Kevin Elyot (18 July 1951 – 7 June 2014) was a British playwright, screenwriter and actor. His most notable works include the play My Night with Reg (1994) and the film Clapham Junction (2007). His stage work has been performed by leading theatre companies including the Royal Court, National Theatre, Bush Theatre, Royal Shakespeare Company, Donmar Warehouse and in the West End. He finished his final play, Twilight Song, not long before he died in 2014, which received a posthumous premiere at London's Park Theatre in 2017.

Early life
Kevin Elyot was born in the Birmingham suburb of Handsworth, West Midlands, England, on 18 July 1951. As a child he was a member of the Anglo-Catholic church of St Peter's choir, and studied the piano. He studied at King Edward's School, Birmingham, where he acted the part of Desdemona, and sang in the third performance of Britten's "War Requiem". He also sang in the Birmingham Cathedral choir as a treble.

As children he and his sister were regularly taken to the theatre. He cited a trip to Stratford-upon-Avon when he was around 10 years old, to see a Royal Shakespeare Company production of Richard III starring Christopher Plummer and Eric Porter, as the "start of my love affair with the place", and afterwards he would take himself on the bus to Stratford to go to the theatre.

He went to the University of Bristol and graduated with a Theatre Studies degree in 1973.

Career
Elyot began his theatre career as an actor, working regularly at London's Bush Theatre from 1976, with the pioneering company Gay Sweatshop, and at the King's Head Theatre. Following encouragement from the Bush Theatre's artistic team, he submitted his first play to them, then titled Cosy. The play opened on 3 November 1982 under the title Coming Clean, in a production directed by David Hayman. The play tackled sexual relationships in a period when AIDS was still a rumour in Britain. It won the Samuel Beckett Award.

On the back of the success of his debut work he was taken on briefly by agent Peggy Ramsay. After a deflating comment from Ramsay about the manuscript for his second play, A Quick One, which remained unstaged, he wrote the radio play According to Plan, which was broadcast on Radio 4 in 1987.

His first adaptation, of Wilkie Collins's detective novel The Moonstone, premiered at the Worcester Swan in 1990.

In 1992, Elyot created a new translation for the Royal Shakespeare Company of Alexander Ostrovsky's Artists and Admirers. The production was directed by Phyllida Lloyd with a cast that included Linda Bassett and opened at the Barbican Centre's The Pit on 13 October 1992.

Elyot's breakthrough play, My Night with Reg, was commissioned by the Hampstead Theatre in 1991. Hampstead passed on the play in 1993, at which point his agent submitted it to Stephen Daldry, who had just been appointed as the Royal Court Theatre's Artistic Director. Daldry was swift to schedule the play for a spring opening in 1994, and suggested Roger Michell should direct. It was a smash hit at the Royal Court's Theatre Upstairs, with a cast including David Bamber and John Sessions. From there it quickly transferred to the West End, first to the Criterion Theatre, and then to the even larger Playhouse Theatre where the cast included Hugh Bonneville. The play and the production won many awards including the Laurence Olivier Award for Best New Comedy and the Evening Standard Theatre Awards Best Comedy. It went on to premiere in New York in June 1997 in a production by The New Group starring Maxwell Caulfield, where it was positively reviewed by Ben Brantley in The New York Times.

Elyot also wrote the screenplay for the film adaptation of My Night with Reg, which was again directed by Michell and featured the entire original Royal Court cast, and which premiered on 14 March 1997. Elyot's television adaptation of The Moonstone was broadcast later that same year, with a cast featuring Greg Wise, Keeley Hawes and Antony Sher.

Elyot's next two plays were both directed by Ian Rickson. The Day I Stood Still premiered in the Royal National Theatre's Cottesloe on 22 January 1998, with a cast led by Adrian Scarborough. The play is a comedy drama about the heartbreak of unrequited love and the power of memories, and was nominated for Best Play at the Evening Standard Theatre Awards. Mouth to Mouth saw Elyot return to the Royal Court but now on the main stage Downstairs, and opened on 1 February 2001, starring Lindsay Duncan. A more sombre drama about a man haunted by feelings of guilt and shame over an incident in his past, the play transferred with Duncan to the West End's Albery Theatre on 17 May 2001. Mouth to Mouth was nominated for both the Laurence Olivier Award and Evening Standard Theatre Award for Best Play,

2004's Forty Winks again premiered at the Royal Court Theatre Downstairs, as an examination on love and growing up. It was directed by Katie Mitchell with a cast that included Dominic Rowan and Carey Mulligan.

Elyot was continuing to build a successful career as a screenwriter, which by now included episodes of Agatha Christie's Poirot and Agatha Christie's Marple. His last stage play was a new version of Christie's And Then There Were None in 2005, which opened directly in the West End at the Gielgud Theatre. It was favourably received, with The Daily Telegraph calling it "a gripping, gory corker. The show achieves a perfect balance between thrills and chills and a knowing, tongue-in-cheek humour."

Further screen success followed. Eylot adapted Patrick Hamilton's trilogy Twenty Thousand Streets Under the Sky into a three-part miniseries for the BBC, starring Zoë Tapper, Bryan Dick and Sally Hawkins.

Clapham Junction, for Channel 4, weaves together five stories of contemporary gay life during one hot summer's night, from a civil partnership ceremony to a heated dinner party, and from school and work to bars and clubs. The cast included Samantha Bond, Rupert Graves, Rachel Blake, Luke Treadaway, Richard Lintern and Paul Nicholls.

Elyot's final television film was an adaptation of Christopher Isherwood's autobiography, Christopher and His Kind, which tells the story of Isherwood's years living in hedonistic Weimar Berlin in the early 1930s. It was directed by Geoffrey Sax and starred Matt Smith as Isherwood, along with Toby Jones, Lindsay Duncan, Imogen Poots and Douglas Booth. It was first broadcast in the UK on BBC Two on 19 March 2011, and was also broadcast internationally.

Elyot died while preparations were under way for the Donmar Warehouse's 2014 revival of My Night with Reg, and shortly after completing Twilight Song, his first original stage play since 2004's Forty Winks. Twilight Song traces one family's hidden liaisons over half a century from the 1960s to the present day, and received a posthumous premiere at London's Park Theatre in summer 2017 to coincide with the 50th anniversary of the Sexual Offences Act 1967. The production was directed by Anthony Banks, and starred Adam Garcia (who had previously starred in Elyot's television drama Riot at the Rite), Bryony Hannah, Paul Higgins, Philip Bretherton and Hugh Ross.

Personal life
He was openly gay and some of the plays he created were based on growing up as a young gay man, such as The Day I Stood Still (in which he addresses growing up and dealing with his own homosexuality in the UK in the 1960s).

Works

Plays
Coming Clean, Bush Theatre, 1982
The Moonstone (Wilkie Collins), Worcester Swan, 1990
Artists and Admirers (a new translation from Alexander Ostrovsky), RSC at the Barbican, 1992
My Night with Reg, Royal Court and West End, 1994
The Day I Stood Still, National Theatre, 1998
Mouth to Mouth, Royal Court and West End, 2001
Forty Winks, Royal Court, 2004
And Then There Were None (Agatha Christie), West End, 2005
Twilight Song, Park Theatre, 2017

Television
 The Woman in White, BBC, 1982
Killing Time, BBC, 1990
My Night with Reg, premiere at London Lesbian and Gay Film Festival, 14 March 1997
The Moonstone, BBC/Carlton, 1997
No Night Is Too Long, BBC, 2002
Twenty Thousand Streets Under the Sky, BBC, 2005
Riot at the Rite, BBC, 2005
Clapham Junction, Channel 4, 2007
Christopher and His Kind, BBC, 2011
Agatha Christie's Poirot (3 episodes), ITV, 2003–2013
Agatha Christie's Marple (6 episodes), ITV, 2004–2013

Awards and nominations

|-
| 1983
| Kevin Elyot for Coming Clean
| Samuel Beckett Award
|
|-
| 1990
| Killing Time
| Writers' Guild Award for Best TV Play or Film
|
|-

| 1994
| My Night with Reg
| Evening Standard Theatre Award for Best Comedy
|
|-
| 1994
| Kevin Elyot for My Night with Reg
| Critics' Circle Theatre Award for Most Promising Playwright
|
|-
| 1994
| My Night with Reg
| Writers' Guild Awards for Best Play
|
|-
| 1995
| My Night with Reg
| Laurence Olivier Award for Best Comedy
|
|-
| 1998
| The Day I Stood Still
| Evening Standard Theatre Award for Best Play
|
|-
| 2001
| Mouth to Mouth
| Laurence Olivier Award for Best Play
|
|-
| 2001
| Mouth to Mouth
| Evening Standard Theatre Award for Best Play
|
|-
| 2006
| Simon Curtis, Kevin Elyot and Kate Harwood for Twenty Thousand Streets Under the Sky
| Banff Television Festival Rockie Award for Best Mini Series
|
|-
| 2012
| Geoffrey Sax (director), Célia Duval (producer) and Kevin Elyot (writer) for Christopher and His Kind
| Broadcasting Press Guild Award for Best Single Drama
|

|}

Sources
Interview, Independent.co.uk. Retrieved 6 August 2011.

References

External links

1951 births
2014 deaths
20th-century British dramatists and playwrights
20th-century British screenwriters
20th-century British male writers
Alumni of the University of Bristol
British gay actors
British gay writers
British male dramatists and playwrights
British male screenwriters
British LGBT dramatists and playwrights
British LGBT screenwriters
Gay dramatists and playwrights
Gay screenwriters
People educated at King Edward's School, Birmingham
People from Handsworth, West Midlands

Kevin Elyot


Abdication is the act of formally relinquishing monarchical authority. Abdications have played various roles in the succession procedures of monarchies. While some cultures have viewed abdication as an extreme abandonment of duty, in other societies (such as pre-Meiji Restoration Japan), abdication was a regular event and helped maintain stability during political succession.

