Cass Gilbert (November 24, 1859 – May 17, 1934) was an American architect. An early proponent of skyscrapers, his works include the Woolworth Building, the United States Supreme Court building, the state capitols of Minnesota, Arkansas, and West Virginia, the Detroit Public Library, the Saint Louis Art Museum and Public Library. His public buildings in the Beaux Arts style reflect the optimistic American sense that the nation was heir to Greek democracy, Roman law and Renaissance humanism. Gilbert's achievements were recognized in his lifetime;  he served as president of the American Institute of Architects in 1908–09.

Gilbert was a conservative who believed architecture should reflect historic traditions and the established social order. His design of the new Supreme Court building in 1935, with its classical lines and small size, contrasted sharply with the large federal buildings along the National Mall in Washington, D.C., which he disliked.

Heilbrun says "Gilbert's pioneering buildings injected vitality into skyscraper design, and his 'Gothic skyscraper,' epitomized by the Woolworth Building, profoundly influenced architects during the first decades of the twentieth century." Christen and Flanders note that his reputation among architectural critics went into eclipse during the age of modernism, but has since rebounded because of "respect for the integrity and classic beauty of his masterworks".

Early life
Gilbert was born in Zanesville, Ohio, the middle of three sons, and was named after the statesman Lewis Cass, to whom he was distantly related. Gilbert's father General Samuel A. Gilbert was a Union veteran of the American Civil War and a surveyor for the United States Coast Survey. His uncle was Union Gen. Charles Champion Gilbert. When he was nine, Gilbert's family moved to St. Paul, Minnesota, where he was raised by his mother after his father died. Cass was raised Presbyterian. He attended preparatory school but dropped out of Macalester College. He began his architectural career at age 17 by joining the Abraham M. Radcliffe office in St. Paul. In 1878, Gilbert enrolled in the architecture program at MIT.

Minnesota career

Gilbert worked for a time with the firm of McKim, Mead & White before starting a practice in St. Paul with James Knox Taylor. He was commissioned to design a number of railroad stations, including those in Anoka, Willmar and the extant Little Falls depot, all in Minnesota.  As a Minnesota architect he was best known for his design of the Minnesota State Capitol and the downtown St. Paul Endicott Building. His goal was to move to New York City and gain a national reputation, but he remained in Minnesota from 1882 until 1898. Many of his Minnesota buildings are still standing, including more than a dozen private residences (especially those on St. Paul's Summit Avenue), several churches featuring rich textures and colors, resort summer homes, and warehouses.

National reputation
The completion of the Minnesota capitol gave Gilbert his national reputation and in 1898 he permanently moved his base to New York.  His breakthrough commission was the design of the Alexander Hamilton U.S. Custom House in New York City, which now houses the George Gustav Heye Center.  Gilbert served on the U.S. Commission of Fine Arts from 1910 to 1916. In 1906 he was elected into the National Academy of Design as an associate member, and became a full academician in 1908. Gilbert served as president of the academy from 1926 to 1933. He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1934.

He was a trustee of the Carnegie Institution from 1924 until he died in 1934.

Historical impact

Gilbert was a skyscraper pioneer; when designing the Woolworth Building he moved into unproven ground — though he certainly was aware of the ground-breaking work done by Chicago architects on skyscrapers and once discussed merging firms with the legendary Daniel Burnham — and his technique of cladding a steel frame became the model for decades. Modernists embraced his work: artist John Marin painted it several times; even Frank Lloyd Wright praised the lines of the building, though he decried the ornamentation.

Gilbert was one of the first celebrity architects in America, designing skyscrapers in New York City and Cincinnati, campus buildings at Oberlin College and the University of Texas at Austin, state capitols in Minnesota and West Virginia, the support towers of the George Washington Bridge, railroad stations (including the New Haven Union Station, 1920), and the United States Supreme Court building in Washington, D.C. His reputation declined among some professionals during the age of Modernism, but he was on the design committee that guided and eventually approved the modernist design of Manhattan's groundbreaking Rockefeller Center. Gilbert's body of work as a whole is more eclectic than many critics admit. In particular, his Union Station in New Haven lacks the embellishments common of the Beaux-Arts period and contains the simple lines common in Modernism.

Gilbert wrote to a colleague, "I sometimes wish I had never built the Woolworth Building because I fear it may be regarded as my only work and you and I both know that whatever it may be in dimension and in certain lines it is after all only a skyscraper."

Gilbert's two buildings on the University of Texas at Austin campus, Sutton Hall (1918) and Battle Hall (1911), are recognized by architectural historians as among the finest works of architecture in the state. Designed in a Spanish-Mediterranean revival style, the two buildings became the stylistic basis for the later expansion of the university in the 1920s and 1930s and helped popularize the style throughout Texas.

Archives
Gilbert's drawings and correspondence are preserved at the New-York Historical Society, the Minnesota Historical Society, the University of Minnesota, and the Library of Congress.

Notable works

 Saint Paul Seminary, Saint Paul, Minnesota.
 Cretin Hall, Loras Hall, a gymnasium (now the Service Center), a classroom building, the refectory building, and the administration building in 1894 were commissioned by James J. Hill. Only Cretin and the Service Center still stand as part of the University of St. Thomas (Minnesota) campus.
 Minnesota State Capitol, Saint Paul, Minnesota, 1895–1905.
 Designed in High Renaissance style, the building is not a replica of the United States Capitol. Local newspapers made a fuss when Gilbert sent to Georgia for marble, but the result, in which a hemispherical dome caps a high drum not unlike that of St. Peter's Basilica, crowning a building housing the bicameral legislature and the state supreme court, was so nobly handsome that West Virginia and Arkansas contracted for Gilbert capitols as well. Its brick dome is held in hoops of steel.
 St. Clement's Episcopal Church, St. Paul, Minnesota, 1895.
 Designed in the traditional English country church style, with a lychgate and close, bell tower, and parish hall (renovated in 2006). Funded by a generous donation from Mrs. Theodore Eaton, widow of the rector of St. Clement's Episcopal Church in New York City. Includes original furniture, baptismal font, encaustic tile floor in choir, elaborate rood screen, linen-fold paneling, and parquet oak floor in sanctuary. The altar features Tiffany Studios stained glass window depicting the empty cross.
 Northern Pacific Railway Depot, 701 Main Street, Fargo, North Dakota, 1898.
 The Broadway-Chambers Building (277 Broadway), Manhattan, 1899–1900.
 Gilbert's first building in New York City.
 Alexander Hamilton U.S. Custom House, Manhattan, 1902–1907.
 Facing Bowling Green park in Lower Manhattan
 Essex County Veterans Courthouse, Newark, 1904
 Saint Louis Art Museum (Palace of the Fine Arts), St. Louis, Missouri, 1904.
 Built for the 1904 Louisiana Purchase Exposition in St. Louis and the only major building of the fair built as a permanent structure.
 90 West Street, Manhattan, 1905–1907.
 Severely damaged during the September 11, 2001 attacks, this building in lower Manhattan has since been completely restored.
 Metals Bank Building, Butte, Montana, 1906.
 Commissioned by F. Augustus Heinze, this eight-story low-rise building has an internal steel frame. It was the second to be built in Butte after the 1901 Hirbour Building, which also has eight stories.
 A series of master plans for the Minneapolis campus of the University of Minnesota, 1907.
Designs for 12 local stations on the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad in the Bronx and Westchester County, New York, 1908.  Not all were built, and only four were extant in 2014, all in the Bronx: the Westchester Avenue station and Bartow station are in ruins, and the Morris Park and Hunts Point stations have been converted to other uses.  All ceased to be used as railroad stations by the late 1930s.
 Spalding Building, Portland, Oregon, 1911.
 A 12-story early skyscraper based on the construction principles of a classical column.
 Battle Hall, Austin, Texas, 1911.
 For the University of Texas at Austin.
 New Haven Free Public Library, Mary E. Ives Memorial Library
 At the corner of Elm and Temple Streets in downtown New Haven, architect Gilbert designed the brick and marble building to harmonize with the traditional architecture of New Haven, and especially with the United Church nearby. The building was formally dedicated to the City of New Haven on May 27, 1911.
 Kelsey Building, Trenton, New Jersey, 1911.
 Built by Henry Cooper Kelsey as a memorial to his wife. Now used by Thomas Edison State University.
 St. Louis Public Library, St. Louis, Missouri, 1912
 The main library for the city's public library system, in a severe classicizing style, has an oval central pavilion surrounded by four light courts. The outer facades of the free-standing building are of lightly rusticated Maine granite. The Olive Street front is disposed like a colossal arcade, with contrasting marble bas-relief panels. A projecting three-bay central block, like a pared-down triumphal arch, provides a monumental entrance. At the rear the Central Library faced a sunken garden. The interiors feature some light-transmitting glass floors. The ceiling of the Periodicals Room is modified from Michelangelo's ceiling in the Laurentian Library.
 Woolworth Building, Manhattan, New York, 1913.
 A Gothic Revival skyscraper clad in glazed terracotta panels, it was the tallest building in the world when built. Bas-reliefs in the lobby depict Woolworth and Gilbert with Woolworth holding nickels and dimes.
 Fourth and Vine Tower, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1913.
 Originally built as the headquarters for the Union Central Life Insurance Company.
 Austin, Nichols and Company Warehouse, Williamsburg, Brooklyn, New York, 1915.
 Fountain, Ridgefield, Connecticut, 1914–16.
 This fountain, at the intersection of Routes 35 and 33, was designed and donated to the town by Cass Gilbert, who had a summer home (Keeler Tavern) within sight of the intersection. In 2004, a drunk driver crashed into the fountain, heavily damaging it; the fountain was rebuilt, raised higher, and surrounded by protective plantings, and it is still functioning today.
 Four buildings at Oberlin College, Oberlin, