Turkish literature () comprises oral compositions and written texts in the Turkish language. The Ottoman form of Turkish, which forms the basis of much of the written corpus, was highly influenced by Persian and Arabic literature, and used the Ottoman Turkish alphabet.

The history of the broader Turkic literature spans a period of nearly 1,300 years. The oldest extant records of written Turkic are the Orhon inscriptions, found in the Orhon River valley in central Mongolia and dating to the 7th century. Subsequent to this period, between the 9th and 11th centuries, there arose among the nomadic Turkic peoples of Central Asia a tradition of oral epics, such as the Book of Dede Korkut of the Oghuz Turks— ancestors of the modern Turkish people—and the Epic of Manas of the Kyrgyz people.

Beginning with the victory of the Seljuks at the Battle of Manzikert in the late 11th century, the Oghuz Turks began to settle in Anatolia, and in addition to the earlier oral traditions there arose a written literary tradition issuing largely—in terms of themes, genres, and styles—from Arabic and Persian literature. For the next 900 years, until shortly before the fall of the Ottoman Empire in 1922, the oral and written traditions would remain largely separate from one another. With the founding of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, the two traditions came together for the first time.

History
The earliest known examples of Turkic poetry date to sometime in the 6th century AD and were composed in the Uyghur language. Some of the earliest verses attributed to Uyghur Turkic writers are only available in Chinese language translations. During the era of oral poetry, the earliest Turkic verses were intended as songs and their recitation a part of the community's social life and entertainment. For example, in the shamanistic and animistic culture of the pre-Islamic Turkic peoples verses of poetry were performed at religious gatherings in ceremonies before a hunt (sığır), at communal feasts following a hunt (şölen). Poetry was also sung at solemn times and elegy called sagu were recited at yuğ funerals and other commemorations of the dead.

Of the long epics, only the Oğuzname has survived in its entirety. The Book of Dede Korkut may have had its origins in the poetry of the 10th century but remained an oral tradition until the 15th century. The earlier written works Kutadgu Bilig and Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk date to the second half of the 11th century and are the earliest known examples of Turkish literature with few exceptions.

One of the most important figures of early Turkish literature was the 13th century Sufi poet Yunus Emre. The golden age of Ottoman literature lasted from the 15th century until the 18th century and included mostly divan poetry but also some prose works, most notably the 10-volume Seyahatnâme (Book of Travels) written by Evliya Çelebi.

Periodization
The periodization of Turkic literature is debated and scholars have floated different proposals to classify the stages of Turkic literary development. One proposal divides Turkic literature into early literature (8th to 19th c.) and modern (19th to 21st c.). Other systems of classification have divided the literature into three periods either pre-Islamic/Islamic/modern or pre-Ottoman/Ottoman/modern. Yet another more complex approach suggests a 5-stage division including both pre-Islamic (until the 11th century) and pre-Ottoman Islamic (between the 11th and 13th centuries). The 5-stage approach further divides modern literature into a transitional period from the 1850s to the 1920s and finally a modern period reaching into the present day.

The two traditions of Turkish literature

Throughout most of its history, Turkish literature has been rather sharply divided into two different traditions, neither of which exercised much influence upon the other until the 19th century. The first of these two traditions is Turkish folk literature, and the second is Turkish written literature.

For most of the history of Turkish literature, the salient difference between the folk and the written traditions has been the variety of language employed. The folk tradition, by and large, was an oral tradition carried on by minstrels and remained free of the influence of Persian and Arabic literature, and consequently of those literatures' respective languages. In folk poetry—which is by far the tradition's dominant genre—this basic fact led to two major consequences in terms of poetic style:
 folk poetry made use of syllabic verse, as opposed to the qualitative verse employed in the written poetic tradition
 the basic structural unit of folk poetry became the quatrain (Turkish: dörtlük) rather than the couplets (Turkish: beyit) more commonly employed in written poetry

Furthermore, Turkish folk poetry has always had an intimate connection with song—most of the poetry was, in fact, expressly composed so as to be sung—and so became to a great extent inseparable from the tradition of Turkish folk music.

In contrast to the tradition of Turkish folk literature, Turkish written literature—prior to the founding of the Republic of Turkey in 1923—tended to embrace the influence of Persian and Arabic literature. To some extent, this can be seen as far back as the Seljuk period in the late 11th to early 14th centuries, where official business was conducted in the Persian language, rather than in Turkish, and where a court poet such as Dehhanî—who served under the 13th century sultan Ala ad-Din Kay Qubadh I—wrote in a language highly inflected with Persian.

When the Ottoman Empire arose early in the 14th century, in northwestern Anatolia, it continued this tradition. The standard poetic forms—for poetry was as much the dominant genre in the written tradition as in the folk tradition—were derived either directly from the Persian literary tradition (the gazel غزل; the mesnevî مثنوی), or indirectly through Persian from the Arabic (the kasîde قصيده). However, the decision to adopt these poetic forms wholesale led to two important further consequences:
 the poetic meters (Turkish: aruz) of Persian poetry were adopted;
 Persian- and Arabic-based words were brought into the Turkish language in great numbers, as Turkish words rarely worked well within the system of Persian poetic meter.

Out of this confluence of choices, the Ottoman Turkish language—which was always highly distinct from spoken Turkish—was effectively born. This style of writing under Persian and Arabic influence came to be known as "Divan literature" (Turkish: divan edebiyatı), dîvân (ديوان) being the Ottoman Turkish word referring to the collected works of a poet.

Just as Turkish folk poetry was intimately bound up with Turkish folk music, so did Ottoman Divan poetry develop a strong connection with Turkish classical music, with the poems of the Divan poets often being taken up to serve as song lyrics.

Folk literature

Turkish folk literature is an oral tradition deeply rooted, in its form, in Central Asian nomadic traditions. However, in its themes, Turkish folk literature reflects the problems peculiar to a settled (or settling) people who have abandoned the nomadic lifestyle. One example of this is the series of folktales surrounding the figure of Keloğlan, a young boy beset with the difficulties of finding a wife, helping his mother to keep the family house intact, and dealing with the problems caused by his neighbors. Another example is the rather mysterious figure of Nasreddin, a trickster who often plays jokes, of a sort, on his neighbors.

Nasreddin also reflects another significant change that had occurred between the days when the Turkish people were nomadic and the days when they had largely become settled in Anatolia; namely, Nasreddin is a Muslim Imam. The Turkic peoples had first become Islamized sometime around the 9th or 10th century, as is evidenced from the clear Islamic influence on the 11th century Karakhanid work the Kutadgu Bilig ("Wisdom of Royal Glory"), written by Yusuf Has Hajib. The religion henceforth came to exercise an enormous influence on Turkish society and literature, particularly the heavily mystically oriented Sufi and Shi'a varieties of Islam. The Sufi influence, for instance, can be seen clearly not only in the tales concerning Nasreddin but also in the works of Yunus Emre, a towering figure in Turkish literature and a poet who lived at the end of the 13th and beginning of the 14th century, probably in the Karamanid state in south-central Anatolia. The Shi'a influence, on the other hand, can be seen extensively in the tradition of the aşıks, or ozans, who are roughly akin to medieval European minstrels and who traditionally have had a strong connection with the Alevi faith, which can be seen as something of a homegrown Turkish variety of Shi'a Islam. It is, however, important to note that in Turkish culture, such a neat division into Sufi and Shi'a is scarcely possible: for instance, Yunus Emre is considered by some to have been an Alevi, while the entire Turkish aşık/ozan tradition is permeated with the thought of the Bektashi Sufi order, which is itself a blending of Shi'a and Sufi concepts. The word aşık (literally, "lover") is in fact the term used for first-level members of the Bektashi order.

Because the Turkish folk literature tradition extends in a more or less unbroken line from about the 10th or 11th century to today, it is perhaps best to consider the tradition from the perspective of genre. There are three basic genres in the tradition: epic; folk poetry; and folklore.

The epic tradition
The Turkish epic has its roots in the Central Asian epic tradition that gave rise to the Book of Dede Korkut; written in the Azerbaijani language – and recognizably similar to modern Istanbul Turkish – the form developed from the oral traditions of the Oghuz Turks (a branch of the Turkic peoples which migrated towards western Asia and eastern Europe through Transoxiana, beginning in the 9th century). The Book of Dede Korkut endured in the oral tradition of the Oghuz Turks after settling in Anatolia. Alpamysh is an earlier epic, still preserved in the literature of various Turkic peoples of Central Asia in addition to its important place in the Anatolian tradition.

The Book of Dede Korkut was the primary element of the Azerbaijani–Turkish epic tradition in the Caucasus and Anatolia for several centuries. Concurrent to the Book of Dede Korkut was the so-called Epic of Köroğlu, which concerns the adventures of Rüşen Ali ("Köroğlu", or "son of the blind man") as he exacted revenge for the blinding of his father. The origins of this epic are somewhat more mysterious than those of the Book of Dede Korkut: many believe it to have arisen in Anatolia sometime between the 15th and 17th centuries; more reliable testimony, though, seems to indicate that the story is nearly as old as that of the Book of Dede Korkut, dating from around the dawn of the 11th century. Complicating matters somewhat is the fact that Köroğlu is also the name of a poet of the aşık/ozan tradition.

The epic tradition in modern Turkish literature may be seen in the Epic of Shaykh Bedreddin (Şeyh Bedreddin Destanı), published in 1936 by the poet Nâzım Hikmet Ran (1901–1963). This long poem – which concerns an Anatolian shaykh's rebellion against the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed I — is a modern epic, yet draws upon the same independent-minded traditions of the Anatolian people as depicted in the Epic of Köroğlu. Many of the works of the 20th-century novelist Yaşar Kemal (1923–2015 ), such as the 1955 novel Memed, My Hawk (İnce Memed), can be considered modern prose epics continuing this long tradition.

Folk poetry

The folk poetry tradition in Turkish literature, as indicated above, was strongly influenced by the Islamic Sufi and Shi'a traditions. Furthermore, as partly evidenced by the prevalence of the still existent aşık/ozan tradition, the dominant element in Turkish folk poetry has always been song. The development of folk poetry in Turkish—which began to emerge in the 13th century with such important writers as Yunus Emre, Sultan Veled, and Şeyyâd Hamza—was given a great boost when, on 13 May 1277, Karamanoğlu Mehmet Bey declared Turkish the official state language of Anatolia's powerful Karamanid state; subsequently, many of the tradition's greatest poets would continue to emerge from this region.

There are, broadly speaking, two traditions (or schools) of Turkish folk poetry:
 the aşık/ozan tradition, which—although much influenced by religion, as mentioned above—was for the most part a secular tradition;
 the explicitly religious tradition, which emerged from the gathering places (tekkes) of the Sufi religious orders and Shi'a groups.

Much of the poetry and song of the aşık/ozan tradition, being almost exclusively oral until the 19th century, remains anonymous. There are, however, a few well-known aşıks from before that time whose names have survived together with their works: the aforementioned Köroğlu (16th century); Karacaoğlan (1606?–1689?), who may be the best-known of the pre-19th century aşıks; Dadaloğlu (1785?–1868?), who was one of the last of the great aşıks before the tradition began to dwindle somewhat in the late 19th century; and several others. The aşıks were essentially minstrels who travelled through Anatolia performing their songs on the bağlama, a mandolin-like instrument whose paired strings are considered to have a symbolic religious significance in Alevi/Bektashi culture. Despite the decline of the aşık/ozan tradition in the 19th century, it experienced a significant revival in the 20th century thanks to such outstanding figures as Aşık Veysel Şatıroğlu (1894–1973), Aşık Mahzuni Şerif (1938–2002), Neşet Ertaş (1938–2012), and many others.

The explicitly religious folk tradition of tekke literature shared a similar basis with the aşık/ozan tradition in that the poems were generally intended to be sung, generally in religious gatherings, making them somewhat akin to Western hymns (Turkish ilahi). One major difference from the aşık/ozan tradition, however, is that—from the very beginning—the poems of the tekke tradition were written down. This was because they were produced by revered religious figures in the literate environment of the tekke, as opposed to the milieu of the aşık/ozan tradition, where the majority could not read or write. The major figures in the tradition of tekke literature are: Yunus Emre (1240?–1320?), who is one of the most important figures in all of Turkish literature; Süleyman Çelebi (?–1422), who wrote a highly popular long poem called Vesîletü'n-Necât (وسيلة النجاة "The Means of Salvation", but more commonly known as the Mevlid), concerning the birth of the Islamic prophet Muhammad; Kaygusuz Abdal (1397–?), who is widely considered the founder of Alevi/Bektashi literature; and Pir Sultan Abdal (?–1560), whom many consider to be the pinnacle of that literature.

Folklore

Ottoman literature
The two primary streams of Ottoman written literature are poetry and prose. Of the two, poetry—specifically, Divan poetry—was by far the dominant stream. Moreover, until the 19th century, Ottoman prose did not contain any examples of fiction; that is, there were no counterparts to, for instance, the European romance, short story, or novel (though analogous genres did, to some extent, exist in both the Turkish folk tradition and in Divan poetry).

Divan poetry

Ottoman Divan poetry was a highly ritualized and symbolic art form. From the Persian poetry that largely inspired it, it inherited a wealth of symbols whose meanings and interrelationships—both of similitude (مراعات نظير mura'ât-i nazîr / تناسب
tenâsüb) and opposition (تضاد tezâd)—were more or less prescribed. Examples of prevalent symbols that, to some extent, oppose one another include, among others:
 the nightingale (بلبل bülbül)—the rose (ﮔل gül)
 the world (جهان cihan; عالم 'âlem)—the rosegarden (ﮔﻠﺴﺘﺎن gülistan; ﮔﻠﺸﻦ gülşen)
 the ascetic (زاهد zâhid)—the dervish (درويش derviş)

As the opposition of "the ascetic" and "the dervish" suggests, Divan poetry—much like Turkish folk poetry—was heavily influenced by Sufi thought. One of the primary characteristics of Divan poetry, however—as of the Persian poetry before it—was its mingling of the mystical Sufi element with a profane and even erotic element. Thus, the pairing of "the nightingale" and "the rose" simultaneously suggests two different relationships:
 the relationship between the fervent lover ("the nightingale") and the inconstant beloved ("the rose")
 the relationship between the individual Sufi practitioner (who is often characterized in Sufism as a lover) and God (who is considered the ultimate source and object of love)

Similarly, "the world" refers simultaneously to the physical world and to this physical world considered as the abode of sorrow and impermanence, while "the rosegarden" refers simultaneously to a literal garden and to the garden of Paradise. "The nightingale", or suffering lover, is often seen as situated—both literally and figuratively—in "the world", while "the rose", or beloved, is seen as being in "the rosegarden".

Divan poetry was composed through the constant juxtaposition of many such images within a strict metrical framework, thus allowing numerous potential meanings to emerge. A brief example is the following line of verse, or mısra (مصراع), by the 18th-century judge and poet Hayatî Efendi:

بر گل مى وار بو گلشن ﻋالمدﻪ خارسز
Bir gül mü var bu gülşen-i 'âlemde hârsız
("Does any rose, in this rosegarden world, lack thorns?")

Here, the nightingale is only implied (as being the poet/lover), while the rose, or beloved, is shown to be capable of inflicting pain with its thorns (خار hâr). The world, as a result, is seen as having both positive aspects (it is a rosegarden, and thus analogous to the garden of Paradise) and negative aspects (it is a rosegarden full of thorns, and thus different from the garden of Paradise).

As for the development of Divan poetry over the more than 500 years of its existence, that is—as the Ottomanist Walter G. Andrews points out—a study still in its infancy; clearly defined movements and periods have not yet been decided upon. Early in the history of the tradition, the Persian influence was very strong, but this was mitigated somewhat through the influence of poets such as the Azerbaijani Nesîmî (?–1417?) and the Uzbek Ali Şîr Nevâî (1441–1501), both of whom offered strong arguments for the poetic status of the Turkic languages as against the much-venerated Persian. Partly as a result of such arguments, Divan poetry in its strongest period—from the 16th to the 18th centuries—came to display a unique balance of Persian and Turkish elements.

Although Turkish poets (Ottoman and Chagatay) had been inspired and influenced by classical Persian poetry, it would be a superficial judgment to consider the former as blind imitators of the latter, as is often done. A limited vocabulary and common technique, and the same world of imagery and subject matter based mainly on Islamic sources, were shared by all poets of Islamic literature.

Despite the lack of certainty regarding the stylistic movements and periods of Divan poetry, however, certain highly different styles are clear enough, and can perhaps be seen as exemplified by certain poets:

 Fuzûlî (1483?–1556); a unique poet who wrote with equal skill in Azerbaijani, Persian, and Arabic, and who came to be as influential in Persian as in Divan poetry
 Hayâlî (1500?–1557); a poet that lived in the Divan tradition
 Bâkî (1526–1600); a poet of great rhetorical power and linguistic subtlety whose skill in using the pre-established tropes of the Divan tradition is quite representative of the poetry in the time of Süleyman the Magnificent
 Nef'î (1570?–1635); a poet considered the master of the kasîde (a kind of panegyric), as well as being known for his harshly satirical poems, which led to his execution
 Nâbî (1642–1712); a poet who wrote a number of socially oriented poems critical of the stagnation period of Ottoman history
 Nedîm (1681?–1730); a revolutionary poet of the Tulip Era of Ottoman history, who infused the rather élite and abstruse language of Divan poetry with numerous simpler, populist elements
 Şeyh Gâlib (1757–1799); a poet of the Mevlevî Sufi order whose work is considered the culmination of the highly complex so-called "Indian style" (سبك هندى sebk-i hindî)

The vast majority of Divan poetry was lyric in nature: either gazels (which make up the greatest part of the repertoire of the tradition), or kasîdes. There were, however, other common genres, most particularly the mesnevî, a kind of verse romance and thus a variety of narrative poetry; the two most notable examples of this form are the Leylî vü Mecnun (ليلى و مجنون) of Fuzûlî and the Hüsn ü Aşk (حسن و عشق; "Beauty and Love") of Şeyh Gâlib.

Early Ottoman prose

Until the 19th century, Ottoman prose never managed to develop to the extent that contemporary Divan poetry did. A large part of the reason for this was that much prose was expected to adhere to the rules of sec''' (سجع, also transliterated as seci), or rhymed prose, a type of writing descended from the Arabic saj' and which prescribed that between each adjective and noun in a sentence, there must be a rhyme.

Nevertheless, there was a tradition of prose in the literature of the time. This tradition was exclusively nonfictional in nature—the fiction tradition was limited to narrative poetry. A number of such nonfictional prose genres developed:
 the târih (تاريخ), or history, a tradition in which there are many notable writers, including the 15th-century historian Aşıkpaşazâde and the 17th-century historians Kâtib Çelebi and Naîmâ
 the seyâhatnâme (سياحت نامه), or travelogue, of which the outstanding example is the 17th-century Seyahâtnâme of Evliya Çelebi
 the sefâretnâme (سفارت نامه), a related genre specific to the journeys and experiences of an Ottoman ambassador, and which is best exemplified by the 1718–1720 Paris Sefâretnâme of Yirmisekiz Mehmed Çelebi, ambassador to the court of Louis XV of France
 the siyâsetnâme (سياست نامه), a kind of political treatise describing the functionings of state and offering advice for rulers, an early Seljuk example of which is the 11th-century Siyāsatnāma, written in Persian by Nizam al-Mulk, vizier to the Seljuk rulers Alp Arslan and Malik Shah I
 the tezkîre (تذکره), a collection of short biographies of notable figures, some of the most notable of which were the 16th-century tezkiretü'ş-şuarâs (تذكرة الشعرا), or biographies of poets, by Latîfî and Aşık Çelebi
 the münşeât (منشآت), a collection of writings and letters similar to the Western tradition of belles-lettres the münâzara (مناظره), a collection of debates of either a religious or a philosophical nature

The 19th century and Western influence

By the early 19th century, the Ottoman Empire had become moribund. Attempts to right this situation had begun during the reign of Sultan Selim III, from 1789 to 1807, but were continuously thwarted by the powerful Janissary corps. As a result, only after Sultan Mahmud II had abolished the Janissary corps in 1826 was the way paved for truly effective reforms (Ottoman Turkish: تنظيمات tanzîmât).

These reforms finally came to the empire during the Tanzimat period of 1839–1876, when much of the Ottoman system was reorganized along largely French lines. The Tanzimat reforms "were designed both to modernize the empire and to forestall foreign intervention".

Along with reforms to the Ottoman system, serious reforms were also undertaken in the literature, which had become nearly as moribund as the empire itself. Broadly, these literary reforms can be grouped into two areas:
 changes brought to the language of Ottoman written literature;
 the introduction into Ottoman literature of previously unknown genres.

The reforms to the literary language were undertaken because the Ottoman Turkish language was thought by the reformists to have effectively lost its way. It had become more divorced than ever from its original basis in Turkish, with writers using more and more words and even grammatical structures derived from Persian and Arabic, rather than Turkish. Meanwhile, however, the Turkish folk literature tradition of Anatolia, away from the capital Constantinople, came to be seen as an ideal. Accordingly, many of the reformists called for written literature to turn away from the Divan tradition and towards the folk tradition; this call for change can be seen, for example, in a famous statement by the poet and reformist Ziya Pasha (1829–1880):

Our language is not Ottoman; it is Turkish. What makes up our poetic canon is not gazels and kasîdes, but rather kayabaşıs, üçlemes, and çöğürs, which some of our poets dislike, thinking them crude. But just let those with the ability exert the effort on this road [of change], and what powerful personalities will soon be born!
At the same time as this call—which reveals something of a burgeoning national consciousness—was being made, new literary genres were being introduced into Ottoman literature, primarily the novel and the short story. This trend began in 1861, with the translation into Ottoman Turkish of François Fénelon's 1699 novel Les aventures de Télémaque, by Hüseyin Avni Pasha, to Sultan Abdülaziz. What is widely recognized as the first Turkish novel, Taaşuk-u Tal'at ve Fitnat (تعشق طلعت و فطنت; "Tal'at and Fitnat in Love") by Şemsettin Sami (1850–1904), was published just ten years later, in 1872. However, there had actually been, according to Gonca Gökalp, five other earlier or contemporaneous works of fiction that were clearly distinct from earlier prose traditions in both Divan and folk literature, and that approximate novelistic form. Among these five works is the Muhayyelât of Ali Aziz Efendi, cited above. Another, 1851's Akabi Hikâyesi ("Akabi's Story"), written by the Armenian Vartan Pasha (Hovsep Vartanian) using the Armenian script and for an Armenian audience was, according to Andreas Tietze, "the first genuine modern novel written and published in Turkey". The introduction of such new genres into Turkish literature can be seen as part of a trend towards Westernization that continues to be felt in Turkey to this day.