Historically, abdications have occurred both by force (where the regnant was forced to abdicate on pain of death or other severe consequences) and voluntarily. Some rulers are deemed to have abdicated in absentia, vacating the physical throne and thus their position of power, although these judgements were generally pronounced by successors with vested interests in seeing the throne abdicated, and often without or despite the direct input of the abdicating monarch.

Recently, due to the largely ceremonial nature of the regnant in many constitutional monarchies, many monarchs have abdicated due to old age, such as the monarchs of Spain, Cambodia, the Netherlands and Japan.

Terminology

The word abdication is derived from the Latin abdicatio meaning to disown or renounce (ab, away from, and dicare, to proclaim). In its broadest sense abdication is the act of renouncing and resigning from any formal office, but it is applied especially to the supreme office of state. In Roman law the term was also applied to the disowning of a family member, such as disinheriting a son. Today the term is commonly only used for monarchs. An elected or appointed official is said to resign rather than to abdicate. A notable exception is the voluntary relinquishing of the office of Bishop of Rome (and thus sovereign of the Vatican City State) by the pope, called papal resignation or papal renunciation.

Historical examples
In certain cultures, the abdication of a monarch was seen as a profound and shocking abandonment of royal duty. As a result, abdications usually only occurred in the most extreme circumstances of political turmoil or violence. For other cultures, abdication was a much more routine element of succession.

Roman Empire
Among the most notable abdications of antiquity are those of Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus, the Roman dictator, in 458 and 439 BC; Lucius Cornelius Sulla, the Roman dictator, in 79 BC; Emperor Diocletian in AD 305; and Emperor Romulus Augustulus in AD 476.

The papacy, the Papal States and Vatican City

Due to the complex nature of the office of pope (head of the worldwide Roman Catholic Church and sovereign of the Papal States from 754 to 1870 and of Vatican City since 1929), a papal abdication involves both the spiritual and the secular sphere. Technically, the correct term for a reigning pope voluntarily stepping down as bishop of Rome is renunciation or resignation, as regulated in Canon 332 §2 of the 1983 Code of Canon Law.

The debate is open about some disputed resignations in the early middle ages: the last three popes to resign were Celestine V in 1294, Gregory XII in 1415, to end the Western Schism, and Benedict XVI in 2013, who was succeeded by the current pope, Francis. Benedict's resignation, which occurred 598 years after the last time a pope did so, and 719 years after the last one who renounced entirely on his own volition, was an event unheard of for more than half a millennium, as well as being the first papal resignation since the Reformation and Counter-Reformation, and was met with a great deal of surprise worldwide.

Britain
One of the most well-known abdications in recent history is that of King Edward VIII of the United Kingdom and the Dominions. In 1936 Edward abdicated to marry American divorcée Wallis Simpson, over the objections of the British establishment, the governments of the Commonwealth, the royal family and the Church of England.

Richard II was forced to abdicate in 1399 after power was seized by his paternal first cousin Henry Bolingbroke while Richard was abroad.

During the Glorious Revolution in 1688, James II and VII fled to France, dropping the Great Seal of the Realm into the Thames, and the question was discussed in Parliament whether he had forfeited the throne or had abdicated. The latter designation was agreed upon in spite of James's protest, and in a full assembly of the Lords and Commons it was resolved "that King James II having endeavoured to subvert the constitution of the kingdom, by breaking the original contract between king and people, and, by the advice of Jesuits and other wicked persons, having violated the fundamental laws, and having withdrawn himself out of this kingdom, has abdicated the government, and that the throne is thereby vacant." The Scottish Parliament pronounced a decree of forfeiture and deposition.

In Scotland, Mary, Queen of Scots, was forced to abdicate in 1567 in favour of her one-year-old son, James VI.

Today, because the title to the Crown depends upon statute, particularly the Act of Settlement 1701, a royal abdication can be effected only by an act of Parliament; under the terms of the Statute of Westminster 1931, such an act must be agreed by the parliaments of all extant signatories of the Statute. To give legal effect to the abdication of King Edward VIII, His Majesty's Declaration of Abdication Act 1936 was passed.

Egypt
After mass protests against King Farouk began on 23 July 1952, the military forced Farouk I to abdicate in favour of his infant son Fuad II during the Egyptian revolution of 1952. Farouk was exiled to Italy.

Germany
The chaos of Germany's defeat in the First World War forced German Emperor (Kaiser) Wilhelm II to abdicate his throne as German Emperor and consequentially, his throne as King of Prussia. The following Treaty of Versailles resulted in the abolition of both monarchies, leading to the other German kings, dukes, princes and other nobility to abdicate and renounce their royalty titles.

Japan
In Japanese history, abdication was used very often, and in fact occurred more often than death on the throne. In those days, most executive authority resided in the hands of regents (see Sesshō and Kampaku), and the emperor's chief task was priestly, containing so many repetitive rituals that it was deemed the incumbent emperor deserved pampered retirement as an honoured retired emperor after a service of around ten years. A tradition developed that an emperor should accede to the throne relatively young. The high-priestly duties were deemed possible for a walking child; and a dynast who had passed his toddler years was regarded as suitable and old enough; reaching the age of legal majority was not a requirement. Thus, many Japanese emperors have acceded as children, some only 6 or 8 years old. Childhood apparently helped the monarch to endure tedious duties and to tolerate subjugation to political power brokers, as well as sometimes to cloak the truly powerful members of the imperial dynasty. Almost all Japanese empresses and dozens of emperors abdicated and lived the rest of their lives in pampered retirement, wielding influence behind the scenes, often with more power than they had had while on the throne (see Cloistered rule). Several emperors abdicated while still in their teens. These traditions show in Japanese folklore, theatre, literature and other forms of culture, where the emperor is usually described or depicted as an adolescent.

Before the Meiji Restoration, Japan had eleven reigning empresses. Over half of Japanese empresses abdicated once a suitable male descendant was considered to be old enough to rule. There is also no provision for abdication in the Imperial Household Law, the Meiji Constitution, or the current 1947 Constitution of Japan.

After the defeat of Japan in World War II, many members of the Imperial Family, such as Princes Chichibu, Takamatsu and Higashikuni, pressured then-Emperor Hirohito to abdicate so that one of the princes could serve as regent until Crown Prince Akihito came of age. On February 27, 1946, the Emperor's youngest brother, Prince Mikasa (Takahito), even stood up in the privy council and indirectly urged the Emperor to step down and accept responsibility for Japan's defeat. U.S. Army General Douglas MacArthur insisted that Emperor Hirohito remain on the throne. MacArthur saw the emperor as a symbol of the continuity and cohesion of the Japanese people.

On 13 July 2016, national broadcaster NHK reported that Emperor Akihito intended to abdicate in favour of his eldest son Crown Prince Naruhito within a few years, citing his age; an abdication within the Imperial Family had not occurred since Emperor Kōkaku abdicated in 1817. However, senior officials within the Imperial Household Agency denied that there was any official plan for the monarch to abdicate. A potential abdication by the Emperor required an amendment to the Imperial Household Law, which at that time had no provisions for such a move. On 8 August 2016, the Emperor gave a rare televised address, where he emphasized his advanced age and declining health; this address was interpreted as an implication of his intention to abdicate. On 1 December 2017, Prime Minister Shinzo Abe announced that Emperor Akihito would step down on 30 April 2019. The announcement came after a meeting of the Imperial Household Council.

On 19 May 2017, the bill that would allow Akihito to abdicate was issued by the Japanese government's cabinet. On 8 June 2017, the National Diet passed a one-off bill allowing Akihito to abdicate, and for the government to begin arranging the process of handing over the position to Crown Prince Naruhito. The abdication officially occurred at the end of 30 April 2019.

India
According to Jain sources written almost 800 years after his reign, Chandragupta, the first emperor of the Mauryan Dynasty abdicated and became a Jain monk in the last years of his life.

Other examples in recent history

Hussein ibn Ali al-Hashimi, Sharif of Mecca abdicated the Kingdom of Hejaz in October 1924.

When Germany invaded Belgium in 1940, King Leopold III, instead of fleeing to London like his Dutch and Norwegian counterparts in a similar predicament, surrendered to the invaders. This made him unpopular both at home and abroad, and after the war, in July 1951, the Belgian government ordered Leopold III to abdicate.

In recent decades, the monarchs or leaders of the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Qatar, Cambodia, Bhutan and Japan have abdicated as a result of old age. In the Netherlands, the last three monarchs Wilhelmina, Juliana, and Beatrix have all abdicated. In all three instances, this was done to pass the throne to the heir sooner.

In June 2014, King Juan Carlos of Spain abdicated in favour of his son, Felipe VI.

See also
Lists of office-holders
List of monarchs who lost their thrones in the 20th century
List of monarchs who lost their thrones in the 21st century
Papal renunciation
List of resignations from government - republic equivalent

References

Attribution

External links

History of the papacy

Abdication


Lyse Chapel () is a parish church of the Church of Norway in the eastern part of the large Sandnes Municipality in Rogaland county, Norway. It is located in the very small village of Lysebotn, at the end of the Lysefjorden. It is one of the two churches for the Forsand parish which is part of the Sandnes prosti (deanery) in the Diocese of Stavanger. The brown, wooden church was built in a long church design in 1961 using designs by the architects Gustav Helland and Endre Årreberg. The church seats about 150 people.

The church was consecrated on 28 May 1961 by the Bishop Fridtjov Birkeli. The church is not used often, since there are only about a dozen residents in the isolated village of Lysebotn. In 2009, the municipality of Forsand tried to close and sell the chapel, but they changed their mind due to the opposition of the residents.

The chapel was located in Forsand municipality until 1 January 2020 when it was merged into Sandnes Municipality.

Media gallery

See also
List of churches in Rogaland

References

Sandnes
Churches in Rogaland
Wooden churches in Norway
19th-century Church of Norway church buildings
Churches completed in 1961
1961 establishments in Norway

Lyse Chapel


Sue Sinclair is a Canadian poet. She was raised in St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador, and studied at Mount Allison University in Sackville, New Brunswick, graduated in 1994 and then continued her education at the University of New Brunswick. She then went on to complete an MA & PhD in Philosophy at the University of Toronto. Sinclair's first collection of poetry, Secrets of Weather and Hope (2001), was a finalist for the 2002 Gerald Lampert Award. Mortal Arguments (2003) was a finalist for the Atlantic Poetry Prize. Her third collection, The Drunken Lovely Bird, won the International Independent Publisher's Award for Poetry. Breaker was a finalist for the Pat Lowther Award and the Atlantic Poetry Prize, and Heaven's Thieves won the Pat Lowther Award.

She currently teaches in the English department at the University of New Brunswick in Fredericton.

She has been the editor of The Fiddlehead since the summer of 2018.

Bibliography
Secrets of Weather and Hope (Brick Books, 2001)
Mortal Arguments (Brick Books, 2003)
The Drunken Lovely Bird (Goose Lane Editions, 2005)
Breaker (Brick Books, 2008)
Heaven's Thieves (Brick Books, 2016)
Almost Beauty: New and Selected Poems (Goose Lane Editions, 2022)

References

Canadian women poets
Living people
Writers from St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador
21st-century Canadian women writers
21st-century Canadian poets
Year of birth missing (living people)
Canadian magazine editors

Sue Sinclair


The Basilique Notre Dame du Bon Secours, Marie Auxiliatrice (English: The Basilica of Our Lady of Refuge of Mary, the Help of Christians) is a Roman Catholic minor basilica in Bonsecours near Rouen, Seine—Maritime, France. It is the first church in France to be built in the  Gothic Revival style. The basilica is highly ornately decorated with windows, sculptures and other elements often carrying the name or coat of arms of a patronal donor.

The original shrine was dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary, Help of Christians dating back to the thirteenth century. It was reconstructed and enlarged in 1840.

Pope Pius IX granted the decree of pontifical coronation to the venerated Marian image enshrined within on 15 July 1870. The Archbishop of Rouen, Cardinal Henri-Marie-Gaston Boisnormand de Bonnechose executed the rite of coronation on 24 May 1880.

Pope Benedict XV  raised the Marian shrine to the status of Minor Basilica by Pontifical decree Illustriores Inter Sacras on 27 March 1919.

Design
The basilica's design and construction were carefully supervised by the Abbé Victor Godefroy (1799–1868), the Bonsecours parish priest, who chose the Gothic style and raised the funds.
Godefroy and the donors may have been drawn to this style from the time of King Louis IX of France   (1226—1270) because it represented a society they thought was organized on a Christian basis.

Godefroy had been a textile manufacturer before becoming an ordained Catholic priest, and had experience with other building projects.
His fund raising efforts were helped by his close friendship with the future Archbishop of Rouen, Cardinal Gustave Maximilien Juste de Croÿ-Solre.

The architect Jacques-Eugène Barthélémy(fr) may have had a background in engineering.
He had worked on partial reconstructions, but this was the first new church he had built.
It is not known who trained Barthélemy as an architect, but he had sketched churches around France, including Reims Cathedral.
He did not obtain approval for his design from the government's Conseil des batiments civils, which rejected Gothic designs for other proposed churches at the time.
He made his design before Eugène Viollet-le-Duc first published his Gothic architectural theories in 1844, and before the Corps des architectes diocésains was established in 1848.

History
The  Basilique Notre-Dame de Bonsecours is located in Bonsecours, to the southeast of the center of Rouen, on a site that commands a view over the Seine river.
It was built between 1840 and 1844, the first Catholic parish church built in Gothic Revival style.
The first stone was laid in a ceremony on 4 May 1840.
The first mass was celebrated on 15 August 1842 by 20,000 worshippers from the 14 parishes of Rouen.
The building was completed in 1844.

 Pope Pius IX — granted the decree of pontifical coronation to the venerated Marian image enshrined within on 15 July 1870. The Archbishop of Rouen, Cardinal Henri-Marie-Gaston Boisnormand de Bonnechose executed the rite of coronation on 24 May 1880.
 Pope Benedict XV — raised the church to the status of a minor basilica on 12 February 1919.

In 1977, the basilica was inscribed in the inventory of historical monuments.  On 24 August 2004 it was classified as a monument historique.

Style
Godefroy called the basilica's style "early Gothic with lancets, the purest period of the thirteenth century".
Unlike medieval church buildings that were built over a period of many years, the basilica has a consistent style throughout.
13th century features include flying buttresses, paired lancet windows, pinnacles, the bell tower, a gallery of statues and rose windows in the facade.
There are features drawn from the Sainte-Chapelle of Paris, built in the 1240s, which was being restored in the 1840s.
The plan of the church is akin to parish churches in Rouen of the 15th and 16th centuries, with the addition of a sacristy at the east end.
It has a nave and two wide aisles, but unlike 13th century churches  it does not have a transept or an ambulatory.

The Anti-Catholic Englishman John Ruskin heavily criticized its highly ornate design and described the church as:

Decoration and furnishings

The extensive and coordinated decorations were part of a revival of religious art under the July Monarchy and include murals, sculpture, stained glass windows and liturgical furnishings.
All the interior surfaces of the basilica are painted, as with Sainte-Chapelle.
There are three chapels, dedicated respectively to Mary, Saint Joseph, and Saints Theresa and Joan of Arc.
The batismal font is set in a hexagonal marble structure created in Rouen in 1891.
The main altar is gilded bronze, made from chiseled metal to a design by Barthélemy.
A new altar was installed in the sanctuary in April 2006 made by Dominique Kaeppelin, sculptor at the Puy-en-Velay workshop.
The stalls were made by the Maison Kreyenbielh of Paris and installed in 1858.
There are four confessionals, made by Père Cahier.
The well-known glass artist Henri Gerente installed five windows in the apse in 1842.
Two of them are still in place.

Godefroy allowed the wealthy donors to pay for particular parts of the basilica, and to include their coat of arms and name or initials, either painted or engraved.
Many of the windows include portraits of the donor.
After Henri Barbet converted to Catholicism he and his wife donated two stained glass windows to the Basilique Notre-Dame de Bonsecours.
Barbet was mayor of Rouen and a wealthy textile manufacturer.
The front of the bell tower contains statues of the four evangelists.
Above the gable over the central door there is a statue of the Virgin Mary donated by Elie-Anne de Montmorency-Luxembourg.
Below this is a relief of Mary with the infant Jesus on her lap on the main tympanum flanked by two angels donated by Pascal Auguste Joseph Baudon de Mony, former Receiver-General.

In November 1857 Aristide Cavaillé-Coll delivered a new organ for the basilica, his first important work in Rouen.
It was inaugurated by Louis James Alfred Lefébure-Wély, the organist of La Madeleine, Paris, on 20 November 1857.
The buffet is neo-Gothic, in polychromatic oak, built to a design by father Arthur Martin.
In 1888–89 Cavaillé-Coll made various major improvements to the instrument, which was inaugurated on 7 November 1889 by Charles-Marie Widor of the Church of Saint-Sulpice, Paris.
Further enhancements were made in 1928 and 1954.
The organ was classified as a monument historique in September 1997, and in 1999–2000 was largely restored to the 1889 version while retaining the 56-note keyboards and 30-note pedal.

Notes

Sources

External links

Gothic Revival church buildings in France
Basilica churches in France
Churches in Seine-Maritime
Shrines to the Virgin Mary
Monuments historiques of Seine-Maritime

Basilique Notre-Dame de Bonsecours


The conquest of Central Asia by the Russian Empire took place in the second half of the nineteenth century. The land that became Russian Turkestan and later Soviet Central Asia is now divided between Kazakhstan in the north, Uzbekistan across the center, Kyrgyzstan in the east, Tajikistan in the southeast, and Turkmenistan in the southwest. The area was called Turkestan because most of its inhabitants spoke Turkic languages with the exception of Tajikistan, which speaks an Iranian language.

Outline
In the eighteenth century the Russian Empire gained increasing control over the Kazakh Steppe. The Russian conquest of Central Asia took place over several decades. In 1839, Russia failed to conquer the Khanate of Khiva south of the Aral Sea. In 1847–53, the Russians built a line of forts from the north side of the Aral Sea eastward up the Syr Darya river. In 1847–64, they crossed the eastern Kazakh Steppe and built a line of forts along the northern border of Kyrgyzstan. In 1864–68, they moved south from Kyrgyzstan, captured Tashkent and Samarkand and dominated the Khanates of Kokand and Bokhara. They now held a triangle whose southern point was  south of Siberia and  southeast of their supply bases on the Volga River. The next step was to turn this triangle into a rectangle by crossing the Caspian Sea. In 1873, the Russians conquered Khiva, and in 1881, they took western Turkmenistan. In 1884, they took the Merv oasis and eastern Turkmenistan. In 1885, further expansion south toward Afghanistan was blocked by the British. In 1893–95, the Russians occupied the high Pamir Mountains in the southeast.

