as explorers, Spanish colonists, American immigrants, German Texan settlers, ranchers, oil men, aristocrats, Chicanos, and others, all based on extensive historical research.

Background
Michener did extensive research on the novel in Texas, receiving much support from the state government. Governor Bill Clements offered him access to numerous state archives and research staff at the University of Texas at Austin. Michener rented 3506 Mt. Bonnell Road for $1 per year to write the manuscript.

At 1,076 pages, it was the longest Michener novel published by Random House. Given the success of his previous novels, the company did a first printing of 750,000 copies, 'the largest in the company's history'.

Chapters
The book is divided into an introduction and 14 subsequent chapters:

The Governor's Task Force - Provides a fictional account of the setting up of a group in 1983 to write a report encouraging an interest in Texas history on the eve of the sesquicentenary in 1986. Each chapter traces the events and lives of key characters then ends with a return to the present time alongside some analysis of the themes covered.

 Land of Many Lands - Introduces the early Mexican expeditions of Cabeza de Vaca, Fray Marcos, and Coronado in the 1530s and 1540s. Other elements include Esteban, Isla de Malhado, the Seven Cities of Cibola, Quivira, El Turco, the Requerimiento, and The Black Legend.
 The Mission - Covers the era in the 18th century of evangelism by Franciscans, the construction of missions and presidio (i.e. Presidio San Antonio de Béxar), and settlement by Spanish (i.e. Canary Islanders led by Juan Leal Goras), criollo, and mestizo immigrants in central and north-eastern New Spain. Other elements include matchmaking paseo, land acquisition, conflicts in Apacheria and Comancheria, relations with French Louisiana, and Catholic martydom.
 El Camino Real - Explains the weakening of the missions in the late 18th century and how "The Royal Road" running through San Antonio linked the barren north with the more prosperous south of Spanish Texas. The early focus on casta, particularly by the Spanish-born class, influenced marriage and land ownership, contrasting with the culture of the non-Spanish entering the area from the north.
 The Settlers - Details the ongoing influx of settlers from the north in the 1820s. Crossing the Neutral Ground, immigrants were often attracted by empresario (such as Stephen F. Austin) but had to submit to Catholicism in order to settle. Many brought with them strong convictions about freedom, government, and religion. Conflict over land with natives (such as the Karankawa) also ensued, leading to their eventual displacement.
 The Trace - By the early 1830s, the Mississippi and the Natchez Trace (where Meriweather Lewis died) became organized routes for migration and trade to Texas, slowly becoming more settled and less lawless. The influence of Scots-Irish Protestants is highlighted—particularly in land settlement (i.e. league and a labor grants) and early industry (selling horses and cattle to New Orleans) alongside the local Mexicans.
 Three Men, Three Battles - Traces the events leading up to the Texas Revolution of 1835–1836, a rebellion of Texians and Tejanos resisting the centralist government of Mexico. The campaign north by Santa Anna results in clashes at the Alamo Mission in Béxar and near the Presidio La Bahía in Goliad. Despite the general chaos, rivalry, and indecision shown by the various commanders, including Sam Houston's Runaway Scrape, the decisive battle at San Jacinto secures independence.
 The Texians - Covers the formative and chaotic period of the Republic of Texas (1836–1845) and the ongoing skirmishes across the Nueces Strip. Governing the new nation was difficult given its size and formative legal institutions. The presidencies of Sam Houston and Mirabeau B. Lamar are detailed against increasing tensions with native tribes (see Texas Cherokees, Council House Fight, and Great Raid of 1840) and Mexicans. The arrival of German Texan settlers help the developing industry and agriculture sectors.
 The Ranger - After being granted statehood, the Mexican-American War (1846–1848) erupts as a result of historical border tensions and a failed attempt to purchase the region. Various battles are covered as is the return from exile of Santa Anna. Texas forces (i.e. the Texas Rangers) join the US force under General Zachary Taylor, and although brave, they prove to be ill-disciplined and prone to vengeance against Mexicans.
 Loyalties - Covers the late period of the Antebellum South to the end of the American Civil War. It highlights the fundamental influence that the Old South had on the "New South" (including Texas), from agriculture (cotton), the export economy, to labor (slavery), and social and political attitudes. It also outlines the impact of the Vicksburg campaign and Union blocade on families and increasing tensions due to the Emancipation Proclamation.
 The Fort - Highlights the shift in focus in post-war Texas to the frontier and conflicts with native tribes over land and resources (such as water and buffalo). As settlers moved increasingly to the west, forts followed to provide security. The book introduces Buffalo Soldiers of the 10th Cavalry and Benjamin Grierson, cultural prejudices, and the slow erosion of native resistance and inevitable resettlement.
 The Frontier - Covers the late 1870s–1880s as attention turned to developing settlements and land holdings. Cattle drives and droving became a significant way to profit from the extension west of railroad heads (primarily Abilene and Dodge City), as did the cross breeding of longhorns with imported herefords to increase sale values. The introduction of barbed wire, to enclose land and water resources, led to several range wars.
 The Town - Moves the narrative to 1900 and the devastating arrival of the boll weevil. It explains the particularly strong and local nature of Protestantism in Texas. It also highlights voter fraud and collusion as an element in local politics as well as the revival of the KKK as a local moral force. The discovery of oil changes the nature of the Texas economy while the development of high school football affects local sports culture.
 The Invaders - The focus of the novel moves to the 1960s and illegal immigration (and border patrol) along the Mexican border alongside the regional economic activity supported by immigrants. It contrasts with internal migration and relocation from declining economic regions such as Detroit. The inevitable spread north of the nine-banded armadillo is also detailed as another 'invader'. The rise of seasonal hunting and aquifer irrigation is also explained.
 Power and Change - Covers the first half of the 1980s, including the early 1980s recession, where oil prices fell and office space in major cities became over supplied. Other themes include Texas' influence on national politics, the Ogallala Aquifer depletion, regular regional droughts, and longhorn sales. The ongoing changes in Texas universities are covered as is the establishment of notable art museums (e.g., Kimbell Art Museum in Fort Worth).

Reception
Texas Monthly did not like the novel, awarding Michener its 'Bum Steer of the Year Award' (given to people who have done something to merit ridicule or embarrassment) for the work's "hackneyed dialogue" and "tendency to resort to stereotypes". The magazine, however, made peace with Michener later.

Adaptations
The novel was adapted as a 1994 made-for-TV movie of the same name, directed by Richard Lang and featuring actors Stacy Keach, Benjamin Bratt, Rick Schroder, and Patrick Duffy.

References

External links

1985 American novels
Novels by James A. Michener
American historical novels
Texas literature
Random House books
Novels set in Texas
American novels adapted into films

Texas (novel)


Prince Phetsarath Ratanavongsa (Somdej Chao Maha Uparaja Petsaraj Ratanavongsa () (19 January 1890 – 14 October 1959) was the 1st Prime Minister of Luang Phrabang in French Laos from 21 August 1941 to 10 October 1945, and Head of State of Laos between 12 October 1945 and 4 April 1946.

