The Mac transition to Apple silicon was the process of changing the central processing units (CPUs) of Apple Inc.'s line of Mac computers from Intel's x86-64 processors to Apple-designed systems on a chip that use the ARM64 architecture.

Apple CEO Tim Cook announced a "two-year transition plan" to Apple silicon on June 22, 2020. The first Macs with Apple-designed systems on a chip were released that November; the last, the Mac Pro, was released in June 2023, completing the transition in three years.

The transition was the third time Apple had switched the Macintosh to a new instruction set architecture. The first was from the Motorola 68000 series to PowerPC chips in 1994, and the second was from PowerPC to Intel processors using the x86 architecture in 2005–2006.

Background

The first Macintoshes, introduced in 1984, were based on the Motorola 68000 architecture. In the early 1990s, Apple evaluated several possibilities, then switched to the PowerPC family it co-developed with IBM and Motorola. It switched again, starting in 2005, to Intel 32-bit and 64-bit x86. In 2011, Mac OS X Lion dropped support for Macs with 32-bit processors; in 2019, macOS Catalina dropped support for 32-bit Intel apps. Supported 64-bit Intel systems can still boot the latest versions of macOS.

The genesis of the third switch began in 1985, when Acorn's ARM architecture was spotted by Apple's Advanced Technology Group, an internal research laboratory. The ATG thought it might replace the MOS 6502 of the Apple II range or the 68000 of the original Macintosh, or become the basis of a tablet device, under Paul Gavarini and Tom Pittard, in a project labelled Möbius.  A partnership was established with Acorn Computers, and VLSI in 1990, and work began on a chip for small devices. The first Apple products with an ARM system on a chip were the 1993 Newton personal digital assistant, the 2001 iPod, and the 2007 iPhone. Apple has designed its own custom ARM chips since 2009, which it has since used in its iPhone, iPad, iPod, Apple TV, Apple Watch, AirPods, Beats, AirPort Time Capsule and HomePod products. Between October 2016 and August 2020, Intel-based Macs with Apple-designed ARM co-processors were released.

In the 2010s, media reports documented Apple's frustrations and challenges with the pace and quality of Intel's technology development. Apple reportedly had trouble with Intel modems for iPhones in 2017 due to technical issues and missed deadlines. Meanwhile, a 2018 report suggested that Intel chip issues prompted a redesign of the MacBook. In 2019, Apple blamed Intel processor shortages for a decline in Mac sales. In June 2020, former Intel principal engineer François Piednoël said Intel's "abnormally bad" quality assurance in its Skylake processors, making Apple "the number one filer of problems in the architecture", helped Apple decide to migrate. Intel CTO Mike Mayberry countered that quality assurance problems may arise at large scale from any CPU vendor.

History

Early involvement with ARM

In 1983, Acorn Computers started working on a project to design its own CPU architecture and instructions set, called the Acorn RISC Machine (ARM). In 1985, Apple's Advanced Technology Group worked with Acorn to create an experimental prototype, code-named Mobius, to replace the Apple II, using a modified ARM processor. The project was cancelled but Apple again partnered with Acorn when it needed a low-power, efficient processor for its future Newton PDA. In 1990, a new joint-venture was created between Acorn, Apple and VLSI Technology with the goal of pursuing the development of the ARM processor. The company was named Advanced RISC Machines Ltd, becoming the new meaning of the ARM acronym. One of the first designs of the new company would be the ARM610 SoC, initially for Apple, that allowed the Endianness to be swapped, increased the address space from 26 bit (64 MB) to 32 bit (4 GB), and modified the memory management unit. Apple held a 43% stake in the company, which was reduced to 14.8% in 1999.

Switch from PowerPC to Intel

In 2005 and 2006, Apple moved its Macintosh computers from IBM's PowerPC CPUs to Intel's x86 CPU architecture. At his 2005 WWDC keynote address, Steve Jobs said that continuing to use PowerPC processors, which consumed more energy than Intel chips, would prevent Apple from making better workstation computers and laptops. "As we look ahead, we can envision some amazing products we want to build...And we don't know how to build them with the future PowerPC roadmap", Jobs said.

By June 2006, only Apple's high-end desktop computer and server products were still using PowerPC processors. The hardware transition was completed when Intel-based Mac Pros and Xserve computers were announced in August 2006 and shipped by the end of the year.

Apple ceased support for booting on PowerPC as of Mac OS X 10.6 "Snow Leopard" in August 2009, three years after the transition was complete. Support for PowerPC applications via Rosetta was dropped from macOS in 10.7 "Lion" in July 2011, five years after the transition was complete.

Processor development

In 2008, Apple bought processor company P.A. Semi for  million. At the time, it was reported that Apple bought P.A. Semi for its intellectual property and engineering talent. CEO Steve Jobs later claimed that P.A. Semi would develop system-on-chips for Apple's iPods and iPhones. Following the acquisition, Apple signed a rare "Architecture license" with ARM, allowing the company to design its own core, using the ARM instruction set. The first Apple-designed chip was the A4, released in 2010, which debuted in the first-generation iPad, then in the iPhone 4. Apple subsequently released a number of products with its own processors.

Rumors of Apple shifting Macintosh to custom-designed ARM processors began circulating in 2011, when SemiAccurate predicted it would happen by mid-2013. In 2014, MacRumors reported that Apple was testing an ARM-based Mac prototype with a large Magic Trackpad. In 2018, Bloomberg reported that Apple was planning to use its own chips based on the ARM architecture beginning in 2020.

The Apple A12X Bionic processor used in the iPad Pro (3rd generation) reportedly roughly matched the performance of Intel's Core i7 processor used in the MacBook Pro at the time.

In the months and weeks leading up to Apple's 2020 WWDC, multiple media reports anticipated an official announcement of the transition during the event.

Transition process

2020
Apple announced its plans to shift the Macintosh platform to Apple silicon at WWDC in June 2020. The entire transition of the Macintosh product line was expected to take "about two years", with the first ARM-based Macs released by the end of 2020. Similar language was used during Apple's 2005–2006 transition to Intel, which actually took about one year.

All Apple apps included with macOS Big Sur are compatible with x86-64 and ARM architectures. Many third-party apps are similarly being made dual-platform, including prominent software packages such as Adobe Photoshop and Microsoft Word.

To enable x86-native software to run on new ARM-based Macs, Apple embedded Rosetta 2 dynamic binary translation software in Big Sur. Universal binary 2 enabled application developers to support both x86-64 and ARM64.