Geography

The area was bounded on the west by the Caspian Sea, on the north by the Siberian forests and on the east by the mountains along the former Sino-Soviet border. The southern border was political rather than natural.  It was about  from north to south,  wide in the north and  wide in the south. Because the southeast corner (Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan) is mountainous the flat desert-steppe country is only about  wide in the south. Using modern borders, the area was , about half the size of the United States without Alaska. On the east side two mountain ranges project into the desert. Between them is the well-populated Fergana Valley which is approximately the "notch" on the west side of Kyrgyzstan.  North of this projection the mountain-steppe boundary extends along the north border of Kyrgyzstan about  before the mountains turn north again.

Rainfall decreases from north to south. Dense population, and therefore cities and organized states, requires irrigation. Streams coming down from the eastern mountains support a fairly dense population, especially in the Ferghana Valley. There is a line of oases along the Persian border. The interior is watered by three great rivers.  The Oxus or Amu Darya rises on the Afghan border and flows northwest into the Aral Sea, forming a large delta which was ruled by the Khanate of Khiva and has a long history under the name of Khwarezm.  The Jaxartes or Syr Darya rises in the Ferghana Valley and flows northwest and then west to meet the northeast corner of the Aral Sea. Between them is the less-famous Zarafshan River which dries up before reaching the Oxus. It waters the great cities of Bokhara and Tamerlane's old capital of Samarkand.

The deserts in the south have enough grass to support a thin nomadic population. The Kyzylkum Desert is between the Oxus and Jaxartes. The Karakum Desert is southwest of the Oxus in Turkmenistan. Between the Aral and Caspian Seas is the thinly-populated Ustyurt Plateau.

When the Russians arrived the organized states were the Khanate of Khiva in the Oxus delta south of the Aral Sea, the Khanate of Bukhara along the Oxus and Zarafshan and the Khanate of Kokand based in the Ferghana Valley. Bokhara had borders with the other two and all three were surrounded by nomads which the Khanates tried to control and tax.

Early contacts

Siberia: Russians first came into contact with Central Asia when, in 1582–1639, Cossack adventurers made themselves masters of the Siberian forests. They did not expand south because they were seeking furs. The Siberian Cossacks were skilled in forest travel and knew little of the steppe and since the forest tribes were few and weak while the steppe nomads were numerous and warlike. See Siberian River Routes and linked articles.

Up the Irtysh River: The Irtysh River rises in what is now China and flows northwest to the Russian base at Tobolsk (founded in 1587).  It was thought possible to ascend this river and reach the riches of China and India. In 1654 Fyodor Baykov used this route to reach Peking.  The main advance was made under Peter the Great.  Some time before 1714 Colonel Bukhholts and 1500 men went upriver to a 'Lake Yamysh' and returned. In 1715 Bukhholts with 3000 men and 1500 soldiers went to Lake Yamysh again and started to build a fort. Since this was on the fringe of the Dzungar Khanate, the Dzungars drove them off. They retreated downriver and founded Omsk.  In 1720 Ivan Likharev went upriver and founded Ust-Kamenogorsk.  The Dzungars, having just been weakened by the Chinese, left them alone. Several other places were built on the Irtysh at about this time.

The Kazakh steppe: Since the Kazakhs were nomads they could not be conquered in the normal sense. Instead Russian power slowly increased. See History of Kazakhstan.

Around the southern Urals: In 1556 Russia conquered the Astrakhan Khanate on the north shore of the Caspian Sea. The surrounding area was held by the Nogai Horde.To the east of the Nogais were the Kazakhs and to the north, between the Volga and Urals, were the Bashkirs. Around this time some free Cossacks had established themselves on the Ural River. In 1602 they captured Konye-Urgench in Khivan territory.  Returning laden with loot they were surrounded by the Khivans and slaughtered. A second expedition lost its way in the snow, starved, and the few survivors were enslaved by the Khivans. There seems to have been a third expedition which is ill-documented.

At the time of Peter the Great there was a major push southeast. In addition to the Irtysh expeditions above there was the disastrous 1717 attempt to conquer Khiva.  Following the Russo-Persian War (1722–1723) Russia briefly occupied the west side of the Caspian Sea.

About 1734 another move was planned, which provoked the Bashkir War (1735–1740).  Once Bashkiria was pacified, Russia's southeastern frontier was the Orenburg line roughly between the Urals and the Caspian Sea.

The area remained quiet for about a hundred years. In 1819 Nikolai Muraviev traveled from the Caspian Sea and contacted the Khan of Khiva.

The Siberian line: By the late eighteenth century Russia held a line of forts roughly along the current Kazakhstan border, which is approximately the boundary between forest and steppe.  For reference these forts (and foundation dates) were:

Guryev (1645), Uralsk (1613), Orenburg (1743), Orsk (1735). Troitsk (1743), Petropavlovsk (1753), Omsk (1716), Pavlodar (1720), Semipalitinsk (1718) Ust-Kamenogorsk (1720).

Uralsk was an old settlement of free Cossacks. Orenburg, Orsk and Troitsk were founded as a result of the Bashkir War about 1740 and this section was called the Orenburg line. Orenburg was long the base from which Russia watched and tried to control the Kazakh steppe. The four eastern forts were along the Irtysh River. After China conquered Xinjiang in 1759 both empires had a few border posts near the current border.

1713–1716, 1719: Unsuccessful expeditions to the Dzungar Khanate

Expedition of 1713-1716

On May 22, 1714, Buchholz, then a lieutenant colonel, received the following Imperial decrees signed by Peter I on the St. Natalia galley: "On the capture of the city of Erket and on the search for golden sand along the Darya River" (Amu Darya), "On sand gold in Bukhara, about the departures made for this, and about the construction of fortresses along the Irtysh River, which are named:Omskaya, Zhelezenskaya, Yamyshevskaya, Semipalatnaya, Ust-Kamenogorsk. Decrees ordered him to go to Tobolsk, gather a detachment there and move up the Irtysh to Yamysh Lake. There he had to stop for the winter, build a fortress, leave a garrison in it, and then continue on his way to the city of Erket (Yarkand), where there were supposedly placers of sand gold. The fact that there is a gold deposit in those places, Peter I was convinced by the Siberian governor Prince Matvey Gagarin.

On October 1, 1715, the detachment arrived at the Yamyshevsky salt lake. Here Buchholz started the construction of the Yamyshev fortress.

On December 15, 1715, the lieutenant colonel did not dare to go further and wrote to Peter I that it was dangerous to meet the Dzungars with such a small number of troops, but the letter did not reach the sovereign on the Ingermanlandia ship until August 7, 1716.

Dissatisfied with the appearance of Russian troops, the Dzungar Khuntaiji Tsewang-Rabtan sent Buchholz a demand to leave, and when the latter did not obey, on the night of February 10, 1716, he attacked the Yamyshev fortress with his 10,000-strong army and recaptured a herd of horses. The winter blockade of the fortress began, in which a detachment of Russians lost 2,300 people from hunger and disease. The detachments and provisions sent to help were intercepted by the Jungars, and Buchholz did not try to repel them, showing passivity. So a caravan of 700 people with a food convoy and 20,000 rubles of money for salaries, as well as 600 merchants from Tobolsk, Tara and Tomsk, was completely captured.

April 28, 1716 Buchholz was forced to leave the Yamyshev fortress. The fortifications were razed to the ground, houses and barracks were destroyed, military supplies were loaded onto 18 planks. There were no more than 700 officers and privates left, most of whom were sick. The Dzungars after the flight of Buchholz released the prisoners: the priest and the commissar who was at the execution.

Expedition of 1719

In 1719, another expedition was organized led by I. M. Likharev, which reached Lake Zaisan, but, having been attacked by the Dzungars, was forced to return to Tobolsk.

1717: Failed attack on Khiva

Bekovich-Cherkassky received these orders in Astrakhan, where he was engaged in the surveying work, preparing the first map of the Caspian Sea. He was promoted captain and commanded a preliminary expedition in Turkmenistan. He left some of the Cossacks on his way in order to set up the forts in Krasnovodsk and Alexandrovsk.

Back in Astrakhan by February 1717, Bekovich raised another army and started towards Khiva, together with some engineers and land surveyors. It was many months later that several Tatars returned and brought the appalling news of the catastrophe that befell the Khivan expedition. The newly built forts in Turkmenistan were at once evacuated, and that at considerable loss from inclement weather and Turkmen tribesmen.

What exactly happened with Bekovich-Cherkassky remains a matter of some controversy. According to a few surviving members of his contingent, they advanced to within 120 km from Khiva, when the khan attacked them with a 24,000-strong army. After three days of bloody fighting, the Khivans were routed.

Seeing that the enemy was very numerous, Bekovich-Cherkassky understood that diplomacy had a better chance of success. The Russian officer, accompanied only by 500 of his men, rode into the enemy's camp to propose terms. The khan pretended to surrender to him, welcomed him warmly, persuading him to divide the Russian army to dwell in five separate towns in order to facilitate foraging. The Khivans then attacked the five towns one by one, slaughtering most Russians, selling the others as slaves, and executing all Russian officers including Prince Cherkassky.

Peter the Great did nothing to avenge the defeat since he was still occupied by the war with Sweden, and also by the hostility of the Ottoman Empire. It was more than a century later that the Russian Empire resumed its military expeditions into Central Asia.

1731–1873: Gaining control of the Kazakh Steppe

Initial contacts

Abul Khair Khan's Russian clashes

1843–1844: Failed attacks on Kazakh Khanate
On June 27, Nicholas I allowed a trip to the Kazakh Steppe, with the attribution of expenses for the head of Kenesary to the account of the wagon collection. The detachment of the military foreman Lebedev, consisting of 1,500 people, was supposed to become an advanced force, later the number of his detachment reached 1,900 people.

In August 1843, a second group of 5,000 (25,000) people was equipped, led by Sultan Jantorin, Baimahambet Aichuvakov, colonels Gens and Bizyanov went to the Orenburg Steppe to destroy the detachment of the "rebellious" Sultan Kenesary. Other detachments formed by the West Siberian Governor-General headed from Omsk, Petropavlovsk and Karkaralinsk.