Biography

Early life
Phetsarath was born on 19 January 1890 in the Kingdom of Luang Phrabang, the second son of Oupahat Bounkhong and his second wife, Princess Thongsy. One of his younger brothers was Souvanna Phouma. Bounkong's eleventh wife was the mother of Souphanouvong. Luang Phrabang became a French protectorate in 1893. Phetsarath went to study at the colonial Lycée Chasseloup-Laubat in Saigon and continued on in 1905 at the Lycée Montaigne and to the École coloniale in Paris. He returned to Laos in 1912, married Princess Nhin Kham Venne in 1913, and started working as an interpreter for his father.

Government service: 1914-1941
In 1914, he became a clerk at the Office of the French governor in Vientiane. Two years later he was promoted to assistant secretary to the French governor. In 1919 he received the title of Somdeth Chao Ratsaphakhinay, a title held by his father and one of the highest ranks in the country. That same year he was named Director of Indigenous Affairs of Laos operating under the French governor in Laos.

As the country's last uparaja, he became a leading figure of modern Laos. He established the system of ranks and titles of the civil service, promotion and pension plans, and created a Lao consultative assembly, reorganized the king's Advisory Council. Phetsarath reorganized the administrative system of the Buddhist clergy, and established a system of schools for educating monks in Pali. He created the Institute of Law and Administration to train entry level officers (Samien) who would then move up the ladder as Phouxouei, Chao Meuang, and Chao Khoueng successively. He set up rules to reward, reassign, and promote deserving civil servants, and created the judicial system, including civil and penal codes.

Japanese occupation and Lao Issara: 1941-1957

Phetsarath played a dominant role in Lao politics before and after the Japanese occupation. He was the Prime Minister of Luang Phrabang, beginning in August 1941, ascending in prominence under the promises for power from Japan. From 1941 to 1945, Phetsarath attempted to supplant officials in Laos and Vietnam, but in the regions of Vietnam, the resistance from the local proletariat was too strong.

In March 1945 Japan overthrew the French rule in all of Indochina, including Laos. On 8 April 1945 King Sisavang Vong had declared–under Japanese pressure and at the urging of Phetsarath–that his kingdom was no longer a French protectorate. Shortly thereafter however, on 28 August 1945, Japan surrendered.

In the ensuing power vacuum, Phetsarath moved to unite the southern provinces of Laos with Luang Phrabang. This put him at odds with the pro-French King Sisavang Vong, who had agreed with the French that he intended to have the country resume its former status as a French colony. Phetsarath sent a telegram to all Laotian provincial governors notifying them that the Japanese surrender did not affect Laos' status as independent and warning them to resist any foreign intervention. On 15 September Phetsarath declared a unified Kingdom of Laos which led the King to dismiss him from his post as Prime Minister on 10 October.

Phetsarath and other Lao nationalists then created the Lao Issara (Free Laos) movement and took control of the country. The Lao Issara provisional assembly under Phetsarath proclaimed the deposition of the King and appointed Phetsarath as "Head of State". As the French retook control of Laos, Phetsarath fled in April 1946 to Thailand, where he led the Lao Issara government-in-exile. The group was dissolved in 1949 and its former members were allowed to return to Laos under amnesty.

Return: 1957-1959
In March 1957, he returned to Vientiane where he received a wild welcome. On 10 April 1957, he traveled to Luang Prabang by car and was received by an enormous crowd of citizens, government officials, and members of the police and the army. On 16 April he paid a courtesy call to King Sisavang Vong and was given back his old title of Uparaja of the Kingdom of Laos. In December 1957 he visited Samneua and Phongsaly where Souphanouvong symbolically offered the return of the Pathet Lao's two regrouping provinces to the Kingdom of Laos.

He was offered an official government residence in Vientiane, but preferred to stay in his villa, Xieng Keo, in Luang Prabang with his Thai consort, Mom Aphiphorn. In early October 1959 the Phoui Sananikone Government decided to use Phetsarath's official residence in Vientiane as the new prime minister's office. They vacated the building and shipped his personal belongings by boat to Luang Prabang, which upset him immensely. On 14 October 1959 Phetsarath was taken ill to the hospital, suffering from a severe brain hemorrhage. A French doctor operated on him, but it was already too late. He never regained consciousness and he died at the age of 69.

In part because of his popularity and in part because of his perceived shakti/shiva power, many Lao people hang his picture in their homes.

Awards and decorations

  Legion of Honour
  Chevalier of the Ordre des Palmes académiques (France)
 Sena Jayaseddh Medal (Kingdom of Cambodia)
 Officer of the Royal Order of Sowathara (Cambodia)
Other decorations

References
 Sila Viravong: Chao Phetcharat - Strong Man of Kingdom of Laos, Thai Translation by Sommai Premjit, Matichon Press, BE 2542 (AD 1999),
 Søren Ivarsson and Christopher E. Goscha: Prince Phetsarath (1890–1959): Nationalism and Royalty in the Making of Modern Laos, Journal of Southeast Asian Studies (2007), 38: 55–81, Cambridge University Press

1890 births
1959 deaths
Lao collaborators with Imperial Japan
Laotian princes
Phetsarath
Lycée Montaigne (Paris) alumni
People from Luang Prabang
Prime Ministers of Laos

Phetsarath Ratanavongsa


Frozen in Time: The Fate of the Franklin Expedition is a book by Owen Beattie and John Geiger, first published in 1987 by Bloomsbury Publishing. The book focuses on the dramatic events surrounding the Franklin Expedition of 1845-1848, led by Sir John Franklin, as well as the scientific work and forensic testing on the bodies of three perfectly preserved Victorian seamen 138 years after their deaths, solving the mysteries of the Franklin Expedition. In 2004, the authors substantially revised the book, adding an epilogue and altering and updating the text. Margaret Atwood wrote an introduction. In 2017, the authors added a new afterword to the Canadian edition, and a new foreword by Wade Davis was added.

Content
Frozen in Time: The Fate of the Franklin Expedition has two parts, each covering a certain aspect of the Franklin Expedition. Part One focuses on the history of the expedition and the circumstances that led to its disastrous result, based on the findings of Owen Beattie and his team. On 19 May 1845, Sir John Franklin and a crew of 128 men, along with the vessels  and , set sail from Greenhithe, England in search of the Northwest Passage. The Northwest Passage is a shipping route through the Arctic archipelago to the Pacific Ocean and was very sought after by the Admiralty and many sailors, due to its economic value as it was a short route connecting the Atlantic ocean and the Pacific ocean. In an effort to traverse the passage, the two ships became icebound on the coast of King William Island in the Canadian Arctic and the entire expedition was lost with only fragmentary evidence that gave clues to the fate of Franklin and his men. In 1981, Owen Beattie, an associate Professor of Anthropology at the University of Alberta, led a team of scientists to King William Island where they planned to retrace the steps of dying Franklin crewmen 133 years before. Beattie and his team successfully discovered fragmentary remains such as human bones of Franklin crewmen and through scientific analysis, had found cut marks on the bones, corroborating past Inuit accounts of cannibalism being practised among the dying Franklin crewmen. Further forensic analysis on the bones also led to the discovery of high lead levels, which led to the theory that the Franklin crewmen had succumbed to lead poisoning. The discovery of lead in the bones would lead Beattie and his team to Beechey Island to exhume the graves of three Franklin crewmen to determine the origins of lead in the expedition and the effect it had on the crewmen.

Part Two of the book focuses on the exhumation of the three graves on Beechey Island and the autopsies performed on the exhumed bodies of the crewmen to further determine the cause of death. Each grave included a headstone which provided important details such as name, age and year of death and the graves were of Petty Officer John Torrington, Able-bodied Seaman John Hartnell and Royal Marine William Braine. Beattie had obtained exhumation and reburial permits from the government of the Northwest Territories, notification of permission from the Royal Canadian Mounted Police and clearance from the Chief Medical Officer. In the book, Beattie and Geiger provide extensive details on the investigation and autopsy work along with photographs of the bodies and the gravesite for later restoration. After careful exhumation, the bodies were shown to be remarkably well preserved, due to the surrounding permafrost, allowing for testing on preserved tissue. The autopsies determined that tuberculosis, scurvy and lead poisoning were large factors in the deaths of these men. Near the gravesite, Beattie had discovered a pile of tin cans, which was the storage for food on the Franklin expedition. Through forensic testing, the lead soldering found on the cans matched the lead found in the bodies, determining that lead from the cans had contaminated the food supply and caused the deaths of many in the Franklin expedition. There is a portion of the book in which Beattie and Geiger use the evidence to theoretically reconstruct the final hours of the three Franklin crewmen in a way they believe may have happened as well as theoretical descriptions of how the burial processes transpired on Beechey Island in 1846.

Reception
Frozen in Time: The Fate of the Franklin Expedition became a bestseller in the United Kingdom, Canada and Germany and was published in seven countries. Roy Herbert of New Scientist states "The account of the Franklin voyage and its aftermath and then the account of the recent exhumations and autopsies- are enthralling". Peter Gorner of the Chicago Tribune described it as "Chilling...The scientists' exhumations, autopsies and reburials-replete with haunting photos- will keep you up nights turning pages". Jacket blurbs were provided by Margaret Atwood, who described the research as "A remarkable piece of forensic deduction", and by William S. Burroughs who called the book "A cautionary tale of scholarly merit."

Cultural references
Frozen in Time: The Fate of the Franklin Expedition has inspired a number of writers, including Margaret Atwood in her short story "The Age of Lead" from Wilderness Tips as well as in her Strange Things: The Malevolent North in Canadian Literature collection story Concerning Franklin and His Gallant Crew. Mordecai Richler referenced Frozen in Time in his novel Solomon Gursky Was Here. In addition, Frozen in Time has been cited as an influence for Dan Simmons' 2007 novel The Terror, which was adapted into AMC's television series of the same name. English actor and Monty Python member Michael Palin also referenced Frozen in Time, calling it "groundbreaking" in his Erebus: One Ship, Two Epic Voyages, and the Greatest Naval Mystery of All Time. Frozen in Time was also referenced in Elizabeth McGregor's The Ice Child.

References

1987 non-fiction books
History books about exploration
Bloomsbury Publishing books
Collaborative non-fiction books


Mashare is a settlement in the Kavango East Region of Namibia, just east of Rundu, the regional capital. It is the district capital of Mashare Constituency.

The settlement hosted a leprosarium until the early 1980s when the Namibian War of Independence led to its closure. The hospital accommodated thousands of patients with leprosy from Namibia, Angola, and Botswana. Until , Mashare is home to the biggest community of leprosy patients in Namibia who live together voluntarily due to their shared experience of stigma and isolation.

References

Leper colonies
Populated places in Kavango East
Medical and health organisations based in Namibia

Mashare


Robert Hamilton (1650–1701), second baronet of Preston, was one of the leaders of the Scottish Covenanters. He was the son of Sir Thomas Hamilton, and brother of Sir William, first baronet of Preston. Hamilton was educated at Glasgow University under Professor Burnet. He attached himself to the cause of the Covenanters, and appears in command at Drumclog and Bothwell Brig. After the defeat he retired to Holland, where he remained with his brother-in-law, Gordon of Earlston, until the Revolution of 1688. He declined to recognise title of Prince of Orange, on the ground that he was not a Covenanted sovereign. He was arrested in Edinburgh for being concerned in the second Sanquhar Declaration of August, 1692, issued by the "United Societies". On liberation, he left his testimony afresh against backsliding in Church and State, and becomes as far as one person could be the main stay of "the afflicted Remnant." He died, unmarried, aged 51.

Early life
He was the younger son of Sir Thomas Hamilton of Preston Tower, a Royalist, who fought as lieutenant-colonel at the battle of Dunbar in 1650, and at the battle of Worcester, in the cause of the Stuarts. After his death in 1672 a baronetcy was conferred in 1673 on his eldest son. Sir William. He then took part in the expedition of Archibald Campbell, 9th Earl of Argyll in 1685, escaped to Holland, accompanied the Prince of Orange to England in 1688, but died at Exeter, when the troops were on the march to London.

Robert Hamilton, the younger son, was educated at the University of Glasgow under the care of Gilbert Burnet, whose sister was his step-mother. He began to attend conventicles, and became an extreme Covenanter.

Campaign of 1679
Along with Thomas Douglas and Hackston of Rathillet he, in 1679, drew up what became known as the "Rutherglen declaration", which they intended on 29 May, the king's birthday, to nail to the market-cross of Glasgow. The advance of the troops of John Graham of Claverhouse prevented that, and Rutherglen, about two miles to the east of Glasgow, was chosen instead. They extinguished the bonfire in the king's honour and lit another, where they proceeded to burn all the acts of parliament and royal proclamations made since the Restoration. They then retired towards Evandale and Newmilns, preparing to hold an armed convention on the following Sunday at Loudoun Hill.

Battle of Drumclog

Claverhouse, who had gone to Rutherglen, came suddenly in sight of the gathering. Sending away their women and children the covenanters drew up in battle array on the farm of Drumclog, a little to the east. Nominally Hamilton was in command, but the experienced officers, such as Hackston and Cleland, led the separate detachments of the Covenanters, defeating Claverhouse was due.

Hamilton, however, showed some energy after the fight. In a vindication of his conduct, 7 December 1685, published in Faithful Contendings displayed, for having put to death one of the prisoners after the battle with his own hand, he asserted that before the battle began he had given out the word that "no quarter should be given".

Battle of Bothwell Bridge

The troops had barricaded Glasgow, and the Covenanters were easily repulsed. They halted at the position occupied on the previous night, but on Claverhouse advancing towards them retreated to Hamilton. As Claverhouse was too weak to attack them here, they formed a camp, and according to Hamilton numbered within a week five or six thousand men. Hamilton took all the credit for the victory at Drumclog, and assumed command without ceremony. Time was spent in harangues and theological disputes.

After the withdrawal of the government forces to Stirling the Covenanters advanced to Glasgow, where they are stated to have robbed the archbishop's house, to have pulled down the ornaments of the cathedral, and to have defaced several of the monuments, but having done so they fell back on their old position. The arrival in the camp of John Welch, with a reinforcement of men from Ayr, introduced a disturbing element. Welch was prepared to accept a compromise with the government by which both episcopacy and presbyterianism should be tolerated. He was therefore denounced by the Hamilton party as an Erastian, and the dispute raged until the appearance of the government forces under the Duke of Monmouth. Welch and others, though much in the minority, drew up a declaration, which they presented on 22 June in the hope that it would lead to at least a suspension of hostilities. The declaration is known as the Hamilton declaration, in reference to the town where it was drawn up. Sir Robert Hamilton, in name of the army, also signed a petition to Monmouth, and afterwards, when taunted with this, said that he had been ensnared into the subscription by the belief that it was Donald Cargill's work.

