A CD-R (also called Compact Disc Recordable) is a compact disc that can be recorded once. When people record a compact disc, they put either music or data on it, or sometimes both, which is called an enhanced CD.

A compact disc that can be recorded multiple times (and erased) is the CD-RW.

When you put data onto a CD, it is called burning a disc. A laser "burns" pits into a dye layer on the disc, making them transparent. These transparent pits can later be read back by the CD drive or audio CD player as data or music.

The first CD-Rs from the early 1990s held 63 minutes of audio. In the mid-1990s, 74-minute discs became common. Most CD-Rs made from 2000 onward hold 80 minutes, or 700 MB of data. 90 and 99-minute CD-Rs are available since 2000, although they are non-standard and many players and recorders do not support them.

There are three types of dye used in CD-R discs. The most common is phthalocyanine, and it is usually light green. CMC Pro (formerly Taiyo Yuden) uses cyanine dye. It is usually teal or dark green. Verbatim uses phthalocyanine dye on some discs, and AZO dye on others. AZO dye is usually dark blue or blue-ish silver. The metal layer on the disc is usually made of silver. Archival discs and some professional audio discs use a gold top layer. Verbatim UltraLife discs have a silver main layer, and a gold upper protective layer, providing the reflectivity of silver and the chemical stability of gold. Early cyanine discs could decay and become unplayable within a few years. Recent cyanine discs have preservatives added to the dye to prevent this from happening. AZO and phthalocyanine dyes do not need preservatives and do not decay easily. Phthalocyanine is the most stable and longest-lasting dye, but it requires a more precisely calibrated laser than AZO or cyanine to get a good, error-free burn. A recording laser with too much or too little power will produce a poor recording on phthalocyanine dye.

There are two types of blank CD-R, "music" and "data". The only difference is that "music" discs have a bit set on the disc that indicates a royalty was paid to the music industry. Consumer-grade music recorders look for this bit and won't record to discs without it. This is done to meet the requirements of the Audio Home Recording Act and similar laws. Professional equipment (including rackmount audio CD recorders and all computer drives) is not affected and will record to either type of disc. The bit has no effect on playback once the disc has been recorded.

References

Compact Disc

CD-R


Cheddar railway station was a station on the Bristol and Exeter Railway's Cheddar Valley line in Cheddar, Somerset, England. The station had substantial goods traffic based on the locally-grown strawberries, which led to the line's alternative name as The Strawberry Line.

History
The station was opened as the temporary terminus of the broad gauge line in August 1869. The railway was extended to Wells in 1870, converted to standard gauge in the mid-1870s and then linked up to the East Somerset Railway to provide through services from  to Witham in 1878. All the railways involved were absorbed into the Great Western Railway in the 1870s.

Cheddar was the largest station on the line, with a big station building and an all-over roof that covered both platforms. The station was host to a GWR camp coach from 1935 to 1939. A camping coach was also positioned here by the Western Region from 1952 to 1963 (except for 1953).

The Yatton to Witham line closed to passengers in 1963. Cheddar remained open for goods until November 1965, and even then a private siding kept the line in place until March 1969.

Most of the station buildings still exist in other uses, but the overall roof was taken down soon after the passenger service was withdrawn.

Services

References

Disused railway stations in Somerset
Railway stations in Great Britain opened in 1869
Railway stations in Great Britain closed in 1963
1869 establishments in England
Former Great Western Railway stations
Cheddar, Somerset

Cheddar railway station


Allway Gardens () is the earliest and one of the largest-scale private housing estates located in Tsuen Wan, New Territories, Hong Kong.

It was developed by Hopewell Holdings. It is located on Tsuen King Circuit, a hilltop at the west of Tsuen Wan. It comprises 3,423 flats in sixteen towers in four phases, completed between 1978 and 1981.

Demographics
According to the 2016 by-census, Allway Gardens had a population of 9,613. The median age was 44.3 and the majority of residents (96 per cent) were of Chinese ethnicity. The average household size was 2.9 people. The median monthly household income of all households (i.e. including both economically active and inactive households) was HK$38,000.

Politics
Allway Gardens is located in Allway constituency of the Tsuen Wan District Council. It was formerly represented by Chiu Yan-loy, who was elected in the 2019 elections until July 2021.

References

External links

  (in Chinese)

Private housing estates in Hong Kong
Tsuen Wan
Hopewell Holdings
Residential buildings completed in 1978
Residential buildings completed in 1979
Residential buildings completed in 1980
Residential buildings completed in 1981

Allway Gardens


The northern brown bandicoot (Isoodon macrourus), a marsupial species, is a bandicoot found only on the northern and eastern coasts of Australia and nearby islands, mainly Papua New Guinea. It is not, however, found far inland.

Description

This species can be set apart from other marsupials by two traits; it is both polyprotodont (i.e., several pairs of lower front teeth) and syndactylous. The northern brown bandicoot has typical body and tail lengths of , respectively. On average it weighs . This marsupial has a thick harsh coat but is not spiny. The dorsal pelage is light brown in appearance with speckled black patterns throughout. On the ventral surface it is solid white. The northern brown bandicoot has a reverse pouch so it won't fill with soil when digging. This bandicoot also has short, rounded ears and a short nose. One can easily mistake the northern brown bandicoot for the southern brown bandicoot. The two species differ in both size, with the northern brown bandicoot larger, and regional locality, in that the southern brown bandicoot is found only on the southern coastline of Australia.

The male is typically  longer and about  heavier than the female.

Ecology
The populations of the northern brown bandicoot live in two different habitats: one during the dry season and the other during the wet season. During the dry season, this species lives in thick vegetation consisting of tall weeds, small trees, and dense shrubs. This probably occurs because of the sparse food supply that can be found. During the wet season though, the northern brown bandicoot "comes out" and roams open grasslands where sources of food are more abundant.

The northern brown bandicoot is one of relatively few native Australian ground-dwelling mammals that is able to survive within urbanized landscapes.  The generalized dietary and habitat requirements, as well as a high reproductive output, undoubtedly facilitate the survival of the species in urban habitat fragments.

The northern brown bandicoot makes individual nests or homes on the ground consisting of simple mounds of hay and twigs that are well camouflaged and waterproof. The inside is hollow and large enough for just the single bandicoot. Some bandicoots use hollowed out tree trunks or abandoned rabbit dens for shelter. In general, however, the northern brown bandicoot shows a strong preference for homes in areas of low ground cover.

The northern brown bandicoot is omnivorous. It eats insects, earthworms, berries, and grass seeds. Sometimes when food is scarce, the female bandicoot will eat her young. This marsupial forages alone during the night and has a keen sense of smell. This allows it to find food either laying in the open or buried underground. Hunting at night, however, also has its consequences. The bandicoot is prime prey for many nocturnal cats, foxes, and owls found in Australia. The Northern brown bandicoot is a host of the Acanthocephalan intestinal parasite Australiformis semoni.

Life history
The northern brown bandicoot diligently marks and retains its territory. It has scent glands on the ears, mouth, pouch, and cloaca. This solitary marsupial is aggressive only towards others of its species. If a bandicoot is startled in its nesting site, it will flee. Hardly ever will the northern brown bandicoot defend itself unless two males confront one another over territorial rights. Then, either a male is killed or one male becomes subordinate to the other and avoids confrontation. The subordinate male also forfeits to the dominant male all sexual relations with local females. Bandicoots are not social animals and do not live in groups, with the exception of mother and her young.

The northern brown bandicoot breeds throughout the year. An average litter consists of 2 to 4 young. Being marsupials, the newborns are naked and immature and thus undergo extensive development within the mother's pouch. The gestation period (12.5 days) is the shortest recorded for any mammal. Bandicoots are also the only metatherian marsupials that have placentas similar to eutherian mammals. Juveniles are weaned at 60 days post partum. By this time, the marsupial young are capable of sustaining endothermy on their own. I. macrourus have a lifespan of approximately two years.

Female bandicoots produce between 8 and 11 litters in their lifetime. Male bandicoots don't play a significant role in the care of juvenile I. macrourus.

The name bandicoot is based on their rather ratlike appearance.  The name comes from a corruption of an Indian word "pandi-kokku" signifying "pig-rat".

Conservation status
Over the past century, populations of the northern brown bandicoot have decreased after the European introduction of rabbits and livestock into Australia. This dramatically heightened the direct competition for food and habitat. Bandicoot populations further suffered after the introduction of the fox and cat, both predators of small animals. Northern brown bandicoot populations in the Northern Territory are showing considerable declines, with one study in the Northern Territory finding a 35% reduction in the breadth of occupied environmental space. As there was only a small (1-2%) reduction in their extent of occurrence, the study concluded that the species is contracting to areas of higher rainfall, lower fire frequency, and higher vegetation cover.

In Aboriginal language and culture
The Northern brown bandicoot is known as yok to the Kunwinjku people of western Arnhem Land, and for those still living on their country is an important food. It is stuffed with hot coals and bush herbs then covered with paperbark and cooked in a ground oven.