On September 1 and 7, 1843, fierce battles broke out with the advance detachments of the Russians, who left from Orenburg. As a result of the fighting, there were many casualties on both sides. Both sides ceased hostilities and withdrew. The rest of the Russian detachments failed to give battle to Kenesary. Often maneuvering in the steppe expanses, he misled them. He exhausted the forces of the Russian detachments and partially exterminated their manpower. Exhausted soldiers, due to the early onset of a cold rainy autumn, stopped hostilities, and left the Steppe in September. It was decided to resume hostilities against Kenesary in the following year, 1844.

Second campaign

During this period, Kenesary became dangerous adversary.
The Governor-General of Western Siberia was forced to appeal to the Kazakh population with the following appeal: "You know, Kenesary Kasymov has been causing disorder in the steppe for a number of years and increasing robberies, murders and other unrest. Having aroused the crazy Kazakhs, he continues to carry them along. The great sovereign decided to suppress the rebellion of Kenesary by force. Taking advantage of the wide opportunity presented to you, leave Kenesary. Otherwise, remember, you will be subjected to merciless torture.

The Tsarist government decided to send three detachments to suppress the Kenesary uprising: from the side of the Orsk fortress, the Ulytau mountains and from the Tobol River.

In May 1844, a detachment led by Jantorin, Sultan Baimagambetov and Military foreman Lebedev headed south, towards the Karakums.

The task of the Russian detachments was to take the detachments of Kenesary from both sides "in pincers", and cut off the retreat from the Turgai to the Karakum. However, the Russian troops failed to carry out their plan. Giving separate battles, Kenesary safely retreated to the Karakum. He managed to send Lebedev's detachment along a false route and, along the way, mistakenly defeat the villages of Biy Baikadamov, subject to Russia. Lebedev was recalled to Orenburg and soon put on trial for stealing and ruining the auls of Biys devoted to Russia. Lebedev's place was taken by Colonel Dunikovsky.

By this time, Siberian detachments under the command of General Zhemchuzhnikov were sent to suppress the Kenesary uprising. Having sent out his scouts behind enemy lines in advance, Kenesary received from them information about the Siberian detachment heading to join the Orenburg detachment of Dunikovsky. The task of Kenesary was to prevent these detachments from connecting and getting out of the encirclement. Kenesary decided to send a small detachment to meet him and thus create a false impression among the enemy, suggesting to him that the Kenesary detachment was completely retreating towards Ulytau. The Siberian detachment was really deceived: having changed direction, it set off in pursuit of a small detachment of Kenesary. Meanwhile, Kenesary, with his main forces, appeared on the New Line on June 23 and attacked the Konstantinovsk. The speed and maneuverability of his troops stunned the Russian troops.

Kenesary and now decided to send only a small detachment against the Russians as a barrier, and prepare the main forces for a decisive blow behind enemy lines.

On July 17, 1844, some of his detachments began to impose a battle on the Russian troops, who were under the command of Sultan Zhantorin and Colonel Dunikovsky. Avoiding a decisive clash with the Russian troops, they had to wear down the enemy forces. On the night of July 20-21, 1844, the main forces of Kenesary hit the rear of the enemy, surrounding the Jantorin detachment. During fierce battles, this detachment was completely defeated: "-Kenesary's warriors! - from all shouted Boranbai and shot at one sarbaz, who was running headlong. He clutched his wounded arm and howled in pain. Hearing a shot and screams, the Cossacks began firing into the darkness. At that moment, there was a roar - a cannon shell exploded nearby. A moment later there was a second explosion. Sarbaz and Cossacks, throwing down their weapons, hurried to their horses. They jumped into the saddle and immediately fell to the ground. The straps that fastened the girths and the bridles were cut. The panic began. And at that moment, the rebels broke into the camp, surrounding it from two sides. Friendly fire from rifles mowed down opponents. The horsemen overtook the fleeing and dealt with it on the spot. 44 sultans were killed in the battle.
The detachment of Dunikovsky, despite the proximity of the battle, did not dare to help the sultans, fearing encirclement and death. The death of 44 sultans greatly embittered the Orenburg and West Siberian governors-general. On Dunikovsky's report, filed in the name of the Orenburg military governor, Obruchev imposed the following resolution: "Shame, unpleasant news, it is very doubtful, it is hard to believe that such a thing could have happened".

During the summer of 1844, the advance of Kenesary continued at an unrelenting pace. On August 14, detachments led by the batyrs Nauryzbay and Agybay laid siege to the Ekaterininsky fortress, where about 100 soldiers and a huge number of trophies were taken prisoner, including 1847 pounds of bread: "At a distance of four kilometers from the Catherine Stanitsa, about two thousand Sarbazes of Kenesary gathered. The attack began at five o'clock in the morning. The sentry Cossacks did not have time to detect and signal the movement of the Khan's troops towards the settlement. In the predawn hour, the most dexterous Kazakhs, having penetrated into the stanitsa, quickly removed all guards and gave a prearranged signal. Kenesary's cavalry burst into its streets with a battle cry. Sleepy Cossacks jumped out of their houses and fell under the blows of the blades of the rebels. Few managed to leave the stanitsa".

Fearing the further growth of the uprising, the Orenburg and Siberian governorships decided, in addition to the detachments of Dunikovsky, Zhemchuzhnikov and Jantorins, to send another detachment of Colonel Kovalevsky. By this time, Kenesary, having fortified with his army in the Mugodzhar mountains, began a correspondence with the Orenburg governorate about the exchange of prisoners of war. Experiencing exceptional difficulties in unaccustomed, waterless deserts and sands and having achieved nothing significant in the fight against Kenesary, the Russian detachments were forced to withdraw back towards Orenburg and Omsk.

Fall of the Kazakh Khanate (1847)
Following the rule of Abu'l-Mansur Khan's death in 1781, the Middle jüz was nominally ruled by his son Vali, but Vali never achieved control of the entire jüz. In an attempt to establish some order in 1798, Russia created a tribunal at Petropavlovsk to resolve disputes among the Kazakhs, but it was ignored by the Kazakhs. Following Vali's death in 1817 and his rival Bukei's death in 1818, Russia abolished the Khanate of the Middle jüz. In 1822, Russia began to refer to the land until then occupied by the Middle jüz as the territory of the Siberian Kirgiz and introduced a set of administrative reforms, some of them intended to encourage the Kazakhs to become farmers, but the Kazakhs remained nomadic.

By 1837, tensions were rising in the Kazakh steppe once again.  This time, the tensions were started by Kazakh co-rulers Ğubaidullah Khan, Sher Ghazi Khan, and Kenesary Khan, all of whom were sons of Qasim Sultan and grandsons of Abu'l-Mansur Khan. They launched a rebellion against Russia. The three co-rulers wanted to restore the relative independence that was present under previous Kazakh rulers such as Abu'l-Mansur, and they sought to resist taxation by the Russians.

In 1841, the three khans obtained the help of their younger cousin Aziz id-Din Bahadur, the son of Kazakh commander Nasrullah Nauryzbai Bahadur, and gathered a large troop of well-trained Kazakhs to resist the Russian army.  The Kazakhs captured a number of Kokand fortresses in Kazakhstan, including their former capital of Hazrat-e-Turkistan.  They decided to hide in the mountainous region near Lake Balkhash, but were taken by surprise when a Kyrgyz khan named Ormon Khan disclosed their whereabouts to Russian troops.  Gubaidullah, Sher Ghazi, and Kenesary were all captured and executed by Kyrgyz defectors who had been helping the Russians.  By the end of 1847, the Russian army had captured the Kazakh capitals of Hazrat-e-Turkistan and Syghanaq, abolishing the Kazakh Khanate as a whole.

1819: Expedition to Khiva

In 1819, a young 24 year old officer Nikolai Muraviev (not to be confused with Nikolai Muraviev-Amursky, Nikolai Muraviev-Karsky or Nikolai Muraviev) was instructed by the great general of the Russian Caucasus, Aleksey Petrovich Yermolov, to make the expedition to Khiva. The main goal of this perilous expedition was to make a commercial trade deal with the Khan, the same idea proposed upon the 1717 expedition to Khiva. Muraviev was also to survey the lands, composing skilled reports, acting as a recon. He also was told he was to find the position and record the Russian slaves. With these intentions in mind, a young Muraviev had a lot of charm attached to him. It was soon he was going to leave the port of Lankaran for his goals in Khiva.

He crossed the Karakum desert with little problems with the tribesmen, the Turcomans who inhabited the region. Muraviev soon befriended these tribesmen along the way, moving along the Karakum for several days, for he was to arrive later in the Khanate. He arrived in Khiva, but the intentions of Muraviev were well documented by the Khivans, thus he was sent to a fortress, being told supposedly that he was going to have to wait in the fortress before meeting the Khan tomorrow. After a few days in the fortress, Muraviev realized he was trapped. After some time the guards realized he was taking notes, so they relayed this information to the Khan. The Khan and his officials had ensuing debates on what to do with the Russian, with a final decision to be made to have him to visit the Khans Palace.

The following day he arrived in the Palace, and he started a discussion with the Khan, telling him that the Tsar wishes a commercial agreement. After some debating, the Khan agreed to Muravievs deal, and he was to arrive home safely. Muraviev argued the Russians should invade Khiva to free the slaves, who during Muravievs visit showed respect to the man. However, this would never go full with the Tsar, before round 3 of the Khivan expeditions, the 1839 failed winter expedition to Khiva.

1839: Failed attack on Khiva
In 1839, Russia attempted to conquer Khiva. The Russians under Vasily Perovsky marched around 5,000 men south from Orenburg. The winter was unusually cold and most of his camels died, forcing him to turn back. See Khivan campaign of 1839.

1847–1853: The Syr Darya line

Southward from the Siberian Line the obvious next step was a line of forts along the Syr Darya eastward from the Aral Sea. This brought Russia into conflict with the Khan of Kokand. In the early 19th century Kokand began expanding northwest from the Ferghana Valley. About 1814 they took Hazrat-i-Turkestan on the Syr Darya and around 1817 they built Ak-Mechet ('White Mosque') further downriver, as well as smaller forts on both sides of Ak-Mechet. The area was ruled by the Beg of Ak Mechet who taxed the local Kazakhs who wintered along the river and had recently driven the Karakalpaks southward.  In peacetime Ak-Mechet had a garrison of 50 and Julek 40. The Khan of Khiva had a weak fort on the lower part of the river.

Given Perovsky's failure in 1839 Russia decided on a slow but sure approach. In 1847 Captain Schultz built Raimsk in the Syr delta. It was soon moved upriver to Kazalinsk. Both places were also called Fort Aralsk. Raiders from Khiva and Kokand attacked the local Kazakhs near the fort and were driven off by the Russians. Three sailing ships were built at Orenburg, disassembled, carried across to steppe and rebuilt. They were used to map the lake. In 1852/3 two steamers were carried in pieces from Sweden and launched on the Aral Sea. The local saxaul proving impractical, they had to be fueled with anthracite brought from the Don. At other times a steamer would tow a barge-load of saxaul and periodically stop to reload fuel. The Syr proved to be shallow, full of sand bars and difficult to navigate during the spring flood.

In 1852 a surveying party went upriver and was turned back before reaching Ak-Mechet. That summer Colonel Blaramberg and about 400 men were sent to raze Ak-Mechet on the pretext that Russia owned the north side of the river.  The Kokandis responded by breaking the dykes and flooding the surrounding area. Having brought no scaling ladders or heavy artillery, Blaramberg saw that he could not take the citadel with its 25-foot-high walls.  He therefore captured the outworks, burnt everything in the area and retired to Fort Aralsk. The later-famous Yakub Beg had commanded the fort at one time, but it is not clear if he was in command during this first battle. Next summer the Russians assembled a force of over 2000 men, over 2000 each of horses, camels and oxen, 777 wagons, bridging timber, pontoons and the steamer Perovsky. To guarantee that there would be enough fodder to move this much from Orenburg to Fort Aralsk, the Kazakhs were forbidden to graze the lands north of the fort. Command was given to the same Perovsky who earlier had failed to reach Khiva. He left Aralsk in June and reached Ak-Mechet on July 2. The Kokandis had strengthened the fort and increased the garrison. A regular siege was begun. When the trenches neared the citadel, a mine was dug under the walls. At 3AM on 9 August 1853 the mine was exploded, creating a large breach. The breach was taken on the third try and by 4:30AM it was all over. 230 Kokandi bodies were counted out of the original 300-man garrison. The place was renamed Fort Perovsky.

During the siege Padurov went  upriver to Julek and found that its defenders had fled. He wrecked the fort as well as he could and returned with its abandoned guns.  In September a large force from Kokand reoccupied Julek and advanced toward Fort Perovsky. The column sent to meet them had a hard day's fight, called for reinforcements but next morning found that the Kokandis had retreated.  In December a Kokandi force (said to be 12000 men) surrounded Fort Perovsky. A 500-man sortie was soon surrounded and in trouble. Major Shkupa, seeing the enemy camp weakly defended, broke out and burned the camp. Two more sorties drove the Kokandis off in disorder.

Russia now held a  line of forts along the west-flowing part of the Syr Darya. The area between the Aral and Caspian Seas was too thinly-populated to matter. The next question was whether Russia would extend the line east to the mountains (Fort Vernoye was founded in 1854) or continue southeast up the river to Kokand and the Ferghana Valley.

1847–1864: Down the eastern side

In 1847–1864 the Russians crossed the eastern Kazakh steppe and built a line of forts in the irrigated area along the northern Kyrgyz border. In 1864–68 they moved south, conquered Tashkent and Samarkand, confined the Khanate of Kokand to the Ferghana valley and made Bokhara a protectorate. This was the main event of the conquest. Our sources do not say why an eastern approach was chosen, but an obvious guess is that irrigation made it possible to move armies without crossing steppe or desert. This was important when transport required grass-fed horses and camels. We are not told how Russia supplied an army this far east, or if this was a problem. It is not clear why a forward policy was now adopted. It seems that different officials had different opinions and much was decided by local commanders and the luck of the battlefield. All sources report Russian victories over greatly superior forces with kill ratios approaching ten to one. Even if enemy numbers are exaggerated it seems clear that Russian weapons and tactics were now superior to the traditional Asian armies that they faced.  All sources mention breechloading rifles without further explanation. Berdan rifles are mentioned without giving numbers. MacGahan, in his account of the Khivan campaign, contrasts explosive artillery to traditional cannonballs. Artillery and rifles could often keep Russian soldiers out of reach of hand weapons.

Advance from the northeast (1847–1864): The eastern end of the Kazakh steppe was called Semirechye by the Russians. South of this, along the modern Kyrgyz border, the Tien Shan mountains extend about  to the west. Water coming down from the mountains provides irrigation for a line of towns and supports a natural caravan route. South of this mountain projection is the densely-populated Ferghana Valley ruled by the Khanate of Kokand. South of Ferghana is the Turkestan Range and then the land the ancients called Bactria.  West of the northern range is the great city of Tashkent and west of the southern range is Tamerlane's old capital Samarkand.

In 1847 Kopal was founded southeast of Lake Balkash. In 1852 Russia crossed the Ili River and met Kazakh resistance and next year destroyed the Kazakh fort of Tuchubek.  In 1854 they founded Fort Vernoye (Almaty) within sight of the mountains. Vernoye is about  south of the Siberian Line. Eight years later, in 1862, Russia took Tokmak (Tokmok) and Pishpek (Bishkek). Russia placed a force at the Kastek pass to block a counterattack from Kokand. The Kokandis used a different pass, attacked an intermediate post, Kolpakovsky rushed from Kastek and completely defeated a much larger army. In 1864 Chernayev took command of the east, led 2500 men from Siberia, and captured Aulie-Ata (Taraz).  Russia was now near the west end of the mountain range and about halfway between Vernoye and Ak-Mechet.

In 1851 Russia and China signed the Treaty of Kulja to regulate trade along what was becoming a new border. In 1864 they signed the Treaty of Tarbagatai which approximately established the current Chinese-Kazakh border. The Chinese thereby renounced any claims to the Kazakh steppe, to the extent that they had any.

Up the Syr Darya (1859–1864): Meanwhile, Russia was advancing southeast up the Syr Darya from Ak-Mechet. In 1859, Julek was taken from Kokand. In 1861 a Russian fort was built at Julek and Yani Kurgan (Zhanakorgan)  upriver was taken. In 1862 Chernyaev reconnoitered the river as far as Hazrat-i-Turkestan and captured the small oasis of Suzak about  east of the river. In June 1864 Veryovkin took Hazrat-i-Turkestan from Kokand. He hastened surrender by bombarding the famous mausoleum.  Two Russian columns met in the  gap between Hazrat and Aulie-Ata, thereby completing the Syr-Darya Line.

1864–1868: Kokand and Bukhara subdued

Tashkent (1865): About  south of the new line was Chimkent (Shymkent) which belonged to Kokand. Chernayev easily took it on 3 October 1864.  On 15 October he suddenly appeared before Tashkent, failed to take it by sudden assault and retreated to Chimkent. Kokand then tried and failed to re-take Hazrat-i-Turkestan.  In April 1865 Chernayev made a second attack on Tashkent. Unable to take such a large place (it was said to have a garrison of 30,000) he occupied the town's water supply at Niazbek. The Kokand Regent Alim Kuli arrived with 6,000 more troops and almost defeated the Russians, but was killed in the fight. The inhabitants now offered to submit to the Emir of Bokhara in return for assistance. About 21 June a party of Bokharans entered the town and more Bokharan troops were on the move.  In this critical position Chernayev determined to risk a storm. At 3 a.m. on 27 June, Captain Abramov scaled the wall and opened the Kamelan Gate, advanced along the wall and opened a second gate while another party took the Kokand gate. That day and the next there was constant street fighting, but on the morning of the 29th a deputation of elders offered surrender.

Campaign of 1866: The Bokhara was now involved in the war. In February 1866 Chernayev crossed the Hungry Steppe to the Bokharan fort of Jizzakh. Finding the task impossible, he withdrew to Tashkent followed by Bokharans who were soon joined by Kokandis. At this point Chernayev was recalled for insubordination and replaced by Romanovsky. Romanovsky prepared to attack Bohkara, the Amir moved first, the two forces met on the plain of Irjar. Note: Near Kattakurgan, Uzbekistan about halfway between Jizzakh and Bokhara. The Bukharians scattered, losing most of their artillery, supplies and treasures and more than 1,000 killed, while the Russians lost 12 wounded. Instead of following him, Romanovsky turned east and took Khujand, thus closing the mouth of the Fergana Valley. The losses of the Kokand residents were more than 2.5 thousand killed, 130 Russians killed and wounded. Then he moved west and took Ura-Tepe  and Jizzakh from Bukhara. During the capture of Jizzak, the Bukharians lost 6,000 killed and 3,000 prisoners, as well as all the artillery. In total, during the campaign of 1866, the Russian troops lost 500 people killed and wounded, while the natives lost more than 12,000 killed. Defeats forced Bukhara to start peace talks.