When the Hamilton declaration was presented, the armies were drawn up facing each other on opposite banks of the River Clyde at Bothwell Bridge. Monmouth refused to consider terms until they had laid down their arms. Hamilton occupied himself with the erection of a gigantic gibbet, around which was placed a cartload of new ropes, but as soon as the action began his courage ebbed away. He ordered Hackston to retire when the bridge was attacked, and himself 'rode off with the horse' and 'allowed the foot to shift for themselves,' thus 'leaving the world to debate whether he acted most like a traitor, coward, or fool'.

Hamilton's courage was doubted. Burnet, in a passage omitted from the earlier editions of his Own Time,' calls him an 'ignominious coward,' and Robert Wodrow speaks of his behaviour at Bothwell Bridge as 'ill conduct, not to say cowardice.' During the attack on Glasgow he is said to have waited the issue in a place of safety. In any case he was incompetent as a commander, and displayed feebleness.

Later life
Hamilton fled to Holland, whereupon he was outlawed, and sentenced to be executed whenever apprehended. While in Holland he acted as commissioner 'to the persecuted true presbyterian church in Scotland,' and in this capacity he visited Germany and Switzerland. In 1683 he prevailed on the presbytery of Groningen to ordain James Renwick, who had studied at the university there, as minister to the presbyterian church in Scotland.

At the Glorious Revolution in 1688 Hamilton returned to Scotland, and, his attainder having been reversed, succeeded in that year to the baronetcy on the death of his brother Sir William. He declined to claim his brother's estates, on the ground that it would involve the "acknowledging an uncovenanted sovereign of these covenanted nations". He was unmarried and privately took measures for securing the entailed settlement of the family inheritance on the issue of his brother's daughter Anne, by her husband Thomas, son of Sir James Oswald. On 20 October 1686 a letter had been sent to Hamilton by the united societies stating that they had information ready to be proven 'that he had countenanced the Hamilton declaration which he and his party since had cried out so much against; that he had signed a petition to Monmouth in name of the army ; that he had received large sums of money from good people in Holland for printing the testimonies of the sufferers, and yet greater for the support of the suffering party in Scotland, of which he had given no accounts'. On his return to Scotland he continued, however, to retain his influence with the extreme Covenanters. On 9 November 1689 he protested against the 'compliance at Hamilton,' by which it was agreed by a section of the covenanters to form the Cameronian regiment, of which William Cleland was appointed colonel.

Suspected of having drawn up and published the Sanquhar declaration of 18 August 1692, Hamilton was arrested at Earlstown on 10 September, and for some months he was detained a prisoner at Edinburgh and Haddington. He was several times brought before the privy council for examination, but, although declining to acknowledge their jurisdiction or the authority of William and Mary, received his liberty on 15 May 1693, and was permitted to remain unmolested until his death, 20 October 1701.

Bibliography
The Believer's Farewell to the World, or an Elegie on the Death of that much honoured &c. Gentleman Sir Robert Hamilton, 1701;
Faithful Contendings displayed;
Howie's Scots Worthies;
Wodrow's Sufferings of the Church of Scotland;
Burnet's Own Time;
Napier's Life of Viscount Dundee;
Burton's Hist, of Scotland

References
Citations

Other sources

Attribution

1650 births
1701 deaths
Covenanters
Baronets in the Baronetage of Nova Scotia

Robert Hamilton of Preston


was a Japanese film studio active in the early 1920s. Founded in April 1920 by Ryōzō Asano, the son of  Asano zaibatsu head Sōichirō Asano, it was mostly known as Taikatsu for short. Its origins can be traced back to Tōyō Film (also known as the "Sunrise Film Manufacturing Company"), a venture started in 1918 by Benjamin Brodsky and Thomas Kurihara, that Asano ended up supporting. With Kurihara as the main director and Jun'ichirō Tanizaki as the literary consultant, Taikatsu was one of two studios founded in 1920 (the other being Shōchiku Kinema) that publicly announced their intention to make "pure films" in line with the Pure Film Movement. It established an actors school and began production with Amateur Club, a film directed by Kurihara and scripted by Tanizaki that was strongly influenced by American cinema. Other important works include A Serpent's Lust, another Kurihara-Tanizaki collaboration based on the same story as Ugetsu by Kenji Mizoguchi. The Taikatsu studio was located in Yokohama, below the Bluff and the Foreigner's Cemetery (a memorial tablet currently marks the site). Taikatsu did not last long, since it did not have enough theaters to recoup the costs of production and of importing American films. Its production division was taken over by Shōchiku in 1922, even though the company lasted a few more years as an exhibition business. A number of important film figures emerged from Taikatsu, including the directors Tomu Uchida and Buntarō Futagawa and the actors Tokihiko Okada, Ureo Egawa and Atsushi Watanabe. Otohiko Matsukata, who served as a director, later became the president of Nikkatsu.

Notes

Japanese film studios
Mass media in Yokohama

Taishō Katsuei


John Henry Michell, FRS (26 October 1863 – 3 February 1940) was an Australian mathematician and Professor of Mathematics at the University of Melbourne.

Early life
Michell was the son of John Michell (pronounced Mitchell), a miner, and his wife Grace, née Rowse, and was born in Maldon, Victoria. His parents had migrated from Devonshire in 1854. Educated first at Maldon, he went to Wesley College, Melbourne, in 1877, where he won the Draper and Walter Powell scholarships. In 1881 he began the arts course at the University of Melbourne, and qualified for the B.A. degree at the end of 1883. He had an outstanding course, heading the list with first-class honours each year, and winning the final honour scholarship in mathematics and physics.

Michell then went to the University of Cambridge, obtained a major scholarship at Trinity College, and was bracketed senior wrangler with three others in the first part of the mathematical tripos in 1887. In the second part of the tripos in 1888, Michell was placed in division one of the first class.

University of Melbourne

Michell was elected a fellow of Trinity in 1890, but returned to Melbourne later the same year, and was appointed lecturer in mathematics at Melbourne University. He held this position for over 30 years. His academic work occupied so much of his time that it was difficult to do original research. The first of his papers, "On the theory of free streamlines", which appeared in Transactions of the Royal Society in 1890, had drawn attention to his ability as a mathematician, and during the following 12 years, about 15 papers were contributed to English mathematical journals. It was recognized that these were important contributions to the knowledge of hydrodynamics and elasticity, and in June 1902 he was elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS), London. The number of his students at the University steadily increased, but there was no corresponding staff increase for a long while. Michell continued his research work but none of it was published. In 1923 he became a professor of mathematics and, obtaining some increase in staff, established practice classes and tutorials, thus considerably improving the efficiency of his department. Michell resigned the chair at the end of 1928 and was given the title of honorary research professor. He died after a short illness on 3 February 1940 at Camberwell, and was buried at Boroondara General Cemetery. Michell remained a bachelor till his death in 1940. Michell published The Elements of Mathematical Analysis (1937), a substantial work in two volumes written in collaboration with Maurice Belz.

