Ian Douglas Smith was a politician from Rhodesia. He was the Prime Minister of Rhodesia (today called Zimbabwe) from 1964 to 1979. Smith was the first Prime Minister to be born in Rhodesia and illegally made the country independent from the United Kingdom. Smith was European in ancestry while most Rhodesians were native, Smith didn't give the Africans equal rights and this led to a war between Rhodesia and African rebels which ended when Smith made a treaty and Rhodesia was replaced with Zimbabwe. Smith was a complicated man and some say he was a good and brave Prime Minister while others see him as racist and destructive.

Early life and Second World War
Ian Douglas Smith was born on the 8th April 1919 in the town of Selukwe to Jock and Agnes Smith, they were both farmers who had moved to Rhodesia from the United Kingdom. Jock and Agnes were important and both were given the Order of the British Empire for their efforts to provide for the people of Selukwe.

Ian was very good as sports and wanted to be an athlete, his grades were also good and so he was able to pass to Rhodes University College in South Africa.

When the Second World War happened, Smith broke a law which made it illegal for university students to fight in order to go to the war for the United Kingdom. He joined the Royal Air Force in 1942 and flew Spitfire planes. In October 1943, Smith's plane stopped working and crashed while setting off in Egypt and Smith was badly injured, his face was partially destroyed and doctors had to use plastic surgery to put it together, leaving his face noticeably disfigured.

Smith still fought and was shot down over Italy in June 1944, Smith joined the Italian resistance who were fighting the Germans and had to walk across the mountainous Alps to be able to return to safety, he then ended up a Flight Lieutenant for his skills.

Early time in politics
Ian Smith returned to South Africa to Rhodes University to carry on studying and graduated, he then went back to Rhodesia where his father was ill and wanted him to go to the United States like his uncle Elijah to make money but Smith didn't want to. Smith married his wife Janet in 1948 and adopted her children, Janet was seen as courageous and hard-working like Ian and bought a farm with her called Gwenoro to start a family.

Smith decided to run in the 1948 Southern Rhodesian general election as a member of the right-wing Liberal Party, the Liberal Party lost the election by a lot but Smith was able to be elected and became Southern Rhodesia's youngest MP as he was only 29.

Smith did not do much in his early time in politics and was ordinary, he switched to becoming a member of the United Federal Party (UFP) that was the party in power. When Southern Rhodesia became a part of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland in 1953, Smith was unsure but left Parliament in Southern Rhodesia to be a part of the new Parliament in the Federation and he was elected. Smith's time in the federal Parliament was also ordinary and he did not do much, in 1958 the UFP appointed Smith to be the Chief Whip (meaning he had to convince MPs in his party to vote how the party wanted).

African nationalism against the white rule began to appear and many white Rhodesians were afraid they might take over and that the government in the United Kingdom would support the Africans. When a new constitution was set up in 1961, Smith was the only MP to oppose it because he thought it was racialist and would cause even more problems and left the party. The British government started saying that Africans should be in charge and this created more fear, Smith and a few others started their own party - the Rhodesian Front - to say they wanted independence so this could not happen. Winston Field was the leader of the party and made Smith his second-in-command, and the Rhodesian Front won the 1962 Southern Rhodesian general election and Smith became the deputy Prime Minister because he returned to Southern Rhodesia's Parliament.

Many new MPs for the Rhodesian Front wanted whites ruling only and an immediate and illegal independence (called UDI meaning "Unilateral Declaration of Independence"). Field was more moderate and wanted Southern Rhodesia (now called Rhodesia after Northern Rhodesia was made independent African-ruled Zambia) and the United Kingdom to make a deal where Rhodesia was given independence. But Field could not make a deal and the whites became even more nervous and so in June 1964, the Rhodesian Front voted to remove Field and make Smith the new Prime Minister.

Becoming Prime Minister and UDI
Since Ian Smith was barely known, many believed that he would be only Prime Minister for a short time and the British didn't like how Field had been removed and thought Smith was too old-fashioned and was not born in the United Kingdom. Smith was more demanding of independence, and did not want to say when he would give Africans control over Rhodesia and instead said he wanted both with whites mostly in charge. When Alec Douglas-Home, the Conservative Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, lost the elections and the new Prime Minister was Harold Wilson of the Labour Party, this made things worse as Wilson and his party believed in African rule and would not agree.

Smith also began ruling Rhodesia as he wanted, he banned the Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU), who wanted to fight the white Rhodesian government to have Africans in charge, and also made a new constitution.

In May 1965, Smith lost his patience and had a general election to strengthen his rule and give him more power in negotiations, he won the election with all white seats and only had one white opposition MP (Ahrn Palley).

In October 1965, the talks stopped as both sides could not agree and most people thought that Rhodesia would declare UDI, Smith tried to have a last minute deal but Wilson refused because he did not believe he really would declare independence.

On the 11th November 1965, Ian Smith and the Rhodesian cabinet declared independence (UDI) illegally, no other country recognised Rhodesia and the United Nations called Rhodesia racist and stopped countries from trading with it, although some would secretly or people would illegally or despite.

First years of independent Rhodesia
Most people believed landlocked Rhodesia would not survive other country's not trading and would soon run out of goods and be forced to go back to the United Kingdom, but surprisingly the situation was calm and nothing major happened. Rhodesia still received its goods from Mozambique (then a part of Portugal) and South Africa with the only problems being oil, which was still coming in but in small amounts. Life in Rhodesia remained the same.

ZAPU and ZANU (Zimbabwe African National Union) said that it was an open admission of war and began to revolt but did not have the strength to do anything and so mainly operated in Zambia or Tanzania.

Wilson and the British government at first refused to make a deal to recognise Rhodesia, but as time went on they realised Rhodesia was not being affected and began preparing to talk again. In December 1966, Smith and Wilson went on a ship, the HMS Tiger, in Gibraltar, the negotiations were going well despite the British and Rhodesian delegates not liking each other until Wilson wanted Smith remove his 1965 constitution, Smith refused and the talks stopped except for a list of agreements signed which both the British and Rhodesian cabinets refused.

In 1967, Smith and his more republicanist MPs in the Rhodesian Front began to prepare for Rhodesia being a republic because the Queen Elizabeth II did not recognise Rhodesia's independence. They created a new flag which did not include the British flag, and a new coat of arms.

In April 1968, Wilson and Smith started talking again on the HMS Fearless again in Gibraltar, Wilson treated Smith much better, but when Wilson offered that the Privy Council be involved in overseeing Rhodesia, Smith refused and talks ended.

In 1969, Smith openly began supporting a republic and made a vote of qualified (nearly all white) voters to see who wanted it, the pro-republic side won and a republic was declared in 1970 with the deputy Prime Minister Clifford Dupont becoming the President. The President had no real power and was selected by the government to do ceremonies and act as the head of state.

In 1970, a general election in the United Kingdom had Labour led by Harold Wilson be defeated by the Conservatives led by Edward Heath. Heath wanted to make a deal with Rhodesia and made Alec Douglas-Home the Foreign Secretary. In 1971, Douglas-Home flew to Rhodesia to talk with Smith and make a deal, the talks were a success and they made a deal for more Africans in government but the whites remaining in charge, in 1972, the British made a referendum to see whether every ethnic group supported it, the whites, coloureds, and Asians all did, except the Africans didn't, Smith then blamed this on intimidation by nationalists.

The war becoming worse and more troubles
In Portuguese Mozambique and Angola, the situation was more tense as the African insurgency grew, this was compounded in Rhodesia by the failure of the 1971 plan. African militants went into Rhodesia in small bands in 1966 to 1968, but they were all easily tracked down just miles inside killed by the Rhodesian Security Forces. So they decided to train in countries that supported them and trained for a guerrilla war. In December 1972, this was by two attacks on white farmers in one day.

The militants were able to go into African areas and won over the people to their side and recruited, however Mozambique and South Africa were supporting Rhodesia so they did not have much of an effect. However, as Mozambique became weaker in 1973 and into 1974 they were able to get into Rhodesia and recruit more often and attacks slowly happened more and more. Rhodesia then started a counter-insurgency which was successful.

Meanwhile, Abel Muzorewa - who didn't like Smith's deal with Douglas-Home and created the African National Council to try and go against it - made a deal with Smith and started talking together with a British delegation and met in July 1973.

Although Rhodesia was stopping the militants in 1974, things in other countries would make Rhodesia worse off. In October 1973, OPEC (Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries) stopped selling oil to pro-Israeli countries and later to Portugal and South Africa. In April 1974, the Portuguese government was overthrown in the Carnation Revolution, the new government began sending its soldiers out of Mozambique and Angola and Mozambique became overrun with FRELIMO rebels who aided the African militants, adding 1,426 kilometres of hostile border. Despite this, Smith continued saying Rhodesia could survive and nothing was really wrong as the militants entered Rhodesia in larger numbers.

South Africa was losing lots of money due to a boycott of its own, together with its own militant insurgency, and OPEC sanctions, and so Rhodesia became a strain on South Africa's economy. In December 1974, South Africa under John Vorster started to threaten Rhodesia with cuts to imports and the end of special privileges if they did not make a deal with the other African nationalist leaders of the Frontline States (Zambia, Tanzania, and Botswana, later followed by Angola and Mozambique when they became independent the next year), they came up with a deal involving them with Smith and Muzorewa were a ceasefire happened. The ceasefire would not last long and would only allow imprisoned nationalists who were freed to escape and the militants to recoup losses and mobilise. In January 1975, Smith and the Rhodesian government noticed this and stopped the ceasefire, leading to South Africa withdrawing its police and making the situation even worse.

The war continued to steadily get worse as Mozambique became officially independent on the 25th June 1975. In August 1975,

References

1919 births
2007 deaths
Anti-communists
Military personnel of World War II
Rhodesia

Ian Smith


This article lists incidents that have been termed ethnic cleansing by some academic or legal experts. Not all experts agree on every case, particularly since there are a variety of definitions of the term ethnic cleansing. When claims of ethnic cleansing are made by non-experts (e.g. journalists or politicians) they are noted.

Ancient, Medieval and Early Modern periods

Antiquity
: During the Third Jewish-Roman War, Roman forces under the command of Hadrian killed over 580,000 Jews and razed over 985 Judean villages. The campaign has been described as an act of ethnic cleansing and genocide.

Early modern period
 1492–1614 AD: Jews and Muslims in Spain who refused to convert to Catholicism were expelled, beginning in 1492 following the Alhambra Decree.