To enable developers to create software for ARM-based Macs before they went on sale, Apple introduced the Universal App Quick Start Program, which allowed developers to pay $500 to rent a Developer Transition Kit (DTK), a computer built around the A12Z chip originally used in the iPad Pro (4th generation) and housed in a Mac Mini case.

In November 2020, Apple announced the Apple M1, its first ARM-based system on a chip to be used in Macs, alongside updated models of the Mac Mini, MacBook Air and 13-inch MacBook Pro based on it.

2021
In April 2021, Apple released a redesigned 24-inch iMac based on the M1 to replace the 21.5-inch Intel model.

In October 2021, Apple announced the M1 Pro and M1 Max, and updated 14-inch and 16-inch MacBook Pro models based on them. The M1 Pro and M1 Max use integrated Apple-designed GPUs, replacing the integrated and discrete GPUs supplied by Intel and AMD, and lack support for external GPUs. Apple discontinued all of their Intel-based laptops following the announcement.

2022
In March 2022, Apple announced the Mac Studio, a new high-end desktop model that uses the M1 Ultra, a dual-SoC configuration of two M1 Max chips. Apple concurrently discontinued the 27-inch Intel-based iMac, leaving the Mac Pro and Core i5/i7 Mac Mini as the last Intel-based Macs. Senior vice president of hardware engineering John Ternus confirmed the development of an Apple Silicon-based Mac Pro.

2023
In January 2023, Apple announced updated Mac Mini models based on the M2 and M2 Pro, and discontinued the previous Intel Core i5/i7 model, leaving the Mac Pro as the last Intel-based Mac.

On June 5, 2023, Apple announced an Apple silicon Mac Pro based on the M2 Ultra chip during the 2023 Worldwide Developers Conference keynote. The Intel Mac Pro was discontinued, completing the "two-year transition" to Apple silicon three years after announcing it, or two years and seven months between the release of the first Apple silicon Mac and discontinuation of the last Intel Mac.

Impact
In June 2020, tech analyst Daniel Newman estimated that Apple accounted for $1.5 billion to $3.0 billion (about 2% to 4%) of Intel's annual revenue, and only 6.9% to 12% of the PC market in the United States and 7% globally. Some speculated that Apple's move away from Intel chips could prompt other customers to do the same. CNET speculated that the transition might reduce Apple's component costs.

Users and developers
Apps created for the iOS platform can run natively on ARM-powered Macs.

The transition could restrict or even eliminate hobbyist "Hackintosh" computers, which use commodity PC hardware to run macOS, in violation of license restrictions.

The Boot Camp software, which enables Intel-based Macs to natively run Microsoft Windows in an Apple-supported dual booting environment, will not be implemented on Apple silicon-based Macs. , Apple said it has "no plans to direct boot into Windows" on ARM-based Macintosh computers. Apple's senior vice president of Software Engineering Craig Federighi suggested that virtualization technology is a viable alternative: "Purely virtualization is the route... Hypervisors can be very efficient, so the need to direct boot shouldn't really be the concern."

As of 2022, Parallels Desktop for Mac preloads an ARM64 version of Windows 11 onto Apple Silicon-based Macs, and can also run ARM64 Windows 10 and Linux. Microsoft officially endorses the use of Parallels Desktop for Mac to run Windows 11.

Reception
Before Apple released M1 Macs, Wired expressed skepticism that Apple's designers could use smartphone-related processors to drive a Mac Pro. It also questioned Apple's vague commitment to allow Intel binaries to run on ARM-based Macs "for years to come" and wondered which upcoming version of macOS would cease to support Intel Macs.

Lauren Giret remarked that Apple might "succeed where Microsoft has failed" due to Apple's "tight integration" of hardware and software, and a vast collection of applications that can already run on the new platform.

When systems containing M1 processors were released, they received near-universal acclaim for their high speed and low energy consumption.

Timeline
June 22, 2020: Apple announced its plans to shift the Macintosh platform to Apple silicon at WWDC. Apple introduces the Universal App Quick Start Program, which allowed developers to pay $500 to rent a Developer Transition Kit (DTK), a computer built around the A12Z chip originally used in the iPad Pro (4th generation) and housed in a Mac Mini case.
 November 11, 2020, Apple announced the Apple M1, its first ARM-based system on a chip to be used in Macs. M1 versions of the Mac Mini, MacBook Air and 13-inch MacBook Pro are announced, replacing their Intel counterparts.
 April 24, 2021, Apple released a 24-inch iMac based on the M1, replacing the 21.5-inch and 27-inch Intel iMac's.
 October 26, 2021, Apple announced the M1 Pro and M1 Max, and updated 14-inch and 16-inch MacBook Pro models based on them, replacing their Intel counterparts. Apple discontinued all of their Intel-based laptops following the announcement.
 March 8, 2022, Apple announced the Mac Studio, a new high-end desktop model that uses the M1 Ultra, replacing the 27-inch Intel iMac. Senior vice president of hardware engineering John Ternus confirmed the development of an Apple Silicon-based Mac Pro.
 January 17, 2023, Apple announced updated Mac Mini models based on the M2 and M2 Pro, replacing the Intel Core i5/i7 model.
 June 5, 2023: "Transition Complete" - Apple announced an Apple silicon Mac Pro based on the M2 Ultra chip during the 2023 Worldwide Developers Conference keynote, replacing the Intel Mac Pro.
 June 5, 2028: Intel hardware will reach "vintage" status after having been discontinued five years prior, ending most of Apple's service and parts support for Intel hardware.
 June 5, 2030: Intel hardware will reach "obsolete" status after having been discontinued seven years prior, ending all of Apple's service and parts support for Intel hardware.

See also
 Mac transition to Intel processors
 Apple silicon
 Fat binary

References

Macintosh platform

Mac transition to Apple silicon


Martian soil is the fine regolith (a blanket of unconsolidated, loose, heterogeneous superficial deposits covering solid rock) found on the surface of Mars. Its properties can differ significantly from those of terrestrial soil, including its toxicity due to the presence of perchlorates. The term Martian soil typically refers to the finer fraction of regolith. So far, no samples have been returned to Earth, the goal of a Mars sample-return mission, but the soil has been studied remotely with the use of Mars rovers and Mars orbiters.

On Earth, the term "soil" usually includes organic content. In contrast, planetary scientists adopt a functional definition of soil to distinguish it from rocks. Rocks generally refer to 10 cm scale and larger materials (e.g., fragments, breccia, and exposed outcrops) with high thermal inertia, with areal fractions consistent with the Viking Infrared Thermal Mapper (IRTM) data, and immobile under current aeolian (wind) conditions. Consequently, rocks classify as grains exceeding the size of cobbles on the Wentworth scale.

This approach enables agreement across Martian remote sensing methods that span the electromagnetic spectrum from gamma to radio waves. ''Soil'' refers to all other, typically unconsolidated, material including those sufficiently fine-grained to be mobilized by wind. Soil consequently encompasses a variety of regolith components identified at landing sites. Typical examples include: bedform (a feature that develops at the interface of fluid and a moveable bed such as ripples and dunes), clasts (fragments of pre-existing minerals and rock such as sediment deposits), concretions, drift, dust, rocky fragments, and sand. The functional definition reinforces a recently proposed generic definition of soil on terrestrial bodies (including asteroids and satellites) as an unconsolidated and chemically weathered surficial layer of fine-grained mineral or organic material exceeding centimeter scale thickness, with or without coarse elements and cemented portions.

Martian dust generally connotes even finer materials than Martian soil, the fraction which is less than 30 micrometres in diameter. Disagreement over the significance of soil's definition arises due to the lack of an integrated concept of soil in the literature. The pragmatic definition "medium for plant growth" has been commonly adopted in the planetary science community but a more complex definition describes soil as "(bio)geochemically/physically altered material at the surface of a planetary body that encompasses surficial extraterrestrial telluric deposits." This definition emphasizes that soil is a body that retains information about its environmental history and that does not need the presence of life to form.

Toxicity

Martian soil is toxic, due to relatively high concentrations of perchlorate compounds containing chlorine. Elemental chlorine was first discovered during localised investigations by Mars rover Sojourner, and has been confirmed by Spirit, Opportunity and Curiosity. The Mars Odyssey orbiter has also detected perchlorates across the surface of the planet.

The NASA Phoenix lander first detected chlorine-based compounds such as calcium perchlorate. The levels detected in the Martian soil are around 0.5%, which is a level considered toxic to humans. These compounds are also toxic to plants. A 2013 terrestrial study found that a similar level of concentration to that found on Mars (0.5 g per liter) caused:
 a significant decline in the chlorophyll content in plant leaves,
 reduction in the oxidizing power of plant roots
 reduction in the size of the plant both above and below ground
 an accumulation of concentrated perchlorates in the leaves
The report noted that one of the types of plant studied, Eichhornia crassipes, seemed resistant to the perchlorates and could be used to help remove the toxic salts from the environment, although the plants themselves would end up containing a high concentration of perchlorates as a result.
There is evidence that some bacterial lifeforms are able to overcome perchlorates by physiological adaptations to increasing perchlorate concentrations, and some even live off them. However, the added effect of the high levels of UV reaching the surface of Mars breaks the molecular bonds, creating even more dangerous chemicals which in lab tests on Earth were shown to be more lethal to bacteria than the perchlorates alone.

Dust hazard

The potential danger to human health of the fine Martian dust has long been recognized by NASA. A 2002 study warned about the potential threat, and a study was carried out using the most common silicates found on Mars: olivine, pyroxene and feldspar. It found that the dust reacted with small amounts of water to produce highly reactive molecules that are also produced during the mining of quartz and known to produce lung disease in miners on Earth, including cancer (the study also noted that lunar dust may be worse).

Following on from this, since 2005 NASA's Mars Exploration Program Analysis Group (MEPAG) has had a goal to determine the possible toxic effects of the dust on humans. In 2010, the group noted that although the Phoenix lander and the rovers Spirit and Opportunity had contributed to answering this question, none of the instruments have been suitable for measuring the particular carcinogens that are of concern. The Mars 2020 rover is an astrobiology mission that will also make measurements to help designers of a future human expedition understand any hazards posed by Martian dust. It employs the following related instruments:
 MEDA, a set of atmospheric sensors that measure various things including radiation, and dust size and shape.
 PIXL, an X-ray fluorescence spectrometer to determine the fine scale elemental composition of Martian surface materials.
 SHERLOC, an ultraviolet Raman spectrometer that uses fine-scale imaging and an ultraviolet (UV) laser to determine fine-scale mineralogy

The Mars 2020 rover mission will cache samples that could potentially be retrieved by a future mission for their transport to Earth. Any questions about dust toxicity that have not already been answered in situ can then be tackled by labs on Earth.

Observations

Mars is covered with vast expanses of sand and dust and its surface is littered with rocks and boulders. The dust is occasionally picked up in vast planet-wide dust storms. Mars dust is very fine, and enough remains suspended in the atmosphere to give the sky a reddish hue. The reddish hue is due to rusting iron minerals presumably formed a few billion years ago when Mars was warm and wet, but now that Mars is cold and dry, modern rusting may be due to a superoxide that forms on minerals exposed to ultraviolet rays in sunlight. The sand is believed to move only slowly in the Martian winds due to the very low density of the atmosphere in the present epoch. In the past, liquid water flowing in gullies and river valleys may have shaped the Martian regolith. Mars researchers are studying whether groundwater sapping is shaping the Martian regolith in the present epoch, and whether carbon dioxide hydrates exist on Mars and play a role.

It is believed that large quantities of water and carbon dioxide  ices remain frozen within the regolith in the equatorial parts of Mars and on its surface at higher latitudes. According to the High Energy Neutron Detector of the Mars Odyssey satellite the water content of Martian regolith is up to 5% by weight. The presence of olivine, which is an easily weatherable primary mineral, has been interpreted to mean that physical rather than chemical weathering processes currently dominate on Mars. High concentrations of ice in soils are thought to be the cause of accelerated soil creep, which forms the rounded "softened terrain" characteristic of the Martian midlatitudes.

In June 2008, the Phoenix lander returned data showing Martian soil to be slightly alkaline and containing vital nutrients such as magnesium, sodium, potassium and chloride, all of which are ingredients for living organisms to grow on Earth. Scientists compared the soil near Mars' north pole to that of backyard gardens on Earth, and concluded that it could be suitable for growth of plants. However, in August 2008, the Phoenix Lander conducted simple chemistry experiments, mixing water from Earth with Martian soil in an attempt to test its pH, and discovered traces of the salt perchlorate, while also confirming many scientists' theories that the Martian surface was considerably basic, measuring at 8.3. The presence of the perchlorate makes Martian soil more exotic than previously believed (see Toxicity section). Further testing was necessary to eliminate the possibility of the perchlorate readings being caused by terrestrial sources, which at the time were thought could have migrated from the spacecraft either into samples or the instrumentation. However, each new lander has confirmed their presence in the soil locally and the Mars Odyssey orbiter confirmed they are spread globally across the entire surface of the planet.

In 1999 the Mars Pathfinder rover performed an indirect electrostatics measurement of the Martian regolith. The Wheel Abrasion Experiment (WAE) was designed with fifteen metal samples and film insulators mounted on the wheel to reflect sunlight to a photovoltaic sensor. Lander cameras showed dust accumulating on the wheels as the rover moved and the WAE detected a drop in the amount of light hitting the sensor. It is believed that the dust may have acquired an electrostatic charge as the wheels rolled across the surface causing the dust to adhere to the film surface.

While scientific understanding of Martian soils is extremely rudimentary, their diversity may raise the question of how we might compare them with our Earth-based soils. Applying an Earth-based system is largely debatable but a simple option is to distinguish the (largely) biotic Earth from the abiotic Solar System, and include all non-Earth soils in a new World Reference Base for Soil Resources Reference Group or USDA soil taxonomy Order, which might be tentatively called Astrosols.

On October 17, 2012 (Curiosity rover at "Rocknest"), the first X-ray diffraction analysis of Martian soil was performed. The results revealed the presence of several minerals, including feldspar, pyroxenes and olivine, and suggested that the Martian soil in the sample was similar to the "weathered basaltic soils" of Hawaiian volcanoes. Hawaiian volcanic ash has been used as Martian regolith simulant by researchers since 1998.

In December 2012, scientists working on the Mars Science Laboratory mission announced that an extensive soil analysis of Martian soil performed by the Curiosity rover showed evidence of water molecules, sulphur and chlorine, as well as hints of organic compounds. However, terrestrial contamination, as the source of the organic compounds, could not be ruled out.

On September 26, 2013, NASA scientists reported the Mars Curiosity rover detected "abundant, easily accessible" water (1.5 to 3 weight percent) in soil samples at the Rocknest region of Aeolis Palus in Gale Crater. In addition, NASA reported that the Curiosity rover found two principal soil types: a fine-grained mafic type and a locally derived, coarse-grained felsic type. The mafic type, similar to other Martian soils and Martian dust, was associated with hydration of the amorphous phases of the soil. Also, perchlorates, the presence of which may make detection of life-related organic molecules difficult, were found at the Curiosity rover landing site (and earlier at the more polar site of the Phoenix lander) suggesting a "global distribution of these salts". NASA also reported that Jake M rock, a rock encountered by Curiosity on the way to Glenelg, was a mugearite and very similar to terrestrial mugearite rocks.

On April 11, 2019, NASA announced that the Curiosity rover on Mars drilled into, and closely studied, a "clay-bearing unit" which, according to the rover Project Manager, is a "major milestone" in Curiosity journey up Mount Sharp.

Humans will need in situ resources for colonising Mars. That demands an understanding of the local unconsolidated bulk sediment, but the classification of such sediment remains a work in progress. Too little of the entire Martian surface is known to draw a sufficiently representative picture. In the meantime, it is correct to better use the term soil for indicating unconsolidated sediment of Mars.

Atmospheric dust

Similarly sized dust will settle from the thinner Martian atmosphere sooner than it would on Earth. For example, the dust suspended by the 2001 global dust storms on Mars only remained in the Martian atmosphere for 0.6 years, while the dust from Mount Pinatubo took about two years to settle. However, under current Martian conditions, the mass movements involved are generally much smaller than on Earth. Even the 2001 global dust storms on Mars moved only the equivalent of a very thin dust layer – about 3 µm thick if deposited with uniform thickness between 58° north and south of the equator. Dust deposition at the two rover sites has proceeded at a rate of about the thickness of a grain every 100 sols.

The difference in the concentration of dust in Earth's atmosphere and that of Mars stems from a key factor. On Earth, dust that leaves atmospheric suspension usually gets aggregated into larger particles through the action of soil moisture or gets suspended in oceanic waters. It helps that most of Earth's surface is covered by liquid water. Neither process occurs on Mars, leaving deposited dust available for suspension back into the Martian atmosphere. In fact, the composition of Martian atmospheric dust – very similar to surface dust – as observed by the Mars Global Surveyor Thermal Emission Spectrometer, may be volumetrically dominated by composites of plagioclase feldspar and zeolite which can be mechanically derived from Martian basaltic rocks without chemical alteration. Observations of the Mars Exploration Rovers' magnetic dust traps suggest that about 45% of the elemental iron in atmospheric dust is maximally oxidized () and that nearly half exists in titanomagnetite, both consistent with mechanical derivation of dust with aqueous alteration limited to just thin films of water. Collectively, these observations support the absence of water-driven dust aggregation processes on Mars. Furthermore, wind activity dominates the surface of Mars at present, and the abundant dune fields of Mars can easily yield particles into atmospheric suspension through effects such as larger grains disaggregating fine particles through collisions.

The Martian atmospheric dust particles are generally 3 µm in diameter. It is important to note that while the atmosphere of Mars is thinner, Mars also has a lower gravitational acceleration, so the size of particles that will remain in suspension cannot be estimated with atmospheric thickness alone. Electrostatic and van der Waals forces acting among fine particles introduce additional complexities to calculations. Rigorous modeling of all relevant variables suggests that 3 µm diameter particles can remain in suspension indefinitely at most wind speeds, while particles as large as 20 µm diameter can enter suspension from rest at surface wind turbulence as low as 2 ms−1 or remain in suspension at 0.8 ms−1.

In July 2018, researchers reported that the largest single source of dust on the planet Mars comes from the Medusae Fossae Formation.

Research on Earth

Research on Earth is currently limited to using Martian soil simulants, such as the MGS-1 simulant produced by Exolith Lab, which are based on the analysis from the various Mars spacecraft. These are a terrestrial material that is used to simulate the chemical and mechanical properties of Martian regolith for research, experiments and prototype testing of activities related to Martian soil such as dust mitigation of transportation equipment, advanced life support systems and in-situ resource utilization.

A number of Mars sample return missions are being planned, which would allow actual Martian soil to be returned to Earth for more advanced analysis than is possible in situ on the surface of Mars. This should allow even more accurate simulants. The first of these missions is a multi-part mission beginning with the Mars 2020 lander. This will collect samples over a long period. A second lander will then gather the samples and return them to Earth.

Gallery

See also

 Martian soil simulant
 Aeolis quadrangle
 Carbonates on Mars
 Composition of Mars
 Gale Crater
 Geology of Mars
 List of rocks on Mars
 Martian regolith simulant
 Mineralogy of Mars
 Scientific information from the Mars Exploration Rover mission
 Water on Mars

References

External links
 Video (04:32) - Evidence: Water "Vigorously" Flowed On Mars - September, 2012

Mars
Missions to Mars
Regolith
Rocks on Mars
Surface features of Mars
Water on Mars

Martian soil


Tazza D'Oro () is a café and espresso bar located in Pittsburgh.  The name means "Golden Cup/Mug" in Italian.  The main location is in Highland Park neighborhood, where it has become a centerpiece of neighborhood  There is a second location in the Gates and Hillman Centers at Carnegie Mellon University.

It has been identified as part of a trend for higher quality coffee in Pittsburgh.

The European-style cafe serves only single-origin coffee.  The current coffee roaster is Verve, located in Santa Cruz, California.  The cafe has acquired a reputation as being bicycle-friendly, and in honor of those customers, the cafe offers a special coffee roast called "Bicycle Love."  All told, about 70% of the food is locally sourced.  This includes the pastries, which are produced by the family's bakery.  The cafe displays post cards from customers' travels.

The owner is Amy Enrico.  She is a graduate of University of Pittsburgh and was a co-founder of nTouch Research, Inc., a company that had conducted medical tests for pharmaceutical companies.  Her travels, including to Seattle, inspired her dream of owning a coffee shop.  Her family owns Enrico's Bakery in Jeannette, Pennsylvania.  Now in its 3rd generation of family ownership, the bakery is managed by her brother.

It opened in June 1999.  Enrico had received assistance from Community Development Corporation, a non-profit group that assists redevelopment in Highland Park.  As of 2000, the coffee shop had grown to 12 employees.  The shop's original coffee roasters was Batdorf and Bronson, and later to Verve Coffee Roasters, a small company in Santa Cruz, California  For a time, there had been a location on Penn Avenue in the Pittsburgh Central Downtown Historic District portion of Downtown Pittsburgh.  In 2009, a new location opened in the Gates and Hillman Centers at Carnegie Mellon University.  A number of businesses had sought to locate in that building, and Tazza D'Oro's offer was aided by the commitment to "fair trade and organically grown coffee."

In 2009, Tazza D'Oro celebrated its 10-year anniversary with more than 200 customers who enjoyed coffee and offerings from East End Brewing Company.  Enrico has worked with East Liberty Development Inc. to attract more businesses to the neighboring area, especially Bryant Street.

The cafe periodically hosts local officials for discussions with constituents.

See also
Crazy Mocha Coffee Company

Notes

References

External links

Coffeehouses and cafés in the United States
Companies based in Pittsburgh
American companies established in 1999
Restaurants established in 1999
Culture of Pittsburgh
1999 establishments in Pennsylvania

Tazza d'Oro (Pittsburgh)


Terence Michael "Terry" Clarke C.M. (born August 20, 1944, Vancouver) is a Canadian jazz drummer.

Clarke studied percussion with Jim Blackley and played with Chris Gage and Dave Robbins early in his career. From 1965 to 1967 he toured in a quintet with John Handy, and joined The Fifth Dimension in 1967, remaining with the ensemble until 1969.

In 1970, he moved to Toronto, where he began a longstanding association with Rob McConnell's group, Boss Brass; he also played with Ed Bickert, Ruby Braff, Jim Galloway, Sonny Greenwich, Jay McShann, Emily Remler, and Frank Rosolino. In 1976, he toured with Jim Hall for the first time and in 1981 did an international tour with Oscar Peterson.

He relocated to New York City in 1985, where he played or recorded with Toshiko Akiyoshi, Eddie Daniels, Oliver Jones, Roger Kellaway, Helen Merrill, Ken Peplowski, and Joe Roccisano, among others. He played with the Free Trade ensemble in 1994, a quintet composed of Clarke, Ralph Bowen, Neil Swainson, Renee Rosnes, and Peter Leitch.

Clarke returned to Toronto in 1999, where he joined The Rob McConnell Tentet.  Clarke's 2009 debut album It's About Time won a Juno Award for Traditional Jazz Album of the Year.

Clarke was appointed a Member of the Order of Canada in 2002.

Discography

As a leader
 It's About Time (Blue Music Group, 2009)

As a sideman
With Ed Bickert
 Ed Bickert (PM, 1976)
 I Like To Recognize The Tune (United Artists, 1977)
 Jazz Canada Europe '79 (Radio Canada International, 1979)
 I Wished On The Moon (Concord Jazz, 1985)
 The Guitar Mastery Of Ed Bickert (Unidisc, 1996)
 Out Of The Past (Sackville Recordings, 2006)

with Ed Bickert Trio & Dave McKenna

 Third Floor Richard (Concord Jazz, 1989)

with Dave Stahl Band

 Standard Issue (Abee Cake Records, 1991)

with Ed Bickert & Don Thompson

 At The Garden Party (Sackville Recordings, 2004)

with Jim Hall

 Jim Hall Live! (A&M, 1975)
 Jim Hall Live in Tokyo (A&M, 1976)
 Commitment (Horizon, 1976)
 Jazz Impressions of Japan (Horizon, 1977)
 Circles (Concord Jazz, 1981)
 All Across the City (Concord Jazz, 1989)
 Jim Hall Live In Tokyo - Complete Version (King Record Co., 1991)
 Live At Town Hall Volumes 1 & 2 (Jazz Heritage, 1991)
 Subsequently (MusicMasters, 1992)
 Carnegie Hall Concert (Columbia, 1992)
 Textures (Telarc, 1997)
 Panorama - Live At The Village Vanguard (Telarc, 1997)
 By Arrangement (Telarc, 1998)
 Jazzpar Quartet + 4 (Storyville, 1998)

with Eddie Higgins

 Speaking of Jobim (Sunnyside, 1998)

with Oliver Jones

 Cookin' at Sweet Basil (Justin Time, 1988)

with Dave Liebman/Mike Murley Quartet

 Live at U of T (U of T Jazz, 2017)

with Oscar Peterson
 Nigerian Marketplace (Pablo Live, 1982)
with Emily Remler
 Take Two (Concord, 1982)
With the Joe Roccisano Orchestra
Leave Your Mind Behind (Landmark, 1995)
with Buddy Tate Featuring The Ed Bickert Trio

 The Ballad Artistry Of Buddy Tate (Sackville Recordings, 1982)

References

 Mark Miller, "Terry Clarke". The New Grove Dictionary of Jazz. 2nd edition, ed. Barry Kernfeld.

Members of the Order of Canada
1944 births
Canadian jazz drummers
Living people
Musicians from Vancouver
Juno Award for Traditional Jazz Album of the Year winners

Terry Clarke (drummer)


Mouilleron-en-Pareds () is a former commune in the Vendée department in the Pays de la Loire region in western France. On 1 January 2016, it was merged into the new commune of Mouilleron-Saint-Germain. It is in the arrondissement of Fontenay-le-Comte.

It is known as the place of birth of Charles-Louis Largeteau (who contributed to the establishment of the Greenwich Meridian), Georges Clemenceau (head of the French government during World War I and who signed the Treaty of Versailles with Lloyd George, Vittorio Emanuele Orlando and Woodrow Wilson) and Marshal Jean de Lattre de Tassigny (who led the French First Army during the liberation of France with the Allied forces in 1945).

See also
Communes of the Vendée department

References

External links

Museum of Deux Victoires

Georges Clemenceau
Former communes of Vendée

Mouilleron-en-Pareds


Cattus Island County Park, also known as Cattus Island is a  passive recreational park located in Toms River, New Jersey. Cattus Island is a park of the Ocean County Department of Parks and Recreation. Cattus Island is home to the Cooper Environmental Center, an educational center which displays collections of local wildlife including birds, reptiles, and aquatic animals. The center also provides educational programs and presentations to the public and organized groups.

History

Early history
The first European explorer to set foot on what became Ocean County soil was Captain Cornelius Hendrickson, who, in 1615, explored the New Jersey coast in his ship, the Onrust (or Restless), between the latitudes 38 and 40 degrees. He sailed down Barnegat Bay and located the  that makes of over half of the current park. William Dockwra, Secretary and Registrar for the Board of Proprietors in England, bought the land in the 1680s. The land has remained a single parcel since 1690, when the Board of Proprietors of the Province of East Jersey divided this coastal region.

In 1758, Joseph Page purchased the land. The Page family had settled the island by 1763, farming sheep, flax, and corn crops. Timothy Page, born on the island during that year, served in the local militia during the American Revolution. During the American Revolution, local residents used the area to bring British vessels that had been captured, or had run aground in the deceptive shallows of the Barnegat Bay, into the Toms River to offload their cargoes. Homesteaders also used the island for farming.

After the death of Timothy Page, the family house burned down, and the property was sold to Lewis Applegate. He moved there in 1842, and developed the southeastern section of the island, now named for him. He built a sawmill and a port for lumber boats. The island was sold again in 1867, and was slated to be developed as a resort, but the 1873 depression canceled the project.

Cattus ownership to present
John V. A. Cattus, a New York importer and Olympic class athlete, bought the land and developed it as a retreat in 1895. Hunting and fishing were the favorite sports of Cattus and his friends. He built a hunting lodge on the island, along with a farm, boat house and boat dock. When Cattus died in 1964, his sons sold the land to local developers.

In the 1970s, the New Jersey Division of Parks and Forestry pushed for laws to limit development in wetlands and along the coast. In 1973, Ocean County purchased this  land. The property was acquired with county tax money and state "Green Acres" funds. In 1980, the park opened to the public with the county's first environmental center.

In 2012, Hurricane Sandy struck and the park sustained significant damage. Thousands of hours of labor were required to remove downed trees and debris that littered the park. In the immediate years following, several local boy scouts cleaned up the park and built sections of boardwalk and benches for park patrons as part of their Eagle Scout projects.

Park ecosystems
Cattus Island Park has within it a number of different ecosystems, though a majority is considered a maritime upland forest. This forest consists mostly of oak trees and pine trees, such as the pitch pine and the shortleaf pine. Even though Cattus Island Park is a maritime forest, within it, one can find many of the same shrubs and animal species that are native to the Pine Barrens.

The park also contains freshwater wetlands. These wetlands are dominated by hardwood trees such as Red Maple, Swamp Maple, Black Gum, and a wide variety of others. There are a few small stands of living Atlantic White Cedar located in some of the wetland areas. However, in this area, large stands of dead Atlantic white cedar also exist. They have been standing dead since the 1930s. Prior to the 1930s, the northern part of the Barnegat Bay, where Cattus Island is located, was mainly fresh water. After the Point Pleasant Canal was constructed and the Manasquan Inlet improved, saltwater from the ocean infiltrated into the Northern portion of the bay. As a result, the Atlantic white cedar, which is an obligate freshwater species, was killed.

Another ecosystem that thrives within the park is a vast track of salt marsh, which contains several species of Spartina grasses. It is from these salt marshes that Cattus Island gets part of its name. Several times a year the marshes flood as a result of snowmelt, storms, or high tides. During the floods, the second bit of upland is completely inaccessible; hence, it becomes an 'island'.

Cooper Environmental Center
The Cooper Environmental Center, named for a well-known county environmentalist, A. Morton Cooper, is an educational facility and resource for conservation and education, featuring a  building with an eighty-seat meeting room, interactive exhibit area, and live native reptiles and fish.

References

External links
Cattus Island History - NY/NJ/CT Botany Website
Cattus Island Park
Photo Gallery
http://facebook.com/Cattus.Island.County.Park

County parks in New Jersey
Parks in Ocean County, New Jersey
Nature centers in New Jersey
Toms River, New Jersey

Cattus Island Park


Chilean expansionism refers to the foreign policy of Chile to expand its territorial control over key strategic locations and economic resources as a means to ensure its national security and assert its power in South America. Chile's significant territorial acquisitions, which occurred mostly throughout the 19th century, paved the way for its emergence as a thalassocracy and one of the three most powerful and wealthiest states in South America during the 20th century. It also formed Chile's geopolitical and national identity as a tricontinental state and one of the countries with the longest coastlines in the world.

The most of the territory was owned by Chile de jure but not controlled de facto.

After achieving its independence from Spain in 1818, Chile held control of territory spanning roughly the same boundaries of the colonial general captaincy that was under the control of the Spanish Empire's Viceroyalty of Peru. Under the uti possidetis iuris principle that delimited the international boundaries of the newly independent South American states, Chile bordered at its north with Bolivia in the Atacama Desert and at its east with Argentina. To the south, Chile claimed all lands west of the Andes and the entirety of Patagonia (principally for the Strait of Magellan), but in practice controlled only the area down to the Bío Bío River plus the area between Valdivia and Chiloé—the rest of the territory being either controlled by the independent Mapuche of Araucanía or sparsely populated by other indigenous tribes.

The uti possidetis system proved ephemeral, nonetheless; the lack of formal border treaties caused territorial disputes throughout the continent. This uncertainty presented both challenges and opportunities for Chile, with regional instability creating a precarious state of diplomatic affairs but also allowing the growth of Chilean power ambitions. The Chilean national elite sought to ensure that the country's territorial limits and the regional balance of power would favor their economic and political aspirations. Towards this end, the country increased its military power, especially its naval presence, to pursue a policy of intimidation and force.

To its north, Chile imposed its dominance by eliminating the threat posed by the union of Bolivia with Peru during the War of the Confederation (1836–1839), followed by the conquest of these countries' mineral-rich territories in the Atacama during the War of the Pacific (1879–1884)—in the process leaving Bolivia landlocked and occupying the Peruvian capital. To its south and east, Chile used military force and colonization to occupy Araucanía (1861–1883) and successfully dispute Argentine claims over westernmost Patagonia and the Strait of Magellan—the outbreak of war only narrowly avoided in multiple occasions. Chile's expansionist drive practically culminated with Easter Island's annexation in 1888, but vestiges of it continued well into the 20th century—e.g., the country's claim over Antarctic territory in 1940.

Although Chile did not fulfill all of its territorial ambitions, its relative success attracted the attention of the Western Hemisphere's other major expansionist polity, the United States, and cemented Chile's status as a regional power in Latin America. Chile's territorial expansion also left a legacy of distrust with its neighbors, all of which continue having boundary disputes with Chile. The country's mistreatment of the non-Chilean inhabitants of its conquered territories, particularly the state-sponsored forced cultural assimilation process of "Chilenization", have further led to internal tensions and calls for greater autonomy, if not independence, from the Mapuche and the Rapa Nui.

Origins

The newly independent Republic of Chile's territorial possessions, inherited from the colonial general captaincy (capitanía general) that was under the control of the Spanish Empire's Viceroyalty of Peru, had left the state surrounded by undefined boundaries. Its northernmost settlement was Copiapó in the southern Atacama Desert, bordering Bolivia; however, its exact boundary was disputed until 1866, when both countries delimited their boundaries at the 24° South parallel from the Pacific Ocean. Its southernmost settlement was Concepción, a few kilometers north of the frontier fortifications between Chile and the Araucanía, the territory that the Mapuche indigenous peoples had successfully retained after defeating Spain in the Arauco War.

History

Conquest of the Atacama

To its north, Chile imposed its dominance by eliminating the threat posed by the union of Bolivia with Peru during the War of the Confederation (1836–1839), followed by the conquest of these countries' mineral-rich territories in the Atacama during the War of the Pacific (1879–1884)—in the process leaving Bolivia landlocked and sacking the Peruvian capital. Chile gained control over Tacna, Arica, Tarapacá, Antofagasta and Puna de Atacama. Tacna and Puna de Atacama territories were mostly lost later on by diplomacy.

Chile slowly started to expand its influence and to establish its borders. By the Tantauco Treaty, the archipelago of Chiloé was incorporated in 1826. The economy began to boom due to the discovery of silver ore in Chañarcillo, and the growing trade of the port of Valparaíso, which led to conflict over maritime supremacy in the Pacific with Peru.

The Boundary treaty of 1881 between Chile and Argentina confirmed Chilean sovereignty over the Strait of Magellan. As a result of the War of the Pacific with Peru and Bolivia (1879–83), Chile expanded its territory northward by almost one-third, eliminating Bolivia's access to the Pacific, and acquired valuable nitrate deposits, the exploitation of which led to an era of national affluence. Chile had joined the stand as one of the high-income countries in South America by 1870.

Occupation of Araucanía

To its south and east, Chile used military force and colonization to occupy Araucanía (1861–1883) and successfully dispute Argentine claims over westernmost Patagonia and the Strait of Magellan—the outbreak of war only narrowly avoided in multiple occasions.

Colonization of Valdivia, Osorno, Llanquihue and Patagonia

At the same time, attempts were made to strengthen sovereignty in southern Chile intensifying penetration into Araucanía and colonizing Llanquihue with German immigrants in 1848. Through the founding of Fort Bulnes by the Schooner Ancud under the command of John Williams Wilson, the Magallanes region joined the country in 1843, while the Antofagasta area, at the time part of, Bolivia, began to fill with people.

There was a failed Chilean settlement in "Puerto Gallegos" on the banks of the river of the same name since March 4, 1873. The governor of Magallanes, Óscar Viel y Toro, commissioned by Minister Adolfo Ibáñez Gutiérrez, was in charge of founding the settlement, which would only last six weeks after the diplomatic agreement between this country and the Argentine Nation. There was also the presence of Chilean ships up to the Santa Cruz River.

Annexation of Easter Island

Chile's interest in expanding into the islands of the Pacific Ocean dates to the presidency of José Joaquín Prieto (1831–1841) and the ideology of Diego Portales, who considered that Chile's expansion into Polynesia was a natural consequence of its maritime destiny. The first stage of the country's expansionism into the Pacific began a decade later, in 1851, when—in response to an American incursion into the Juan Fernández Islands—Chile's government formally organized the islands into a subdelegation of Valparaíso. That same year, Chile's merchant fleet briefly succeeded in creating an agricultural goods exchange market that connected the Californian port of San Francisco with Australia, renewing Chile's economic interest in the Pacific. By 1861, Chile had established a lucrative enterprise across the Pacific, its national currency abundantly circulating throughout Polynesia and its merchants trading in the markets of Tahiti, New Zealand, Tasmania, and Shanghai; moreover, negotiations were also made with the Spanish Philippines, and altercations reportedly occurred between Chilean and American whalers in the Sea of Japan. This period ended as a result of the Chilean merchant fleet's destruction by Spanish forces in 1866, during the Chincha Islands War.

Chile's Polynesian aspirations would again be awakened in the aftermath of the country's decisive victory against Peru in the War of the Pacific, which left the Chilean fleet as the dominant maritime force in the Pacific coast of the Americas. Valparaíso had also become the most important port in the Pacific coast of South America, providing Chilean merchants with the capacity to find markets in the Pacific for its new mineral wealth acquired from the Atacama. During this period, the Chilean intellectual and politician Benjamín Vicuña Mackenna (who served as senator in the National Congress from 1876 to 1885) was an influential voice in favor of Chilean expansionism into the Pacific—he considered Spain's discoveries in the Pacific to have been taken by the British, and envisioned that Chile's duty was to create an empire in the Pacific that would reach Asian shores. In the context of this imperialist fervor in 1886, Captain Policarpo Toro of the Chilean Navy proposed to his superiors the annexation of Easter Island; a proposal that attained support from President José Manuel Balmaceda because of the island's apparent strategic location and economic value. After Toro transferred the rights to the island's sheep ranching operations from Tahiti-based businesses to the Chilean-based Williamson-Balfour Company in 1887, Easter Island's annexation process was culminated with the signing of the "Agreement of Wills" between Rapa Nui chieftains and Toro, in name of the Chilean government, in 1888.