Due to historically close ties with France—strengthened during the Crimean War of 1854–1856—it was French literature that came to constitute the major Western influence on Turkish literature throughout the latter half of the 19th century. As a result, many of the same movements prevalent in France during this period also had their equivalents in the Ottoman Empire: in the developing Ottoman prose tradition, for instance, the influence of Romanticism can be seen during the Tanzimat period, and that of the Realist and Naturalist movements in subsequent periods; in the poetic tradition, on the other hand, it was the influence of the Symbolist and Parnassian movements that became paramount.

Many of the writers in the Tanzimat period wrote in several different genres simultaneously: for instance, the poet Namık Kemal (1840–1888) also wrote the important 1876 novel İntibâh (انتباه; "Awakening"), while the journalist İbrahim Şinasi (1826–1871) is noted for writing, in 1860, the first modern Turkish play, the one-act comedy "Şair Evlenmesi" (شاعر اولنمسى; "The Poet's Marriage"). In a similar vein, the novelist Ahmed Midhat Efendi (1844–1912) wrote important novels in each of the major movements: Romanticism (حسن ملاح ياخود سر ايچيڭده اسرار Hasan Mellâh yâhud Sırr İçinde Esrâr, 1873; "Hasan the Sailor, or The Mystery Within the Mystery"), Realism (هﻨﻮز اون يدى يشکده Henüz On Yedi Yaşında, 1881; "Just Seventeen Years Old"), and Naturalism (مشاهدات Müşâhedât, 1891; "Observations"). This diversity was, in part, due to the Tanzimat writers' wish to disseminate as much of the new literature as possible, in the hopes that it would contribute to a revitalization of Ottoman social structure.

Early 20th-century Turkish literature

Most of the roots of modern Turkish literature were formed between the years 1896—when the first collective literary movement arose—and 1923, when the Republic of Turkey was officially founded. Broadly, there were three primary literary movements during this period:
 the Edebiyyât-ı Cedîde (ادبيات جدیده; "New Literature") movement
 the Fecr-i Âtî (فجر آتى; "Dawn of the Future") movement
 the Millî Edebiyyât (ملى ادبيات; "National Literature") movement

The New Literature movement

The Edebiyyât-ı Cedîde, or "New Literature", movement began with the founding in 1891 of the magazine Servet-i Fünûn (ﺛﺮوت ﻓﻨﻮن; "Scientific Wealth"), which was largely devoted to progress—both intellectual and scientific—along the Western model. Accordingly, the magazine's literary ventures, under the direction of the poet Tevfik Fikret (1867–1915), were geared towards creating a Western-style "high art" in Turkey. The poetry of the group—of which Tevfik Fikret and Cenâb Şehâbeddîn (1870–1934) were the most influential proponents—was heavily influenced by the French Parnassian movement and the so-called "Decadent" poets. The group's prose writers, on the other hand—particularly Halit Ziya Uşaklıgil (1867–1945)—were primarily influenced by Realism, although the writer Mehmed Rauf (1875–1931) did write the first Turkish example of a psychological novel, 1901's Eylül (ايلول; "September"). The language of the Edebiyyât-ı Cedîde movement remained strongly influenced by Ottoman Turkish.

In 1901, as a result of the article "Edebiyyât ve Hukuk" (ادبيات و ﺣﻘﻮق; "Literature and Law"), translated from French and published in Servet-i Fünûn, the pressure of censorship was brought to bear and the magazine was closed down by the government of the Ottoman sultan Abdülhamid II. Though it was closed for only six months, the group's writers each went their own way in the meantime, and the Edebiyyât-ı Cedîde movement came to an end.

The Dawn of the Future movement

In the 24 February 1909 edition of the Servet-i Fünûn magazine, a gathering of young writers—soon to be known as the Fecr-i Âtî ("Dawn of the Future") group—released a manifesto in which they declared their opposition to the Edebiyyât-ı Cedîde movement and their adherence to the credo, "Sanat şahsî ve muhteremdir" (صنعت شخصى و محترمدر; "Art is personal and sacred"). Though this credo was little more than a variation of the French writer Théophile Gautier's doctrine of "l'art pour l'art", or "art for art's sake", the group was nonetheless opposed to the blanket importation of Western forms and styles, and essentially sought to create a recognizably Turkish literature. The Fecr-i Âtî group, however, never made a clear and unequivocal declaration of its goals and principles, and so lasted only a few years before its adherents each went their own individual way. The two outstanding figures to emerge from the movement were, in poetry, Ahmed Hâşim (1884–1933), and in prose, Yakup Kadri Karaosmanoğlu (1889–1974).

The National Literature movement

In 1908, Sultan Abdülhamid II had been forced to allow a re-established constitutional government, and the parliament subsequently elected was composed almost entirely of members of the Committee of Union and Progress (also known as the "Young Turks"). The Young Turks (ژون تورکلر Jön Türkler) had opposed themselves to the increasingly authoritarian Ottoman government, and soon came to identify themselves with a specifically Turkish national identity. Along with this notion developed the idea of a Turkish and even pan-Turkish nation (Turkish: millet), and so the literature of this period came to be known as "National Literature" (Turkish: millî edebiyyât). It was during this period that the Persian- and Arabic-inflected Ottoman Turkish language was definitively turned away from as a vehicle for written literature, and that literature began to assert itself as being specifically Turkish, rather than Ottoman.

At first, this movement crystallized around the magazine Genç Kalemler (کنج قلملر; "Young Pens"), which was begun in the city of Selânik in 1911 by the three writers who were most representative of the movement: Ziya Gökalp (1876–1924), a sociologist and thinker; Ömer Seyfettin (1884–1920), a short-story writer; and Ali Canip Yöntem (1887–1967), a poet. In Genç Kalemlers first issue, an article entitled "New Language" (Turkish: "Yeni Lisan") pointed out that Turkish literature had previously looked for inspiration either to the East as in the Ottoman Divan tradition, or to the West as in the Edebiyyât-ı Cedîde and Fecr-i Âtî movements, without ever turning to Turkey itself. This latter was the National Literature movement's primary aim.

The intrinsically nationalistic character of Genç Kalemler, however, quickly took a decidedly chauvinistic turn, and other writers—many of whom, like Yakup Kadri Karaosmanoğlu, had been a part of the Fecr-i Âtî movement—began to emerge from within the matrix of the National Literature movement to counter this trend. Some of the more influential writers to come out of this less far-rightist branch of the National Literature movement were the poet Mehmet Emin Yurdakul (1869–1944), the early feminist novelist Halide Edib Adıvar (1884–1964), and the short-story writer and novelist Reşat Nuri Güntekin (1889–1956).

Republican literature
Following the Ottoman Empire's defeat in the First World War of 1914–1918, the victorious Entente Powers began the process of carving up the empire's lands and placing them under their own spheres of influence. In opposition to this process, the military leader Mustafa Kemal (1881–1938), in command of the growing Turkish National Movement whose roots lay partly in the Young Turks, organized the 1919–1923 Turkish War of Independence. This war ended with the official ending of the Ottoman Empire, the expulsion of the Entente Powers, and the founding of the Republic of Turkey.

The literature of the new republic emerged largely from the pre-independence National Literature movement, with its roots simultaneously in the Turkish folk tradition and in the Western notion of progress. One important change to Turkish literature was enacted in 1928, when Mustafa Kemal initiated the creation and dissemination of a modified version of the Latin alphabet to replace the Arabic-based Ottoman script. Over time, this change—together with changes in Turkey's system of education—would lead to more widespread literacy in the country.

Prose

Stylistically, the prose of the early years of the Republic of Turkey was essentially a continuation of the National Literature movement, with Realism and Naturalism predominating. This trend culminated in the 1932 novel Yaban ("The Wilds"), by Yakup Kadri Karaosmanoğlu. This novel can be seen as the precursor to two trends that would soon develop: social realism, and the "village novel" (köy romanı). Çalıkuşu ("The Wren") by Reşat Nuri Güntekin addresses a similar theme with the works of Karaosmanoğlu. Güntekin's narrative has a detailed and precise style, with a realistic tone.

The social realist movement is perhaps best represented by the short-story writer Sait Faik Abasıyanık (1906–1954), whose work sensitively and realistically treats the lives of cosmopolitan Istanbul's lower classes and ethnic minorities, subjects which led to some criticism in the contemporary nationalistic atmosphere. The tradition of the "village novel", on the other hand, arose somewhat later. As its name suggests, the "village novel" deals, in a generally realistic manner, with life in the villages and small towns of Turkey. The major writers in this tradition are Kemal Tahir (1910–1973), Orhan Kemal (1914–1970), and Yaşar Kemal (1923[?]–2015). Yaşar Kemal, in particular, has earned fame outside of Turkey not only for his novels—many of which, such as 1955's İnce Memed (Memed, My Hawk), elevate local tales to the level of epic—but also for his firmly leftist political stance. In a very different tradition, but evincing a similar strong political viewpoint, was the satirical short-story writer Aziz Nesin (1915–1995) and Rıfat Ilgaz (1911–1993).

Another novelist contemporary to, but outside of, the social realist and "village novel" traditions is Ahmet Hamdi Tanpınar (1901–1962). In addition to being an important essayist and poet, Tanpınar wrote a number of novels—such as Huzur ("A Mind at Peace", 1949) and Saatleri Ayarlama Enstitüsü ("The Time Regulation Institute", 1961)—which dramatize the clash between East and West in modern Turkish culture and society. Similar problems are explored by the novelist and short-story writer Oğuz Atay (1934–1977). Unlike Tanpınar, however, Atay—in such works as his long novel Tutunamayanlar ("The Good for Nothing", 1971–1972) and his short story "Beyaz Mantolu Adam" ("Man in a White Coat", 1975)—wrote in a more modernist and existentialist vein. On the other hand, Onat Kutlar's İshak ("Isaac", 1959), composed of nine short stories which are written mainly from a child's point of view and are often surrealistic and mystical, represent a very early example of magic realism.

The tradition of literary modernism also informs the work of female novelist Adalet Ağaoğlu (1929– ). Her trilogy of novels collectively entitled Dar Zamanlar ("Tight Times", 1973–1987), for instance, examines the changes that occurred in Turkish society between the 1930s and the 1980s in a formally and technically innovative style. Orhan Pamuk (1952– ), winner of the 2006 Nobel Prize in Literature, is another such innovative novelist, though his works—such as 1990's Beyaz Kale ("The White Castle") and Kara Kitap ("The Black Book") and 1998's Benim Adım Kırmızı ("My Name is Red")—are influenced more by postmodernism than by modernism. This is true also of Latife Tekin (1957– ), whose first novel Sevgili Arsız Ölüm ("Dear Shameless Death", 1983) shows the influence not only of postmodernism, but also of magic realism. Elif Şafak has been one of the most outstanding authors of Turkish literature which has new tendencies in language and theme in 2000s. Şafak was distinguished first by her use of extensive vocabulary and then became one of the pioneers in Turkish literature in international scope as a bilingual author who writes both in Turkish and in English.