References

Peramelemorphs
Marsupials of New Guinea
Marsupials of Australia
Mammals of Western New Guinea
Mammals of Papua New Guinea
Mammals of Western Australia
Mammals of the Northern Territory
Mammals of New South Wales
Mammals of Queensland
Least concern biota of Oceania
Mammals described in 1842

Northern brown bandicoot


Henry Home, Laird Kames (169627 December 1782) wis a Scots advocate, juidge, filosofer, writer an agricultural improver. A central feegur o the Scots Enlichtment, a foonder member o the Filosofical Society o Edinburgh, an active in the Select Society, his protégés includit David Hume, Adam Smith, an James Boswell.

1696 births
1782 daiths
18t-century philosophers
18t-century Scots fowk
Fowk frae Berwickshire
Members o the Faculty o Advocates
Enlichtment filosofers
Members o the Filosofical Society o Edinburgh
Scots rhetoricians
Fowk o the Scots Enlichtment
Scots philosophers
Kames
Scots historians
Scots legal writers
Scots agronomists
Scots leeterar creetics
Scots anthropologists
Scots sociologists
Moral philosophers
Alumni o the Varsity o Edinburgh

Henry Home, Laird Kames


ReFrame (also known as ReFrame Project; formerly known as the Systemic Change Project) is a US non-profit organization founded by Women in Film LA and the Sundance Institute together with over 50 leaders and influencers in Hollywood, with the goal of providing research, support, and a practical framework to its partner companies to give them a way to "mitigate bias during the creative decision-making and hiring process, celebrate successes, and measure progress toward a more gender-representative industry on all levels". Alison Emilio serves as the director.

History
The Systemic Change Project, a joint venture between Women in Film and the Sundance Institute, originated from a secret meeting of 44 Hollywood leaders to address the gender parity issue in the industry. From the Systemic Change Project, ReFrame was founded by a group of ReFrame Ambassabors, active male and female leaders across the entertainment industry ranging from studio heads to guild representatives, ReFrame seeks to use a developed research-based action plan to promote gender parity, inclusivity, diversity, and increase the presence of women in the media industry.

Programs

14-Point Culture Change and Production Roadmap
Building on existing diversity programs, the roadmap provides tools, training, and practices tailored to entertainment executives and creative teams to address the systemic barriers in the creative and financial aspects of the business.

ReFrame Rise Directors Program
Announced on June 12, 2019, the ReFrame Rise Directors Program will act like a mentorship program. It is an industry-wide two-year sponsorship that will identify promising female directors poised to lead studio features and TV projects, and provide them with endorsement and support. Those selected for ReFrame Rise will receive complimentary IMDbPro memberships, enabling them to discover and connect with potential key collaborators.

ReFrame Stamp

The ReFrame Stamp is a distinction awarded to film and TV productions that satisfy predetermined criteria with a large number of women in key roles in front and behind the camera as actresses, members of the production, and department heads. Criteria for the award includes having a female protagonist with top billing, female characters with a lot of screen time, female directors and screenwriters with additional recognition towards women of color in main roles. The stamp is awarded based on the number of points fulfilled by the aforementioned criteria. After a film or television program is awarded the stamp, a logo is added to the end credits.

See also
 Geena Davis Institute on Gender in Media

References

External links

Film organizations in the United States
Feminism and the arts
Non-profit organizations based in Los Angeles
Women's film organizations
Women in television

ReFrame


Tag der Freiheit: Unsere Wehrmacht (Day of Freedom: Our Armed Forces) is the third documentary directed by Leni Riefenstahl, following Der Sieg des Glaubens and Triumph des Willens. Her third film recounts the Seventh Party Rally of the Nazi Party, which occurred in Nuremberg in 1935, and focuses on the German army.

Tag der Freiheit was considered lost at the end of World War II, but an incomplete print of the film was discovered in the 1970s—the extant footage reveals Riefenstahl mainly reprising the approach she used in Triumph of the Will (1934), though certain more expressionistic sequences clearly presage the more audacious style she would adopt for Olympia (1938).

Synopsis
The film depicts a mock battle staged by German troops during the ceremonies at Nuremberg on German Armed Forces Day 1935. The camera follows the soldiers from their early-morning preparations in their tent city as they march singing to the vast parade grounds where a miniature war involving infantry, cavalry, aircraft, flak guns and the first public appearance of Germany's new forbidden tank is presented before Hitler and thousands of spectators.

The film ends with a montage of Nazi flags to the tune of the "Deutschlandlied" and a shot of German fighter biplanes flying overhead in a swastika formation.

Background
When several generals in the Wehrmacht protested over the minimal army presence in Triumph of the Will, Hitler proposed his own "artistic" compromise where Triumph would open with a camera slowly tracking down a row of all the "overlooked" generals (and placate each general's ego). According to her own testimony, Riefenstahl boldly refused his suggestion and insisted on keeping artistic control over Triumph of the Will. She did agree to return to the 1935 rally and make a film exclusively about the Wehrmacht, which became Tag der Freiheit.

References

External links

 English translation of Hitler's speech in the film

1935 documentary films
1935 films
German black-and-white films
Films directed by Leni Riefenstahl
Films of Nazi Germany
Nuremberg Rally films
Films about Adolf Hitler
1930s rediscovered films
German documentary films
Rediscovered German films
1930s German films

Tag der Freiheit: Unsere Wehrmacht


Rumex palustris, or marsh dock, is a plant species of the genus Rumex, found in Europe. The species is a dicot belonging to the family Polygonaceae. The species epithet palustris is Latin for "of the marsh" which indicates its common habitat.

Description

Rumex palustris is an herb that can be perennial, biennial, or annual. The stem is upwardly inclined and bears sparse hairy protuberances. The stem is less than one meter tall. The branch attachment is alternate. The basal leaves are lanceolate; they are broader in the middle and taper to a pointed end.  The cauline leaves are also lanceolate. The inflorescence consists of whorls with reddish-brown flowers. The root is wider at the middle and tapers towards the end.

This species' diploid number is 60.

Taxonomy
The species name was first mentioned by Leonard Plukenet, based on a collection made by Isaac Rand. The authority of the accepted description, Rumex palustris, was James Edward Smith, in Fl. Brit. volume 1, on page 394 in 1800.

Subspecies

Rumex palustris uliginosus
Rumex palustris maritimus

Habitat and distribution
Rumex palustris can be found in wetlands such as moist meadows, marshes, lake shores and the shallow edges of streams. It is native to Europe and is concentrated in the Southeastern and Middle parts of the continent. The species was also introduced to America; it now grows in California and New Jersey.

Uses
Rumex palustris is used as a model organism for research. Most studies involve flood-resistance in Rumex palustris due to its unique mechanism to elongate in an effort to outgrow submergence. When flooded, Rumex palustris is able to elongate its petioles in order to emerge from the surface of the water. This mechanism is a beneficial adaptation for Rumex palustris to survive its wetland habitat and is being studied for research on plant stress resistance.

References

palustris
Flora of the United Kingdom
Flora of Europe
Plants described in 1800

Rumex palustris


The Fruit of the Holy Spirit (sometimes, incorrectly, referred to as the Fruits of the Holy Spirit) is a biblical term that sums up nine attributes of a person or community living in accord with the Holy Spirit, according to chapter 5 of the Epistle to the Galatians: "But the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness, and self-control." The fruit is contrasted with the works of the flesh which immediately precede it in this chapter.

The Catholic Church follows the Latin Vulgate version of Galatians in recognizing twelve attributes of the Fruit: charity (caritas), joy (gaudium), peace (pax), patience (patientia), benignity (benignitas), goodness (bonitas), longanimity (longanimitas), mildness (mansuetudo), faith (fides), modesty (modestia), continency (continentia), and chastity (castitas). This tradition was defended by Thomas Aquinas in his work Summa Theologica, and reinforced in numerous Catholic catechisms, including the Baltimore Catechism, the Penny Catechism, and the Catechism of the Catholic Church.

Early commentary
Aquinas pointed out that numbered among the attributes of the Fruit of the Holy Spirit are certain virtues, such as charity, meekness, faith, chastity, and kindness. Augustine defined virtue as "a good habit consonant with our nature."

Though often discussed as nine attributes of the Fruit of the Spirit, the original Greek term translated as "fruit" is singular. Aquinas explained, "Consequently fruit is mentioned there in the singular, on account of its being generically one, though divided into many species which are spoken of as so many fruits." Augustine's commentary on Galatians 5:25-26 says, "the Apostle had no intention of teaching us how many [either works of the flesh, or fruit of the Spirit] there are; but to show how the former should be avoided, and the latter sought after."

Definitions

Unconditional benevolence (love, Greek: agape, Latin: caritas)

Agape (love) denotes an undefeatable benevolence and unconquerable goodwill that always seeks the highest good for others, no matter their behavior. It is a love that gives freely without asking anything in return and does not consider the worth of its object. Agape is more a love by choice than Philos, which is love by chance; and it refers to the will rather than the emotion. It describes the unconditional love God has for the world in the Christian faith. Paul describes love in 1 Corinthians 13:4–8:

According to Strong's Greek Lexicon, the word ἀγάπη (agapē) means love, affection, or benevolence. It occurs 117 times in 106 verses in the Greek concordance of the NASB.

Joy in God (joy, Greek: chara, Latin: gaudium)
The joy referred to here is characterized as deeper than mere happiness; it is described as rooted in God and coming from him. This divine attribution makes it perceived as more serene and stable than worldly happiness, which is merely emotional and lasts only for a time.