1556–1620: Plantations of Ireland. Land in Laois, Offaly, Munster and parts of Ulster was seized by the English crown and colonised with English settlers. Ireland has been described as a "testing ground" for British colonialism, with the confiscation of land and expulsion of native Irish from their homelands being a rehearsal for the expulsion of the Native Americans by British settlers.
 1652 AD: After the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland and Act of Settlement in 1652, the whole post-war Cromwellian settlement of Ireland has been characterised by historians such as Mark Levene and Alan Axelrod as ethnic cleansing, in that it sought to remove Irish Catholics from the eastern part of the country, but others such as the historian Tim Pat Coogan have described the actions of Cromwell and his subordinates as genocide.
1755–1757 AD: The Dzungar genocide () was the mass extermination of the Mongol Dzungar people by the Qing dynasty. The genocide was perpetrated by Manchu generals of the Qing army, supported by Turkic oasis dwellers (now known as Uyghurs) who rebelled against Dzungar rule. Some scholars estimate that about 80% of the Dzungar population, or around 500,000 to 800,000 people, were killed by a combination of warfare and disease during or after the Qing conquest.
1755–1764 AD: During the French and Indian War, the Nova Scotia colonial government, aided by New England troops, instituted a systematic removal of the French Catholic Acadian population of Nova Scotia – eventually removing thousands of settlers from the region and relocating them to areas in the Thirteen Colonies, Britain and France. Many eventually moved and settled in Louisiana and became known as Cajuns. Many scholars have described the subsequent death of over 50% of the deported Acadian population as an ethnic cleansing.

19th century

 On 26 May 1830, president Andrew Jackson of the United States signed the Indian Removal Act which resulted in the Trail of Tears.
Between 1821 and 1922, a large number of Muslims were expelled from Southeast Europe as Bulgaria, Greece and Serbia gained their independence from the Ottoman Empire. Mann describes these events as "murderous ethnic cleansing on a stupendous scale not previously seen in Europe." These countries sought to expand their territory against the Ottoman Empire, which culminated in the Balkan Wars of the early 20th century. The Russian Empire also engaged in ethnic cleansing in the Caucasus following military victories.

In 2005, the historian Gary Clayton Anderson of the University of Oklahoma published The Conquest of Texas: Ethnic Cleansing in the Promised Land, 1830–1875. This book repudiates traditional historians, such as Walter Prescott Webb and Rupert N. Richardson, who viewed the settlement of Texas by the displacement of the native populations as a healthful development. Anderson writes that at the time of the outbreak of the American Civil War, when the population of Texas was nearly 600,000, the still-new state was "a very violent place. ... Texans mostly blamed Indians for the violence – an unfair indictment, since a series of terrible droughts had virtually incapacitated the Plains Indians, making them incapable of extended warfare."
 The Long Walk of the Navajo, was the 1864 ethnic cleansing of the Navajo people by the United States federal government.
 The Russian Empire was the subject of several cases of ethnic and religious cleansing against minorities, including Catholics (Poles and Lithuanians), Lutherans (Latvians and Estonians), Jews (Pale of Settlement) and Muslims.
 The Expulsion of the Albanians, 1877–1878 refers to events of forced migration of Albanian populations from areas that became incorporated into the Principality of Serbia and Principality of Montenegro in 1878. These wars, alongside the larger Russo-Ottoman War (1877–78) ended in defeat and substantial territorial losses for the Ottoman Empire which was formalised at the Congress of Berlin. This expulsion was part of the wider persecution of Muslims in the Balkans during the geopolitical and territorial decline of the Ottoman Empire. Although most of these Albanians were expelled by Serbian forces, a small presence was allowed to remain in the Jablanica valley where their descendants live today.
 Beginning from about 1848, and extending into the 20th century, the residents of Silesia have been expelled by various governments as their homeland has come under the rule of different states.

20th century

1900s–1910s
The Herero and Namaqua genocide was a campaign of racial extermination and collective punishment that the German Empire undertook in German South West Africa (modern-day Namibia) against the Herero, Nama and San people. It is considered the first genocide of the 20th century.
During the Balkan Wars, ethnic cleansings were carried out in Kosovo, Macedonia, Sandžak and Thrace. At first, they were committed against the Muslim population, but later, they were also committed against Christians. Villages were burned and people were massacred. The Bulgarians, Serbs and Greeks burned villages and massacred Turkish civilians, but since then, the population of the Turkish-majority areas of the Bulgarian-occupied areas has remained almost unchanged. The Turks usually massacred Bulgarian and Greek males who lived in the areas which they reoccupied, but they did not massacre any Greeks during the Second Balkan War, the women and children were also raped and frequently slaughtered during each massacre. During the Second Balkan War, an ethnic cleansing campaign was carried out by the Ottoman Army and Turkish Bashi-bazouks exterminated the whole Bulgarian population of the Ottoman Adrianople Vilayet (an estimated 300,000 people before the war) and displacing the survivors of the massacres (60,000). Under Greek occupation, Bulgarian Macedonians were persecuted, expelled from their homes and forced to move to regions of Greece which are located north of the Bulgarian border. The Bulgarians had expelled 100,000 Greeks from Macedonia and West Thrace before the territories were returned to Greece. In addition to the dead, the aftermath of the war counts 890,000 people who permanently left their homes, of whom 400,000 fled to Turkey, 170,000 fled to Greece, 150,000 or 280,000 fled to Bulgaria. The population size of Bulgarians in Macedonia was mostly reduced by forceful assimilation campaigns through terror, following the ban of the use of the Bulgarian language and declarations which are named "Declare yourself a Serb or die.", signers were required to renounce their Bulgarian identity on paper in Serbia and Greece.
The 1914 Greek deportations have been described as an ethnic cleansing campaign by scholars Matthias Bjørnlund and Taner Akçam.
The Armenian genocide which occurred during World War I was implemented in two phases: the wholesale killing of the able-bodied male population through massacres and forced labor, and the deportation of women, children, the elderly and the infirm to the Syrian Desert on death marches. In addition to being described as a genocide, it is often described as an ethnic cleansing campaign in academic literature.
 The Bolshevik regime killed or deported an estimated 300,000 to 500,000 Don Cossacks during the Russian Civil War, in 1919–1920. Geoffrey Hosking stated "It could be argued that the Red policy towards the Don Cossacks amounted to ethnic cleansing. It was short-lived, however, and soon abandoned because it did not fit with normal Leninist theory and practice".

1920s–1930s
In 1920–21, the Greek army on the Yalova-Gemlik Peninsula burned dozens of Turkish/Muslim villages, engaging in large-scale violence and ethnic cleansing.
The Population exchange between Greece and Turkey has been described as an ethnic cleansing. In 1928, 1,104,216 Ottoman refugees were living in Greece.

Pacification of Libya, Italian authorities committed ethnic cleansing in the Cyrenaica region of Libya by forcibly removing and relocating 100,000 members of the Cyrenaican indigenous population from their valuable land and property that was slated to be given to Italian settlers.
The Chinese Kuomintang Generals Ma Qi and Ma Bufang launched campaigns of expulsion in Qinghai and Tibet against ethnic Tibetans. The actions of these Generals have been called Genocidal by some authors.
Authors Uradyn Erden Bulag called the events that follow as a Genocide while David Goodman named them ethnic cleansing: The Republic of China-supported Ma Bufang when he launched seven extermination expeditions into Golog, eliminating thousands of Tibetans. Some Tibetans counted the number of times he attacked them, remembering the seventh attack which made their lives impossible. Ma was highly anti-communist, and he and his army wiped out many Tibetans in the northeast and eastern Qinghai, and they also destroyed Tibetan Buddhist Temples.

The Mexican Repatriation from 1929 to 1939 in which mass deportations and repatriations of Mexicans and Mexican Americans occurred in response to poverty and nativist fears which were triggered by the Great Depression in the United States has been called ethnic cleansing. An estimated forty to sixty percent of the 355,000 to 2 million people who were repatriated were birthright U.S. citizens - an overwhelming number of them were children. Voluntary repatriations were much more common than deportations. Legal scholar Kevin Johnson States that it meets modern legal standards for ethnic cleansing, arguing it involved the forced removal of an ethnic minority by the government.
The deportation of 172,000 Soviet Koreans by the Soviet government in September 1937, in which Koreans were moved away from the Korean border and deported to Central Asia, where they were made to do forced labor.

1940s

 The 1936-45 Romani genocide or the Porajmos: the killing of an estimated 130,565 Romani people by Nazi Germany, with some estimates ranging from 220,000 to 500,000.
 The 1938-45 Holocaust: The murder of an estimated 6 million Jews by the Nazi government of Germany both inside Germany and throughout German occupied territories, and some of its independent allies such as the governments of Romania, Hungary, and Bulgaria (outside Bulgarian core territories).
 The Independent State of Croatia carried out ethnic cleansing against Serbs, Roma, and Jews by expelling them, mass executions, and imprisonment in concentration camps such as Jasenovac.
 Chetnik atrocities against Bosniaks and Croats in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina from 1941 to 1945 have been characterised as organised ethnic cleansing. It is estimated that around 32,000 Croats (20,000 from Croatia, and 12,000 from Bosnia) and 33,000 Bosniaks were killed.
Population transfers in the Soviet Union during and after World War II on the orders of Joseph Stalin, including the deportation of the Karachays, deportation of the Balkars, deportation of the Chechens and Ingush, deportation of the Meskhetian Turks and the deportation of the Kalmyks. Nearly 3.5 million ethnic minorities were resettled during 1940–52.
 Towards the end of World War II, nearly 14,000–25,000 ethnic Albanian Muslims were expelled from the coastal region of Epirus in northwestern Greece by the EDES paramilitary organization, supported by the state.
 The expulsion of 14 million ethnic Germans from the Former eastern territories of Germany after World War II. This policy was decided at the Potsdam Conference by the victorious powers.
During the Partition of India 6 million Muslims fled ethnic violence taking place in India to settle in what became Pakistan (and by 1971, Bangladesh) and 5 million Hindus and Sikhs fled from what became Pakistan and Bangladesh, to settle in India. The events which occurred during this time period have been described as ethnic cleansing by Ishtiaq Ahmed and by Barbara and Thomas R. Metcalf.
 In 1947, the Jammu Massacre took place. The event has been described as ethnic cleansing of Muslims in the Jammu region of Jammu and Kashmir.
 According to some scholars, most notably Ilan Pappé, the Nakba or 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight during the 1947-1949 Palestine war, which involved the expulsion of much of the native population of Palestine, was partly a deliberate ethnic cleansing event, enacted by operations such as Plan Dalet. While the war saw more than 700,000 Palestinians displaced and between 400 and 600 Palestinian villages destroyed, the causes of the mass displacement remain a matter of ongoing debate.