Samarkand (1868): In July 1867 a new Province of Turkestan was created and placed under General von Kaufmann with its headquarters at Tashkent. The Bokharan Amir did not fully control his subjects, there were random raids and rebellions, so Kaufmann decided to hasten matters by attacking Samarkand. After he dispersed a Bokharan force Samarkand closed its gates to the Bokharan army and surrendered (May 1868).  He left a garrison in Samarkand and left to deal with some outlying areas. The garrison was besieged and in great difficulty until Kaufmann returned. On June 2, 1868, in a decisive battle on the Zerabulak heights, the Russians defeated the main forces of the Bukhara Emir, losing less than 100 people, while the Bukhara army lost from 3.5 to 10,000. On 5 July 1868 a peace treaty was signed. The Khanate of Bokhara lost Samarkand and remained a semi-independent vassal until the revolution. The Khanate of Kokand had lost its western territory, was confined to the Ferghana valley and surrounding mountains and remained independent for about 10 years. According to the Bregel's Atlas, if nowhere else, in 1870 the now-vassal Khanate of Bokhara expanded east and annexed that part of Bactria enclosed by the Turkestan Range, the Pamir plateau and the Afghan border.

1875–1876: Liquidation of the Kokand Khanate
In 1875 the Kokand Khanate rebelled against Russian rule. Kokand commanders Abdurakhman and Pulat bey seized power in the khanate and began military operations against the Russians. By July 1875 most of the Khan's army and much of his family had deserted to the rebels, so he fled to the Russians at Kojent along with a million British pounds of treasure. Kaufmann invaded the Khanate on September 1, fought several battles and entered the capital on September 10, 1875. In October he transferred command to Mikhail Skobelev.  Russian troops under the command of Skobelev and Kaufmann defeated the rebels at the Battle of Makhram. In 1876, the Russians freely entered Kokand, the leaders of the rebels were executed, and the khanate was abolished. Fergana Oblast was created in its place.

The Caspian side

Russia now held an approximately triangular area bounded by the eastern mountains and the vassal Khanate of Bokhara along most of the Oxus. The southern point was about  south of Siberia,  southeast of Orenburg and  southeast of the supply bases on the Volga. The next step was to turn this triangle into a rectangle by moving east across the Caspian Sea from the Caucasus. The Caucasus held many troops left over from the Russian conquest of the Caucasus but the Viceroy of the Caucasus had so far not been active in Turkestan.  The Caucasus has a fairly dense population but the east side of the Caspian is desert with significant population only in the oases of Khiva and along the Kopet Dag and at Merv in the south. The main events were the defeat of Khiva in 1873, the conquest of the Turkomans in 1881, the annexation of Merv in 1884 and the Panjdeh area in 1885.

For reference, these were the Russian bases on the north and east side of the Caspian:
Astrakhan (1556–): at the mouth of the Volga River with connections to the rest of Russia
Guryev (1645–): a small place at the mouth of the Ural River
Novo-Aleksandrovsky (1834–1846): a shallow port, overlooking Dead Kultuk Bay, that was soon abandoned as the local climate was too inhospitable
Alexandrovsk (1846–): important at this time but not later
Kenderli (?1873): a temporary base
Krasnovodsk (1869–) the best port and later headquarters of the Transcaspian Oblast and start of the Trans-Caspian railway
Chikishlyar (1871–?): a beach rather than a port
Ashuradeh (1837–?) a fort and naval station on land claimed by Persia.

1873: The conquest of Khiva

The decision to attack Khiva was made in December 1872. Khiva was an oasis surrounded by several hundred kilometres of desert. The Russians could easily defeat the Khivan army if they could move enough troops across the desert. The place was attacked from five directions. Kaufmann marched west from Tashkent and was joined by another army coming south from Aralsk. They met in the desert, ran short of water, abandoned part of their supplies and reached the Oxus in late May. Veryovkin left from Orenburg, had little difficulty moving along the west side of the Aral Sea and reached the northwest corner of the delta in mid-May. He was joined by Lomakin who had a hard time crossing the desert from the Caspian. Markozov started from Chikishlyar, ran short of water and was forced to turn back. Kaufmann crossed the Oxus, fought a few easy battles and on June 4 the Khan sued for peace. Meanwhile, Veryovkin, who was out of contact with Kaufmann, crossed the delta and attacked the city walls of Khiva until he was called off by Kaufmann. The Khanate of Khiva became a Russian protectorate and remained so until the Russian Revolution.

1879–1885: Turkmenistan: Geok Tepe, Merv and Panjdeh

The Turkoman country remained unconquered. The area corresponded to the Karakum Desert and was inhabited by the Turkoman desert nomads. Irrigation supported a settled population along the Amu Darya in the northeast and along the north slope of the Kopet Dag mountains in the southwest. East of the Kopet Dag two rivers, the Murghab and Tejen, flow north from Afghanistan, supporting the oases of Tejen and Merv. The semi-sedentary population would drive their flocks out into the desert in spring and fall. The Turkomans had no organized state. Some served as mercenaries for Khiva. They habitually raided Persia and sold the resulting slaves in the Khiva slave market. They also bred desert-adapted horses that could usually outrun anything the Cossacks had. Unlike the rather antiquated armies of the Khanates, the Turkomans were good raiders and horsemen, but they could do little against the Russians' modern weapons and explosive artillery. As usual, the main problem was moving men and supplies across the desert.

1879: Lomakin's defeat at Geok Tepe: Lazarev landed a large force at Chikishlyar and began moving men and supplies up the Atrek River. He died suddenly and Lomakin took command. Lomakin crossed the Kopet Dagh with too few men, made an incompetent attack on Geok Tepe and was forced to retreat. The warlike Teke put up resistance Russian observers assessed as "worthy of the best European armies," proof of that being the heavy losses, over 25 percent, the Russians suffered in combat. Russian officers additionally noted that the Turkmen position was "fortified in an exemplary manner, according to all the rules of modern fortification."

1881: Skobelev's bloody victory at Geok Tepe: Skobelev was put in command in March 1880. He spent most of the summer and fall moving men and supplies from Chikishlyar to the north side of the Kopet Dag. In December he marched southwest, besieged Geok Tepe for a month and took it by detonating a mine to breach the wall. At least 14,000 Tekes were killed. A week later he occupied Ashgabat  southeast, but could go no farther. In May 1881 the occupied area was annexed as the Transcaspian Oblast. The eastern boundary of the oblast was undefined.

1884: The annexation of Merv: The Trans-Caspian Railway reached Kyzyl Arbat at the northwest end of the Kopet Dag in mid-September 1881. From October through December Lessar surveyed the north side of the Kopet Dag and reported that there would be no problem building a railway along it. From April 1882 he examined the country almost to Herat and reported that were no military obstacles between the Kopet Dag and Afghanistan. Nazirov or Nazir Beg went to Merv in disguise and then crossed the desert to Bukhara and Tashkent.

The irrigated area along the Kopet Dag ends east of Ashkebat. Farther east there is desert, then the small oasis of Tejent, more desert, and the much larger oasis of Merv. Merv had the great fortress of Kaushut Khan and was inhabited by Merv Tekes, who had also fought at Geok Tepe. As soon as the Russians were established in Askhabad, traders, and also spies, began moving between the Kopet Dag and Merv. Some elders from Merv went north to Petroalexandrovsk and offered a degree of submission to the Russians there. The Russians at Askhabad had to explain that both groups were part of the same empire. In February 1882 Alikhanov visited Merv and approached Makhdum Kuli Khan, who had been in command at Geok Tepe. In September Alikhanov persuaded Makhdum Kuli Khan to swear allegiance to the White Czar.

Skobelev had been replaced by Rohrberg in the spring of 1881, who was followed General Komarov in the spring of 1883. Near the end of 1883, General Komarov led 1500 men to occupy the Tejen oasis. After Komarov's occupation of Tejen, Alikhanov and Makhdum Kuli Khan went to Merv and called a meeting of elders, one threatening and the other persuading. Having no wish to repeat the slaughter at Geok Tepe, 28 elders went to Askhabad and on February 12 swore allegiance in the presence of General Komarov.  A faction in Merv tried to resist but was too weak to accomplish anything.  On March 16, 1884, Komarov occupied Merv. The subject Khanates of Khiva and Bukhara were now surrounded by Russian territory.

1885: Expansion stopped at Panjdeh: Between Merv and the current Afghan border lies about  of semi-desert. South of that is the important border fort of Herat. In the summer of 1884 Britain and Russia agreed to demarcate the northwest Afghan border. The Russians did what they could to push the border south before it became frozen. When they captured the Afghan fort of Panjdeh, Britain came close to threatening war. Both sides backed down and the border was delineated between 1885 and 1886.

Cost: Russian military expense records indicate that between 1869 and 1879 the Transcaspian campaign cost 4.8 million rubles, the 1879–1880 expedition 5.525 million rubles, and the 1880–1881 expedition 11 million rubles. Railroad construction to that point cost 4,429,991 rubles, and construction materials another 3.518 million rubles. Total expenses from 1869 to 1881 amounted to 29,274,991 rubles.

1872–1895: The Eastern Mountains
The natural eastern boundary of Russian Turkestan was the eastern mountains, but the exact line had to be settled. There were four main problems.

1867–1877: Yakub Beg: East of the Feghana Valley and southeast of Fort Vernoye on the other side of the mountains is the oval Tarim Basin which had belonged to China since 1759. During the Dungan Revolt (1862–77) China lost partial control of its western territories. A man named Yakub Beg made himself master of Kashgar and most of the Tarim Basin. Kaufmann twice thought of attacking him. In 1872 forces were massed on the border but this was called off because of the impending war against Khiva.  In 1875 more serious plans were made. A mission was sent to the Khan of Kokand to ask permission to move forces through his domains. A revolt broke out and the Russian troops were used instead to annex Kokand (see below).  In 1877 China re-conquered the Tarim Basin and Yakub Beg was killed.