According to Strong's Greek Lexicon, the Greek word listed in the verse is χαρά (chara), meaning 'joy', 'gladness', or a source of joy'. It occurs 59 times in 57 verses in the Greek concordance of the NASB.
"joy, delight" (akin to chairs, "to rejoice"), is found frequently in Matthew and Luke, and especially in John, once in Mark (Mar 4:16, RV, "joy," AV, "gladness"); it is absent from 1 Cor. (though the verb is used three times), but is frequent in 2 Cor., where the noun is used five times (for 2Cr 7:4, RV, see Note below), and the verb eight times, suggestive of the Apostle's relief in comparison with the circumstances of the 1st Epistle; in Col 1:11, AV, "joyfulness," RV, "joy." The word is sometimes used, by metonymy, of the occasion or cause of "joy," Luk 2:10 (lit., "I announce to you a great joy"); in 2Cr 1:15, in some mss., for charis, "benefit;" Phl 4:1, where the readers are called the Apostle's "joy;" so 1Th 2:19, 20; Hbr 12:2, of the object of Christ's "joy;" Jam 1:2, where it is connected with falling into trials; perhaps also in Mat 25:21, 23, where some regard it as signifying, concretely, the circumstances attending cooperation in the authority of the Lord.

Note: In Hbr 12:11, "joyous" represents the phrase meta, "with," followed by chara, lit., "with joy." So in Hbr 10:34, "joyfully;" in 2Cr 7:4 the noun is used with the Middle Voice of huperperisseuo, "to abound more exceedingly," and translated "(I overflow) with joy," RV (AV, "I am exceeding joyful").

Contentedness in all circumstances (peace, Greek: eirene, Latin: pax)
The Greek word εἰρήνη (eirēnē) means peace (literally or figuratively) and, by implication, prosperity. It is generally described in the Bible as the state of harmony, security, and salvation. This can be applied on the national or individual level. In particular, it is used in Christianity to describe one believing they have achieved salvation, either before or after death. It can also be viewed as a state of wholeness and order as opposed to chaos.

Jesus is described in the Bible as the Prince of Peace, bringing peace to the hearts of those who desire it. In John 14:27 he says, "Peace I leave with you, my peace I give to you; not as the world gives do I give to you. Let not your heart be troubled, neither let it be afraid".

Refusing to avenge oneself (patience, Greek: makrothumia, Latin: longanimitas)

Generally the Greek world applied this word to a man who could avenge himself but did not. This word is often used in the Greek scriptures in reference to God and God's attitude to humans. Exodus 34:6 describes the Lord as "slow to anger and rich in kindness and fidelity."

Patience, which in some translations is "longsuffering" or "endurance", is defined in Strong's by the Greek words makrothumia and hupomone. The first denotes lenience, forbearance, fortitude, patient endurance, and longsuffering. Also included in makrothumia is the ability to endure persecution and ill-treatment. It describes a person who has the power to exercise revenge but instead exercises restraint. The latter, hupomone, is translated as endurance, constancy, perseverance, continuance, bearing up, steadfastness, and holding out. It describes the capacity to continue to bear up under difficult circumstances, not with a passive complacency, but with a hopeful fortitude that actively resists weariness and defeat, with hupomone further understood as "opposed to cowardice or despondency".

Repaying evil with good (kindness, Greek: chrestotes, Latin: benignitas)

Kindness is acting for the good of people, regardless of what they do, and not expecting anything in return. It implies kindness no matter what. In Greek, old wine was called "chrestos" which meant that it was mellow or smooth. One scholar has noted that when the word chrestotes is applied to interpersonal relationships, it conveys the idea of being adaptable to others. Rather than harshly require everyone else to adapt to his own needs and desires, when chrestotes is working in a believer, he seeks to become adaptable to the needs of those who are around him (Sparkling Gems from the Greek, Rick Renner). The apostle Paul uses this word to depict God's attributed kindness to people who are unsaved.

Showing mercy to sinners (goodness, Greek: agathosune, Latin: bonitas)
Popular English Bibles (e.g. NIV, NASB, NLT) translate the single Greek word chrestotes into two English words: kindness and goodness. This can be interpreted as moral excellence or virtue; the best part of anything; joy in being good; or generally a quality character.

Overcoming temptation (faithfulness, Greek: pistis, Latin: fides)

The root of pistis (faith), from a Greek term meaning persuasion, supplies the core-meaning of faith as being "divine persuasion" received from God. In the Bible, it is used to describe both the trustworthy and those believing in God and Jesus Christ, linking the two concepts. The writer of the Letter to the Hebrews describes it this way: "Let us fix our eyes on Jesus, the author and perfecter of our faith, who for the joy set before him endured the cross, scorning its shame, and sat down at the right hand of the throne of God".

Nonviolence (gentleness, Greek: prautes, Latin: modestia)

Gentleness or meekness, is "a divinely-balanced virtue that can only operate through faith." The New Spirit Filled Life Bible defines it as "a disposition that is even-tempered, tranquil, balanced in spirit, unpretentious, and that has the passions under control."

Obedience unto death (self-control, Greek: enkrateia, Latin: continentia)

The Greek enkrateia is described as strength, especially in self-control and mastering one's thoughts and behavior.

See also
 Gifts of the Holy Spirit
 Seven virtues
 Related Bible parts: Galatians 5, Philippians 4

Bibliography

Citations

Sources
 George A. Kennedy, New Testament Interpretation Through Rhetorical Criticism, George A. Kennedy (University of North Carolina Press: 1984)
 Longman, Robert Jr. "Self-Control". Web: 19 Oct 2010. Spirit Home
 Classic Sermons on the Fruit of the Spirit, (Warren Wiersbe ed.), Kregel Academic, 2002.
 Hidden Fruit book , Robert Bass 2022

Spiritual gifts
Christian ethics in the Bible
Holy Spirit

Fruit of the Holy Spirit


Henry Laurence Gantt (; May 20, 1861 – November 23, 1919) was an American mechanical engineer and management consultant who is best known for his work in the development of scientific management. He created the Gantt chart in the 1910s.

Gantt charts were employed on major infrastructure projects including the Hoover Dam and Interstate highway system and continue to be an important tool in project management and program management.

Gantt is also recognized as an early proponent of the social responsibility of businesses.

Biography

Early life, education and family
Gantt was born to a prosperous plantation family in Calvert County, Maryland at the outbreak of the American Civil War.  When the war ended the family lost their slaves and land, and moved to Baltimore.

He graduated from McDonogh School in 1878 and from Johns Hopkins University in 1880, and then returned to the McDonogh School to teach for three years. He subsequently received a Master of Engineering degree in mechanical engineering from the Stevens Institute of Technology in New Jersey. Henry Gantt married Mary E. Snow of Fitchburg, Massachusetts on 29 Nov 1899.

Career
In 1884, Gantt began working as a draughtsman at the iron foundry and machine-shop Poole & Hunt in Baltimore. In 1887 he joined Frederick W. Taylor, initially as an assistant. Here he began applying scientific management principles to the work at Midvale Steel and Bethlehem Steel, working there with Taylor until 1893.  They jointly received six patents and he followed Taylor to Simonds Rolling Company before they went to Bethlehem Steel for a consulting project. In 1908-09, he undertook projects at Joseph Bancroft & Sons Company and Williams & Wilkins.  He credited Taylor with being the first to study every element of the labor problem and has been referred to as one of the most influential of Taylor's associates.  In 1911, Gantt along with Taylor followers Frank Gilbreth and Carl Barth founded The Society to Promote the Science of Management, later known as the Taylor Society, to promote Taylor's methods and philosophy in industry.  From 1902 to 1919 Gantt worked as a private consultant to industry on efficiency improvement and was active in promoting scientific management, as Taylor's general approach came to be called.  In his later career as an industrial consultant, following the invention of the Gantt chart, he designed the 'task and bonus' system of wage payment and additional measurement methods for worker efficiency and productivity.

In 1916, influenced by Thorsten Veblen Gantt set up the New Machine, an association which sought to apply the criteria of industrial efficiency to the political process. With the Marxist Walter Polakov he led a breakaway from the 1916 ASME conference to call for socializing industrial production under the control of managers incorporating Polakov's analysis of inefficiency in the industrial context.

Henry Gantt is listed under Stevens Institute of Technology alumni. The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) published his biography in 1934 and awards an annual medal in honor of Henry Laurence Gantt.

Work
Henry Gantt's legacy to project management is the following:
 The Gantt chart: Still accepted as an important management tool today, the Gantt chart is a graphical format that is used for the planning, scheduling, and controlling of work, including recording the progress of a project and its stages. The chart has a modern variation, Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT).
 Industrial Efficiency: Industrial efficiency can only be produced by the application of scientific analysis to all aspects of the work in progress. The industrial management role is to improve the system by eliminating chance and accidents.
 The Task And Bonus System: He linked the bonus paid to managers to how well they taught their employees to improve performance.
 The social responsibility of business: He believed that businesses have obligations to the welfare of the society in which they operate.

Gantt charts

Gantt created many different types of charts. He designed his charts so that foremen or other supervisors could quickly know whether production was on schedule, ahead of schedule, or behind schedule. Modern project management software includes this critical function.

Gantt (1903) describes two types of balances:
 the "man's record", which shows what each worker should do and did do, and
 the "daily balance of work", which shows the amount of work to be done and the amount that is done.
Gantt gives an example with orders that will require many days to complete. The daily balance has rows for each day and columns for each part or each operation. At the top of each column is the amount needed. The amount entered in the appropriate cell is the number of parts done each day and the cumulative total for that part. Heavy horizontal lines indicate the starting date and the date that the order should be done. According to Gantt, the graphical daily balance is "a method of scheduling and recording work". In this 1903 article, Gantt also describes the use of:
 "production cards" for assigning work to each operator and recording how much was done each day.

Work, Wages, and Profits, 1916
In his 1916 book "Work, Wages, and Profits" Gantt explicitly discusses scheduling, especially in the job shop environment. He proposes giving to the foreman each day an "order of work" that is an ordered list of jobs to be done that day. Moreover, he discusses the need to coordinate activities to avoid "interferences". However, he also warns that the most elegant schedules created by planning offices are useless if they are ignored, a situation that he observed. More generally, he addresses the value of applying scientific analysis to the study of work and labor to develop general laws that can lead to high levels of industrial efficiency.

Organizing for Work, 1919
In his 1919 book "Organizing for Work" Gantt gives two principles for his charts:
 one, measure activities by the amount of time needed to complete them;
 two, the space on the chart can be used to represent the amount of the activity that should have been done in that time.
Gantt shows a progress chart that indicates for each month of the year, using a thin horizontal line, the number of items produced during that month. In addition, a thick horizontal line indicates the number of items produced during the year. Each row in the chart corresponds to an order for parts from a specific contractor, and each row indicates the starting month and ending month of the deliveries. It is the closest thing to the Gantt charts typically used today in scheduling systems, though it is at a higher level than machine scheduling.

Gantt's machine record chart and man record chart are quite similar, though they show both the actual working time for each day and the cumulative working time for a week. Each row of the chart corresponds to an individual machine or operator. These charts do not indicate which tasks were to be done, however.

In addition to these technical enhancements, this book also dealt with the broader theme of the obligations of business to society and the particular need for means of reconciling pursuit of profits with the welfare of society.  He argued that there needed to be a fair distribution of returns from industry to all segments of the community or society might seek to take control of the means of production.  He favored small versus large businesses to promote competition, lower prices and provide better quality and service to customers.

Henry Gantt and Karol Adamiecki
A novel method of displaying interdependencies of processes to increase visibility of production schedules was invented in 1896 by Karol Adamiecki, which was similar to the one defined by Gantt in 1903. However, Adamiecki did not publish his works in a language popular in the West; hence Gantt was able to popularize a similar method, which he developed around the years 1910–1915, and the solution became attributed to Gantt. With minor modifications, what originated as the Adamiecki's chart is now more commonly referred to as the Gantt Chart.

Publications
Gantt published several articles and books. A selection:
 Henry L. Gantt, Dabney Herndon Maury (1884) "The Efficiency of Fluid in Vapor Engines", in: Van Nostrand's engineering magazine, v. 31 July–Dec 1884. p. 413–433
 H. L. Gantt (1902). "A Bonus System of Rewarding Labor", in: Transactions of the ASME 23:341-72.
 Henry L. Gantt (1903) "A graphical daily balance in manufacture", in: Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 24:1322–1336
 Henry L. Gantt (1908) Training Workmen in Habits of Industry and Cooperation. 12 pages.
 Henry L. Gantt (1910) The Compensation of Workmen ...: A Lecture Delivered Before the Harvard Graduate School of Business Administration, Dec. 15, 1910. 116 pages.
  (See also second edition, revised and enlarged.)

 . Reprinted by Hive Publishing Company, Easton, Maryland

References

Further reading

 Lyndall Urwick, The Golden Book of Management (1956)

External links

 ASME - Henry Laurence Gantt Medal
 International Institute of Management - Management Hall of Fame: Leading Management Gurus
 Gantt.com - Gantt Chart History
 Gantt Chart - Henry Gantt's legacy to Management is the Gantt Chart
 British Library - Management & Business Studies Portal

1861 births
1919 deaths
American mechanical engineers
Johns Hopkins University alumni
Stevens Institute of Technology alumni
People from Calvert County, Maryland
Bethlehem Steel people
Henry Laurence Gantt Medal recipients

Henry Gantt


The Ayam Cemani is a rare breed of chicken from Indonesia. They have a dominant gene that causes hyperpigmentation (fibromelanosis), making the chicken mostly black, including feathers, beak, and internal organs. The Cemani is a very popular gamecock for cockfighting in Bali because their thighs have much more muscle compared to other chickens, which leads to them being much faster.

Etymology
 means "chicken" in Indonesian, while  (originally a Javanese word) means "thoroughly black" (down to the bones).

Origin
As a pure Indonesian breed, the breed originated from the island of Java, Indonesia, and has probably been used since the 12th century for religious and mystical purposes.

The breed was described by Dutch colonial settlers and first imported to Europe in 1998 by Dutch breeder Jan Steverink. Currently, this breed of chicken is kept in the Netherlands, Belgium, Germany, Slovakia, Sweden, Italy and the Czech Republic. Ayam Cemani may have also been brought to Europe by Dutch seamen.

The Congolese-Belgian philanthropist Jean Kiala-Inkisi keeps the largest collection in Africa with 250 breeding pairs. These are preserved in a breeding program by the African Ornamental Breeders Association (AOBA) in Kenya and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

Description
Their beaks, tongues, combs and wattles appear black, and even their meat, bones, and organs are black or gray. Their blood is normally colored. The birds' black color occurs as a result of excess pigmentation of the tissues, caused by a genetic condition known as fibromelanosis. Fibromelanosis is also found in some other black or blue-skinned chicken breeds, such as the Silkie.

The roosters weigh  and the hens . The hens lay tinted or cream-colored eggs, although they are poor setters and rarely hatch their own brood. Eggs weigh an average of .

See also
 Melanism

References

Chicken breeds
Chicken breeds originating in Indonesia

Ayam Cemani


Egyptian literature is some of the earliest known literature. The Egyptians were the first culture to develop the book.

Ancient Egyptian literature

The ancient Egyptians wrote on papyrus. They also wrote on walls, tombs, pyramids, obelisks, and more. A well-known example of ancient Egyptian literature is the Story of Sinuhe;

Christian Egyptian literature
Alexandria became an important center of early Christianity from around the 1st to 4th century CE. Writing by Coptic Christians was important to Christian literature at that time.The Nag Hammadi library protected some books from being lost or destroyed.

Islamic Egyptian literature
Muslim Arabs controlled Egypt by the eighth century. Libraries and literature were important in Arab Egypt. Several important changes for writers happened at this time. Cloth paper replaced papyrus. Writers began using calligraphy. Also, writers began to write mostly about Islam. The earliest novel written in Egypt was Ibn al-Nafis' Theologus Autodidactus. It was an early science fiction and religious novel.

Modern Egyptian literature
In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the Arab world experienced a cultural change like the Renaissance. This was called al-Nahda movement. It touched nearly all areas of life, including literature. One of the most important people from this time was Naguib Mahfouz. He was first Egyptian to win the Nobel Prize in Literature. Another important modern writer was Muhammad Husayn Haykal. He wrote Zaynab in 1914. It is an Islamic novel and is called the first modern Egyptian novel.

Notable Egyptian writers
Taha Husayn
Yūsuf Idrīs
Sonallah Ibrahim
Tawfiq al-Hakim
Gamal Abdel Nasser
Naguib Mahfouz
Nawal El Saadawi
Bahaa Taher
Alaa Al Aswany
Abdel Hakim Qasem
Miral al-Tahawy

Related pages
Wisdom literature
Culture of Egypt
Music of Egypt
Cairo Geniza

References

Other websites
 Literature in Ancient Egypt

Egyptian culture
Literature by nationality
Asian literature

Egyptian literature


Envelopment is the military tactic of attacking the enemy's flank or rear. This is done while keeping the enemy's attention focused on his front by the use of diversionary attacks. The envelopment makes the enemy fight in a direction they are the least prepared for. The maneuver requires a flank that can be attacked. Unlike a flanking maneuver, which uses the enemy's forward movement to create an attackable flank, envelopment depends on the enemy's defensive position, any obstacles and the terrain. The envelopment has both advantages and disadvantages. Advantages include being able to capture or defeat all or part of an opposing army. It offers less risk than other offensive maneuvers. Disadvantages include the possibility of an enemy counterattack on the weakened center or on the other flank.

Types of envelopment
 Turning movement where the object is to "turn" the enemy from his defensive position and force them to act.
 Single envelopment is an attack on one flank or the enemy rear from one direction while holding their attention to their front.
 Double envelopment, also called a Pincer movement, requires three forces. One holds the center while the other two attack the right and left flanks. Once both flanking attacks reach the rear, the enemy is encircled.
 Vertical envelopment is an envelopment from the sky. First thought of by Benjamin Franklin, it was not practical until the invention of the airplane.  Vertical envelopment uses paratroopers or other soldiers that arrive by air on the enemy's flank or rear.

Historic examples
Famous examples of the single envelopment include Alexander the Great who used it at the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC. Robert E. Lee used the tactic at the Battle of Chancellorsville in 1863. During World War II, German General Erwin Rommel used it successfully at the Battle of Gazala, which led directly to his capture of Tobruk in 1941. Some of the famous double envelopments include Hannibal at the Battle of Cannae where he defeated the Roman army in 216 BC. In 1781 during the American Revolutionary War, American general Daniel Morgan used it successfully against British general Banastre Tarleton, causing many of the British soldiers to surrender.  In the 1944 Falaise Gap during Operation Overlord, German troops were caught in a double envelopment by British and American forces.

References

Other websites
 Rome 2 - Advanced Tactics - Double Envelopment at Cannae; YouTube

Military terminology
Military tactics

Envelopment


Metro: Last Light is a 2013 first-person shooter video game developed by 4A Games and published by Deep Silver. A sequel to the video game Metro 2033 and the second installment in the Metro series, its story follows Artyom, a young soldier living in the Moscow Metro after a devastating nuclear war. Tasked with finding the mysterious Dark Ones, Artyom must venture to different parts of the metro system, and the surface filled with radiated gases, and fight against different factions and mutated monsters. The game improves on various gameplay mechanics of 2033, and introduces elements such as weapon customization.

Developed by a team of about 80 people, Last Light is a direct sequel to 2033, with franchise creator Dmitry Glukhovsky writing the game's dialogue and main story outline. Multiplayer modes were planned but were eventually scrapped in order to focus on single-player, which the developers hoped would "rekindle memories of Half-Life 2". The game was originally set to be published by THQ, which provided a very limited budget for the game's development, causing the team to work under extremely difficult conditions. Koch Media acquired the rights to the franchise following THQ's bankruptcy. A planned Wii U version was ultimately canceled. The game was released for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 in May 2013.

The game received generally positive reviews from critics. Praise was focused largely on its atmosphere, world design, tone, graphics, and gameplay, while criticism was directed particularly at the artificial intelligence and technical issues. The pre-order bonus Ranger mode, marketed as the definitive way of playing the game, triggered controversy. The game was a commercial success, with its first-week retail sales in the United States surpassing the lifetime retail sales of 2033. The game's novelization written by Glukhovsky was published as Metro 2035 in 2015. A remastered version titled Metro: Last Light Redux was released in 2014 for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One. The remastered version was also included as part of a compilation titled Metro Redux containing both Metro 2033 Redux and Metro: Last Light Redux. A sequel, Metro Exodus, was released in 2019.

Gameplay

Like its predecessor Metro 2033, Metro: Last Light is a post-apocalyptic-themed first-person shooter video game with stealth and survival horror elements. played from the perspective of Artyom, the player-character. The story takes place in post-apocalyptic Moscow, mostly inside the metro system, but occasionally missions bring the player above ground. Combat alternates between the player fighting mutants and hostile humans. Areas are larger in Last Light compared to 2033, and the game encourages exploration by having multiple routes. The game offers more freedom to players, allowing them to utilize different tactics to combat enemies. It features destructible environments, in which certain objects, such as pillars, collapse after being shot. Numerous diary entries, written by Artyom, providing additional insight regarding the game's story, are scattered throughout environments for players to collect.

As a first-person shooter, Metro: Last Light features a variety of firearms, some fictional and some based on real weapons, which the player uses in combat. The game's protagonist, Artyom, also has the ability to kill an enemy directly with his melee weapon. Artyom has three weapons slots. Players can put any weapon into these slots without restriction. Players have access to four different secondary weapons, including throwing knives, incendiary grenades, and hand grenades. Mutants do not possess weapons and tend to physically attack the player in swarms, while humans fight with the same firearms available to the player. The player can knock out or kill most human enemies instead of shooting them, using stealth to avoid detection. As enemies are inefficient in spotting the player character in darkness, players can turn off oil lamps and light bulbs to gain an advantage over their opponents.

In the post-apocalyptic environment, ammunition is a rare and essential commodity. Pre-apocalypse, military-grade ammunition is used as currency. Players can avoid consuming all the valuable currency by using lower quality bullets made within the Metros. Due to the scarcity of ammunition, a crucial aspect of gameplay is scavenging. The player can loot corpses and the environment for spare ammunition, as well as weapons and other items. The military-grade ammunition can be used to purchase other ammunition, weapons, and items within most of the Metro stations. Weapon attachments, such as scopes and silencers, which improve weapon efficiency, can be purchased with these bullets.

The game's locations reflect the dark atmosphere of real metro tunnels, with added survival horror elements. Paranormal phenomena, such as shadow figures, hallucinations, and unexplained noises are present, and, for the most part, the player has to rely on their lighter and rechargeable flashlight to navigate the darkness. Locations' layout is often intricate, and the game lacks any form of map or objective marker, leaving the player to try finding their objectives with only a compass. The surface is more lethal than the metro system. Featuring a day-night cycle, and a dynamic weather system, these sections are severely irradiated and a gas mask must be worn at all times because of the toxic air. The player must collect air filters for the gas mask. These last several minutes each, and are automatically replaced provided the player has more in reserve. Players also need to wipe off the dirt and blood splatter that collects on the gas mask. There is no head up display indicator to tell how long the player has until the gas mask's filters begin to fail — rather, a timer on the character's wristwatch shows how long until the current filter expires. The watch also serves to indicate to a player if they have been exposed to enemy attention. With every weapon, the bullets are (partly) visible, informing the player that their weapon is about to run out of ammunition and they have to reload. Instead of head up display the game makes use of audio and visual cues to present information to players.

There are certain subtle moral choices in the game that provide karma. Good karma can be acquired by good actions, such as rescuing people from  enemy characters, listening to conversations between NPCs, or sparing enemy soldiers. Bad karma can be acquired from evil actions, such as killing people randomly or stealing things. Karma affects the ending that the player experiences.

Plot
Metro: Last Light takes place in 2034, one year after the events of Metro 2033, following the ending of the original novel in which Artyom's missile strike against the Dark Ones — mysterious beings that seemingly threatened the survivors of a nuclear war living in the Moscow Metro — occurred. The Rangers, a neutral peacekeeping force that operates throughout the system, have since occupied the D6 military facility Artyom visited during the first game. This is a huge, and not fully explored pre-war bunker, and Artyom, now a Ranger himself, remains unsure whether killing the Dark Ones was the correct decision. Rumors of D6's discovery and its great riches have spread around the Metro; rival factions, such as the Soviet Red Line and Nazi Fourth Reich, hope to seize the bunker and its contents.

Khan, a wandering mystic, informs Artyom and the Rangers that a single Dark One survived the missile strike. Khan believes that it is the key to humanity's future, and wants to communicate with it; Colonel Miller, the Ranger's leader, wants to eliminate it as a potential threat. Miller sends Artyom to the surface, accompanied by Miller's daughter Anna, the Rangers' best sniper, to kill the Dark One.

Artyom finds the Dark One, a child, but is captured by soldiers of the Fourth Reich. Pavel Morozov, a captured Red Line soldier, and Artyom escape through the Metro tunnels and across the devastated surface. When they reach the Red Line, however, Pavel is revealed to be a high-ranking officer; he detains Artyom to learn more about the Rangers and the Dark One. Artyom escapes and races Pavel's forces to locate the Dark One and Anna, who has been kidnapped by Lesnitsky, an ex-Ranger and Red Line spy. En route, he finds a contingent of Red Line forces massacring the inhabitants of a station, supposedly to contain a mysterious epidemic. It was the Red Line that introduced the virus to the station – weaponized Ebola acquired from the D6 vault by Lesnitsky. Artyom finds Anna and frees her but they are exposed to the virus and are quarantined after the rescue. Afraid that she will die, Anna seduces Artyom.

After they test negative for the virus, Artyom again encounters Khan. They locate the young Dark One, and in a series of hallucinatory flashbacks, Artyom recalls that he was saved by a Dark One as a child; he was psychically linked to the Dark Ones, intended to form a bridge between their species and his. Artyom vows to make amends by protecting the little Dark One, and the two travel to Polis, the Metro's central area, where a peace conference regarding D6 between the Rangers, Red Line, the Reich, and neutral Hansa is taking place. Artyom defeats Lesnitsky and Pavel during the trip. Along the way, the little Dark One senses that there is a group of hibernating Dark Ones in D6. After arriving at Polis, the little Dark One uses his telepathic abilities to make the Red Line leader, Chairman Moskvin, publicly confess that the peace conference is a diversion to enable General Korbut to seize D6. Artyom and the rest of the Rangers rush to the bunker to make a final stand against Korbut's army but are incapacitated by an armored train ramming into their station. Red Line soldiers surround and prepare to execute Artyom and Miller.

The karma the player has acquired determines the ending. In the "bad" ending, Artyom destroys D6 to prevent Korbut from using the facility to wipe out the remnants of the other factions and possibly humanity, resulting in the deaths of himself, the surviving Rangers, and the Red Line forces. Later, Anna is shown telling their son of Artyom's bravery. In the "good" ending, later revealed as the canonical ending, Artyom prepares to destroy the bunker but is stopped by the little Dark One, who, along with the awakened Dark Ones, defeats Korbut's army. Artyom calls the little Dark One humanity's "last light of hope". In both endings, the young Dark One leaves with the surviving Dark Ones to find safety, while promising that they will come back in the future to help rebuild the world.