1950s

 From 5–6 September 1955, the Istanbul pogrom or "Septembrianá"/"Σεπτεμβριανά", secretly backed by the Turkish government, was launched against the Greek population of Istanbul. The mob also attacked some Jewish and Armenian residents of the city.  The event contributed greatly to the gradual extinction of the Greek minority in the city and throughout the entire country, which numbered 100,000 in 1924 after the Turko-Greek population exchange treaty.  By 2006 there were only 2,500 Greeks living in Istanbul.
The Jewish exodus from Muslim countries, the flight of over 1 million Jews of the Islamic world, mainly Mizrahi and Sephardic. Many Arab governments, such as Gaddafi's Libya, Nasserist Egypt, and Hafez al-Assad's Syria, confiscated Jewish bank accounts and property of Jews who had departed, in addition to placing laws restricting Jewish business. The episode is sometimes labelled one of ethnic cleansing.

1960s
 On 5 July 1960, five days after the Congo gained independence from Belgium, the Force Publique garrison near Léopoldville mutinied against its white officers and attacked numerous European targets. This caused fear amongst the approximately 100,000 whites still resident in the Congo and led to their mass exodus from the country.
 Ne Win's rise to power in 1962 and his relentless persecution of "resident aliens" (immigrant groups not recognised as citizens of the Union of Burma) led to an exodus of some 300,000 Burmese Indians.  They migrated to escape racial discrimination and wholesale nationalisation of private enterprises a few years later in 1964.
 The 1962 Rajshahi massacres in East Pakistan (modern-day Bangladesh) witnessed the killing of minorities, mostly Buddhists and Hindus, by Muslims. More than 3,000 non-Muslims were killed. In 1958, Ayub Khan came to power in Pakistan, and from the beginning the policy of the Ayub Regime was to cleanse East Pakistan of Bengali Hindus and other minorities. There was also arson, rapes, and looting. This ethnic cleansing campaign resulted in the migration of 11,000 Santhals and Rajbanshis to India.
 In 1964, the 1964 East Pakistan Riots occurred which resulted in more than 10,000 Bengali Hindus being targeted and systematically killed by Bengali Muslims. In the village of Mainam near Nagaon in Rajshahi District all Hindus except 2 little girls were massacred. This resulted in more than 135,000 refugees. Hundreds of villages around Dhaka city were burnt to ashes. This left more than 100,000 Hindus homeless. 95% of the ruined houses belonged to Hindus who lived in Old Dhaka.
The expulsion of the Chagossians from the Chagos Archipelago by the United Kingdom, at the request of the United States in order to establish a military base, started in 1968 and concluded in 1973.

1970s
 There was an ethnic cleansing of the Greek population of the areas under Turkish military occupation in Cyprus in 1974–76 during and after the Turkish invasion of Cyprus. This has been the subject of litigation in the European Court of Human Rights in cases including Loizidou v. Turkey and the European Court of Justice in cases like Apostolides v Orams.
 Following the U.S. withdrawal from South Vietnam in 1973 and the communist victory two years later, the Kingdom of Laos's coalition government was overthrown by the communists. The Hmong people, who had actively supported the anti-communist government, became targets of retaliation and persecution. The government of Laos has been accused of committing Genocide against the Hmong, with up to 100,000 killed.
 The Communist Khmer Rouge government in Cambodia disproportionately targeted ethnic minority groups, including ethnic Chinese, Vietnamese and Thais. In the late 1960s, an estimated 425,000 ethnic Chinese lived in Cambodia; by 1984, as a result of Khmer Rouge genocide and emigration, only about 61,400 Chinese remained in the country. The small Thai minority along the border was almost completely exterminated, only a few thousand managing to reach safety in Thailand. The Muslim Cham Minority suffered serious purges with as much as 80% of their population exterminated. The Khmer's racial supremacist ideology was responsible to this ethnic purge. A Khmer Rouge order stated that henceforth "The Cham nation no longer exists on Kampuchean soil belonging to the Khmers" (U.N. Doc. A.34/569 at 9).
 Subsequent waves of hundreds of thousands of Rohingya fled Burma and many refugees inundated neighbouring Bangladesh including 250,000 in 1978 as a result of the Operation Dragon King in Arakan.

1980s
 The forced assimilation campaign during 1984–1985 directed against ethnic Turks by the Bulgarian State resulted in the mass emigration of some 360,000 Bulgarian Turks to Turkey in 1989 has been characterized as ethnic cleansing.
 The Nagorno-Karabakh conflict has resulted in the displacement of populations from both sides. Among the displaced are 700,000 Azerbaijanis and several Kurds from ethnic Armenian-controlled territories including Armenia and areas of Nagorno-Karabakh, more than 353,000 Armenians were forced to flee from territories controlled by Azerbaijan plus some 80,000 had to flee Armenian border territories.

1990s

 In 1990, inter-ethnic tensions escalated in Bhutan, resulting in the flight of many Lhotshampa, or ethnic Nepalis, from Bhutan to Nepal, many of whom were expelled by the Bhutanese military. By 1996, over 100,000 Bhutanese refugees were living in refugee camps in Nepal. Many have since been resettled in Western nations. One reason for this expulsion was the desire of the Bhutanese government to remove a largely Hindu population and preserve its Buddhist culture and identity.
 In 1991, as part of the First Nagorno-Karabakh War, during Operation Ring, Soviet troops and the predominantly Azerbaijani soldiers in the AzSSR OMON and army forcibly uprooted Armenians living in the 24 villages strewn across Shahumyan to leave their homes and settle elsewhere in Nagorno-Karabakh or in the neighboring Armenian SSR. Human rights organizations documented a wide number of human rights violations and abuses committed by Soviet and Azerbaijani forces and many of them properly characterised them as ethnic cleansing. These violations and abuses included forced deportations of civilians, unlawful killings, torture, kidnapping harassment, rape and the wanton seizure or destruction of property. Despite fierce protests, no measures were taken either to prevent the human rights abuses or to punish the perpetrators. Approximately 17,000 Armenians living in twenty-three of Shahumyan's villages were deported out of the region.
 In 1991, following a major crackdown on Rohingya Muslims in Burma, 250,000 refugees took shelter in the Cox's Bazar district of neighboring Bangladesh.
 After the Gulf War in 1991, Kuwait conducted a campaign of expulsion against the Palestinians living in the country, who before the war had numbered 400,000. Some 200,000 who had fled during the Iraqi occupation were banned from returning, while the remaining 200,000 were pressured into leaving by the authorities, who conducted a campaign of terror, violence, and economic pressure to get them to leave. The Kuwaiti Palestinians expelled from Kuwait moved to Jordan, where they had citizenship.
 As a result of the 1991–1992 South Ossetia War, about 100,000 ethnic Ossetians fled South Ossetia and Georgia proper, most across the border into North Ossetia. A further 23,000 ethnic Georgians fled South Ossetia and settled in other parts of Georgia.
 According to Helsinki Watch, the campaign of ethnic-cleansing was orchestrated by the Ossetian militants, during the events of the Ossetian–Ingush conflict, which resulted in the expulsion of approximately 60,000 Ingush inhabitants from Prigorodny District.

 The widespread ethnic cleansing accompanying the Croatian War of Independence that was committed by Serb-led Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) and rebel militia in the occupied areas of Croatia (self-proclaimed Republic of Serbian Krajina) (1991–1995). Large numbers of Croats and non-Serbs were removed, either by murder, deportation or by being forced to flee. According to the ICTY indictment against Slobodan Milošević, there was an expulsion of around 170,000 to 250,000 Croats and other non-Serbs from their home, in addition to an estimated 10,000 Croats that were also killed. Also, around 10,000 Croats left Vojvodina in 1992 due to persecution by Serb nationalists. Milan Martić, Milan Babić and Vojislav Šešelj were convicted by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) for persecution on racial, ethnic or religious ground, deportation and/or forcible displacement as a crime against humanity.
 In February 1992, hundreds of ethnic Azeris and Meskhetian Turks are massacred as Armenian troops capture the city of Khojaly in Nagorno-Karabakh.
Widespread ethnic cleansing accompanied the War in Bosnia (1992–1995). Large numbers of Croats and Bosniaks were forced to flee their homes by the Army of the Republika Srpska, large numbers of Serbs and Bosniaks by the Croatian Defence Council and Serbs and Croats by the Army of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Beginning in 1991, political upheavals in the Balkans displaced about 2,700,000 people by mid-1992, of which over 700,000 sought asylum in other parts of Europe. In September 1994, UNHCR representatives estimated around 80,000 non-Serbs out of 837,000 who initially lived on the Serb-controlled territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina before the war remained there; an estimated removal of 90% of the Bosniak and Croat inhabitants of Serb-coveted territory, almost all of whom were deliberately forced out of their homes. It also includes ethnic cleansing of non-Croats in the breakaway state the Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia The ICTY convicted several officials for persecution, forced transfer and/or deportation, including Momčilo Krajišnik, Radoslav Brđanin, Stojan Župljanin, Mićo Stanišić, Biljana Plavšić, Radovan Karadžić and Ratko Mladić.
 Exodus of between 100,000 and 200,000 Krajina Serbs during and after the Croatian Army's Operation Storm. Some investigators and academics describe this event as ethnic cleansing. Historian Marko Attila Hoare disagrees that the operation was an act of ethnic cleansing, and points out that the Krajina Serb leadership evacuated the civilian population as a response to the Croatian offensive; whatever their intentions, the Croatians never had the chance to organise their removal.  The ICTY indicted Croatian generals Ante Gotovina, Ivan Čermak and Mladen Markač for war crimes for their roles in the operation, charging them with participating in a joint criminal enterprise (JCE) aimed at the permanent removal of Serbs from the Republic of Serbian Krajina (RSK) held part of Croatia. Gotovina and Markač were convicted and Čermak was acquitted in April 2011. In November 2012, the ICTY Appeals Chamber acquitted Gotovina and Markač, reversing its earlier judgement by a 3–2 decision. The Appeals Chamber ruled that there was insufficient evidence to conclude the existence of a joint criminal enterprise to remove Serb civilians by force and further stated that while the Croatian Army and Special Police committed crimes after the artillery assault, the state and military leadership could not be held responsible for their planning and creation.

 At least 700,000 Kosovo Albanians were deported from Kosovo between 1998 and 1999 during the Kosovo War. The ICTY convicted several officials for persecution, forced displacement and/or deportation, including Nikola Šainović, Dragoljub Ojdanić and Nebojša Pavković.
 In the aftermath of Kosovo War between 200,000 and 250,000 Serbs and other non-Albanians fled Kosovo.
 The forced displacement and ethnic-cleansing of more than 250,000 people, mostly Georgians but some others too, from Abkhazia during the conflict and after in 1993 and 1998.
 The mass expulsion of southern Lhotshampas (Bhutanese of Nepalese origin) by the northern Druk majority in Bhutan in 1990. The number of refugees is approximately 103,000.
 In Jammu and Kashmir, a separatist insurgency has targeted the Hindu Kashmiri Pandit minority and 400,000 have been displaced, and 1,200 have been killed since 1991. Islamic terrorists infiltrated the region in 1989 and began an ethnic cleansing campaign to convert Kashmir to a Muslim state.  Since that time, over 400,000 Kashmiri Hindus have either been murdered or forced from their homes. This has been condemned and labeled as ethnic cleansing in a 2006 resolution passed by the United States Congress. Also in 2009 the Oregon Legislative Assembly introduced a resolution to recognize 14 September 2007, as Martyrs Day to acknowledge the ethnic cleansing and the campaigns of terror inflicted on the non-Muslim minorities of Jammu and Kashmir by militants seeking to establish an independent Kashmir, and also to recognize the region as Indian territory rather than as a disputed territory – the resolution failed to pass.
 The May 1998 riots of Indonesia targeted many Chinese Indonesians. Suffering from looting and arson many Chinese Indonesians fled from Indonesia.
 There have been serious outbreaks of inter-ethnic violence on the island of Kalimantan since 1997, involving the indigenous Dayak peoples and immigrants from the island of Madura. In 2001 in the Central Kalimantan town of Sampit, at least 500 Madurese were killed and up to 100,000 Madurese were forced to flee. Some Madurese bodies were decapitated in a ritual reminiscent of the headhunting tradition of the Dayaks of old.

21st century

2000s
 In 2003, Sinafasi Makelo, a representative of Mbuti Pygmies, told the UN's Indigenous People's Forum that during the Congo Civil War, his people were hunted down and eaten as though they were game animals. Both sides of the war regarded them as "subhuman" and some say their flesh can confer magical powers. Makelo asked the UN Security Council to recognize cannibalism as a crime against humanity and an act of genocide.
 From the late 1990s to the early 2000s, Indonesian paramilitaries organized and armed by Indonesian military and police killed or expelled large numbers of civilians in East Timor. After the East Timorese people voted for independence in a 1999 referendum, Indonesian paramilitaries retaliated, murdering Separatists and levelling most towns. More than 200,000 people either fled or were forcibly taken to Indonesia before East Timor achieved full independence.
 Since the mid-1990s the central government of Botswana has been trying to move Bushmen also known as the Saan, out of the Central Kalahari Game Reserve. As of October 2005, the government has resumed its policy of forcing all Bushmen off their lands in the Game Reserve, using armed police and threats of violence or death. Many of the involuntarily displaced Bushmen live in squalid resettlement camps and some have resorted to prostitution and alcoholism, while about 250 others remain or have surreptitiously returned to the Kalahari to resume their independent lifestyle. Festus Mogae defended the Actions, saying, "How can we continue to have Stone Age creatures in an age of computers?"
 Since 2003, Sudan has been widely accused of carrying out a Genocide Campaign against several black ethnic groups in Darfur, in response to a rebellion by Africans alleging mistreatment. Sudanese irregular militia known as the Janjaweed and Sudanese military and police forces have killed an estimated 450,000, expelled around two million, and burned 800 villages. A 14 July 2007 article notes that in the past two months up to 75,000 Arabs from Chad and Niger crossed the border into Darfur. Most have been relocated by the Sudanese government to former villages of displaced non-Arab people. Some 450,000 have been killed and 2.5 million have now been forced to flee to refugee camps in Chad after their homes and villages were destroyed.
At least one additional thousand Serbs fled their homes during the 2004 unrest in Kosovo and numerous religious and cultural objects were burned down.
During the Iraq Civil War and consequent Iraqi insurgency (2011-2013), entire neighborhoods in Baghdad were ethnically cleansed by Shia and Sunni militias. Some areas were evacuated by every member of a particular group due to lack of security, moving into new areas because of fear of reprisal killings. As of 21 June 2007, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees estimated that 2.2 million Iraqis had been displaced to neighboring countries, and 2 million were displaced internally, with nearly 100,000 Iraqis fleeing to Syria and Jordan each month.
Assyrian exodus from Iraq from 2003 until present is often described as ethnic cleansing. Although Iraqi Christians represent less than 5% of the total Iraqi population, they make up 40% of the refugees now living in nearby countries, according to UNHCR. In the 16th century, Christians constituted half of Iraq's population. In 1987, the last Iraqi census counted 1.4 million Christians. Following the 2003 invasion and the resultant growth of militant Islamism, Christians' total numbers slumped to about 500,000, of whom 250,000 live in Baghdad. Furthermore, the Mandaean and Yazidi communities are at the risk of elimination due to the ongoing atrocities by Islamic extremists. A 25 May 2007 article notes that in the past 7 months only 69 people from Iraq have been granted refugee status in the United States.
In October 2006, Niger announced that it would deport Arabs living in the Diffa region of eastern Niger to Chad. This population numbered about 150,000. Nigerien government forces forcibly rounded up Arabs in preparation for deportation, during which two girls died, reportedly after fleeing government forces, and three women suffered miscarriages. Niger's government eventually suspended the plan.
In 1950, the Karen had become the largest of 20 minority groups participating in an insurgency against the military dictatorship in Burma. The conflict continues as of 2008. In 2004, the BBC, citing aid agencies, estimates that up to 200,000 Karen have been driven from their homes during decades of war, with 120,000 more refugees from Burma, mostly Karen, living in refugee camps on the Thai side of the border. Many accuse the military government of Burma of ethnic cleansing. As a result of the ongoing war in minority group areas more than two million people have fled Burma to Thailand.
Civil unrest in Kenya erupted in December 2007. By 28 January 2008, the death toll from the violence was at around 800. The United Nations estimated that as many as 600,000 people have been displaced. A government spokesman claimed that Odinga's supporters were "engaging in ethnic cleansing".
The 2008 attacks on North Indians in Maharashtra began on 3 February 2008. Incidences of violence against North Indians and their property were reported in Mumbai, Pune, Aurangabad, Beed, Nashik, Amravati, Jalna and Latur. Nearly 25,000 North Indian workers fled Pune, and another 15,000 fled Nashik in the wake of the attacks.
South Africa Ethnic Cleansing erupted on 11 May 2008 within three weeks 80 000 were displaced the death toll was 62, with 670 injured in the violence when South Africans ejected non-nationals in a nationwide ethnic cleansing/xenophobic outburst. The most affected foreigners have been Somalis, Ethiopians, Indians, Pakistanis, Zimbabweans and Mozambiqueans. Local South Africans have also been caught up in the violence. Arvin Gupta, a senior UNHCR protection officer, said the UNHCR did not agree with the City of Cape Town that those displaced by the violence should be held at camps across the city. During the 2010 FIFA world cup, rumors were reported that xenophobic attacks will be commenced after the final. A few incidents occurred where foreign individuals were targeted, but the South African police claims that these attacks can not be classified as xenophobic attacks but rather as regular criminal activity in the townships. Elements of the South African Army were sent into the affected townships to assist the police in keeping order and preventing continued attacks.
In August 2008, the 2008 South Ossetia war broke out when Georgia launched a military offensive against South Ossetian separatists, leading to military intervention by Russia, during which Georgian forces were expelled from the separatist territories of South Ossetia and Abkhazia. During the fighting, 15,000 ethnic Georgians living in South Ossetia were forced to flee to Georgia proper, and Ossetian militias burned their villages to the Ground in order to prevent their return.

2010s

Strategic demographic and cultural cleansing by the Sinhala Buddhist majority of the Muslim and Tamil minorities in Sri Lanka.

The killing of hundreds of ethnic Uzbeks in Kyrgyzstan during the 2010 South Kyrgyzstan ethnic clashes resulting in the flight of thousands of Uzbek refugees to Uzbekistan have been called ethnic cleansing by the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe and international media.
Members of the Azusa 13 gang, associated with the Mexican Mafia, were accused of attempting a racial cleansing of African Americans in Azusa, California.
2012 Rakhine State riots. An estimated 90,000 people have been displaced in the recent sectarian violence between Rohingya Muslims and Buddhists in Burma's western Rakhine State.
Approximately 400,000 people have been displaced in the 2012 Assam ethnic violence between indigenous Bodos and Bengali-speaking Muslims in Assam, India.
Sources inside the Syriac Orthodox Church have reported that an ongoing ethnic cleansing of Syrian Christians is being carried out by anti-government rebels.
Central African Republic Civil War.
As part of a campaign of ethnic cleansing against Rohingya Muslims, more than 50 people were killed in the 2013 Myanmar anti-Muslim riots.
In 2015, Turkish Prime Minister Ahmet Davutoglu publicly accused Russia and Syria of ethnic cleansing against the Syrian Turkmen minority. Only a few thousand Turkmen now live in Syria, in contrast to the 200,000-300,000 Turks who lived there before the Syrian Civil War. Thousands of Turkmen villagers have fled the country to escape Russian bombing. The minority also faced persecution prior to the war; and denied to speak their dialect.
In 2017 a new wave of government sanctioned ethnic cleansing against Rohingya Muslims amounting to genocide with thousands killed and many villages burned to the ground with their inhabitants executed has been reported in Myanmar, to the extent that children have reported to be beheaded or burned alive by the Myanmar military and Buddhist vigilantes.
The ongoing Turkish occupation of northern Syria has seen ethnic cleansing of Kurds, Christians, Yazidis, and other minorities, especially in the Afrin District, where 150,000–300,000 Kurds were displaced. The Turkish state has been resettling Afrin with Arab Syrian refugees.
The Uyghur genocide has involved a campaign of ethnic cleansing orchestrated by the Chinese government against the Uyghur people and other ethnic and religious minorities in and around the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region (XUAR) of the People's Republic of China.  Since 2014, the Chinese government, under the direction of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) during the administration of CCP general secretary Xi Jinping, has pursued policies leading to more than one million Muslims (the majority of them Uyghurs) being held in secretive internment camps without any legal process in what has become the largest-scale and most systematic detention of ethnic and religious minorities since the Holocaust.