Legacy
Michell was regarded as a shy man and was one of the earliest graduates of an Australian university to be elected to the Royal Society. He was a good teacher, good-natured and patient with students, but his heart was really in his research work. His assistance was freely given to his engineering friends in clearing up their problems, and he did a good deal of physical experimentation including the devising and construction of several new forms of gyroscopes. He was continually at work, and it is not known why he did not choose to publish any papers after 1902. The value of his paper on "The wave resistance of a ship", published in 1898, was not realized until some 30 years later when both English and German designers began to recognize its importance. Michell's brother, Anthony Michell (born 1870) made significant contributions to mechanical science, including the famous Michell thrust bearing.

During a relatively short research career, Michell published 23 scientific papers that are some of the most important contributions ever made by an Australian mathematician.
A mini-symposium has held at the 3rd Biennial Engineering Mathematics and Applications Conference (EMAC '98) celebrating the centenary of the publication of Michell's famous 1898 paper on ship hydrodynamics, "The wave resistance of a ship", Phil. Mag. (5) 45 (1898) 106-123.

Since 1999, The JH Michell Medal has been awarded by ANZIAM in his honor.

Publications of J.H. Michell
 The small deformation of curves and surfaces with applications to the vibrations of a helix and a circular ring, Messeng. Math. 19, (1890) 68-82.
 On the exhaustion of Neumann's mode of solution for the motion of solids of revolution in liquids, and similar problems, Messeng. Math. 19 (1890) 83-86.
 Vibrations of a string stretched on a surface, Messeng. Math. 19 (1890) 87-88.
 On the stability of a bent and twisted wire, Messeng. Math. 19 (1890) 181-184.
 On the theory of free stream lines, Phil. Trans. A. 181 (1890) 389-431.
 On a property of algebraic curves, Australasian Assoc. Adv. Sci. Report (1892) 257.
 On the bulging of flat plates, Australasian Assoc. Adv. Sci. Report (1892) 258.
 The highest waves in water, Phil. Mag. (5) 36 (1893) 430-437.
 A map of the complex Z-function: a condenser problem, Messeng. Math. 23 (1894) 72-78.
 The wave resistance of a ship, Phil. Mag. (5) 45 (1898) 106-123.
 On the direct determination of stress in an elastic solid, with application to the theory of plates, Proc. Lond. Math. Soc. 31 (1899) 100-124.
 The stress in a rotating lamina, Proc. Lond. Math. Soc. 31 (1899) 124-130.
 The uniform torsion and flexure of incomplete tores, with application to helical springs, Proc. Lond. Math. Soc. 31 (1899) 130-146.
 The transmission of stress across a plane of discontinuity in an isotropic elastic solid, and the potential solutions for a plane boundary, Proc. Lond. Math. Soc. 31 (1899) 183-192.
 Some elementary distributions of stress in three dimensions, Proc. Lond. Math. Soc. 32 (1900) 23-35.
 Elementary distributions of plane stress, Proc. Lond. Math. Soc. 32 (1900) 35-61.
 The stress in an aeolotropic elastic solid with an infinite plane boundary, Proc. Lond. Math. Soc. 32 (1900) 247-258.
 The stress in the web of a plate girder, Quart. J. Pure Appl. Math. 31 (1900) 377-382.
 The theory of uniformly loaded beams, Quart. J. Pure Appl. Math. 32 (1900) 28-42.
 The determination of the stress in an isotropic elastic sphere by means of intrinsic equations, Messeng. Math. n.s. 350 (1900) 16-25.
 The uniplanar stability of a rigid body, Messeng. Math. n.s. 351 (1900) 35-40.
 The inversion of plane stress, Proc. Lond. Math. Soc. 34 (1902) 134-142.
 The flexure of a circular plate, Proc. Lond. Math. Soc. 34 (1902) 223-228.
 (with M.H. Belz) The elements of mathematical analysis (2 vols) Macmillan 1937.

References

Further reading
 E.O. Tuck, "The wave resistance formula of J.H. Michell (1898) and its significance to recent research in ship hydrodynamics", J. Austral. Math. Soc. Series B 30 (989) 365-377;
 A. Goriely, "Twisted elastic rings and the rediscoveries of Michell's instability", J. Elasticity 84, 281–299. (2006)

1863 births
1940 deaths
Mathematicians from Melbourne
Senior Wranglers
Fellows of the Royal Society
People educated at Wesley College (Victoria)
University of Melbourne alumni
Academic staff of the University of Melbourne
People from Maldon, Victoria
Burials at Boroondara General Cemetery
Colony of Victoria people

John Henry Michell


Kim Dotcom (born Kim Schmitz; 21 January 1974), also known as Kimble and Kim Tim Jim Vestor, is a German-Finnish Internet entrepreneur and political activist. He lives in Queenstown, New Zealand. Dotcom is the founder of the former file hosting service Megaupload (2005–2012). In 2012, the United States Department of Justice seized Megaupload and pressed charges against Dotcom. The charges included criminal copyright infringement, money laundering, racketeering and wire fraud. His house was raided and New Zealand police arrested him. Dotcom posted bail, and is now going through long legal issues to stop himself from being extradited to the United States. He started another service, Mega, in 2013. He left Mega in 2015.

Dotcom started and funded the New Zealand political party, the Internet Party in 2014. The party's registration was cancelled in 2018.

Dotcom was born in Kiel, West Germany. His mother was Finnish, and his father was German. He changed his surname from "Schmitz" to "Dotcom" in 2005. He has been married twice, and has five children.

References

Other websites

1974 births
Living people
Extradition
Finnish people
German businesspeople
German political activists
People from Kiel

Kim Dotcom


O Uraguai is a 1769 epic poem by writer Basílio da Gama set in what is today the Brazilian state of Rio Grande do Sul. It is an unusually short poem by epic standards, consisting of 1,377 unrhymed hendecasyllabic lines in five cantos.

O Uraguai is set at the end of the Guaraní War (1754-1756) and focuses on the slavery of the Guarani people imposed by the Society of Jesus (represented by the priest Balda), which contradicted the Catholic Church's own order. The poem is a noted example of Arcadianism and Indianism in eighteenth-century Brazilian literature.

Structural characteristics
This epic poem is considered, by most, unique because of the treatment given to the characters. In most of the epic poems there is a hero that is, usually, courageous and always victorious at the end. In this epic we do not see such a thing. The Indians are exalted but almost all of them are dead at the end of the poem.

As seen, the author criticizes the wars that are moved by economical interests such as the Guaraní War, that ended with most of the Indians killed and the survivors being used as slaves. Another interesting fact is that, during the battles described in the poem there is no influence of the Christian God or any other deities for that matter.

Synopsis
Canto I. This epic, different from the others, doesn't start with the traditional dedication of the poem or the proposition. In the first Canto of the poem the author shows us a battlefield filled with wreckage and corpses, mainly Indian, and, coming back in time the poet presents the passage of the Luso-Hispanic army, which is commanded by the general Gomes Freire de Andrada.

Canto II. In the second part of the poem the Indian chiefs, Sepé and Cacambo, try to negotiate with the Portuguese general on the margin of the Uruguai River. The agreement is impossible once the Portuguese Jesuits denied to accept the Spanish domain over their lands. After this the Indians, led by Sepé, bravely fight the Portuguese army but they are subjugated by the Portuguese's fire weapons. Sepé dies in this battle and Cacambo leads the withdrawal of the Guarani army.

Canto III. The deceased Sepé appears, in a dream, to Cacambo suggesting him to set fire in the enemy camp. Cacambo succeeds in following Sepé's suggestion but is murdered when he gets back to the Jesuit camp by the order of the priest Balda, which wants to turn his own son, Baldetta, into the chief of the tribe, place which belongs to Cacambo.

Canto IV. In this part the poet shows the march of the Luso-Hispanic army over the Jesuit camp, where is being prepared the marriage of Baldetta and Lindoia. Lindoia, besides, prefers death. Upon the arrival of the Portuguese troops, the Indians withdraw after burning the village.

Canto V. At the end of the epic, the poet shows his opinions about the Jesuits blaming them for the massacre of the Indians by the Portuguese troops. Homage is paid to Portuguese General Gomes Freire de Andrada, who protects and respects the surviving Indians.

Translation
An English translation of O Uraguai was written by Richard Francis Burton and published posthumously.

References

External links
The original text (in portuguese) on the portuguese Wikisource: https://pt.wikisource.org/wiki/O_Uraguai

1769 poems
Fiction set in the 1750s
Brazilian poems
Epic poems in Portuguese
Romanticism
War poetry

O Uraguai


Willie B. ( - February 2, 2000) was a western lowland gorilla who lived at the Zoo of Atlanta for 39 years, from 1961 until his death on February 2, 2000. He was named after the former mayor of Atlanta, William Berry Hartsfield. Willie B. was kept in isolation for 27 years with only a television and a tire swing to keep him company. In 1988, he was moved to an outside exhibit and allowed to socialize and raise a family. He then embraced his role as silverback and leader of a troop.

Willie B. was the second Gorilla known by that name at the Atlanta Zoo. The previous Willie B. had died aged 3 shortly before the better-known successor was purchased. Both Willie Bs had been purchased from international gorilla hunter Dr. Deets Pickett of Kansas City. The second Willie B. cost $5,500 to obtain for the zoo.

Family
Willie B. fathered five offspring at Zoo Atlanta: Kudzoo, Olympia, Sukari, Kidogo, and Lulu.

Death
When he died aged 42-43, he was the oldest gorilla in the United States to have fathered offspring. Kidogo, the only male offspring, took on the name Willie B., Jr. after his father died, taking his place as the heir.

Legacy
More than 5,000 people attended the memorial ceremony held in his honor and the zoo now has a life-size bronze statue of him on permanent display outside the Gorilla habitat. His remains were cremated and 80 percent of his remains were kept in a bronze box in the bronze statue at Zoo Atlanta and the other 20 percent were flown back to the African jungle. The Atlanta Silverbacks FC soccer team was named in his honor.

See also
List of individual apes

References

Individual gorillas
Tourist attractions in Atlanta
1961 animal births
2000 animal deaths
Individual animals in the United States
Atlanta Silverbacks FC

Willie B.


Rehoboam was the son of King Solomon. After Solomon died Rehoboam became king of Israel.  When Jeroboam asked Rehoboam to get rid of the hight taxes that Solomon had, Rehoboam talked to his father's advisors and they told him to listen. And Rehoboam also asked his friends and they told him to ignore what Jeroboam was saying. So Rehoboam told Jeroboam and his followers "I have more strength in my little finger than my father had in his entire body, if my father whipped you with lashes then I shall whip you with scorpions". After that most of the tribes of Israel left Rehoboam to make their own kingdom. Then Rehoboam felt remorse and sent his tax collector Adoniram to make peace with Jereoboam's followers but then they threw stones at him until he died so Rehoboam ran away. Then Jeroboam called his kingdom, the kingdom of Israel, while Rehoboam called his own kingdom Judah. Rehoboam planned to invade and conquer Jeroboam's kingdom in the North but the prophet Shemaya told him not to do that so he didn't.
Old Testament people

Rehoboam


Île Saint-Louis (),  in size, is one of two natural islands in the Seine river, in Paris, France (the other natural island is the Île de la Cité, where Notre-Dame de Paris is located).  Île Saint-Louis is connected to the rest of Paris by four bridges to both banks of the river and to the Île de la Cité by the Pont Saint-Louis.

The island is located within the 4th arrondissement of Paris and has a population of 4,453.

History

The island was first known as the Île Notre-Dame, and was used mostly for grazing cattle, fishing, drying laundry, and occasionally for fighting duels. In 1360 it was cut in half by a canal, at about the current Rue Poulettiere, in order to bring it into the protection of the new wall around the city built by King Charles V, The slightly smaller eastern portion was named the Ile des Vaches (Island of Cows) (not to be confused with another island of the same name farther downstream). That portion was used for storing wood and building boats.

It was originally owned by the chapter of Notre-Dame cathedral. The island was destined for real estate development under King Henry IV, but the king's assassination in 1610 delayed the project. It was revived 1616 by the developers Christophe Marie, Poulettiere Le Regrettier. The canal dividing the island was filled, plots laid out and imposing residences built. The urbanisation of the island was rapid; within fifty years it was entirely occupied. The Pont Marie, which connects the island with the right bank, is named for Christophe Marie, one of the real estate developers of the island. Beginning in 1614, he was chief builder for Marie de Medicis, the widow of Henry IV and regent of the young King, Louis XIII. She instructed him to fill in the canal which divided the two parts of the island, and to build solid stone banks entirely around the island. The first part of the project was a new bridge, the Pont Louis XIII; the first stone was laid by the young king himself, then age 13. Various problems delayed the work on the bridge, which was not finished until 1635. The bridge has five arches, each of different sizes. Niches were built for statues between the arches, but, due to the difficulties of the regime, no statues were ever put in place.

Marie de Medicis promised a long series of benefits, including tennis courts and laundry boats for washing clothing and linen, to those who purchased lots and built houses on the island. She succeeded in attracting magistrates and financiers, but few aristocrats, who preferred the Marais quarter, which had larger plots of land and places for gardens. She also met resistance from the Chapter of Notre Dame, which owned considerable property on the island. Their resistance eventually drove the developer Christophe Marie into bankruptcy. In the end, the houses of the wealthy occupied to waterside properties, while the interior was occupied by merchants and artisans.

The island did not take the name of Saint-Louis until 1725. Louis IX, who was made a saint only thirty years after his death in 1270, was believed to have sometimes held court and rendered justice on the island.

During the French Revolution, the island was briefly renamed "Ile de la Fraternité".

Plan

Description

Quai d'Anjou
The Quai d'Anjou on the north side of the island, was named for Gaston, Duke of Orléans, the brother of Louis XIII. It was developed by Christophe Marie beginning in 1614.  One prominent building is the house of Louis Le Vau, chief architect of the King (3 quai d'Anjou). Another prominent resident of the Quai was Abel-Francois Poisson (5 quai D'Anjou) the Marquis of Marigny and brother of Madame de Pompadour, superintendent of royal buildings for Louis XV.  Later residents of the quai included the painter Honoré Daumier, (9 quai d'Anjou) who had a lithography workshop on the top floor. The poet Charles Baudelaire occupied a small apartment on the top floor in the courtyard at 17 Quai d'Anjou from 1843 to 1846.

Quai de Bourbon

The Quai de Bourbon was named for the royal family and has a series of very elegant townhouses constructed in the early 17th century. It was briefly the Quai de la Republique after the Revolution, but took back it original name in 1814. The house at 1 quai de Bourbon was occupied by Philippe de Champagne, a favorite artist of Cardinal Richelieu. The sculptor Camille Claudel lived at number 19 between 1899 and 1923, and had her workshop overlooking the courtyard, and remained here until she was sent to an insane asylum for thirty years.

The Pont Saint-Louis is the only bridge connecting the two islands, and is  long. The first bridge, of wood, was built in 1634. The current bridge, the ninth, was opened in 1970.

Quai de Bethune

The Quai de Bethune runs along the southeast side of the island. It was built shortly after the assassination of Henry IV, and is named for the late king's prime minister, Maximilien de Bethune, the Duke of Sully. The Pont de Sully bridge at the southeast end of the island also carries his name.

The quai was originally informally called the "Quai des Balcons" because the architect, Louis LeVau, promoted the idea that all of he buildings should have balconies, taking advantage of the southern exposure of he buildings. Residents of this quai over the years included the American cosmetics manufacturer Helena Rubenstein (24 quai de Bethune), who constructed the very few modern buildings on the island at 24 Quai de Bethune between 1934 and 1938.  The carved masks of lions on the wooden door is the only vestige of the 17th century house. French president Georges Pompidou had his personal residence at 24 Quai de Bethune, in addition to his official residence.  The French comedian Louis de Funès lived for a short time at the same address.  Other celebrated residents of the quai included the Nobel Prize-winning physicist Marie Curie, who lived at number 36 from 1912 until her death in 1934.

Quai d'Orleans

The Quai d'Orleans continues the Quai de Bethune to the west. Like the Quai d'Anjou, it is named for Gaston d'Orleans, the younger brother of Louis XIII.  During the French Revolution, it was renamed the Quai d'Egalite until 1806. It joins the Quai de Bourbon at the Saint-Louis bridge, close to the western point of the island. Its notable buildings include the Polish Library (number 6 quai d'Orleans), originally built for Antoine Moreau, the secretary of Louis XIII. It became the Polish Library in 1838. This part of the island had other notable Polish connections; the Polish prince Czartoryski lived nearby on the side of Quai Anjou, and entertained Chopin, while Marie Curie lived nearby on the Quai Bethune. A notable fictional resident was Charles Swann, protagonist of the novel of Marcel Proust Remembrance of Things Past.

The responsibility for the development of the Île Saint-Louis in the 17th century was given to Christophe Marie, general builder for Public Works. In exchange for his pro bono work, he was granted a license to build elegant residences. Along with the nobles, aristocrats, wealthy businessmen and politicians came here to live away from the noise of the inner city. Marie went into partnership with two builders, Lugles Poulletier and François Le Regrattier, and chose Louis Le Vau as architect. In 1614 the ditch between the two islets was filled in; and townhouses were constructed between 1620 and 1650. The island project, an architectural revolution, used a carefully drafted urban plan for the first time in Paris. The urban planning was revolutionary, especially for Paris; it was only under Napoleon III, over 200 years later, that urban planning was implemented citywide. The option to build by just following the topography of the land was no longer available. The new streets were built straight and perpendicular to a central axis. So that the risk of fires was reduced, stone and slate replaced wood, plaster and thatched roofs.

For the first time, dwellings were orientated towards the outside, rather than towards an inner courtyard, with windows and balconies looking out to river views. Courtyards were narrow, with the usual gardens almost nonexistent. The majority of the façades were rather sober, providing charm to the neighborhood. Only a few façades were decorated with heads or faces (). Only a few of the balconies were adorned with ornate ironwork. The few monumental doors that horse-drawn coaches rushed through hinted at the wealth of the owners. Along with Faubourg Saint-Germain and Le Marais, Île Saint-Louis was one of the most affluent neighborhoods in 17th and 18th century Paris. The Pont Saint-Louis entertainers (i.e., jazz bands, jugglers and mimes) perform on a small bridge that connects Île Saint-Louis with Île de la Cité.

Rue Saint-Louis-en-l'Île and the Hôtel Lambert

The Rue Saint-Louis-en-l'Île is the main commercial street of the island. It is located in the center of the island, going east to west from one end to the other. Despite its commercial character, it still retains many early residential buildings, the most notable of which is Hôtel Lambert, located at the Quai Anjou on the eastern end of the island. This large town house, with a rotunda overlooking the Seine,  was constructed beginning in 1640 by the royal architect, Louis Le Vau.

Due to the proximity of the site to the river it was not possible to follow the traditional model of a courtyard in the front and a garden in the back, so Le Vau built the garden and courtyard side by side, with the garden raised to the level of the first floor, or noble floor. The first interior painted decoration was done by Eustache Le Sueur; some of his original panels are now on display in the Louvre. The Hercules Gallery was designed by Charles Le Brun, whose future work for Louis XIV included the Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles.

Over the years the house had a remarkable series of occupants. In the 18th century, it was purchased by the Marquis de Chatelet, whose wife, Émilie de Breteuil, was for fifteen years the mistress of Voltaire. It became the home of the Polish Prince and patriot Adam Czartoryski in 1843, and welcomed famous writers and musicians, including Balzac, George Sand, Hector Berlioz, Franz Liszt and Frederic Chopin. In the 20th century, it was the home of actress Michèle Morgan, then, in 1975, the art collector Baron Guy de Rothschild, and after his death in 2007, Abdallah Al Thani, brother of the Emir of Qatar. It was seriously damaged by a fire in 2013 but restored.

Church of Saint-Louis-en-l'Île

The Church of Saint-Louis-en-l'Île, at 19 bis rue Saint-Louis-en-l'Ile, is the only church on the island. It was designed by the architect François Le Vau younger brother of the better-known royal architect Louis Le Vau. It was the only building he designed. The first stone was placed on 1 October 1664 by the Archbishop of Paris, but work was delayed by a shortage of funds and it was not completed until 14 July 1726.

The church lacks the traditional west front which had featured in the plans. Due to the delay in the construction, houses were built next to the church, taking the space. The original bell tower was destroyed by a storm in 1740, and was replaced by a new openwork tower. An unusual feature of the tower is the clock, which hangs over the street like a shop sign.

The interior is a good example of French Baroque architecture, with a central dome or cupola and an abundance of gold and white, a style borrowed from Italy. Pope Pius VII celebrated mass in the building in 1805, during his trip to Paris for the Coronation of Napoleon Bonaparte. The church interior was badly damaged during the French Revolution, but the damage was largely hidden in 1805 by hanging tapestries over the damaged walls. The church has a particularly fine organ, installed in 2005, and the church is frequently used as a venue for concerts.

Square Barye

Square Barye, on the southeast point of the island, is shaped like a prow of a ship pointing into the Seine. It was originally the site of a convent. It occupies , and is a popular park and garden. It takes its name from the 19th-century French sculptor Antoine-Louis Barye, who specialized in sculpture of animals. His work is prominently displayed in the square in front of the Musée d'Orsay.

The most prominent art work in the square is a sculpture of Barye depicting the combat between a mythological centaur and a lapith, made in 1894, and placed on a disproportionally large pedestal. The statue was removed and melted down for its bronze during World War II, but was replaced in 2011 with a copy financed by a Taiwanese donor.