Development

The Ukraine-based lead developer 4A Games made the game with a team of more than 80 people. A sequel to Metro 2033 written by Russian author Dmitry Glukhovsky, Last Light, is not related to his next book Metro 2034. Instead, it serves as a direct sequel to the first game, with the majority of the ideas created by 4A Games. According to Huw Beynon, head of communications for of THQ, the team chose not to make a video game adaption of 2034 as they thought 2034s tone was drastically different from its predecessor. He described it as an "art-house thriller", and believed that, unlike the first game, it could not be converted successfully into a video game. However, Glukhovsky offered creative input to the project and wrote a brief outline of the game's story, as well as the game's dialogue, which used 3,000 spreadsheet cells in Excel. The team chose the bad ending of 2033, as they believed that it offered an interesting beginning for Last Light, and is consistent with the novel's dark and depressing tone. Glukhovsky claimed that the story would explore the theme of redemption, people repeating their mistakes, and the idea of having a "second chance". The Artyom character also shifted to become more mature and experienced. However, he remained a silent character as the team thought that having him speak would not contribute to his character development and would interfere with the atmosphere and morality system.

One of the key goals of 4A Games was to improve and refine numerous aspects of 2033 which THQ described as a "flawed masterpiece". The strong focus on atmosphere was retained, but the team overhauled numerous gameplay mechanics. The game's shooting mechanics were improved, and the firearms featured in the game were no longer underpowered. The animation system was reworked and more visual effects were added. The game's artificial intelligence was also refined to become more responsive to players' actions. After hearing from players about 2033s bullet-based economic system, the team decided to keep the feature in Last Light but improve the explanation about how it worked so that players would not be confused by it.  In addition, the team revealed that they would not westernize the franchise to attract a larger audience. Instead, they would overhaul the game's controls to make it more accessible. The team also drastically improved the game's stealth sections. The core philosophy in designing these sections was "fun"; players would not be punished too harshly if they made any mistakes. As a result, the alertness of the artificial intelligence features several different levels, making the game more realistic. A competitive multiplayer mode was originally planned that was said to be unique to the Metro series, and would not simply include typical multiplayer modes like team deathmatch or Capture the Flag. However, it was eventually cancelled.

Another of the team's goals was to make players feel unsettled after playing the game, and present gameplay moments that would make them worry and feel vulnerable. The team incorporated survival horror elements into the game, which were also used in the first game. The game was described by THQ as their own "bid to combat shooter fatigue" using its heavy single-player story focus. According to Beynon the game's philosophy is the complete opposite of the Call of Duty franchise, which was described as short, linear, and filled with "filler content" that would only be a tutorial for the multiplayer content. The team hoped to have most moments featured in the game "narrative-driven", and that all the enemy encounters in the game are designed to be different from each other. They hoped that by offering a unique experience with each encounter, they would be remembered by players. They hoped that the game would "rekindle memories of Half-Life 2".

The world is created to be believable. Glukhovsky included numerous side stories in the game, and different kinds of dramas surrounding the game's four factions. He hoped that through this approach, the game would have more depth than typical first-person shooters, and make the game feel genuinely realistic. Moral choices return in the game. According to 4A, these choices are very subtle, so that they would not "gamify" the concept. It is a method carried out by 4A to create a sense of verisimilitude to the world, which will then make the decision more "genuine". Also, Andrey Prokhorov, the game's creative director, intentionally removed most aspects of a typical head up display as they considered it a barrier preventing players from immersing themselves into the world, and that having it would destroy the game's atmosphere. Prokhorov noted that adding numerous graphical and audio cues required additional time and effort, but added that the time may remove the HUD altogether if they have sufficient time.

Last Light is powered by 4A Games' own in-house engine, 4A Engine. The team also worked to improve the game's lighting and destruction system and introduced a larger variety of color palette. The game was originally set to be released for Nintendo's Wii U, and the title was included in the Wii U show-reel, though THQ has since stated that the game may not be released for that platform. Regarding the possibility of the game coming to the Wii U, 4A Games chief technical officer Oles Shishkovtsov said the Wii U has a "horrible, slow CPU". Beynon, reiterated the sentiment, saying that there would not be a Wii U version of the game, because the studio "couldn't justify the effort required" and they "just figured it wasn't worth pursuing at this time". 4A experimented with the Wii U development kit, but later gave up this version of the game during its early stages of development.

THQ was the publisher of the first game, but the studio put little effort into helping the game's development, leading to numerous technical issues and a lack of polish. However, the game's sales surprised THQ, and as a result, the publisher considered the first game a missed opportunity, and began to treat Metro as a franchise. Danny Bilson, then CEO of THQ, promised that the company would offer 4A more support and dedicate more resources in both the game's actual development and its marketing. Former THQ President Jason Rubin offered details of extremely difficult working conditions and demands put on the 4A Games team while completing the game. Their office was freezing due to frequent power failures, and the team was forced to smuggle computer equipment into the offices to avoid corrupt customs officials. Rubin added that the publisher offered an unreasonably small budget to the development team, accounting for only 10% of its competitor's budget and that their workspace was so crowded and small that he compared it to "a packed grade school cafeteria", and an "[underutilized] gym at EA Los Angeles". Rubin praised the team for producing a game that successfully achieved high critical praise in spite of the harsh working conditions. According to Andrew Prokhorov, Rubin was the only THQ president to visit the studio. He noted that the team "deserve the ratings [they] get" and "need no indulgence" from consumers who do not care about their working conditions.

Release
Last Light title was first leaked as Metro 2034, a name used by 4A Games internally. THQ officially revealed the actual title in May 2011. In November 2012, THQ announced that it had delayed the game's release until March 2013 in order to give the development team more time to polish the game further. In December 2012, the game's original publisher, THQ, entered Chapter 11 bankruptcy. Metro: Last Light, along with other THQ properties and studios, went to auction on 22 January 2013. GameStop temporarily removed the game from its store to prevent customers from being misled by the game's uncertain release. The auction did not affect the progress of the game's development significantly. Clearlake and Koch Media, the latter of which was originally set to distribute the title in Italy and Spain, participated in the auction. Koch Media eventually acquired the rights to the Metro franchise for $5.9 million. Koch was interested in the title as the game was already playable at the time and they were familiar with the development team, whose members worked on S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Clear Sky, a game published by Koch Media's label Deep Silver.

After the auction, Deep Silver announced that the title would be released on 14 May 2013 in North America, 16 May 2013 in Australia and New Zealand, and 17 May 2013 in Europe for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3, and Xbox 360. It was released for OS X on 10 September 2013, Linux on 5 November 2013, and the title was bundled with Valve's prototype of Steam Machine.  The PlayStation 3 version of the game was available for free for PlayStation Plus subscribers for one month in February 2014.

Players who purchased the game via Steam got a free digital copy of the novel Metro 2033. A digital graphic novel titled The Gospel According to Artyom, which tells the events that take place between 2033 and Last Light, was published by Dark Horse Comics and was a pre-order exclusive. A novelization of the game, written by Glukhovsky, was published as Metro 2035 in 2015.

In Japan, the game was published and localized by Spike Chunsoft.

Downloadable content
Those who pre-ordered the game received a limited edition of Metro: Last Light that featured a code for the downloadable content (DLC) Ranger Mode, a setting for greater game difficulty, as well as a unique gun and in-game currency. Ranger Mode encompasses the same campaign, but with the lack of a HUD or cross hairs, while the plethora of ammunition and resources has been reduced severely, making the player feel fully immersed in the game's world. It was marketed as "the way [the game] was meant to be played". The game's implementation of Ranger Mode caused negative reactions in the gaming community. Deep Silver responded by saying that they were required by retailers to provide pre-order exclusive game content, and that Ranger Mode was the best choice as only the most loyal fans would likely pre-order the game.

Additionally, four DLC packs were released. The first pack, the Faction Pack, was to be available in June 2013, however the release date was pushed back to July 2013. This pack contains three bonus single-player missions, with the player playing as a Red Line Sniper, a Fourth Reich 'Heavy' soldier, and a Polis Ranger in training, with new weapons not found in the main storyline. The other three packs were released within 60 days of releasing the Faction Pack. The second pack, the Tower Pack, gives single-player challenge missions that have online leaderboards. The third pack, the Developer Pack, features a shooting gallery, a combat simulator, an in-game museum, and a single-player mission titled "The Spiders' Nest". Finally, the fourth pack, the Chronicles Pack, features three additional single-player missions that contain three characters from the main storyline, Khan, Pavel, and Anna, adding in extra background story information about the world. Players can buy a season pass, which gives them all four DLCs at a discounted price. It also contains a limited edition, in-game automatic shotgun called the Abzats, and a light machine gun that was previously only available via pre-order from select retailers, the RPK.

Last Light Redux
A new version of the game for the eighth generation consoles was not originally planned. However, on 22 May 2014, a remastered version of the game titled Metro: Last Light Redux was announced. It was released on 26 August 2014 in North America, 29 August 2014 in Europe, and 4 September 2014 in Australia for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One. Last Light Redux adds all the DLC and graphical improvements. A compilation titled Metro Redux that included both the remastered versions of 2033 and Last Light was also released. A demo of the Redux version, which allows players to play through the first third of the game, was released for the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One on 2 June 2015. Last Light Redux was released as a DRM-free game on GOG.com in May 2015. It was also released on the Nintendo Switch on 28 February 2020 and on Stadia on 23 June 2020.