2020s

 The War in Tigray has been described as an ongoing ethnic cleansing perpetrated by Ethiopia against ethnic Tigrayans. New IDs have been prescribed to Tigrayans, and many Tigrayans living in other Ethiopian regions have been subject to "ethnically selective purges." Ethiopia has also weaponized famine as a key war tactic in Tigray, leaving an estimated 90% of the population vulnerable to famine. All electricity has been cut off by Ethiopia, cutting off Tigray's communication with the outside world. One schoolteacher recalled, "Even if someone was dead, they shot them again, dozens of times. I saw this. I saw many bodies, even priests. They killed all Tigrayans."
 During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, reports indicated that between 900,000 and 1.6 million Ukrainians on the Russian-occupied territories were deported to Russia, including 260,000 children. At least 18 filtration camps were established along the Russian border to facilitate this transfer. These crimes were alleged to be a form of depopulation and ethnic cleansing of Ukraine by the Russian military on the order of Russia's leader Vladimir Putin.
 Following the 2023 Nagorno-Karabakh clashes on 19-20 September and the ensuing takeover of Nagorno-Karabakh by Azerbaijan, fears of persecution and ethnic cleansing led ethnic Armenian inhabitants of the region to flee to Armenia from 24 September onward. By 3 October, 100,617 refugees, more than 99% of Nagorno-Karabakh's population, had fled to Armenia.

See also

 Expulsions and exoduses of Jews
 Genocides in history
 List of ethnic riots
 List of expulsions of African Americans
 List of events named massacres
 List of genocides
 List of war crimes
 Population transfer in the Soviet Union

References

Further reading
 Bibliography of Genocide studies

Forced migration
Human rights abuses
Persecution
Discrimination
Genocide

List of ethnic cleansing campaigns


In marine and freshwater ecology, a particle is a small object. Particles can remain in suspension in the ocean or freshwater. However, they eventually settle (rate determined by Stokes' law) and accumulate as sediment. Some can enter the atmosphere through wave action where they can act as cloud condensation nuclei (CCN). Many organisms filter particles out of the water with unique filtration mechanisms (filter feeders). Particles are often associated with high loads of toxins which attach to the surface. As these toxins are passed up the food chain they accumulate in fatty tissue and become increasingly concentrated in predators (see bioaccumulation). Very little is known about the dynamics of particles, especially when they are re-suspended by dredging. They can remain floating in the water and drift over long distances. The decomposition of some particles by bacteria consumes much oxygen and can cause the water to become hypoxic.

Particle analysis
Particle levels in water (or air) can be measured with a turbidity meter and analyzed with a particle counter. They can also be scanned with an underwater microscope, such as ecoSCOPE.

Contaminant kinetics

It takes a few days until plankton organisms have filtered the particles and incorporated the toxins into their body fat and tissue: In the southwards flow of the waters of the Hudson off the coast of New Jersey, the highest levels of mercury in copepods have not been found directly in front of the river off New York but 150 km south, off Atlantic City.

Many copepods are then captured by mysidae, krill and smallest fish like the juveniles of atlantic herring - and in each step of the foodchain the toxin concentrations increase by the factor of 10. The milk of mothers (Homo sapiens) consuming fish and related products like margarine and eggs in such areas have so high toxin levels that it would be impossible to sell such milk on markets - their babies have much more birth-defects and/or retarded brains and have later difficulties to learn and/or reproduce. Many die at an early age.

Filter of krill: The first degree filter setae carry in v-form two rows of second degree setae, pointing towards the inside of the feeding basket. The purple ball is one micrometer in size. To display the total area of this fascinating particle filtration structure one would have to tile 7500 times this image.

Filter basket of a mysid. These 3 cm long animals live close to shore and hover above the sea floor, constantly collecting particles. Mysids are an important food source for herring, cod, flounder, striped bass. In polluted areas they have high toxin levels in their tissue but they are very robust and require much poison to die.

Environmental chemistry
Bioindicators

Particle (ecology)


Miquel Villalba is a Spanish classical pianist.

Biography and career
Miquel Villalba began studying music at the Escolania of Montserrat and at the Conservatori Superior Municipal de Música in Barcelona with Antoni Besses. He later studied with Claude Helffer in Paris, and with the Belgian piano teacher Frédéric Gevers. Villalba has won prizes in a number of national and international piano competitions, such as those in Albacete, Granada and Carlet, the Maria Canals competition in Barcelona, and the Jonge Virtuozen competition in Antwerp. Villalba also received the Premi de l'Associació Catalana de Compositors and the Premi Generalitat de Catalunya.

Villalba has performed as a soloist and with chamber ensembles in many countries, such as his native Spain, France, Belgium, Germany, Brazil, Venezuela and the Philippines.

Villalba has recorded several discs for the Naxos and Marco Polo  labels, including a five-disc set of the complete piano works of Manuel Blancafort.

References

External links
 Miquel Villalba's biography and discography on the Naxos web site

Spanish pianists
Living people
21st-century pianists
Year of birth missing (living people)

Miquel Villalba


Ectodermal dysplasia (ED) is a group of genetic syndromes all deriving from abnormalities of the ectodermal structures. More than 150 different syndromes have been identified.

Despite some of the syndromes having different genetic causes, the symptoms are sometimes very similar. Diagnosis is usually by clinical observation, often with the assistance of family medical histories so that it can be determined whether transmission is autosomal dominant or recessive.

Ectodermal dysplasias are described as "heritable conditions in which there are abnormalities of two or more ectodermal structures such as the hair, teeth, nails, sweat glands, salivary glands, cranial-facial structure, digits and other parts of the body."

Presentation

Hair
Individuals affected by an ED syndrome frequently have abnormalities of the hair follicles. Scalp and body hair may be thin, sparse, and very light in color, even though beard growth in affected males may be normal. The hair may grow very slowly or sporadically and it may be excessively fragile, curly, or even twisted. Kinky hair is also a possibility.

Nails
Fingernails and toenails may be thick, abnormally shaped, discolored, ridged, slow-growing, or brittle. The cuticles may be prone to infections.

Skin
The skin may be lightly pigmented. Skin sustaining injury may grow back permanently hypo-pigmented. In some cases, red or brown pigmentation may be present. Skin can be prone to rashes or infections and can be thick over the palms and soles. Care must be taken to prevent cracking, bleeding, and infection.

Sweat glands
Individuals affected by certain ED syndromes cannot perspire. Their sweat glands may function abnormally or may not have developed at all because of inactive proteins in the sweat glands. Without normal sweat production, the body cannot regulate temperature properly. Therefore, overheating is a common problem, especially during hot weather. Access to cool environments is important.

Salivary glands

Several studies have examined salivary flow rate in individuals and found parotid and submandibular salivary flow ranging from 5 to 15 times lower than average. This is consistent with the salivary glands being of ectodermal origin, although some findings have suggested that there is also mesodermal input.

Teeth
The development of tooth buds frequently results in congenitally absent teeth (in many cases a lack of a permanent set) and/or in the growth of teeth that are peg-shaped or pointed. The enamel may also be defective. Cosmetic dental treatment is almost always necessary and children may need dentures as early as two years of age. Multiple denture replacements are often needed as the child grows, and dental implants may be an option in adolescence, once the jaw is fully grown. Nowadays the option of extracting the teeth and substituting them with dental implants is quite common. In other cases, teeth can be crowned. Orthodontic treatment also may be necessary. Because dental treatment is complex, a multi-disciplinary approach is best.

Other features
People with ED often have certain cranial-facial features which can be distinctive: frontal bossing is common, longer or more pronounced chins are frequent, broader noses are also very common. Sunken cheeks, wrinkled hyper pigmented periorbital skin , thick everted protuberant lips are also seen in ED cases .In some types of ED, abnormal development of parts of the eye can result in dryness of the eye, cataracts, and vision defects. Professional eye care can help minimize the effects of ED on vision. Similarly, abnormalities in the development of the ear may cause hearing problems. Respiratory infections can be more common because the normal protective secretions of the mouth and nose are not present. Precautions must be taken to limit infections..

Genetics
ED can be classified by inheritance (autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive and X-linked) or by which structures are involved (hair, teeth, nails and/or sweat glands).

There are several different types with distinct genetic causes:
 Hay–Wells syndrome (Rapp–Hodgkin syndrome) and EEC syndrome are all associated with TP63.
 Hypohidrotic ectodermal dysplasia can be associated with EDA, EDAR and EDARADD.
 Margarita Island ectodermal dysplasia is associated with PVRL1.
 Ectodermal dysplasia with skin fragility is associated with PKP1.
 Clouston's hidrotic ectodermal dysplasia is associated with GJB6.
 Naegeli syndrome/Dermatopathia pigmentosa reticulariss is associated with KRT14.
 Pachyonychia congenita is caused by multiple keratins.
 Focal dermal hypoplasia is associated with PORCN.
 Ellis–van Creveld syndrome is associated with EVC.
 Palmoplantar ectodermal dysplasia refers to several different conditions selectively affecting the hands and feet.
 Cortes Lacassie syndrome is characterized by seizures, abnormalities in nails, hair and teeth, and malformed hands and feet.

Diagnosis
In terms of the clinical evaluation, clinical features are the classification method

Treatment
Management for this condition is symptom specific

Society and culture

Notable cases
 Michael Berryman, American actor with hypohidrotic ectodermal dysplasia
 Melanie Gaydos, American model
 Levi Hawken, New Zealand skateboarder and artist who became well known in 2011 in New Zealand for the "Nek minnit" viral video on YouTube
 Shahzad Ismaily, American musician
 Cory DeVantè Williams known online as CoryxKenshin

See also
 List of cutaneous conditions
 List of cutaneous conditions caused by mutations in keratins

References

External links

Genodermatoses
Syndromes affecting teeth
Ectoderm

Ectodermal dysplasia


Denis Browne (1763 – 14 August 1828) was an Irish politician, landowner and High Sheriff who was notorious for his role in punishing rebels in the 1798 rebellion.

Life
Browne was the second son of two sons and four daughters born to Peter Browne, 2nd Earl of Altamont and Elizabeth Kelly of Lisduffe, County Galway. He was born and raised at the family home of Westport House, County Mayo. He was a direct descendant of the pirate, Grace O'Malley (c.1530-c.1603). The Browne Family being one of the ancient Tribes of Galway and had been originally Catholic before conversion to the Church of Ireland. Most of the family property was left to John Denis, a sum of £5000 and a life interest in the property of Mount Browne were granted to Denis Browne. Denis Browne purchased the Claremont estate from Dominic Browne of Castlemacgarrett.

Browne served as an officer in the 5th Royal Irish Dragoons from 1779 to 1784. Due to his brother's influence and the support of the Irish catholic interest, he was elected MP for County Mayo in 1782, which he would hold till 1800. His uncle, James Browne, Prime Sergeant, was dismissed in 1782 which led to the brothers going into opposition against the government. In time, they were conciliated by the Duke of Rutland's administration. Browne was appointed to the Privy council on 20 January 1794.

Browne supported Catholic emancipation but would not help the Catholic Committee in organising elections in the county; Wolfe Tone believed this was because Browne was unwilling to lose any influence in his locality. On the other hand, Browne and his brother supported the government, keeping the administration in Dublin well informed of events in Mayo in the years prior to the Irish Rebellion of 1798. In 1795 the brothers assisted over five hundred Ulster families who fled to Mayo in the wake of disturbances arising from the Battle of the Diamond. All the refugees were carefully questioned to root out any disaffected elements, the families settling on the family estates.

He was appointed High Sheriff of Mayo for 1798, the year of the Irish Rebellion. He acquired the nickname Denis the Rope in the aftermath of the French invasion of Mayo in that year for his zeal in hanging suspected rebels. His own home in Claremorris was destroyed by the rebels. Browne had a well-earned reputation as a feared duelist. While Sheriff, he fought against George Robert FitzGerald; another, during the election of 1790, against his electoral opponent, John Bingham. In 1801 he fought against another parliamentary opponent, won, and was returned unopposed for County Mayo.

Browne's subsequent support for the Acts of Union 1800 failed to gain him a peerage, though his brother was made first Marquess of Sligo. In the following decades he represented Mayo (1800–1818) and Kilkenny City (1820–26), strongly supporting military coercion in Ireland. However, he was still a supporter of Catholic emancipation.

Family
He married his cousin Anne Mahon (died 1833) of Castlegar, County Galway, in 1790, having five sons and four daughters. Two of his sons, James and Peter, also served in the commons from the 1820s. He was instrumental in securing the election of his cousin, Dominick Browne, 1st Baron Oranmore and Browne, supposedly encouraging him to fight a duel to gain votes (Martyn, 2001).

He died at his home in Claremorris. A portrait of him by Sir Joshua Reynolds hangs in Westport House.

References
 Westport House and the Brownes, Denis Browne, Westport, 1981
 Land and popular politics in Ireland: Co. Mayo from plantation to the land war, Donald Jordan, 1994
 The Tribes of Galway, Adrian James Martyn, Galway, 2001
 Dictionary of Irish Biography, pp. 902–03, Cambridge, 2010

External links

1763 births
1828 deaths
Politicians from County Mayo
High Sheriffs of Mayo
5th Royal Irish Lancers officers
Irish duellists
Younger sons of earls
Denis
Members of the Privy Council of Ireland
Irish MPs 1776–1783
Irish MPs 1783–1790
Irish MPs 1790–1797
Irish MPs 1798–1800
Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for County Mayo constituencies (1801–1922)
UK MPs 1801–1802
UK MPs 1802–1806
UK MPs 1807–1812
UK MPs 1812–1818
UK MPs 1820–1826
Members of the Parliament of Ireland (pre-1801) for County Mayo constituencies

Denis Browne (politician)


The All-Russian Social-Political Movement "Spiritual Heritage" (; Vserossiyskoye obshchestvenno-politicheskoye dvizheniye "Dukhovnoye naslediye") also known as Spiritual Heritage or Spiritual Legacy (; Dukhovnoye naslediye) was a nationalist political party in Russia. Its orientation has been characterized as moderately "national-imperial" (as opposed to ethnic nationalist)  or as a "national-religious revision of communism".

The movement was founded in 1995 by Alexey Podberezkin, the president of the RAU Corporation and worked in symbiosis with the Communist Party of the Russian Federation until autumn 1998: members of the Spiritual Heritage movements participated in the 1995 State Duma election within the CPRF list, and Gennady Zyuganov on the other hand belonged to the leadership of the Spiritual Heritage (and according to some sources, was strongly influenced by Podberyozkin's political philosophy). The movement was one of the initiators and members of the pro-communist umbrella organization People's Patriotic Union of Russia  that gathered supporters of G. Zyuganov's presidential bid. The Spiritual Heritage movement eventually decided to participate independently in the 1999 State Duma election (Podberyozkin also considered running in the Fatherland list, for which reason he was expelled from the CPRF State Duma faction).

The ideology of the Spiritual Heritage movement can be characterized as statist, supporting a resurrection of the traditionally strong Russian state and favouring for this reason the rallying of nationalist forces around the CPRF as the main vehicle for statist ideology.

Since 1998, close relations between the movement and the Communist Party started to wane; Alexey Podberyozkin ran independently at the 2000 Russian presidential election. In 2003, members of the Spiritual Heritage founded the United Socialist Party of Russia.

References

Defunct nationalist parties in Russia
Russian nationalist organizations
National Bolshevism
National Bolshevik parties

Spiritual Heritage


Carlo Caneva (22 April 1845, Udine – 25 September 1922, Rome) was an Italian general, known for having led the conquest of Libya in the Italo-Turkish War.

Life
Since his birthplace was then in the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia within the Austrian Empire, he began his military career in the Austro-Hungarian Army as an artillery lieutenant under Benedek. After the Austro-Prussian War and the Austrian defeat at Sadowa, he decided to move to the Italian army in 1867. Completing his studies at the Scuola di Guerra, he was attached to Italy's general staff and in 1896 left for Eritrea as an infantry colonel to fight against Ethiopia and the Dervishes. In those campaigns he rose to major general.

In 1911, after commanding divisions and then an army corps, he was selected to lead Italy's Libyan campaign against the Ottoman Empire and Libyan resistance forces under Omar Mukhtar, which ended in 1912. Sidney Sonnino described Caneva at the time of the Libyan campaign as "a man who has had stomach troubles for eight years to the present". Luigi Barzini was also critical, stating the "On my word of honour, I did not know if he was worth the table (as they say) for the most complete example of stupidity". Giovanni Giolitti, an unobjective source, remarked that Caneva lacked initiative and did not understand the implications of his conduct for international politics. He was harshly criticised for having ignored (supposedly out of narrow-mindedness) the local Arab leaders during the first week of the Italian landings; and for his slow conventional conduct, lacking initiative and passive in the military operations that followed. The foreign military attaches watching the conflict were amazed to note that he did not use cavalry in a theatre admirably well-suited to it and how he did not consider requesting reinforcements for his already-small force.

He was recalled in 1912 and promoted to the rank of Generale d'Esercito (General); he retired from active service for old age in 1914, but in 1917 he was appointed to preside the enquiry about the disastrous defeat suffered at Caporetto.

References

1845 births
1922 deaths
People from Udine
Italian military personnel in Austrian armies
Austro-Hungarian generals
Italian colonial governors and administrators
Members of the Senate of the Kingdom of Italy
Italian military personnel of the First Italo-Ethiopian War
Italian military personnel of the Italo-Turkish War

Carlo Caneva


Holonga is a small village in the eastern district of Tongatapu, close to the lagoon. It lays along the Tāufaʻāhau road between Malapo and ʻAlakifonua.

Origin
According to the popular story Holonga originally got its name from the people of Pea. They escaped from their hometown after they lost the battle against Nukuʻalofa. Some Pea people ranned as far to Malapo and stayed there, some ranned and settled at Tatakamotonga. When the rest of the people of Pea still ran, they got tired and weary. They stopped, turned and hid in the bush. That place was named Holonga. Holo means escaped and nga means stopped, turned and hide in the bush.

Holonga (Tongatapu)/en


Leila Abouzeid () (born 1950, El Ksiba) is a Moroccan author. She writes in Arabic and is the first Moroccan woman writer of literature to have her works published in English-language translation.

Relationship with the French
Abouzeid's radio show was unique because it was spoken in Arabic, as opposed to French. Almost every radio broadcast was done in French because the radio was a business, and French was used in business. As part of her program, she translated movie scripts into Arabic and did dramatic readings. One of these was the famous autobiography of Malcolm X. She translated this script into Arabic and read it theatrically over the air.

Reading other people's books may have led her to make her own work instead. She still to this day refuses to use French because it is the language of their foreign invaders, and Arabic is both Morocco's official language and Islam's language. Speaking Arabic, English, and French, Abouzeid still uses primarily Arabic because she does not want to conform to the foreign culture that has taken over her country. She does not want to stand for a culture that she is not a part of. To Abouzeid, the use of the French language is being submissive to invaders that are not even present anymore. In The Last Chapter, Abouzeid explains her opinion on the use of French in her school years in her closing chapter called Afterword: by the author:

"I was in a private school in Rabat where Arabic and French were the languages of instruction. I loathed reading in French and developed an aversion to using it outside the classroom. This early position against the language of the colonialist proved fortunate, as it kept me from becoming one of the post-colonial Maghrebi [North African]
writers producing national literature in a foreign language. My intense aversion toward French may explain why I turned to English as my means of communication with the West" (Abouzeid, The Last Chapter 153).

Abouzeid expresses her contempt for the French and their language several times, and even while she was young and in school she hated French. Again in the novel, she mentions her hatred for French schooling, "I feel bad for mademoiselle Doze, even if she was French" (Abouzeid, 6). Abouzeid also has personal reasons to hate the French. The French had arrested and tortured her father for being an advocate of Moroccan Nationalism and had forced the language upon her. This made her hate the French from a very young age. She does not show any hate for other foreign languages like the English language because they have not personally caused harm to her.

Year of the Elephant
Her first book called Year of the Elephant was published in 1980, and was published in English in 1989 by Texas University. Her book was translated into French only in 2005. Year of the Elephant was named after a battle in Islamic history. The story of the battle is that during an early religious based battle, a flock of birds came and dropped stones on the enemy elephants, causing them to turn around. She compares this historic battle to the Moroccans battling for independence because they are mere birds compared to the gigantic global power of their French rulers.

Mentions of women's education
In The Last Chapter, there are only two girls in Aisha's classroom of 42 students. Out of those two, only Aisha graduated. The misogyny present in real life Morocco is mirrored through this book. In Morocco, women are not very well educated, and something like two women in a class was typical and accepted. Abouzeid did very well in school because of the brain she was not expected to have. Men assumed women were born with no intelligence (which is contradicted by scientific evidence), but it is assumed this is because their education was stifled by the patriarchal government. In a study in 2009, literacy rates in Morocco were recorded at 39.6% for women, 65.7% for men, and only 10% for women from rural areas (DoS p. 2). In other words, women are barely educated, and a majority of them cannot even read, while most men are literate.

Topic of identity in work
Her work touches upon the identity of people, and the nature of the possession of it or lack thereof. In the beginning of The Year of the Elephant, the main character is wandering the streets after a devastating divorce. As she barely holds onto the will to live she states, "I feel nothing. Have I lost my own identity?" (Abouzeid, Year of the Elephant, 2). Her divorce has taken away her personality and sense of self entirely.
Identity is again brought up in The Last Chapter regarding the lost teacher Mademoiselle Doze. Aisha's teacher had been rejected by her fiancé, and she became a shell of her former self. Abouzeid describes her as just a body showing up for class, not Doze (Abouzeid 6). All soul that was left in her body had seemingly left, and the teacher barely existed. Aisha examines how this sudden change happened, and questions:
"Can you lose your identity like you use an identification card? Does some unseen part of the machinery snap, suddenly and irreparably" (Abouzeid, pg. 6)?

Selected works
 Year of the Elephant: A Moroccan Woman's Journey Toward Independence, Center for Middle Eastern Studies, University of Texas, 1990
 Return to Childhood, Center for Middle Eastern Studies, University of Texas, 1999,
 The Last Chapter, The American University in Cairo Press, 2003
 The Director and Other Stories from Morocco, Center for Middle Eastern Studies, University of Texas, 2006,
 Life of the Prophet – A Biography of Prophet Mohammed, 2009

References

External links
 Return to childhood, introduction (retrieved on March 14, 2008)

1950 births
Living people
Moroccan women novelists
Moroccan novelists
20th-century novelists
20th-century Moroccan women writers
21st-century novelists
21st-century Moroccan women writers
People from Béni Mellal-Khénifra
20th-century Moroccan writers
21st-century Moroccan writers

Leila Abouzeid


Lawrence Tenney Stevens (1896-1972) was an American sculptor who was one of the progenitors of the "Cowboy High Style" movement in western American art and furniture. He created large allegorical figures and stylized depictions of the American west.

Early life and education
Born in Massachusetts in 1896, Stevens first showed an interest in sculpture in his early adolescence, and began experimenting with figures after his grandfather demonstrated how to carve figures from a broken alabaster vase.  He continued to study sculpture throughout high school, his progress prompting the art director for the school district to lobby the school district pay to send Stevens to evening classes with Harvard students at Copley Plaza Studios.  Upon graduating, Stevens was accepted into the Boston Museum School where he continued his studies under the tutelage of Bela Pratt.

Stevens volunteered for the armed forces in 1917 to fight in World War I.  Upon his return from the war, he resumed his studies at the Boston Museum School and spent the two following summers at the Louis Comfort Tiffany Foundation, which Tiffany founded to help encourage and fund up-and-coming young artists.

Prix de Rome fellowship
Stevens first garnered international attention when he won the Rome Prize for sculpture in 1922, receiving a fellowship to study sculpture at the American Academy in Rome as well as funds to travel to experience the art of Western Europe.  Precedent dictated that the Prix de Rome fellows would spend time in Greece studying the classical sculpture there, but Stevens instead decided to go to Egypt.  His time with the Ancient Egyptian bas-relief murals and stylized sculpture heavily impacted his style, which would continue to evoke ancient Egyptian and contemporary Art Deco influences throughout his life.

Before his trip to Rome, Stevens would meet Daniel Chester French, a fellow American sculptor whose most famous work is the colossal statue of Abraham Lincoln in the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C. French confided to Stevens that he wished he had Stevens' position in the art world at a time when French believed America was beginning to gain clout and credibility in sculpture.  Following this exchange, Stevens made his artistic focus to use his sculpture to glorify that which he believed was uniquely American, and American-made. During his trip to Europe, Stevens would express his disapproval at the number of American expatriate artists, condemning them as "un-American" and saying they lacked faith in American sculpture.

Return to the USA

After taking several commissions in New York, Stevens moved out west to Santa Barbara. It was in Southern California that he first met Millard Sheets, already an established artist and founding professor of the fine arts program at Scripps College. The two artists became friends, and Stevens accompanied Sheets on his yearly trip to Mexico in 1934, where the two painted watercolors.  Stevens' sculpture "Monument to the Young Farmers of the Nation" (1938) currently stands at the entrance to the Millard Sheets Center for the Arts in Los Angeles, California.  Sheets landed Stevens a one-man exhibition at  Scripps in 1935 that displayed both Stevens' sculpture and the watercolors he had painted with Sheets. One of the pieces in the exhibition, a ceramic sea lion, was duplicated by Scripps professor William Manker and became the fountains in Scripps' Seal Court (the pieces were later recast in bronze by Paul Soldner).  Sheets later persuaded Stevens to loan his 1931 piece "Doors of Life" to the college for the new Florence Rand Lang art building, now the Elizabeth Hubert Malott Commons, built in 1939. The doors remained on long term loan until Scripps College Trustee Mrs. G. F. Cruickshank agreed to donate the doors officially.

Cody and WWII years
Meanwhile, Stevens had been spending his summers in Cody, Wyoming working on expanding his American West-themed body of work. He modeled and sculpted in clay, plaster, bronze and marble everything from the animals and workers of the ranches to the champion bronco riders he saw at local rodeos. He was granted the first one-man show at Cody's Buffalo Bill Museum in 1932. It was in Cody that Cowboy High Style began to develop, catalyzed both by Stevens' work and the work of local furniture designer Thomas Molesworth, both of whom championed simple designs imbued with the spirit of the American West. Stevens' figures from this period are scattered all over the American Southwest. One of his largest commissions was for the Centennial Fairgrounds and Esplanade for the 1936 Texas Centennial Exposition in Dallas.  He created three monumental allegorical figures, "Tenor", "Contralto", and "Texas", along with a representation of the chimera-like nonsense creature of Texan folklore, the "Woofus". The bronze sculptures were melted down to help the war effort during World War II, but the figures were reconstructed in stainless steel in 2009 and have been restored to their original positions.

After this commission, Stevens began to sculpt large allegorical figures such as "America" (1941), "American Sculptor" (1941), and "The Confederacy" (1941) as part of his canon in addition to his original cowboys and animals.  In 1939 he won a competition to create colossal monuments for the New York World's Fair.  Stevens volunteered for military service once more when the United States entered WWII, and was assigned to a secret unit called Project 19.

Post-war years
Stevens returned from the war and settled in Tulsa before moving to Arizona with his second wife. He lived and sculpted in Tempe, Arizona until his death in 1972.

References

1896 births
1972 deaths
20th-century American sculptors
20th-century American male artists
American male sculptors
National Sculpture Society members

Lawrence Tenney Stevens


Philip Flattisbury (fl. 1500), was an Irish compiler.

Flattisbury was from a prominent Irish family: members of the family, from the thirteenth century, held important positions as landowners in County Kildare, and occasionally filled legal offices under the English government there. Flattisbury appears to have been a retainer of Gearóid Mór FitzGerald, 8th Earl of Kildare, deputy-governor of Ireland under Henry VII and Henry VIII. In 1503 Flattisbury made for FitzGerald a compilation styled the Red Book of the Earls of Kildare. This volume consists mainly of documents connected with or bearing upon the lands and possessions of the Geraldine house of Kildare. This volume was sought for eagerly, but in vain, by the governmental agents at the time of the attainder of the heads of the house of Kildare in 1537. Formerly in the possession of the Duke of Leinster, the original manuscript was bought by Trinity College, Dublin in 1984, and has been edited by Gearóid MacNiocaill.

Flattisbury also transcribed for Gerald FitzGerald, 9th Earl of Kildare, in 1517, a collection of Anglo-Irish annals in Latin, terminating in 1370 (linked by the DNB to the chronicles of John Pembridge). To them, he appended a few lines of additional matter at the end, with a brief panegyric on the Earl of Kildare. The manuscript bears the following title: Hic inferius sequuntur diversæ Cronicæ ad requisitionem nobilis et præpotentis domini, Geraldi filii Geraldi, deputati domini regis Hiberniæ, scriptæ per Philippum Flattisbury de Johnston juxta le Naas, anno Domini mdxvii. et anno regni Henrici Octavi ix. Edmund Campion, in his History of Ireland, written in 1571, and Richard Stanihurst, somewhat later, referred erroneously to Flattisbury as the author of the annals of which he was the transcriber. Stanihurst did not record the date of Flattisbury's death, but mentioned that it took place 'at his town styled Johnstown,' near Naas, in Kildare, and observes that he was a 'worthy gentleman and a diligent antiquary.' The original annals, from which Flattisbury transcribed, were printed for the first time in 1607 by William Camden, in his Britannia, from a manuscript lent to him by Lord Howard of Naworth Castle, and subsequently presented by Archbishop Laud to the Bodleian Library, where it is now preserved. A new edition from the manuscript used by Camden, and collated with fragments of an older one unknown to him, was published by John Thomas Gilbert, Flattisbury's DNB biographer, in the appendix to the Chartularies of St. Mary's Abbey, Dublin, Rolls Series, 1885.

References

Year of birth missing
Year of death missing
15th-century births
16th-century deaths
15th-century Irish people
16th-century Irish writers
People of the Tudor period

Philip Flattisbury


The Old Firm is the name given to the relationship between two football teams in Scotland, Rangers F.C. and Celtic F.C.

Head to head record

1888-1999 statistics obtained from RSSSF. Remaining stats obtained from Soccerbase

History

The Old Firm have a lot of history, possibly dating back to around 1888, Celtic's first match, which was against Rangers, when a newspaper report stated that both sets of players "got on so well that you would believe that they were old firm friends." However, William J. Murray states that the term comes from the commercial benefits of the two clubs' rivalry, which were viewed with distaste in some parts in the early days of the game

The two clubs are the most successful in Scotland, having won between them 63 Scottish Cups and 93 Scottish Premier League championships (as of 2007). The two clubs normally compete four times a year in the SPL and are regularly drawn against each other in the two Scottish cup competitions.

The clubs' have large support bases around Glasgow, but also have supporters clubs in most towns throughout Scotland and in many cities around the world. The presence of Rangers and Celtic has been estimated to be worth £120 million to the Scottish economy.

The two clubs' fan bases have historically been divided on religious lines. Celtic are supported by Catholics, while Rangers are supported by Protestants.

Players
There have been many high profile players to play for both sides of the Old Firm. The most recent players to do so are Kenny Miller, Maurice Johnston, Steven Pressley, Mark Brown and Barry Robson. Kenny Miller is the first player in the modern era to cross the Old Firm divide twice, having played for Rangers then Celtic, then moving back to Rangers.

References

Football in Scotland

Old Firm


Gille Críst is the first known Mormaer (in Scotland, a regional or provincial ruler, equivalent to Latin comes, French comte and English earl)  of Menteith, but almost certainly not actually the first. He is named in a charter of King Máel Coluim IV, dated to 1164, regarding the restoration of Scone Priory, which had recently been destroyed by fire. He appears again in a charter of King William the Lion, dated 1175x1178, as one of the witnesses to a grant of privileges to the newly established burgh of Glasgow.

Gille Críst had two known sons, Muireadhach Mór and Muireadhach Óg. He also had a daughter, Éua, who married Ailín II, Earl of Lennox.

Gille Críst had died by 1189/1198, when Muireadhach Mór appears as Mormaer for the first time.

Bibliography
 Paul, James Balfour, The Scots Peerage, Vol. VI, (Edinburgh, 1909)
 Roberts, John L., Lost Kingdoms: Celtic Scotland in the Middle Ages, (Edinburgh, 1997), pp. 52

1180s deaths
People from Stirling
Year of birth unknown
Mormaers of Menteith
12th-century mormaers

Gille Críst, Earl of Menteith


Alexander Bogdanovich Kistiakowsky (Александр Богданович Кистяковский;  13 August 1904 - 22 June 1983) was a Ukrainian ornithologist and a specialist on bird lice. He was a brother of George Kistiakowsky. His contributions to ornithology included ideas on navigation by migrating birds, the mechanics of bird flight, and the publication of  several regional avifaunas.

Alexander was born in Hatki, Poltava. Alexander's father Bogdan was a lawyer, philosopher, sociologist, and a professor at the University of Kiev. Bogdan's father, Alexander, was also a renowned professor of Criminal Law at the University of Kiev.  A leftist revolutionary, Bogdan died in 1920. Alexander had three siblings, one died in Poland, while two others became scientists. George fled to Germany and influenced by his uncle Vladimir Kistiakowsky, a pioneer in electrochemistry, studied physics and chemistry. He moved to the US in 1926 and joined Harvard University, heading a department in the Los Alamos National Laboratory from 1944 to 1945. At the age of fifteen, he became interested in birds and insects and worked as an assistant at the Zoological Museum of the Kiev Academy of Sciences. In the 1920s he travelled on several natural history expeditions and lived in the richly furnished apartment of his parents. He worked at the museum and studied the Mallophaga. He then worked on biological pest control.

In 1941, he was drafted into the 2nd Ukrainian Front. He was posted in a unit to defend a bridge but this was destroyed by the Germans. He received several military awards and later learned that this bridge in the south was deliberately made a target for the Germans while a bridge in the north was used by the Soviets to liberate Kiev.

He returned from the war to continue research at the University of Kiev in 1946. Discovering that his wife had, during the war, sold off his parents' apartment including antique paintings to Germans, along with loss of his manuscripts, he divorced her. He later married an assistant at the university and they lived in a small apartment. He became a lecturer, was promoted to professor in 1961 and shortly after became head of the zoology department in the Shevchenko University, Kiev.

A Ukrainian patriot, he was not in support of the communist government of the time and therefore did not find favour within the higher ranks of the university or government. In the 1960s the USSR under Nikita Khrushchev was in diplomatic talks with the United States of America and a delegation of American scholars including George Kistiakowsky were due to visit. George wished to meet his brother at his home in Kiev. The officials did not like the idea of his being seen in a small apartment clogged with books and Alexander was surprised to receive a letter allocating a large three-room apartment. After more than 40 years the brothers met. George then invited Alexander to the United States but the travel documents took long to obtain. After boarding a ship at Odessa, he was told that his documents were not in order and the KGB stopped him from travel, and believed that he was going to defect. Alexander subsequently swore never to travel abroad. In 1981, under Leonid Brezhnev, the travel restrictions were removed and Alexander visited his brother in the United States for three weeks during which time he was also able to meet the ornithologist Ernst Mayr.

His wish was that after his death, his ashes be scattered into the river Dnieper. His friends found this a difficult proposal and fulfilled his wishes by sprinkling ashes from the urn onto a big wreath and then placing the wreath in the river while the empty urn was buried in his grave.

References

External links
 Biography (in Polish)

Ukrainian ornithologists

Alexander Kistiakowsky


Bruce Mitchell (8 January 1909 – 1 July 1995) was a South African cricketer who played in 42 Test matches from 1929 to 1949. He was a right-handed opening batsman and played in every Test South Africa played in that period.

By the end of his career he had 3471 Test runs to his name which at the time was a national record. With his eight centuries he finished just behind Dudley Nourse who made 9.

Early life
The son of a doctor, Mitchell grew up in Johannesburg, where he showed unusual cricket ability as a boy. At the age of six he was coached by Ernest Halliwell, the former South African Test captain. At school at St. John's College, Johannesburg, he received further coaching from the school's cricket coach, A. G. MacDonald. In his teens he used his large hands to master leg-spinbowling.

Early first-class career
Mitchell made his first-class debut for Transvaal, against Border, at the age of 17. He took 11 wickets with his legbreaks and googlies. It was only later in the following season that he started to develop his batting. In 1927–28 the MCC toured South Africa and Mitchell, batting at 3, struck 40 runs. He showcased his all-round abilities against Natal in the 1928–29 trial matches and later in a game against Griqualand West he showed his fighting spirit by rescuing his side after the top six batsmen scored no more than 11 runs between them. His maiden first-class century came in England, against the successful Yorkshire side at Sheffield. For most of the games in the rest of the tour he opened the batting and it would be a position that he would stay in for most of his career.

Test cricket

Mitchell's Test debut came against England on 15 June 1929 at Edgbaston. In both innings he produced a hundred-run opening stand with Robert Catterall and finished the game with 88 and 61 not out. The rest of the series was disappointing and he ended the tour with 251 runs at 31.37.

In 1930–31, he met England on his own shores, and in the First Test he made a second innings 72 in a low-scoring encounter which South Africa went on to win. He was back as opener in the Second Test at Newlands and was part of a national record opening stand of 260 with Jack Siedle, for which Mitchell contributed 123. He scored a further three half-centuries in the remaining three Test to finish with 455 runs at 50.55.

In the summer of 1931–32, Mitchell toured Australia and New Zealand but was ill for most of the tour, finishing with 1048 runs at 34.93. His best performances were 75 and 95 at Adelaide, and 58 at Brisbane.

His form was better in New Zealand. After a century against Auckland he scored 113 in the First Test at Christchurch.

The South Africans toured the UK in 1935 and Mitchell finished second in the averages with 1451 runs at 45.34, despite missing eight matches at the start of the tour. In addition, he took 35 wickets at 19.02, which allowed him to top the bowling averages. In the Tests he scored 488 runs at 69.71, which included centuries at Lord's and The Oval. His innings of 164 not out at Lord's was made in the second innings and helped his side to their first-ever win against England in England. Another highlight of the tour was his highest-ever first class score of 195, made against Surrey at the Oval. That included an opening stand of 330 with Eric Rowan, which was the highest-ever partnership by a South African pair in England.

The Australians visited South Africa in 1935–36 and, in his seven matches, Mitchell only once passed 50. His bowling, however, was more successful: in the 2nd Test he took 4 for 5, with 3 of those wickets being in the same over. In the Fifth Test at Kingsmead he took 5 for 87, which by was his only 5-wicket haul in Tests.

Before the Second World War interrupted his career, he played a series against England in which he finished with 466 runs at an average of 58.25, including a century in a losing cause at Kingsmead.

During the war, Mitchell served with the Transvaal Scottish Regiment in East Africa. On his return to cricket in 1945–46 he scored 426 runs at 47.33 in the domestic season. Against Griqualand West he and Alan Melville created a South African seventh-wicket record stand of 299.

Mitchell returned to the UK in 1947 and went one better than his previous tour there by topping the first-class average with 2014 runs at 61.03. His effort included eight centuries. He finished second in the Test averages with 597 runs at 66.33. His aggregate, however, was the highest by a South African on tour. In the final Test, at the Oval, he wrote his name in the record books by becoming the second South African to score two centuries in a Test. He batted over 13 hours for his innings of 120 and 189 not out, with the latter being his highest Test score.

It was then England's turn to tour South Africa, and with an innings of 120 at Newlands in the Third Test, he equalled Herbie Taylor's record of seven Test centuries against England. In the final Test he made 99 and 56 at Port Elizabeth. This turned out to be his last Test match for South Africa, and he finished his Test career the way he started it, with a pair of 50s.

References

External links

1909 births
1995 deaths
Gauteng cricketers
South Africa Test cricketers
South African cricketers
Wisden Cricketers of the Year
South African military personnel of World War II
Recipients of the Military Cross
Alumni of St John's College (Johannesburg)
Cricketers from Johannesburg

Bruce Mitchell (cricketer)


Jim Richards is the former men's basketball head coach at Western Kentucky University, coaching the team for seven seasons from 1971 to 1978. He was inducted into the Western Kentucky University Athletic Hall of Fame in 2005.

Richards was born in rural Adair County, Kentucky, and played basketball for one year at Adair County High School. He was recruited to play baseball at Western by Coach E. A. Diddle (better known as the basketball coach). Diddle got Richards into officiating high school basketball. After graduation, Richards was hired as head basketball coach at Auburn High School. He went from there to Glasgow High, where he coached the Scotties to a state championship in 1968.

Richards returned to Western as an assistant the following year, when an opening occurred on John Oldham's staff after Gene Rhodes left to coach the Kentucky Colonels of the American Basketball Association. When Oldham left the sidelines to become athletic director, Richards became head coach for the 1971-1972 season.

His overall record at Western was 102-84. His Hilltopper teams won two regular season Ohio Valley Conference championships, plus two tournament championships. The Toppers made the NCAA men's basketball tournament twice, with an overall record of one win and two losses.

After stepping down as head basketball coach, Richards coached the men's golf team. One of his recruits was Kenny Perry from nearby Franklin, Kentucky. Perry went on to play on the PGA Tour.

References

Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
Basketball coaches from Kentucky
Western Kentucky Hilltoppers and Lady Toppers athletic directors
Western Kentucky Hilltoppers baseball players
Western Kentucky Hilltoppers basketball coaches
College golf coaches in the United States
High school basketball coaches in the United States
People from Adair County, Kentucky

Jim Richards (basketball)