1871–1883: temporary occupation of Kulja: The Tien Shan mountains run along the northern border of Kyrgyzstan. They continue east and separate Dzungaria in the north from the Tarim Basin in the south. On the Chinese side the Borohoro Mountains branch off creating the upper Ili River valley with its capital of Kulja (modern Yining City).  Although normally part of Dzungaria the valley opens out onto the Russian-controlled steppe.  In 1866 the Dungans captured Kulja and massacred its inhabitants.  They soon began fighting with the Taranchis (Uigurs) who soon became dominant. In 1870 it appeared that Yakub Beg might move on Kulja so Kaufmann occupied the Muzart Pass. In June 1871 General Kolpakovsky crossed the border and occupied Kulja (4 July 1871).  Some talked of permanent occupation but the Russian Foreign Office told the Chinese that the province would be returned as soon as the Emperor could send enough troops to maintain order. In 1877 China regained control of Chinese Turkestan and requested the return of Kulja.  In September 1879 the Chinese ambassador concluded a treaty at Livadia but his government rejected it.  This was replaced by the more favorable Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881). Russia finally evacuated Kulja in the spring of 1883.  There were the usual border disputes and an additional protocol was signed at Chuguchak (Tacheng?) on October 19, 1883. The re-occupation of Kulja was one of the few Chinese successes against a Western power during the nineteenth century.

1893: Pamirs occupied:   The southeast corner of Russian Turkestan was the high Pamirs which is now the Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region  of Tajikistan.  The high plateaus on the east are used for summer pasture. On the west side difficult gorges run down to the Panj river and Bactria. In 1871 Alexei Pavlovich Fedchenko  got the Khan's permission to explore southward. He reached the Alay Valley but his escort would not permit him to go south onto the Pamir plateau.  In 1876 Skobelev chased a rebel south to the Alay Valley and Kostenko went over the Kyzylart Pass and mapped the area around Karakul Lake on the northeast part of the plateau. In the next 20 years most of the area was mapped.  In 1891 the Russians informed Francis Younghusband that he was on their territory and later escorted a Lieutenant Davidson out of the area ('Pamir Incident'). In 1892 a battalion of Russians under Mikhail Ionov entered the area and camped near the present Murghab, Tajikistan in the northeast. Next year they built a proper fort there (Pamirskiy Post). In 1895 their base was moved west to Khorog facing the Afghans. In 1893 the Durand Line established the Wakhan Corridor between the Russian Pamirs and British India.

The Great Game

The Great Game refers to British attempts to block Russian expansion southeast toward British India. Although there was much talk of a possible Russian invasion of India and a number of British agents and adventurers penetrated central Asia, the British did nothing serious to prevent the Russian conquest of Turkestan, with one exception.  Whenever Russian agents approached Afghanistan they reacted very strongly, seeing Afghanistan as a necessary buffer state for the defense of India.

A Russian invasion of India seems improbable, but a number of British writers considered how it might be done. When little was known about the geography it was thought that they could reach Khiva and sail up the Oxus to Afghanistan.  More realistically they might gain Persian support and cross northern Persia. Once in Afghanistan they would swell their armies with offers of loot and invade India. Alternatively, they might invade India and provoke a native rebellion.  The goal would probably not be the conquest of India but to put pressure on the British while Russia did something more important such as taking Constantinople.

In 1801 there was some loose talk of a joint Franco-Russian invasion of India. During the Russo-Persian War (1804–13) both British and French agents were active in Persia, their goals varying depending on which power was allied with Russia at the time. In 1810 Charles Christie and Henry Pottinger crossed western Afghanistan and eastern Persia.  Christie was killed in 1812 supporting the Persians at the Battle of Aslanduz. In 1819 Muraviev reached Khiva.  A Russian mission reached Bokhara in 1820. In 1825 Moorcroft reached Bukhara.  In 1830 Arthur Conolly tried to reach Khiva from Persia but was turned back by bandits and continued on to Herat and British India.  In 1832 Alexander Burnes reached Bokhara.

The period from 1837 to 1842 was especially active. In 1839,  at the time of Perovsky's failed attack on Khiva, Abbot went to Khiva to negotiate the release of Russian slaves held there in order to remove a pretext for the invasion. He failed.  Next year Richmond Shakespear went after him, was successful, and led 416 Russian slaves to the Caspian. In 1837 Jan Prosper Witkiewicz reached Kabul.  In 1838 Persia besieged Herat, with British and Russian agents supporting the two sides. Britain ended the siege by occupying a Persian island.  In 1838 Charles Stoddart went to Bokhara and was arrested. In 1841 Arthur Conolly went to secure his release and both were executed in 1842. During the First Anglo-Afghan War (1839–42) Britain invaded Afghanistan, was driven out, re-invaded and withdrew.

The British took Sindh in 1843 and Punjab in 1849, thereby gaining the Indus River and a border with Afghanistan. The Crimean War occurred in 1853–56. A second Persian attack on Herat led to the Anglo-Persian War of 1856–57. The Indian Mutiny occurred in 1857–58. This was about the time Russian was building forts east from the Aral Sea (1847–53).  The Russian capture of Tashkent (1865) and Samarkand(1868) produced no British response.

In 1875, following the conquest of Khiva, Frederick Gustavus Burnaby rode from Orenburg to Khiva, an event that was only important because of his widely-read book.  Kaufmann's intrigues in Kabul provoked the Second Anglo-Afghan War of 1878–80. During the second battle of Geok Tepe Colonel Charles Stewart was on the south side of the mountain doing something that has never been clarified.

On the Chinese side of the mountains a line of passes corresponding the Karakoram Highway provided a trade and pilgrim route from the Tarim Basin to India. It was not clear whether this could be used by an army. At the time of Yakub Beg both Russian and British agents were active at his court. A number of Indians in the British service mapped the area around the Pamirs. Russian expansion in the Pamirs provoked the British to move northward and gain control of places like Hunza and Chitral.

The Great Game came to an end with the demarcation of the northern Afghan border in 1886 and 1893 and the Anglo-Russian Entente of 1907.

Notes

Citations

References and further reading

Bregel, Yuri. An Historical Atlas of Central Asia, 2003.
 Brower, Daniel.  Turkestan and the Fate of the Russian Empire (London) 2003
 Curzon, G.N. Russia in Central Asia (London) 1889 online free
Ewans, Martin. Securing the Indian frontier in Central Asia: Confrontation and negotiation, 1865–1895 (Routledge, 2010).
Hopkirk, Peter. The Great Game: The Struggle for Empire in Central Asia, John Murray, 1990.

Johnson, Robert. Spying for empire: the great game in Central and South Asia, 1757–1947 (Greenhill Books/Lionel Leventhal, 2006).
Malikov, A.M. The Russian conquest of the Bukharan emirate: military and diplomatic aspects in Central Asian Survey, volume 33, issue 2, 2014.
Mancall, Mark. Russia and China: Their Diplomatic Relations to 1728, Harvard University press, 1971.
McKenzie, David. The Lion of Tashkent: The Career of General M. G. Cherniaev, University of Georgia Press, 1974.
Middleton, Robert and Huw Thomas. Tajikistan and the High Pamirs, Odyssey Books, 2008.
 Morris, Peter. "The Russians in Central Asia, 1870–1887." Slavonic and East European Review 53.133 (1975): 521–538 online.
Morrison, Alexander. "Introduction: Killing the Cotton Canard and getting rid of the Great Game: rewriting the Russian conquest of Central Asia, 1814–1895." (2014): 131–142. online
Morrison, Alexander. Russian rule in Samarkand 1868–1910: A comparison with British India (Oxford UP, 2008).
Peyrouse, Sébastien. "Nationhood and the minority question in Central Asia. The Russians in Kazakhstan." Europe–Asia Studies 59.3 (2007): 481–501.
 Pierce, Richard A. Russian Central Asia, 1867–1917: a study in colonial rule (1960) online free to borrow
Quested, Rosemary. The expansion of Russia in East Asia, 1857–1860 (University of Malaya Press, 1968).
Saray, Mehmet. "The Russian conquest of central Asia." Central Asian Survey 1.2-3 (1982): 1–30.
 Schuyler, Eugene.  Turkistan (London) 1876 2 Vols. online free
Skrine, Francis Henry, The Heart of Asia, circa 1900.
Spring, Derek W. "Russian imperialism in Asia in 1914." Cahiers du monde russe et soviétique (1979): 305–322 online
Sunderland, Willard. "The Ministry of Asiatic Russia: the colonial office that never was but might have been." Slavic Review (2010): 120–150 online.
Valikhanov, Chokan Chingisovich, Mikhail Ivanovich Venyukov, and Other Travelers. The Russians in Central Asia: Their Occupation of the Kirghiz Steppe and the line of the Syr-Daria: Their Political Relations with Khiva, Bokhara, and Kokan: Also Descriptions of Chinese Turkestan and Dzungaria, Edward Stanford, 1865.
 Wheeler, Geoffrey. The Russians in Central Asia History Today. March 1956, 6#3 pp 172–180.
 Wheeler, Geoffrey. The modern history of Soviet Central Asia  (1964). online free to borrow
Williams, Beryl. "Approach to the Second Afghan War: Central Asia during the Great Eastern Crisis, 1875–1878." 'International History Review 2.2 (1980): 216–238.
Yapp, M. E. Strategies of British India. Britain, Iran and Afghanistan, 1798–1850'' (Oxford: Clarendon Press 1980)

Central Asia in the Russian Empire
Wars involving the Russian Empire
19th-century military history of the Russian Empire
Territorial evolution of Russia
Russian military occupations

Russian conquest of Central Asia