A recent study by Can and Patton provides a quantitative analysis of twentieth century Turkish literature using forty novels of forty authors ranging from Mehmet Rauf's (1875–1931) Eylül (1901) to Ahmet Altan's (1950–) Kılıç Yarası Gibi (1998). They show using statistical analysis that, as time passes, words, in terms of both tokens (in text) and types (in vocabulary), have become longer. They indicate that the increase in word lengths with time can be attributed to the government-initiated language reform of the 20th century. This reform aimed at replacing foreign words used in Turkish, especially Arabic- and Persian-based words (since they were in majority when the reform was initiated in the early 1930s), with newly coined pure Turkish neologisms created by adding suffixes to Turkish word stems. Can and Patton; based on their observations of the change of a specific word use (more specifically in newer works the preference of "ama" over "fakat", both borrowed from Arabic and meaning 'but', and their inverse usage correlation is statistically significant); also speculate that the word length increase can influence the common word choice preferences of authors.

Poetry

In the early years of the Republic of Turkey, there were a number of poetic trends. Authors such as Ahmed Hâşim and Yahyâ Kemâl Beyatlı (1884–1958) continued to write important formal verse whose language was, to a great extent, a continuation of the late Ottoman tradition. By far the majority of the poetry of the time, however, was in the tradition of the folk-inspired "syllabist" movement (Beş Hececiler), which had emerged from the National Literature movement and which tended to express patriotic themes couched in the syllabic meter associated with Turkish folk poetry.

The first radical step away from this trend was taken by Nâzım Hikmet Ran, who—during his time as a student in the Soviet Union from 1921 to 1924—was exposed to the modernist poetry of Vladimir Mayakovsky and others, which inspired him to start writing verse in a less formal style. At this time, he wrote the poem "Açların Gözbebekleri" ("Pupils of the Hungry"), which introduced free verse into the Turkish language for, essentially, the first time. Much of Nâzım Hikmet's poetry subsequent to this breakthrough would continue to be written in free verse, though his work exerted little influence for some time due largely to censorship of his work owing to his Communist political stance, which also led to his spending several years in prison. Over time, in such books as Simavne Kadısı Oğlu Şeyh Bedreddin Destanı ("The Epic of Shaykh Bedreddin, Son of Judge Simavne", 1936) and Memleketimden İnsan Manzaraları ("Human Landscapes from My Country", 1939), he developed a voice simultaneously proclamatory and subtle.

Another revolution in Turkish poetry came about in 1941 with the publication of a small volume of verse preceded by an essay and entitled Garip ("Strange"). The authors were Orhan Veli Kanık (1914–1950), Melih Cevdet Anday (1915–2002), and Oktay Rifat (1914–1988). Explicitly opposing themselves to everything that had gone in poetry before, they sought instead to create a popular art, "to explore the people's tastes, to determine them, and to make them reign supreme over art". To this end, and inspired in part by contemporary French poets like Jacques Prévert, they employed not only a variant of the free verse introduced by Nâzım Hikmet, but also highly colloquial language, and wrote primarily about mundane daily subjects and the ordinary man on the street. The reaction was immediate and polarized: most of the academic establishment and older poets vilified them, while much of the Turkish population embraced them wholeheartedly. Though the movement itself lasted only ten years—until Orhan Veli's death in 1950, after which Melih Cevdet Anday and Oktay Rifat moved on to other styles—its effect on Turkish poetry continues to be felt today.

Just as the Garip movement was a reaction against earlier poetry, so—in the 1950s and afterwards—was there a reaction against the Garip movement. The poets of this movement, soon known as İkinci Yeni ("Second New",) opposed themselves to the social aspects prevalent in the poetry of Nâzım Hikmet and the Garip poets, and instead—partly inspired by the disruption of language in such Western movements as Dada and Surrealism—sought to create a more abstract poetry through the use of jarring and unexpected language, complex images, and the association of ideas. To some extent, the movement can be seen as bearing some of the characteristics of postmodern literature. The most well-known poets writing in the "Second New" vein were Turgut Uyar (1927–1985), Edip Cansever (1928–1986), Cemal Süreya (1931–1990), Ece Ayhan (1931–2002), Sezai Karakoç (1933– ), İlhan Berk (1918–2008).

Outside of the Garip and "Second New" movements also, a number of significant poets have flourished, such as Fazıl Hüsnü Dağlarca (1914–2008), who wrote poems dealing with fundamental concepts like life, death, God, time, and the cosmos; Behçet Necatigil (1916–1979), whose somewhat allegorical poems explore the significance of middle-class daily life; Can Yücel (1926–1999), who—in addition to his own highly colloquial and varied poetry—was also a translator into Turkish of a variety of world literature; İsmet Özel (1944– ), whose early poetry was highly leftist but whose poetry since the 1970s has shown a strong mystical and even Islamist influence; and Hasan Hüseyin Korkmazgil (1927–1984) who wrote collectivist-realist poetry.

 Book Trade
30,000 new titles appear yearly, often in small numbers. 9 verso 17 Euro (pro pocket book/hardcover) – at an average earning of less than 600 Euro monthly –  are rather unattractive, where illegal copies at bazaars cost two-thirds less. "Official Certificates" for legally published books do not solve the problem, because controlling the illegal book trade remains difficult.

5,000 of 10,000 book shops in Turkey are in Istanbul, including the bookfair and growing licence trading. Turkey was a guest of honour at the Frankfurt Bookfair in 2008.

Important works of fiction: 1860–present

 1860 Şair Evlenmesi    İbrahim Şinasi
 1873     Vatan Yahut Silistre  Namık Kemal
 1900 Aşk-ı Memnu   Halit Ziya Uşaklıgil
 1919 Memleket Hikayeleri    Refik Halit Karay
 1922 Çalıkuşu   Reşat Nuri Güntekin
 1930 Dokuzuncu Hariciye Koğuşu   Peyami Safa
 1932     Yaban         Yakup Kadri Karaosmanoğlu
 1936 Sinekli Bakkal  Halide Edib Adıvar
 1938 Üç İstanbul   Mithat Cemal Kuntay
 1941 Fahim Bey ve Biz   Abdülhak Şinasi Hisar
 1943 Kürk Mantolu Madonna   Sabahattin Ali
 1944 Aganta Burina Burinata   Halikarnas Balıkçısı
 1949 Huzur   Ahmet Hamdi Tanpınar
 1952 Dost   Vüs'at O. Bener
 1954 Alemdağda Var Bir Yılan   Sait Faik Abasıyanık
 1954 Bereketli Topraklar Üzerinde   Orhan Kemal
 1955 İnce Memet   Yaşar Kemal
 1956  Esir Şehrin İnsanları    Kemal Tahir
 1959 Yılanların Öcü  Fakir Baykurt
 1959 Aylak Adam   Yusuf Atılgan
 1960 Ortadirek   Yaşar Kemal
 1962 Saatleri Ayarlama Enstitüsü   Ahmet Hamdi Tanpınar
 1964 Küçük Ağa   Tarık Buğra
 1966 Memleketimden İnsan Manzaraları   Nâzım Hikmet
 1971 Tutunamayanlar   Oğuz Atay
 1973 Parasız Yatılı   Füruzan
 1973 Anayurt Oteli   Yusuf Atılgan
 1979 Bir Düğün Gecesi   Adalet Ağaoğlu
 1982 Cevdet Bey ve Oğulları Orhan Pamuk
 1983 Sevgili Arsız Ölüm Latife Tekin
 1990 Kara Kitap   Orhan Pamuk
 1995 Puslu Kıtalar Atlası   İhsan Oktay Anar
 1998' Benim Adım Kırmızı   Orhan Pamuk

See also
 Contemporary Turkish literature
 Crimean Tatar literature
 Azerbaijani literature
 Turkmen literature
 Chagatai language
 Codex Cumanicus
 List of Ottoman poets
 List of contemporary Turkish poets
 List of Turkish short story writers
 List of Turkish women writers
 List of Turkish writers
 Persian metres

Notes
 *Alpamysh, Hasan Bülent Paksoy

Bibliography

 Andrews, Walter G. Ottoman Lyric Poetry: An Anthology. .
 —. Poetry's Voice, Society's Song. .
 Belge, Murat. Osmanlı'da Kurumlar ve Kültür. .
 Bezirci, Asım; ed. Seçme Romanlar: Yazarları, Eserleri, Roman Özetleri, Eleştiriler, Kaynaklar. İstanbul: Evrensel Basım Yayın, 1997.
 Can, Fazlı; Patton, Jon M. "Change of word characteristics in 20th century Turkish literature: A statistical analysis". Journal of Quantitative Linguistics, Vol. 17, No. 3. (2010), pp. 167–190. http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09296174.2010.485444
 Fuat, Mehmet; ed. (2002) "Nâzım Hikmet: Life Story". Tr. Nurgül Kıvılcım Yavuz. Retrieved 1 March 2006.
 Gökalp, G. Gonca. "Osmanlı Dönemi Türk Romanının Başlangıcında Beş Eser" in Hacettepe Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, pp. 185–202.
 Halman, Talât Sait; ed. tr. "Introduction". Just for the Hell of It: 111 Poems by Orhan Veli Kanık. Multilingual Yabancı Dil Yayınları, 1997.
 Hagen, Gottfried, Sira, Ottoman Turkish, in Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God (2 vols.), Edited by C. Fitzpatrick and A. Walker, Santa Barbara, ABC-CLIO, 2014, Vol. II, pp. 585–597.
 Holbrook, Victoria. "Originality and Ottoman Poetics: In the Wilderness of the New". Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 112, No. 3. (Jul.–Sep. 1992), pp. 440–454.
 Karaalioğlu, Seyit Kemal. Türk Edebiyatı Tarihi. İstanbul: İnkılâp ve Aka Basımevi, 1980.
 —; ed. Ziya Paşa: Hayatı ve Şiirleri. İstanbul: İnkılâp ve Aka Basımevi, 1984.
 Lester, Toby. (1997) "New-Alphabet Disease?". Retrieved 6 March 2006.
 Lewis, Geoffrey (1999). The Turkish Language Reform: A Catastrophic Success. Oxford : Oxford University Press.
 Mansel, Philip. Constantinople: City of the World's Desire, 1453–1924. .
 Moran, Berna. Türk Romanına Eleştirel Bir Bakış. Vol. 1. .
 Muhtar, İbrahim et al. (2003) "Genç Kalemler". Retrieved 23 February 2006.
 Pala, İskender. Divân Şiiri Antolojisi: Dîvânü'd-Devâvîn. .
 Paskin, Sylvia. (2005) "The cloak of love". Retrieved 5 March 2006.
 Selçuk Üniversitesi Uzaktan Eğitim Programı (SUZEP). "Türk Yazı Dilinin Tarihî Gelişimi". Retrieved 29 May 2006.
 Şafak, Elif. (2005) "There Is No Clash of Civilizations". Retrieved 24 February 2006.
 Şentürk, Ahmet Atilla. Osmanlı Şiiri Antolojisi. .
 Tanpınar, Ahmet Hamdi. 19'uncu Asır Türk Edebiyatı Tarihi. İstanbul: Çağlayan Kitabevi, 1988.
 Tietze, Andreas; ed. "Önsöz", Akabi Hikyayesi''. pp. IX–XXI. İstanbul: Eren Yayıncılık ve Kitapçılık Ltd. Şti., 1991.
 Wolf-Gazo, Ernest. (1996) "John Dewey in Turkey: An Educational Mission". Retrieved 6 March 2006.

External links

In English

 Ottoman Text Archive Project - University of Washington A diverse collection of selected Ottoman texts, tools for working with digitized texts, and various projects for the dissemination of Ottoman texts.
 Contemporary Turkish Literature An excellent and well-translated selection of contemporary Turkish literature hosted by Boğaziçi University in Istanbul
 Encyclopedia of Turkish Authors A very comprehensive encyclopedia from the Turkish Ministry of Culture and Tourism
 Selected Literatures and Authors Page: Turkish Literature A website with a number of Turkish literature-related links
 The Online Bibliography of Ottoman-Turkish Literature A bi-lingual site presenting in English (see in Turkish section below) a user-submissable database of references to theses, books, articles, papers and research-projects
 Turkish Cultural Foundation A website with a great deal of information on a number of Turkish authors and literary genres
 Turkish Poetry in Translation A website with a good selection of both contemporary and somewhat older Turkish poems
 Turkishpoetry.net Contemporary Turkish poetry web site

In Turkish
 ATON, the Uysal-Walker Archive of Turkish Oral Narrative A searchable archive of oral literature based at Texas Tech University containing links to numerous MP3 files.
 Divan Edebiyat? A website with many examples of Ottoman Divan poetry
 Osmanlı Edebiyatı Çalışmaları Bibliyografyası Veritabanı A bi-lingual site presenting (in Turkish, see above) a user-submissable database of references to theses, books, articles, papers and research-projects

Literature

Turkish literature


Dudhatoli is a middle Himalayan mountain range/forest running approximately 25 km in a north–south direction, starting near Thalisain tehsil of Pauri Garhwal district in Uttarakhand, with Gairsain in Chamoli district being its western limit and Syoli-Khand region in Pauri its northernmost spur.

Some off-shoots of the parent mountain range go as far North as Nauti-Chhatoli-Nandasain in Chamoli, Paithani (Pauri Garhwal) in the West and Mehalchauri/Milchori (Chamoli) in South-East. Musa-ka-kotha, the highest peak in Dudhatoli range, is higher than Nag Tibba (often wrongly quoted as the highest peak in the Shivaliks) by almost hundred metres. The core area of Dudhatoli mountains, known as Dudhatoli Danda has an average elevation of 2900 to 3000 metres (9500 to 10000 feet).

Etymology
The word Dudhatoli is a composite word in Garhwali language made up of "Doodh-ki-tauli" which translates to "Cauldron of Milk" in English. As long as recorded history goes Dudhatoli meadows have been used as a grazing ground for cattle, sheep and goats for hundreds of years. It is the thick, luscious and juicy grass of these giant rolling mountains that produces plenty of good quality milk. The cattle-herders and shepherds further go on to produce tonnes of butter and ghee in dozens of temporary shelters spread across these pastures. There used to be a time when up to 50000 cows and buffaloes were kept in makeshift barns (known as Khark or Chhaanni in Garhwali) scattered all over these desolate mountains. Today, at the onset of summer season, these animal-herders can still be seen making their annual journey up the mountain with their bag and baggage tied at their backs. They get down to their (other) homes at the onset of winter season when grass starts drying up in autumn.

History, Geography, Flora and Fauna
Known as Pamir of Uttarakhand, Dudhatoli has gently rolling mountains and expansive meadows that lie at the geographical centre of Uttarakhand state. In ancient and medieval times, the entire Garhwal kingdom was divided into different Pattis and Parganas for ease of administration; chieftains of various clans used to hold them in the name of the king of Garhwal. Kings have long gone, but the system of Patti (pronounced as pət-ti:) and Parganā is still alive. Today while writing their addresses, people of rural Uttarakhand write their Names, Village, Post office, Patti/Pargana, Block/Tehsil, District and lastly state with zip code. It is interesting to know how two different pattis can have two different versions of Garhwali language. About 60 percent of Dudhatoli region comes in Pauri Garhwal district (the Pattis of Chauthaan, Choprakot and Dhaijyuli), whereas the remaining portion (40%) forms a part of Chamoli Garhwal (pattis of Chaandpur and Lohbha). Higher elevated regions of these five pattis constitute Dudhatoli range. The north-western spur of Dudhatoli range joins the ridge of Hariyali Kantha temple above Jasoli Village in Rudraprayag and Dobri Village in Pauri Garhwal.

Dudhatoli and its surrounding foothills form an intricate network of riparian zones and is home to one of the densest as well as largest temperate broadleaf and coniferous forests in the state. West Himalayan Fir (Abies pindrow), Spruce, Deodar (Cedrus deodara), Pine, Maple, Chestnut, Hornbeam, Alder, Hazelnut etc. are the common trees here. Besides this, many medicinal herbs, shrubs and wild fruits are found here, of which Wild Oregano, Thyme, Galangal, Berberis, Raspberry, Gooseberry, Rose hip, Himalayan Strawberry tree (Bentham's Cornel/Cornus capitata), Redcurrant and Blackcurrant are to be noted. Dudhatoli mountains are source of many non-glacial perennial rivers; Nayaar-East, Nayaar-West (merging with each other at Satpuli) and Ramganga (West) being the major ones, not to mention the innumerable water springs and streams that drain into these rivers (Names of all significant rivers with their headwaters in Dudhatoli have been given in the infobox above). This region is a wonderland of untouched virgin beauty and has a huge potential to be developed as a tourist attraction.

Ecological significance
Dudhatoli's ecological importance can be understood from the fact that it is the source of dozens of streams and 5 perennial non-glacial rivers. The locals and shepherds have been using the medicinal plants found here, for hundreds of years. While nomads and shepherds are only temporary residents here during warm and rainy months, it is still permanently inhabited by many wild animals such as Leopard, Jungle Cats, Bear, Wild Boar, Porcupine, Wild Antelope-goat (Ghoral), Hare (Wild Rabbit) along with dozens of bird species of which pheasants being the most prominent. As higher elevations of these mountains are snow-clad till late March, the melting snows gently seep into the soil and recharge the water table. By June, rains come in, making the rivers and streams perennial. The moisture keeps the forest and meadows evergreen. However, due to reckless exploitation of forests and natural resources in the 1970s, this region has suffered a lot and is still recovering and rejuvenating its depleted forests and denuded ridges. This creates an illusion, as some of the treeless ridges seem to be above tree-line. But in reality, the highest ridges are close to 500 metres (approximately 1500 feet) below tree-line. Another reason for the declining forest cover is that the seeds of trees are propagated downwards by the action of wind and gravity, unableto sustain the forest stretches on the upper slopes, resultingly the trees on higher elevations gradually die.

Climate
It has a temperate climate in summer with temperature hovering between 15 and 25 degrees Celsius. However, it gets bitter cold in winter with subzero temperatures not uncommon, as is typical of all the middle-Himalayan mountains and meadows. It receives heavy snowfall in the months of December to March and is the first place to get snow in the district. Sometimes, snow can be seen in cold and shadowy spots till late March or early April.

How to Reach
Dudhatoli can be approached from Thalisain in Pauri Garhwal (NH 121) and Gairsain (NH 87) in Chamoli Garhwal. While coming from Thalisain side, people get down at Peethsain (22 kilometres from Thalisain) and reach Dudhatoli after a trek of about 24 kilometres. The other route is much shorter albeit steeper, which goes from Gairsain to Bharadisain (the site of Uttarakhand Vidhan Sabha) and then 10 to 12 kilometres of steep trekking.
Trekking begins from bharadsain cause end point of road is in there.
Bharadisain(vidhan sabha) is near to Gairsain (Summer Capital of Uttarakhand).

Image gallery

See also
 Kalinka, Pauri Garhwal, the hill temple of Kalinka, situated in Bironkhal block of Pauri Garhwal district, Uttarakhand.
 Binsar Devta, an ancient rock temple situated in Pauri Garhwal district, Uttarakhand.

References

Himalayas
Himalayan forests
Pauri Garhwal district
Chamoli district
Tourist attractions in Uttarakhand

Dudhatoli


Hilary Joyce Boyle (25 October 1899 – 21 October 1988) was a journalist, broadcaster, and activist.

Biography
Born Hilary Joyce Thompson on 25 October 1899 in London, she was the second child of Winifred Helen Thompson (née Hopkins) and Gerald Alexander Thompson, vicar of St Gregory's church, Canterbury, and canon of Canterbury Cathedral. Boyle received her education in an all girls school in South London. In 1921 she married a British Army officer, Lt-Col. Charles Leofric Boyle and through his postings spent time in Ireland, Jamaica, Malta and India between 1925 and 1935.

Boyle moved back to England from India and subsequently settled in Ireland. She separated from her husband in 1935 and they finally divorced in 1950 and her husband married again. They had four daughters and eventually she was estranged from them also. She lived in Ballsbridge and later Cabinteely for most of her life in Ireland.

Boyle became a Roman Catholic but later left it to join the Communist Party of Ireland. She was involved in a number of activist activities including the Dublin Housing Action Committee and the anti-Vietnam-war campaign. She ensured that she marched both north and south of the border on various protests. She was involved in the Irish anti-apartheid movement and homeless work.

Boyle also wrote for the Woman's Way magazine as a gardening editor as well as various other articles. She also wrote to the Irish Times letters page and for Radio Éireann's Sunday miscellany. Boyle was a guest of the Late Late Show more than once.  Boyle wrote Every Common Bush. A Book of Flower Legends for Children which was published in 1947. Boyle died on 21 October 1988 in the Arras retirement home, Bray.

References and sources

1899 births
1988 deaths
English emigrants to Ireland
Journalists from Dublin (city)
Journalists from London
English radio presenters

Hilary Boyle


Beach Volley is a beach volleyball video game developed by Ocean France for the Amiga, Atari ST, Amstrad CPC, Commodore 64, and ZX Spectrum, released by Ocean Software in 1989. A stranger interrupts a beach volleyball game and offering the player to join the "Ocean Beach Volley" worldwide tournament, to play against the best from eight other countries. The winner of this competition will receive $250,000 dollars.

Beach Volley is the first Ocean France product and one of the first Ocean games to be aimed for the Amiga and Atari ST.

Gameplay

Follows the base ruleset of beach volleyball. Two teams of two players each trying to score by making the ball land inside the opponents half of the court. First team reaching seven points within six minutes wins and head to another of the eight countries. At five minutes of play, the music changes to a different tune to indicate the player to hurry up. If the player reach the six minutes limit, the player lose the game, even if the player are ahead in points. One or two player at once can play the game, but tournament mode is only available for single player. In singe player mode the player will be joined by an AI controlled player. To help the human player a flickering blue cursor on the ground will indicate where the ball will be landing.

The world tournament consists of a single match in eight different countries, which is seen on a world map. The team starts in London and the final match will be held in Paris. The team had to take challenges in New York City, Nassau, Luxor, Sydney, Tokyo and Moscow in between too. Every hosting country will be introduced with a little humorous skit, which is usually related to their sights or locations.

Reception
Reviews from 1989

Reviews from 1991

References

External links
 Beach Volley at Lemon Amiga
 Longplay video

1989 video games
Amiga games
Commodore 64 games
Atari ST games
Amstrad CPC games
Video games developed in France
Video games scored by Jean Baudlot
ZX Spectrum games
Ocean Software games
Beach volleyball video games
Multiplayer and single-player video games

Beach Volley


Basil of Baker Street is a series of children's novels written by Eve Titus and illustrated by Paul Galdone. The stories focus on the titular Basil of Baker Street and his personal biographer Doctor David Q. Dawson. Together they solve the many crimes and cases of the mouse world. Both live in Holmestead, a mouse community built in the cellar of 221B Baker Street, where Sherlock Holmes is a tenant upstairs.

The five original titles were published from 1958 to 1982 by McGraw-Hill. The series was revived three decades later when a new work was published by Aladdin Paperbacks in October 2018, written by Cathy Hapka and illustrated by David Mottram. Two more adventures followed in 2019 and 2020.

The 1986 Disney animated feature The Great Mouse Detective was based on these novels.

Characters

 Basil of Baker Street – "The Sherlock Holmes of the Mouse World"; very similar to Holmes (who sometimes used the alias Basil, as in "The Adventure of Black Peter"). As his model plays the violin, however, Basil plays the flute, as revealed in Basil and the Lost Colony. His hobbies include archery, archaeology, and mountaineering. Eve Titus gave him the name "Basil" in honor of actor Basil Rathbone, who donned the role of Sherlock Holmes numerous times.
 Dr. David Q. Dawson – Basil's personal biographer; based on Dr. John H. Watson from the Sherlock Holmes stories. He is an aficionado of cheese.
 Professor Padraic Ratigan – Basil's archenemy and a master criminal; based on Professor James Moriarty from the Sherlock Holmes story "The Final Problem". Although his name is "Ratigan", in the book series he is a mouse.
 Captain Doran – Ratigan's lieutenant; based on Colonel Sebastian Moran from the Sherlock Holmes story "The Adventure of the Empty House".
 Mademoiselle Relda – a beautiful opera singer; based on Irene Adler from the Sherlock Holmes story "A Scandal in Bohemia". Basil is hinted to possess unrequited love for Relda but the background of their relationship is not explored in the books.
 Mrs. Judson – Basil's housekeeper; based on Mrs. Hudson from the Sherlock Holmes stories. She makes an excellent cheese soufflé.

Series
The first five books were written by Eve Titus, illustrated by Paul Galdone, and published by McGraw-Hill. The series note "A Basil of Baker Street Mystery" is sometimes cataloged as a subtitle.

Basil of Baker Street (1958), 96 pp.,  Basil and Dawson go searching for the missing twin children of Mr. and Mrs. Proudfoot. The search takes them from Baker Street to a harbor, and even to the countryside of England. The plot device of a typewriter as the 'smoking gun' is adapted from the Sherlock Holmes story "A Case of Identity".
Basil and the Lost Colony (1964) Basil leads an expedition in search of the Lost Colony of the Tellmice. Along the way he is being hunted by Ratigan and his gang.
Basil and the Cave of Cats (1971) Basil finds a clue that hints at the existence of Pygmy Cats. He and Dawson search for the truth, all the while escaping Professor Ratigan and Captain Doran. Before the adventure begins, however, they must restore the Maharajah of Bengistan to his throne.
Basil in Mexico (1976) About to embark on a trip to Mexico to help out with a case there, Basil is suddenly called upon to solve the Case of the Counterfeit Cheese. Then, upon his arrival in Mexico, he discovers that the famed "mousterpiece", the Mousa Lisa, is missing, and that it is up to him to find the perpetrator. Almost immediately afterwards, Dr. Dawson is kidnapped.
Basil in the Wild West (1982) Basil and Dawson continue their North American road trip by solving two mysteries in the Wild West. First, they have to stop a crew of smugglers from taking control of part of the West, and then solve the mystery of the "Thing" that is scaring guests of the Hathaway Hotel.
Basil and the Big Cheese Cook-Off (2018) Basil and Dawson journey to Paris to solve a mystery threatening the world-renowned international cheese cook-off cooking competition.
Basil and the Royal Dare (May 2019) Basil and Dawson come to the aid of the British and Bohemian Royal Families (of mice), when several royal teens go missing.
Basil and the Library Ghost (May 2020) "When Basil of Baker Street and Dr. Dawson reunite with old friends, the C for Cheese Gang, at Oxford, they investigate rumors that Ratcliffe College's library is haunted."

References

External links
 Basil series at WorldCat (search results for 'Basil paul galdone')

Book series introduced in 1958
Series of children's books
Sherlock Holmes pastiches
Children's mystery novels
Children's novels about mice and rats
American children's novels
Fictional mice and rats
Fictional British police detectives
Fictional English people
American novels adapted into films
1958 children's books
Literary characters introduced in 1958
Male characters in literature
McGraw-Hill books
Baker Street

Basil of Baker Street


The Mauser 1918 T-Gewehr was an anti-tank rifle, of German production, used towards the end of World War I. At the Battle of the Somme, the British first used tanks. The Germans were surprised, and had no weapons (rifles) that could be used against tanks.  For this reason, they developed one: The Mauser anti-tank rifle was the first rifle that was able to penetrate the larger shell of a tank. It was used towards the end of WWI. It was able to penetrate 20-25mm of tank shell, at a distance of .

Rifles

Mauser 1918 T-Gewehr


Watap, watape, wattap, or wadab ( or ) is the thread and cordage used by the Native Americans and First Nations peoples of Canada to sew together sheets and panels of birchbark.  The word itself comes from the Algonquian language family, but watap cordage was used and sewn by all of the people who lived where the paper birch tree grows.  The cordage was usually manufactured from the roots of various species of conifers, such as the white spruce, black spruce, or Northern whitecedar, but could originate from a variety of species that sprouted root fibers with sufficient tensile strength for the required purpose.  In a typical manufacturing process, the roots would be debarked, subjected to a lengthy soaking process, and then steamed or boiled to render them pliable for sewing.  The roots could be left whole and used as cords, or divided into smaller fibers for twine.

Uses
Sewn birchbark panels were employed by the native North Americans of the Upper Great Lakes for a wide variety of purposes; the best-known, and one which required among the highest degree of craftsmanship, was the manufacture of light canoes.  Panels of bark, sewn together with watap and caulked with tree resin, could be used to create a vessel that would resist leakage to the point of being almost waterproof.  The watap could also be used as part of the joinery for the structural elements of the canoe.

Watap-sewn bark sheets and panels could also be used to make vessels and utensils for food storage and other household use.  Examples of this packaging were called wiigwaasi-makakoon, and the watap stitchery was often used as an element in the decoration and unique identity of the package.  The peoples initiated into the heritage of the Midewiwin, or Great Medicine Society, kept records and aids to memory through birchbark scrolls sewn together with watap.

Linguistic heritage
The word "watap" entered European languages through Canadian French, and ultimately derives from the Cree word watapiy. The wide use of the term in Cree indicates the importance of birchbark craft to that nation and the widespread presence of the paper birch and spruce in their historical homeland.  The Anishinaabe peoples also extensively harvested and manufactured watap.

Geography
Watap Lake, also called Watape Lake, and the adjacent Watap Portage are key elements in the Grand Portage from Lake Superior to the interior of North America.  The lake and portage were of such historical importance that the boundary between Canada and the United States of America follows the length of the lake and portage today.

Watab River in Stearns County, Minnesota, served as a boundary separating the Dakota peoples from the Ojibwa people per the 1825 First Treaty of Prairie du Chien.

See also
 wiigob: bast cordage made from basswood (Tilia spp.))

References

American Indian relics
Anishinaabe culture
Cree culture
Primitive technology
Fibers

Watap


In economics, a household is the name given to a number of people who live in the same place, and who share a number of things. Very often, this is the case with a family, but this need not be the case. People living in the same household profit, because they can share some of the expenses.

It is an important concept in social security. People in the same household are expected to support each other. Benefits for the poor are generally based on  households.

Home
Family
Economics

Household


Jože Šmit (1 February 1922 – 7 February 2004) was a Slovene poet, translator, editor and journalist.

Šmit was born in the village of Tlake near Rogatec in eastern Slovenia in 1922. The house in which he was born and spent his childhood is preserved on a new location at the Rogatec Open-Air Museum where it was moved to in 1981 as a typical example of an early 19th-century Sub-Pannonian house. He studied forestry at Vienna between 1942 and 1943 and was drafted into the German Army. During the Invasion of Normandy he was captured and sent to England as a prisoner of war and then to Italy, where he joined the Overseas Brigade of the Yugoslav Liberation Army and returned to Yugoslavia.  After the war he worked as a journalist and studied Comparative literature and Slavic languages and literature at the University of Ljubljana, but was sent to work in Litija and abandoned his studies. He worked as an editor and proof-reader and is also known for his translations, particularly for his translation from the Latin of the poet Catullus. He also wrote prose and poetry for young children. He died in Ljubljana in 2004.

In 1970 he won the Levstik Award for his poetry collection Kako bomo umirali (How We Shall Die).

Published works

 Poetry collections
 Srce v bedi (The Heart in Poverty), 1950
 Dvojni cvet (The Double Flower), 1953
 Trepetlika (The Trembling Poplar), 1962
 Lirika časa (Lyrics of Time), 1965
 Lirična postila (A Lyrical Fasting Book), 1965
 Kolosej iz cedelike (The Strainer Colosseum), 1967
 Kako bomo umirali (How We Shall Die), 1970
 Zlo stoletja (The Evil of the Century), 1971
 Hoja za Katulom (Walking after Catullus), 1972
 Grenki med (Bitter Honey), 1990

 Prose for Young Readers
 Marjetka (Little Margaret), 1951
 Kaj nam je popisal Jakec (What Little Jack Told Us), 1953
 Pol za šalo pol za res (Half For Fun and Half Seriously), 1956
 Kdo živi v tej kišici (Who Lives in This Little House), 1959
 Ježek se ženi (The Hedgehog's Wedding), 1974

References

Slovenian male poets
Slovenian translators
Slovenian journalists
Slovenian children's writers
1922 births
2004 deaths
Levstik Award laureates
University of Ljubljana alumni
Yugoslav Partisans members
German Army personnel of World War II
University of Vienna alumni
20th-century translators
20th-century Slovenian poets
People from the Municipality of Rogatec
20th-century journalists
Yugoslav poets

Jože Šmit


Ribes viscosissimum, also known as sticky currant, is a species of eudicot in the family Grossulariaceae (currant family). The species is native to North America. Pacific Northwest, Columbia Plateau, Great Plains, Great Basin, and southwest regions of western North America are native to this plant.

Description
Besides mountain forests and streambanks, Ribes viscosissimum grows in sagebrush plateaus. It grows from one to two meters (40-80 inches) in height, with a stem covered in sticky glandular hairs but lacking spines or bristles.   It is resinous and fragrant. The leaves have thick, rough blades divided into three lobes with rounded, toothed tips, the lobes being approximately the same size rather than the middle lobe being larger than the others, as in some related species. Typically, the blades are 8 centimeters long, and the petioles are up to 10 centimeters (4 inches) long. Inflorescences consist of several blooms clustered together, either erect or drooping. The flowers have five whitish, green, or pink-tinged sepals that resemble a corolla at their tips, sometimes becoming reflexed. The stamens and stigmas are surrounded by whitish petals. Fruits are blue-black berries up to a centimeter in length. They are not edible.

Ecology
There have been reports of the following animal species as pollinators of this plant species or its genus where they overlap in geographical range: Bombus vagans, Bombus bifarius, Bombus centralis, Bombus fervidus, Bombus flavifrons, Bombus huntii, Bombus melanopygus, Bombus mixtus, Bombus nevadensis, Bombus terricola, Bombus sitkensis, Bombus occidentalis.

Habitat
The vegetation is moist to wet, with avalanche slopes and streams; montane, lower subalpine. Also, West-Side Forest, East-Side Forest and Moist Riverbanks.

Propagation
As soon as the seeds are mature in the autumn, they should be sowed in a cool body. Prior to sowing, cold stratifying stored seed at -2 to 0 °C for 3 months is commonly advised. Under normal garage conditions, the seed can last for 17 years or longer. Prick out the seedlings pots as soon as they are large enough to handle and grow them on in a cold frame for their first winter, putting them out in late spring the following year. Half-ripe wood cuttings, 10 – 15 cm with a heel, July/August in a body. November through February, in a cold body or sheltered mattress outside, cuttings of mature timber from the current year's boom, preferably with a heel from the previous year's increase. Its tree is a huge plant with a single trunk that grows in girth with age and branches that is not precisely defined but often exceeds four meters in height (which also grow in circumference with age).

Flower and berries
Flowering starts in early summer. They are perennial. They are also locally common. The flowers are bell-shaped, white to greenish yellow, and grow in clusters of 4-15 flowers. The berries are black, covered in bluish wax, and very gummy. At mid-to-high elevations, this plant grows along streambanks, in damp to dry woods. Plants in the Angiosperm - Flowering Dicot category have two embryonic leaves (dicotyledons). Beans, buttercups, oaks, sunflowers, and other dicotyledons are examples.

Species Status
Common, widespread, and abundant (although it may be rare in parts of its range). Not vulnerable in most of its range. Exhibits an intermediate range of ecological tolerance, typifies a stable phase of a native community, and persists but does not thrive with some natural or human disturbance

Allergenicity
Sticky Currant (Ribes viscosissimum) species have not been linked to any allergies.

Distribution
R. viscosissimum was found in states of Idaho, Oregon and Washington in high quantity. In Oregon, they were found in Grant County. In a Strawberry Wilderness on Slide Basin trail #372 on lower switchback of trail to Slide Lake below ridge between Strawberry and Slide Basins. They were on a Elevation of 6620 ft. In Idaho they were found in Bonner County at Priest Lake State Forest, Selkirk Mountains, Laclede, Riley Creek Road, about 2.5 miles up Manley Creek Road. In Blaine County on trail to Amber Lakes from West Fork of North Fork of Big Wood River, north of Ketchum. In Caribou County at Caribou National Forest. Forest Road 95. From Hwy 34 drive up road 107 to Valley Creek. Along Forest Road 107 about 2.5 air miles SW of Stump Peak.

References

Sources
 Species was collected on June 16, 1806, along the Lolo Trail in Idaho, by William Clark and Meriwether Lewis during their famous expedition. It was later described and published in Fl. Amer. Sept. (Pursh) 163. 1814.
 ^ The Plant List, Ribes viscosissimum var. hallii (Jancz.) Jancz.
 ^ Calflora taxon report, University of California, Ribes viscosissimum Pursh, Sticky Current, Sticky flowering currant, sticky currant
 ^ Biota of North America Program 2014 county distribution map
 ^ SEINet, Southwestern Biodiversity, Arizona chapter
 ^ Flora of North America, Ribes viscosissimum
 ^ Pursh, Frederick Traugott 1813. Flora Americae Septentrionalis 1: 163–164 description in Latin, commentary in English

viscosissimum
Plants described in 1814
Flora of the Western United States
Flora of Western Canada
Flora without expected TNC conservation status

Ribes viscosissimum


Ajapnyak (), is one of the 12 districts of Yerevan, the capital of Armenia. Located to the northwest of the city centre, Ajapnyak has common borders with the districts of Arabkir from the east, Davtashen from the north, Kentron from the southeast, and Malatia-Sebastia from the south. Hrazdan River forms the natural border of the district from the east. Ajapnyak has also common borders with the provinces of Armavir and Aragatsotn from the west, and Kotayk from the north.

Overview

With an area of 25 km² (11.21% of Yerevan city area), Ajapnyak is the 4th-largest district of Yerevan in terms of area. Ajapnyak literally means 'right bank' in Armenian, which refers to the location of the district on the right bank of Hrazdan River. It is unofficially divided into smaller neighborhoods such as Ajapnyak, Norashen, Nazarbekyan, Silikyan, Lukashin, Vahagni, Anastasavan and Cheremushki. Kevork Chavush Square and Halabyan Street form the core of the district. Other notable streets of the district are Kevork Chavush Street, Shiraz Street, Bashinjaghyan Street, Movses Silikyan Street and the Ashtarak Highway. Ajapnyak is separated from Kentron and Malatia-Sebastia by Leningradyan Street.

Many parks in Ajapnyak were replenished in the 2010s, becoming major destinations for the citizens of Yerevan, such as Tumanyan Park, Buenos Aires Park and Freedom Fighters' () Park.

As of 2016, the population of the district is around 109,100.

History

Demographics
As of the 2011 census, the district had a population of 108,282 (10.21% of Yerevan city population). According to the 2016 official estimate, the population of the district is around 109,100 (ranked 7th among the Yerevan districts).

Ajapnyak is mainly populated by Armenians who belong to the Armenian Apostolic Church. However, as of 2017, the district does not have any church building within its borders.

Culture

Ajapnyak is home to Mikayel Mirzoyan Music School opened in 1957, Avet Gabrielyan Art School opened in 1971, Maratuk Cultural Centre for Ethnographic Song and Dance opened in 1983, Anahit Tsitsikyan Music School opened in 1987, Zartonk Children's Aesthetic Education Centre opened in 1995, and Ajapnyak Aesthetic Education Centre opened in 2001.

Transportation
Being located on the right bank of the Hrazdan river, the district secures its connection with central Yerevan through the Great Bridge of Hrazdan. Ajapnyak is served by a public transport network of buses and trolleybuses.

Economy

Ajapnyak is mainly home to small retailers and service centres with a small industrial area at the eastern side of the district, on the border with Malatia-Sebastia.

Most of the industrial plants of the district were opened in the 2000s. However, the Proshyan Brandy Factory founded in 1885, is operating in its current facilities in Ajapnyak since 1980. Many large industrial firms are currently operating in the district, such as Thermomex electronic devices plant founded in 1987, Karitas wood products plant founded 1995, Asa confectionery products plant founded in 1997, Waterlok Aparan mineral water factory founded in 2000, Prof Al aluminum structures plant founded in 2002, Biokat dairy factory founded in 2003, Profmet metal pipe plant founded in 2004, Aparan-Tan+ dairy and mineral water factory founded in 2004, Mega Shin metal and plastic structures plant founded in 2005, Elit Shant ice cream factory founded in 2007, Martin Star food manufacturing enterprise founded in 2007, Amelia mining company founded in 2008, Gary Plast factory founded in 2012, and Yerfrez factory for metal-cutting machines founded in 2016. Many other minor plants producing food products, clothes, electronic devices and building materials also operate in the district.

The district is home to the Armenia Republican Medical Centre, which is the largest hospital in Yerevan.

Education

As of 2016–17, the district has 20 public schools as well as 4 private schools, among them is the prominent QSI International School of Yerevan (opened in 1995). A vocational school also operates in the district.

Many higher education institutes are operating in the district, such as Haybusak University of Yerevan (opened in 1990), and Yerevan Agricultural University (opened in 1992).

The Yerevan Physics Institute scientific research centre founded in 1943, is located in Ajapnyak. In 1993, Monte Melkonian Military Academy of the Defence Ministry of Armenia was opened in the district, followed by the Tumo Center for Creative Technologies in 2011.

Sport
Ajapnyak is home to the following sport schools:
Children's and Youth's sport school of Ajapnyak, opened in 1968, specialized handball, basketball, volleyball and chess.
Armfighting Professional Federation, mixed martial arts training centre, opened in 2005.
Ajapnyak Chess School, opened in 2013.

The Ararat Golf and Country Club is located at the Vahagni neighbourhood of Ajapnyak District.

References

Districts of Yerevan

Ajapnyak District


Begbies Traynor () (until 1997 known as Traynor & Partners) is a firm specialising in corporate restructuring. They were formed in 1989, expanded through mergers and organic growth and were floated in 2004. The company employs over 700 people and has over 100 offices around the United Kingdom.

History
The company was formed as Traynor & Partners in 1989 by Ric Traynor and Andrew Dick. It traded under this name for eight years, growing during this period to cover much of Northern England. In 1997 Traynor took over London-based firm Begbies, founded by George Begbie, and was renamed Begbies Traynor.

The company was floated on the Alternative Investment Market in August 2004, becoming the first insolvency specialist to do so. It was initially intended that this should occur in July 2004, but was put back by a month. At this point the company had 23 offices and 240 employees.

Begbies benefited from the economic downturn caused by the credit crunch in 2008, with business initially increasing. Ric Traynor predicted at the beginning of 2009 that shares would increase in value to around 150p, although Brewin Dolphin stated that 140p was more likely. However, a decline in its tax business saw company profits fall short of predictions despite increased turnover in its insolvency division, and share prices fell below 100p in early 2010. Begbies' business was affected by a reduction in insolvencies following the introduction of increased government support; although profits for the 2009/10 financial year were higher than those for the previous year, they were well below expectations, and share prices fell to a low of 59.5p in June 2010. The company lost its chief financial officer, John Gittins, to a rival firm from August 2010.

In May 2010 Begbies Traynor renegotiated a financing deal with banks HSBC and Yorkshire Bank which increased its credit facility to £30 million. This allowed the company to expand further, announcing the opening of a new office in Reading in early June 2010.

In March 2021, Begbies Traynor has decided to purchase David Rubin & Partners for up to £25 million. The upfront sum is £12 million, and cash earn-out payments worth up to £13 million contingent on the purchased business's financial results.

Notable projects
The company have helped to restructure or liquidate a number of notable companies, including:

 Huddersfield Town F.C.
 Tillingbourne Bus Company
 Scarborough F.C.
 Wrexham F.C.
 FM Rail
 Tiger Telematics
 A.F.C. Bournemouth
 Southampton Leisure Holdings PLC
 Northcott Theatre
 Realtime Worlds
 Port Vale F.C.
Crawley Town F.C.
Wigan Athletic Football Club

References

External links
Begbies Traynor Group website
FT.com - Markets Data - Begbies
Begbies Traynor hit by Government support for struggling companies | Business | blog | guardian.co.uk
Real Business Rescue website is part of Begbies Traynor

Accounting firms of the United Kingdom
Insolvency and corporate recovery firms
Companies based in Manchester
Business services companies established in 1989
Companies listed on the London Stock Exchange
1989 establishments in England

Begbies Traynor


NORML France (/ˈnɔːrməl/, the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws), previously known as Chanvre & Libertés - NORML France (Hemp & Freedom - NORML France) is a French non-profit organization based in Toulouse but active in all territories of France, whose aim is to move public opinion sufficiently to achieve the depenalization of illicit drugs consumption, the legalization of non-medical marijuana and the increased access to medical cannabis in France, so that the responsible use of cannabis by adults is no longer subject to penalty.