Reception

Critical reception

Metro: Last Light received positive reviews from critics, with most complimenting the graphics and world design, but criticizing the linear sequences. The game was nominated for Best Shooter for Spike's 2013 VGX game awards, and Xbox 360 Game of the Year by GameSpot.

The gameplay was generally well received. Critics praised 4A Games for fixing the apparent gameplay missteps featured in its predecessors, and noted that the combat was improved, satisfying and riveting. Jeff Marchiafava noted that the gameplay is on par with its competitors. However, some noted that the game lacked innovation and was generally too conservative. Many applauded the game for allowing both stealth and a more aggressive approach towards missions, and that stealth and gunplay were described as tense and challenging respectively. The game's more accessible nature received mixed reviews. Some thought that it removed the frustration featured in the first game, while some criticized it for being too simple. Rich Stanton in particular criticized the game for compromising in order to attract a wider audience, though Patrick Klepek from Giant Bomb thought that the charm of the first game remained undiminished in Last Light. Many critics considered stealth the definitive way to play the game as it matches the overall tone. The bullet economy system was praised for being "unique". Some journalists also noted several technical problems with the game, singling out the Windows version, and many criticized the artificial intelligence for being unrefined. The boss battles were also criticized for being frustrating. The monster characters attracted criticism for not being threatening in terms of their appearance, and too difficult to defeat, with Rich Stanton from Eurogamer describing them as creatures from "a poor man's Doom". Some critics criticized the presence of invisible walls and inaccessible paths, which led to frustration and annoyance. The game's audio was also praised for being coherent with its graphics, gameplay, and atmosphere.

The story received mixed critical reviews. Some critics believed that the story was excellently-written, with interesting characters, and meaningful character interactions, which added additional depth to the game's world. According to Phillip Kollar from Polygon, the game successfully allows players to have "real sympathy" towards its characters, but Artyom was described as an "empty shell" by PC Gamers Marsh Davies. Some felt that the story was intricate, compelling, engaging, and interesting, with some genuinely touching moments, while others criticized it for being predictable and uneven. The ambient dialogue was described as the game's "best stories" by Stanton, though he noted that they are easily missed. The voice-acting received mixed reviews. Some critics called it "top-notch", while some called it "bad".

The game's world design and atmosphere received great critical reviews. Many critics agreed that the game had successfully built up tension through the game's conversations between characters and the resource management mechanics, which enables players to feel threatened by the state of the world. The world was thought to be more "alive" than its predecessor, and critics praised the development team for creating distinct locations, and turning typical gritty colors featured in many games into something refreshing and stunning. The depiction of the world and 4A's vision of an apocalypse was applauded for delivering a sense of sadness and desperation. The game's attention to detail was widely praised, and the surface area, in particular, was applauded. Critics thought that these sequences offered visual variety, and some "genuine terror" moments. Jim Sterling from Destructoid singled out the game's multiple flashback scenes, which he described as "harrowing".

The Redux version received positive reviews from critics. They praised the game's overall atmosphere and gameplay, but criticized the graphical update, which was considered insignificant. According to Mikel Reparaz, the game's visual update was disappointing as it did not look better than the original PC version. Nevertheless, it was described as the "definitive version" of Last Light to play because of the inclusion of all of the previously-released downloadable content.

Sales
Metro: Last Light was the best-selling retail video game in the UK in its week of release, but it failed to outpace the week one sales of 2033. The first-week retail sales of the game in the US surpassed the lifetime retail sales of 2033. It was the sixth best-selling retail game in the US in its month of release according to NPD Group. While the exact sales of the game have not been revealed, Deep Silver announced that the Metro Redux collection sold more than 1.5 million copies.

Sequel
Metro Exodus is a direct sequel to the good ending of Last Light. The game was released for Windows, Xbox One and PlayStation 4 on 15 February 2019 with other platforms following afterwards.

References

External links

2013 video games
Fiction set in 2034
Cancelled Wii U games
Deep Silver games
First-person shooters
Games for Windows
2010s horror video games
Linux games
Metro 2033
MacOS games
PlayStation 3 games
PlayStation 4 games
Post-apocalyptic video games
Single-player video games
Video games about terrorism
Video game sequels
Video games about nuclear war and weapons
Video games based on novels
Video games developed in Ukraine
Video games set in Moscow
Video games set in the 2030s
Video games using PhysX
Windows games
Works about underground railways
Xbox 360 games
Xbox One games
Anti-war video games
Nintendo Switch games
Stadia games

Metro: Last Light


Yoani María Sánchez Cordero (born September 4, 1975) is a Cuban blogger.  She writes criticism about the difficulties of life for people living in Cuba under its current government. Her blog, Generation Y, is in 17 languages.  She received many international awards for her blog. In November 2009, U.S. President Barack Obama, wrote that her blog "provides the world a unique window into the realities of daily life in Cuba" and applauded her efforts to "empower fellow Cubans to express themselves through the use of technology."  In 2011, she received the International Women of Courage Award.

Life
Yoani Sánchez was born September 4, 1975, in Havana, Cuba.  Her father is William Sánchez. Her mother is Maria Eumelia Cordero. Her father worked for the railroad.  Later, when Cuba's national railroads had problems, he worked to fix bicycles. When Sanchez was in primary school, Cuba was rich, because it received money from the Soviet Union. Later, when Sanchez was in high school and university, the Soviet Union had problems, Cuba lost the money, and Cuba's culture changed.

Sanchez went to high school in the countryside".  She wrote: "I left high school in the countryside feeling that nothing belonged to me, not even my body.  Living in shelters creates the sensation that your whole life, your privacy, your personal possessions and even your nakedness has become public property."  Sanchez decided she wanted privacy.

For two years, Sánchez went to the university at Instituto Pedagógico.  She studied Spanish literature. Then she went to the Faculty of Arts and Letters in 1995.  She got a degree in Hispanic philology and a specialty in contemporary Latin American literature.

Work
In 2000, Sanchez worked for Editorial Gente Nueva, a publisher of children's books.  Then Sanchez worked as a Spanish teacher for German tourists in Havana."

In 2002, Sánchez went to Switzerland.  Two years later, she went back to Cuba.  Back in Cuba, Sánchez started the magazine Consenso, later named Contodos.    Sánchez is also involved with the digital magazine Convivencia.

In 2007, Sánchez went to the "debate of the intellectuals", a conference at the House of The Americas.  It was a discussion among intellectuals about Cuba's culture.  But Sanchez and others were not allowed inside, so they wrote emails. The emails became the digital magazine Contodos This was the reason Sánchez started her blog, Generation Y.

In November 2008, Sánchez was invited to write her blog entries on The Huffington Post.

Awards

2008 – Ortega y Gasset Prize for Journalism
2008 – "100 Most Influential People in the World" – Time magazine
2008 – "100 most notable Hispanoamericans" – El País newspaper
2008 – "10 most influential people of 2008" – Gatopardo Magazine
2008 – "10 Most Influential Latin American Intellectuals" of the year – Foreign Policy magazine
2009 – "25 Best Blogs of 2009" – Time magazine
2009 – "Young Global Leader Honoree" – World Economic Forum
2009 – Maria Moors Cabot prize – Columbia University Prize
2010 – World Press Freedom Hero – International Press Institute
2010 – Prince Claus Award – Prince Claus Fund
2011 – International Women of Courage Award – U.S. Department of State
2012 – "10 Most Influential Ibero American Intellectuals" of the year – Foreign Policy magazine

References

Other websites

Generation Y website
 2011 International Women of Courage Awards, U.S. State Department photostream on Flickr
Secretary's International Women of Courage Award (U.S. Department of State)

1975 births
Living people
Human rights activists
Nonviolence advocates
People from Havana
HuffPost writers and columnists
Women who received the International Women of Courage Award
Cuban writers
Cuban activists

Yoani Sanchez


Publishers Weekly (PW) is an American weekly trade news magazine targeted at publishers, librarians, booksellers, and literary agents. Published continuously since 1872, it has carried the tagline, "The International News Magazine of Book Publishing and Bookselling". With 51 issues a year, the emphasis today is on book reviews.

The magazine was founded by bibliographer Frederick Leypoldt in the late 1860s, and had various titles until Leypoldt settled on the name The Publishers' Weekly (with an apostrophe) in 1872. The publication was a compilation of information about newly published books, collected from publishers and from other sources by Leypoldt, for an audience of booksellers. By 1876, The Publishers' Weekly was being read by nine tenths of the booksellers in the country. In 1878, Leypoldt sold The Publishers' Weekly to his friend Richard Rogers Bowker, in order to free up time for his other bibliographic endeavors. Eventually the publication expanded to include features and articles.

Harry Thurston Peck was the first editor-in-chief of The Bookman, which began in 1895. Peck worked on its staff from 1895 to 1906, and in 1895, he created the world's first bestseller list for its pages. In 1912, Publishers Weekly began to publish its own bestseller lists, patterned after the lists in The Bookman. These were not separated into fiction and non-fiction until 1917, when World War I brought an increased interest in non-fiction by the reading public.