Antarctic claim

Chile claims to have sovereignty over part of Antarctica inherited from the Spanish Empire since 1539, more specifically from the Governorate of Terra Australis which was transfered to the Kingdom of Chile in 1555.

In 1603, Admiral Gabriel de Castilla, who left Valparaíso to reconnoiter the coasts of Chile, reached the southwest coast, reaching the 64th degree south, discovering the first Antarctic lands, and it was not until 1616 that Cape Horn was discovered.

In the 19th century the growth of the Chilean colony in Magallanes, and then in the city of Punta Arenas, allowed the founding of companies for hunting and exploitation of whales in Antarctic seas, which requested authorization from the Chilean government. In 1894, the power for the exploitation of marine resources in the south of the parallel 54°S was given to the Punta Arenas Municipality.

In the early years of the 20th century, the interest of studying the Antarctic territories increased. Some of these expeditions asked permission from the government of Chile to be performed, among which one can highlight the Swedish teacher Otto Nordenskjöld in 1902 and the British teacher Robert F. Scott in 1900. Chile also gave mining permits, as conferred on December 31, 1902, Decree No. 3310 by Pedro Pablo Benavides to lease the Diego Ramírez Islands and San Ildefonso, may extend fishing south indefinitely on condition to install a naval station in the islands.

On May 8, 1906, the Whaling Society of Magallanes was created with a base in Punta Arenas, which was authorized on December 1 to settle in the South Shetland Islands by Decree No. 1314 of the governor of Magallanes, which they did in Whalers Bay on Deception Island, there hoisted the Chilean flag and installing a coal deposit. That place was visited by Jean-Baptiste Charcot in December 1908 to replenish coal and continued to be inhabited in summer season until 1914.

From 1906, they began to be promulgated several decrees, even from the National Congress of Chile, for mining permits in the Antarctic area. The Minister of Foreign Affairs of Chile mentioned on September 18, Chilean national day, of that year, the Chilean Antarctic rights in a memory and said that the delimitation of the territory would be subject to preliminary investigations. Argentina formally protested the June 10, 1907, for these actions in Chile and a negotiation process began for the mutual recognition of Antarctic territories. A limit was to be set to define two different areas, but this treaty was never signed.

On July 21, 1908, the United Kingdom officially announced its claim to sovereignty over all lands within the meridians 20° and 80° south of parallel 50°, in 1917 was moved to 58° south and in 1962, to the parallel 60° south.

In 1914, the British Ernest Shackleton began an expedition to cross the South Pole from the Weddell Sea to Ross Sea. With two ships, Endurance and Aurora, he went to Antarctica, but the weather worsened dramatically until an iceberg sank the Endurance. Shackleton then sailed to Argentine ports, the Falklands and South Georgia Islands without finding anyone willing to join the expedition trapped on an Antarctic island. In Punta Arenas, however, he found the pilot Luis Pardo Villalón, who, while aboard the Yelcho, managed to rescue those shipwrecked on the Elephant Island. On September 4, 1916, they were received at the port of Punta Arenas as heroes. The Pilot Pardo feat, sailing with temperatures close to −30 °C (−22 °F) and a stormy sea of icebergs, made him win national and international recognition.

On January 14, 1939, Norway declared its territorial claims on Antarctic territory between meridians 0° and 20° (Queen Maud Land), which alarmed the Chilean government, so the president Pedro Aguirre Cerda encouraged the definition of National Antarctic Territory and the September 7 of that year established by Decree No. 1541 a special commission to examine the country's interests in Antarctica.

The commission set the bounds according to the Theory of polar areas taking into account geographical, historical, legal and diplomatic precedents, which were formalized by Decree No. 1747, enacted on November 6, 1940, and published on June 21, 1955. As in Chile is considered their Antarctic rights arrived until the line Treaty of Tordesillas, the decree setting the limit of his claim in a meridian located further west (the 53° West), his claim to not include the South Orkney Islands in consideration of the rights of Argentina.

Chile began to perform acts of sovereignty in the Antarctic continent with installation, Sovereignty Base current Arturo Prat in 1947. The following year, and as a way of settling the Chilean claims, the President Gabriel Gonzalez Videla opened the Base General Bernardo O'Higgins Riquelme, the first official visit of Head of state to Antarctica.

Law No. 11486 of June 17, 1955 added the Chilean Antarctic Territory to the Province of Magallanes, which became on July 12, 1974, the XII Region of Magallanes and Chilean Antarctica.

In 1958, the president of the US Dwight Eisenhower invited Chile to the Conference by the International Geophysical Year to resolve the issue Antarctic. On 1 December 1959, Chile signed the Antarctic Treaty which freezes (but doesn't derogate) all the territorial claims in the continent, ensuring each signatory nation to a status quo for the duration of the treaty.

Consequences

In 1978, amid direct negotiations attempting to settle the Beagle conflict, Chilean Dictator Augusto Pinochet assured that Chile had no expansionist intentions, but that his government would "defend the patrimony that belongs to it by right."

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Chile temporarily resolved its border disputes with Argentina with the Puna de Atacama Lawsuit of 1899 and the Cordillera of the Andes Boundary Case, 1902.

Chile's rise as a major geopolitical power in the South Pacific also had the consequence of placing it in direct confrontation with the United States.

Criticism

According to Chilean diplomat Juan Salazar Sparks, the political theories of Andrés Bello and Diego Portales were neither expansionist nor interventionist; rather, he argues, they believed that Chile's status as a maritime nation and its role as a promoter of Pan-Americanism rested on its moral leadership, cultural influence, and success in maintaining the regional balance of power. Moreover, he considers that Chile was forced into wars with Peru and Bolivia in order to protect the regional balance of power, and that the country's participation in the Chincha Islands War is evidence of its commitment to Pan-Americanism. Chilean researcher Felipe Sanfuentes also argues that Chile was not an expansionist country and considers that this perspective is promoted by Argentine irrendentism over Tierra del Fuego and Patagonia.

See also
American imperialism
Anti-Chilean sentiment
Argentine–Chilean boundary dispute
Chilenization
Expansionist nationalism
Lebensraum

Notes

References

Bibliography

External links
 "Ministra Bachelet: 'En Chile no hay ánimo expansionista'" – Article about Chilean expansionism in 2004.

Economic history of Chile
History of the foreign relations of Chile
History of Easter Island
History of Patagonia
History of South America
Imperialism
Maritime history
Occupation of Araucanía
War of the Confederation
War of the Pacific
19th-century colonization of the Americas

Chilean expansionism