Bridges that connect to the Île

 Pont Saint-Louis from the Île de la Cité;
 Pont de la Tournelle from the Rive Gauche;
 Pont Louis-Philippe from the Rive Droite;
 Pont Marie from the Rive Droite;
 Pont Sully from the Rive Droite and the Rive Gauche.

See also
 Glaces Berthillon

References

Bibliography

 : "Island in the Seine", pp. 10–17
 DeJean, Joan. Enchanted Island': The Ile Saint-Louis" in her How Paris Became Paris: The Invention of the Modern City.  New York: Bloomsbury,  2014. . Chapter 3, pp. 62–76.

External links

 L'Île Saint Louis: current photographs and of the years 1900
 Île Saint Louis information : history and today
 Places to visit in Île St Louis

4th arrondissement of Paris
Tourist attractions in Paris

Île Saint-Louis


Poonam Dhillon is an Indian actress and politician. A former Eve's Weekly Miss Young India 1978, she is best known for her 1979 film Noorie. Some of her well-known films include Red Rose (1980), Dard (1981), Romance (1983), Sohni Mahiwal (1984),  Teri Meherbaniyan (1985) Samundar (1986), Saveraywali Gaadi (1986), Karma (1986), Naam (1986) and Maalamaal (1988).

Dhillon participated in Bigg Boss in 2009. She played the lead role of Sharda Modi in the Sony TV series Ekk Nayi Pehchaan in 2013. She has done theatre, starting with the award-winning "The Perfect Husband" and many other plays, the latest being "The Perfect Wife" with several shows in United States and Dubai.

Career

The first time Dhillon gained fame was when she got crowned Miss Young India 1978.

Director Yash Chopra noticed her and offered her a role in the film Trishul (1978) where her song "Gapoochi Gapoochi Gum Gum" with Sachin Pilgaonkar became popular. Chopra then gave her the title role in Noorie (1979) opposite Farooq Shaikh, which he produced. The low budget film Noorie shot in Bhaderwah, Kashmir, became a superhit and was a phenomenal success at the box office, partly also for Khayyam's music. For this film, Poonam was nominated for the Filmfare Award for Best Actress.

Subsequently, she went on to act in around 90 films in Hindi, including Sohni Mahiwal, Red Rose, Teri Kasam, Dard, Nishana, Yeh Vaada Raha, Samunder, Romance, Kasam, and Sitamgar. She was paired with Rajesh Khanna in six films: Dard, Nishaan, Zamana, Awam, Red Rose (1980 film) and Jai Shiv Shankar. She made a special appearance in Judaai as a favour to producer Boney Kapoor when Juhi Chawla had to drop out.

She also appeared in regional films such as Nyay Danda (Bengali), Yuddha Kaanda (Kannada), Ishtam (Telugu) and Yavarum Nalam (Tamil), 13B: Fear Has a New Address (Hindi).

Dhillon was a contestant on Season 3 of Bigg Boss aired on Colors TV in 2009. She ended up as the second runner-up on the show. Her big comeback on Indian television in a lead role was with the serial Ekk Nayi Pehchaan on Sony TV in 2013 where she played the uneducated yet ideal wife of a rich businessman.

She has been in the Hindi theater production The Perfect Husband, which won the best comedy play award in 2005 and which completed a Golden jubilee run. She then did another play The Perfect Wife co-starring Sooraj Thapar and Pyaar Mein Kabhi Kabhi with Asif Sheikh. She was also seen in a play called U Turn which is the Hindi version of a Marathi play.

Dhillon ventured into the make-up van business, pioneering the concept in the Indian film industry. She runs a make-up van company called "Vanity."

Personal life
Dhillon was born in Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh. Her father Amreek Singh was an aeronautical engineer in the Indian Air Force and would often get transferred. Her mother was a school principal and both her siblings are doctors. Poonam was quite studious growing up and aspired to become a doctor. Poonam attended Carmel Convent in [Chandigarh] for schooling and did her graduation after joining films at age 16.

In 2013, she was pursuing an MBA in International Business. Dhillon was married to producer Ashok Thakeria and has two children, a daughter Paloma and a son Anmol.

Activism and politics
She has been very active with social causes like drug awareness, AIDS awareness, family planning and organ donation.

She has been a prominent speaker at the SAARC business summits in Kathmandu and Delhi and was appointed cultural ambassador. She was also a speaker at the MINDMINE event. In 2012, she along with other celebrities participated in a show supporting the "Save and Empower the Girl Child" cause in collaboration with Lilavati Hospital.

In 2014, she launched an event management and film production company called "Poetic Justice Films and Entertainment Pvt. Ltd." with industrialist Aneel Murarka and choreographer Samir Tanna.

In 2017, Dhillon was appointed as one of four members to the Film Certification Appellate Tribunal, which is the official body for appeals against decisions of the Central Board of Film Certification in the Indian film industry.

Dhillon joined the Bhartiya Janta Party in 2004 and was appointed Vice President of the Mumbai unit of the party in 2019.

Filmography

Films

Television

Accolades

References

External links

Living people
Indian film actresses
Actresses in Hindi cinema
Actresses in Hindi television
Indian stage actresses
Indian television actresses
Indian soap opera actresses
Punjabi people
People from Kanpur
Actresses from Uttar Pradesh
20th-century Indian actresses
21st-century Indian actresses
Bigg Boss (Hindi TV series) contestants
Bharatiya Janata Party politicians from Maharashtra
1962 births

Poonam Dhillon


Maugris or Maugis was one of the heroes of the chansons de geste and romances of chivalry and the Matter of France that tell of the legendary court of King Charlemagne.  Maugis was cousin to Renaud de Montauban and his brothers, son of Beuves of Aygremont and brother to Vivien de Monbranc. He was brought up by Oriande the fairy, and became a great enchanter.  He won the magical horse Bayard and the sword Froberge which he later gave to Renaud.

French texts

The oldest extant version of the story of Maugris was the anonymous Old French chanson de geste Quatre Fils Aymon dating from the late 12th century.  It tells the tale of the four sons of Duke Aymon (Renaud de Montauban, Guichard, Allard and Richardet), their magical horse Bayard, and their adventures and revolt against the emperor Charlemagne.

From the 13th century on, other texts concerning Maugris were created; together with the original, these are grouped as the "Renaud de Montauban cycle".  These poems are: Maugis d'Aigremont (story of the youth of Maugis), Mort de Maugis (story of the death of Maugis), Vivien de Monbranc (story of the brother of Maugis), Bueve d'Aigremont (story of the father of Maugis, Bueve d'Aigremont, brother to Girart de Roussillon and Doon de Nanteuil).

Italian texts
Along with Renaud (as Rinaldo), Maugris, as Malagi or Malagigi, is an important character in Italian Renaissance epics, including  Morgante by Luigi Pulci, Orlando Innamorato by Matteo Maria Boiardo and Orlando Furioso by Ludovico Ariosto.

References
 Hasenohr, Geneviève and Michel Zink, eds.  Dictionnaire des lettres françaises: Le Moyen Age.  Collection: La Pochothèque.  Paris: Fayard, 1992.
 Knyght.org - a  site about knights.

Fictional characters introduced in the 12th century
Matter of France
Characters in Orlando Innamorato and Orlando Furioso
French folklore
Fictional French people

Maugris