The organization operated a re-foundation in 2013, after the fusion of several regional groups of cannabis policy reform advocacy or activism (among which the older was created 1995).

Initially involved on international drug policy reform issues, NORML France split in 2016 part of its activity to focus on national cannabis-related actions, letting the newly created FAAAT think & do tank handle international advocacy and coordinate collective action at the international level.

Other branches of NORML
 NORML USA
 NORML New Zealand
 NORML UK

See also
 Cannabis in France
 Drug liberalization
 Drug policy reform
 Legality of cannabis
 European Coalition for Just and Effective Drug Policies (ENCOD)
 FAAAT think & do tank

References

External links

 Official website of NORML France
 Official website of FAAAT think & do tank

2013 in cannabis
National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws
Organizations established in 2013
Cannabis law reform organizations

NORML France


Karrell Fox (January 30, 1928 – March 12, 1998) was a 20th-century American magician and television performer.

Initial interest in magic
When Fox was a child, his parents operated a small restaurant in Rainelle, West Virginia. One day, a customer left without paying his bill, and left behind a few small tricks. With these, Karrell began his magic career.

Trade shows and conventions
Fox was one of the first trade show magicians and billed himself as "King of Korn". He created the "Magic World of Ford" for the Ford Motor Company and toured with it for many years.

He was a regular performer at Abbott's Get Together, surpassed only by Gordon Miller, an Abbott's employee-performer. Fox traditionally MC'ed and performed on the closing (Saturday evening) show of the Get-Together and the "act" was a lampoon of the other acts and notable happenings from that year. Duke Stern and Abb Dickson were both Karrell's "Partner in Fun" for more than 25 years, performing with him at magic conventions all over the world. The scripts for the performances were written by Fox, Stern, Dickson as well as other members of the troupe. Harry Blackstone, Jr., describing Fox's writing style, said, "The strongest possible effects achieved with the simplest possible methods has always been the Fox formula."

For several years, Fox wrote the "FOX-TALES" column in TOPS magazine, which was run by the Abbott Magic & Novelty Company. During the 1993 Get-Together, Fox gave a tour of Colon's Cemetery, filled with legendary magicians that have passed. This tradition has been carried on by Al The Only of Hawaii.

Fox appeared on the Australian Magic Convention public show line-up June 8–11, 1984.

Contrary to popular belief, Karrell did not have any part of Roy Kissell's Fox Fun 'N Magic Shop that was located in Detroit, Michigan, although he and Kissell were dear friends.

Television appearances
As a young man, Fox regularly performed magic on a local Detroit show called Junior Jamboree. He later had his own TV show on local Detroit television, performing as "Milky the Clown". Fox was offered the part after his appearances on Jamboree, but initially had to turn it down when he was drafted, recommending his friend Clare Cummings as a replacement. When he returned from the service two years later, the show was wildly successful and Fox suggested he act as Cummings' understudy despite being offered the main role. The two alternated appearances starting in 1964.

Fox also appeared on The Ed Sullivan Show in 1946, aged 18.

Personal life
Fox was married to his "child bride" (as he often referred to her {c.f., "Thank You's" in "My Latest Book, 1988}, Lynn, and had two sons, Karlin (a combination of Karrell's and Lynn's names) and Darin. {See previous citation.}

Death
Fox died in 1998 while attending the Las Vegas Desert Magic Seminar, aged 70, from undisclosed causes. He was interred at Lakeside Cemetery in Colon, Michigan.

Honors and awards
Between 1986 and 1987, Fox served as the 48th president of the International Brotherhood of Magicians. In 1996, a Golden Palm Star on the Palm Springs, California, Walk of Stars was dedicated to him.

He also received:
 Sphinx Award (Platform Effect) (1949)
 The Academy of Magical Arts Creative Fellowship
 The Academy of Magical Arts Lecturer of the Year (1980)
 The Academy of Magical Arts Literature & Media Fellowship (1992)
 The Academy of Magical Arts Masters Fellowship (1996)

Contributions
 Bullseye Card
 B.S. Miser's Dream Pail
 Magical Assets
 Nite-Cap
 Take It and Stick It
 Two Fisted Book Test
 Mene-Tekel Book Test
 Knifty Knot
 No Not
 Baffling Blow-Outs

Published works
 Kornfidentially Yours (1954)
 Comedy A La Card (1960)
 Clever Like a Fox (1976)
 Another Book by Karrell Fox (1979)
 Abra K Fox (1983)
 For My Next Trick (1986)
 My Latest Book (1988)
 Goodies (1991)
 Much Ado About Something (1995)
 Karrell Fox, The Legend (1998) (video)

See also

 List of magicians
 Sleight of hand

References

External links

 Biographies Page FG – Karrell Fox
 Karrell Fox bibliography
 Fox on Junior Jamboree 1947 WWJ-TV

1928 births
1998 deaths
American magicians
People from Greenbrier County, West Virginia
Academy of Magical Arts Lecturer of the Year winners
Academy of Magical Arts Literature & Media Fellowship winners
Academy of Magical Arts Masters Fellowship winners

Karrell Fox


The Neighbour-Sensing mathematical model of hyphal growth is a set of interactive computer models that simulate the way fungi hyphae grow in three-dimensional space. The three-dimensional simulation is an experimental tool which can be used to study the morphogenesis of fungal hyphal networks.

The modelling process starts from the proposition that each hypha in the fungal mycelium generates a certain abstract field that (like known physical fields) decreases with increasing distance. Both scalar and vector fields are included in the models. The field(s) and its (their) gradient(s) are used to inform the algorithm that calculates the likelihood of branching, the angle of branching and the growth direction of each hyphal tip in the simulated mycelium. The growth vector is being informed of its surroundings so, effectively, the virtual hyphal tip is sensing the neighbouring mycelium. This is why we call it the Neighbour-Sensing model.

Cross-walls in living hyphae are formed only at right angles to the long axis of the hypha. A daughter hyphal apex can only arise if a branch is initiated. So, for the fungi, hyphal branch formation is the equivalent of cell division in animals, plants and protists. The position of origin of a branch, and its direction and rate of growth are the main formative events in the development of fungal tissues and organs. Consequently, by simulating the mathematics of the control of hyphal growth and branching the Neighbour-Sensing model provides the user with a way of experimenting with features that may regulate hyphal growth patterns during morphogenesis to arrive at suggestions that could be tested with live fungi.

The model was proposed by Audrius Meškauskas and David Moore in 2004 and developed using the supercomputing facilities of the University of Manchester.
The key idea of this model is that all parts of the fungal mycelium have identical field generation systems, field sensing mechanisms and growth direction altering algorithms. Under properly chosen model parameters it is possible to observe the transformation of the initial unordered mycelium structure into various forms, some of them being very like natural fungal fruit bodies and other complex structures.

In one of the simplest examples, it is assumed that the hyphal tips try to keep a 45 degree orientation with relation to the Earth's gravity vector field, and also generate some kind of scalar field that the growing tips try to avoid. This combination of parameters leads to development of hollow conical structures, similar to the fruit bodies of some primitive fungi.

In another example, the hypha generates a vector field parallel to the hyphal axis, and the tips tend to turn parallel to that field. After more tips turn in the same direction, their hyphae form a stronger directional field. In this way, it is possible to observe spontaneous orientation of growing hypha in a single direction, which simulates the strands, cords and rhizomorphs produced by many species of fungi in nature.
The parameters under which the model operates can be changed during its execution. This allows a greater variety of structures to be formed (including mushroom - like shapes) and may be supposed to simulate cases where the growth strategy depends on an internal biological clock.
The Neighbour-Sensing model explains how various fungal structures may arise because of the 'crowd behaviour' of the community of hyphal tips that make up the mycelium.

Literature
 Meškauskas A, Fricker M.D, Moore D (2004).  Simulating colonial growth of fungi with the Neighbour-Sensing model of hyphal growth. Mycological research, 108,  1241-1256. pdf
 Meškauskas, A., McNulty, Moore, D. (2004). Concerted regulation of tropisms in all hyphal tips is sufficient to generate most fungal structures. Mycological research, 108, 341-353. pdf
 Money NP. (2004) Theoretical biology: mushrooms in cyberspace. Nature, 431(7004):32. link
 Davidson A.F, Boswell G.P., Fischer M.W.F, Heaton L., Hofstadler D, Roper M. (2011). IMA Fungus. 2(1): 33–37. NCBI link

Additional links
Further details are available from these websites:  (primary) and  (mirror). The programs, with extensive documentation, are distributed as freeware by both these sites.

Notes

Developmental biology
Mycology
Theoretical computer science
Crowds

Neighbour-sensing model


i-MSCP (internet Multi Server Control Panel) is a software (OSS) for shared hosting environments management on Linux servers. It comes with a large choice of modules for various services such as Apache2, ProFTPd, Dovecot, Courier, Bind9, and can be easily extended through plugins, or listener files using its events-based API.

Latest stable is the 1.5.3 version (build 2018120800) which has been released on 8 December 2018.

Key people
 Laurent Declercq (France) - CEO, Lead Developer
 Glenn B. Jakobsen (Sweden) - Logistic, hoster (Kazi Network)

Licensing
i-MSCP has a dual license. A part of the base code is licensed under the Mozilla Public License. All new code, and submissions to i-MSCP are licensed under the GNU LESSER GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE Version 2.1 (LGPLv2). To solve this license conflict there is work on a complete rewrite for a completely LGPLv2 licensed i-MSCP.

Features

Supported Linux Distributions
 Debian ≥ Jessie (8.0)
 Devuan ≥ Jessie (1.0)
 Ubuntu Any LTS version ≥ Trusty Thar (14.04 LTS)

Supported Daemons / Services
 Web server: Apache (ITK, Fcgid and FastCGI/PHP-FPM), Nginx
 Name server: Bind9
 MTA (Mail Transport Agent): Postfix
 MDA (Mail Delivery Agent): Courier, Dovecot
 Database: MySQL, MariaDB, Percona
 FTP-Server: ProFTPD, vsftpd
 Web statistics: AWStats

Addons
 PhpMyAdmin
 Pydio, formerly AjaXplorer
 Net2ftp
 Roundcube
 Rainloop

Plugins
See i-MSCP plugin store

Competing software
 cPanel
 DTC
 Froxlor
 ISPConfig
 ispCP
 Plesk
 SysCP
 Virtualmin

External links

Linux software
Web applications
Website management
User interfaces
Web hosting
Web server management software

I-MSCP


a type of belt/sash that was worn by the samurai class and their retainers in feudal Japan. The uwa-obi was used to attach the sageo (saya cord) of the sword or swords worn by a samurai in order to secure it, other weapons and equipment would be tied to the uwa-obi as well. The uwa-obi was made from linen and cloth made of cotton, it would be wound two to three times around the body when worn. When the uwa-obi was worn with the attire or armour of the samurai, it would first be folded in two, then twisted and then a piece of leather was placed within the centre. This method was used to find the middle of the uwa-obi in a dark area. When putting on the uwa-obi, it was worn with the center in the front of the Dou (dō) (chest armour), then the two ends would be wound around the waist area and back to the front,  the uwa-obi would be tied in front rather firmly with the hanamusubi knot.

References

 The Samurai Sourcebook

External links

Japanese sashes
Samurai clothing

Uwa-obi