Through much of the 20th century, Publishers Weekly was guided and developed by Frederic Gershom Melcher (1879–1963), who was editor and co-editor of Publishers' Weekly and chairman of the magazine's publisher, R. R. Bowker, over four decades. Born April 12, 1879, in Malden, Massachusetts, Melcher began at age 16 in Boston's Estes & Lauriat Bookstore, where he developed an interest in children's books. He moved to Indianapolis in 1913 for another bookstore job. In 1918, he read in Publishers' Weekly that the magazine's editorship was vacant. He applied to Richard Rogers Bowker for the job, was hired, and moved with his family to Montclair, New Jersey. He remained with R. R. Bowker for 45 years. While at Publishers Weekly, Melcher began creating space in the publication and a number of issues dedicated solely to books for children. In 1919, he teamed with Franklin K. Mathiews, librarian for the Boy Scouts of America, and Anne Carroll Moore, a librarian at the New York Public Library, to create Children's Book Week. When Bowker died in 1933, Melcher succeeded him as president of the company; he resigned in 1959 to become chairman of the board of directors.

In 1943, Publishers Weekly created the Carey–Thomas Award for creative publishing, naming it in honor of Mathew Carey and Isaiah Thomas.

Writers and readers
In 2008, the magazine's circulation was 25,000. In 2004, the breakdown of those 25,000 readers was given as 6000 publishers; 5500 public libraries and public library systems; 3800 booksellers; 1600 authors and writers; 1500 college and university libraries; 950 print, film and broad media; and 750 literary and rights agents, among others.

Subject areas covered by Publishers Weekly include publishing, bookselling, marketing, merchandising and trade news, along with author interviews and regular columns on rights, people in publishing, and bestsellers. It attempts to serve all involved in the creation, production, marketing and sale of the written word in book, audio, video and electronic formats. The magazine increases the page count considerably for four annual special issues: Spring Adult Announcements, Fall Adult Announcements, Spring Children's Announcements, and Fall Children's Announcements.

Book reviews
The book review section of Publishers Weekly was added in the early 1940s and grew in importance during the 20th century and through the present day. It currently offers prepublication reviews of 9,000 new trade books each year, in a comprehensive range of genres and including audiobooks and e-books, with a digitized archive of 200,000 reviews. Reviews appear two to four months prior to the publication date of a book, and until 2014, when PW launched BookLife.com, a website for self-published books, books already in print were seldom reviewed.

These anonymous reviews are short, averaging 200–250 words, and it is not unusual for the review section to run as long as 40 pages, filling the second half of the magazine. In the past, a book review editorial staff of eight editors assigned books to more than 100 freelance reviewers. Some are published authors, and others are experts in specific genres or subjects. Although it might take a week or more to read and analyze some books, reviewers were paid $45 per review until June 2008, when the magazine introduced a reduction in payment to $25 a review. In a further policy change that month, reviewers received credit as contributors in issues carrying their reviews. Currently, there are nine reviews editors listed in the masthead.

Now titled "Reviews", the review section began life as "Forecasts." For several years, that title was taken literally; reviews were followed with italicized comments that attempted to predict a book's sales success. Genevieve Stuttaford, who greatly expanded the number of reviews during her tenure as the nonfiction "Forecasts" editor, joined the PW staff in 1975. Previously, she was a Saturday Review associate editor, reviewer for Kirkus Reviews and for 12 years on the staff of the San Francisco Chronicle. During the 23 years Stuttaford was with Publishers Weekly, book reviewing was increased from an average of 3,800 titles a year in the 1970s to well over 6,500 titles in 1997. She retired in 1998.

Several notable PW editors stand out for making their mark on the magazine. Barbara Bannon was the head fiction reviewer during the 1970s and early 1980s, becoming the magazine's executive editor during that time and retiring in 1983. She was, notably, the first reviewer to insist that her name be appended to any blurb of her reviews, thus drawing attention to herself, to the review and to the influence of the magazine in predicting a book's popularity and salability.

Sybil Steinberg came to Publishers Weekly in the mid-1970s and served as a reviews editor for 30 years, taking over after Barbara Bannon retired. Under Steinberg, PW instituted the starred review, a first in the industry, to indicate books of exceptional merit. She also called out particular books of merit by starting the practice of boxed reviews, a precursor to the PW "signature reviews," boxed reviews that are attributed to the reviewer. The "Best Books" lists were also Steinberg's brainchild, and these lists are still published annually, usually in November ahead of "Best Books" lists from The New York Times and other prominent review venues. Steinberg edited the magazine's author interviews, and beginning in 1992 put together four anthologies of them in book form, published by the Pushcart Press.

Formerly of InStyle magazine, novelist Louisa Ermelino took the reins of the PW review section in 2005. Under her watch, the number of reviews grew once again, to nearly 9,000 per year from 6,500.

In a sea change for the magazine, Ermelino oversaw the integration of self-published book reviews into the main review section of the magazine. Review editors vet and assign self-published books for review, which reviews are then published alongside the reviews of traditionally published books each week in the magazine.

Publishers Weekly does not charge for self-published book reviews, bucking a trend within the industry led by Kirkus Reviews and Forewords Clarion fee-for-review service, both of which offer independent book reviews in exchange for fees in the hundreds of dollars.

Publishers Weekly does syndicate its reviews to a variety of online retail venues such as Amazon, Apple Books, Powell's Books, Books-a-Million, and others. The reviews are also carried by library database services such as Baker and Taylor, ProQuest, Bowker, Cengage, EBSCO and others.

Magazines and mergers

For most of its history, Publishers Weekly, along with the Library Journal-related titles, were owned by founding publisher R. R. Bowker. When Reed Publishing purchased Bowker from  Xerox in 1985, it placed Publishers Weekly under the management of its Boston-based Cahners Publishing Company, the trade publishing empire founded by Norman Cahners, which Reed Publishing had purchased in 1977. The merger of Reed with the Netherlands-based Elsevier in 1993 led to many Cahners cutbacks amid takeover turmoil. Nora Rawlinson, who once headed a $4 million book selection budget at the Baltimore County Library System, edited Library Journal for four years before stepping in as editor-in-chief of Publishers Weekly from 1992 to 2005.

Beginning 2005, the magazine came under the direction of a new editor-in-chief, veteran book reviewer Sara Nelson, known for her publishing columns in the New York Post and The New York Observer.
Nelson began to modernize Publishers Weekly with new features and a makeover by illustrator and graphic designer Jean-Claude Suares.  The switch to a simple abbreviated logo of initials effectively changed the name of the magazine to PW, the name long used for the magazine within the book industry.

She also introduced the magazine's short-lived Quill Awards, with nominees in 19 categories selected by a nominating board of 6,000 booksellers and librarians. Winners were determined by the reading public, who could vote at kiosks in Borders stores or online at the Quills site. Reed Business dropped the Quill Awards in 2008.

Since 1872 the front covers of Publishers Weekly were used to display advertisements by book publishers.  PW editorial covers now feature illustrations and author photographs tied to interior articles, these covers follow the front cover advertisement. The visual motif of each cover is sometimes repeated on the contents page.

The Nelson years were marked by turbulence within the industry as well as a continuing trend away from serious writing and towards pop culture. Publishers Weekly has enjoyed a near monopoly over the past decades, but now with vigorous competition from Internet sites, e-mail newsletters, and daily newspapers.

Advertising downturn and sale
In 2008, faced with a decline in advertising support, Reed's management sought a new direction. In January 2009, Sara Nelson was dismissed along with executive editor Daisy Maryles, who had been with PW for more than four decades. Stepping in as editorial director was Brian Kenney, editorial director of School Library Journal and Library Journal. The dismissals, which sent shockwaves through the industry, were widely covered in newspapers.

In April 2010, George W. Slowik Jr., a former publisher of the magazine, purchased Publishers Weekly from Reed Business Information, under the company PWxyz, LLC. Cevin Bryerman remained as publisher along with co-editors Jim Milliot and Michael Coffey.

On September 22, 2011, PW began a series of weekly podcasts: "Beyond the Book: PW's Week Ahead".

In 2019 The Millions was acquired by PWxyz.

Archives
PW maintains an online archive of past book reviews from January 1991 to the present. The earliest articles posted in PWs online archive date back to November 1995. A redesigned website was unveiled on May 10, 2010.

See also
 Publishers Weekly list of bestselling novels in the United States in the 2010s, or the decades before
 Booklist
 Editor & Publisher
 San Francisco Review of Books
 Books in the United States

References

Further reading

External links

 Hathi Trust. The publishers weekly. Digitized issues 1873 – .
 Interview on magazine's history
 20th Century American Bestsellers
 Sybil Steinberg discusses Publishers Weekly
 BookLife official site
 Finding aid to the Publishers Weekly records at Columbia University. Rare Book & Manuscript Library.
 Publishers Weekly 1903

1872 establishments in the United States
Book review magazines
Literary criticism
Magazines established in 1872
Magazines published in New York City
News magazines published in the United States
Professional and trade magazines
Weekly magazines published in the United States
Works about book publishing and bookselling

Publishers Weekly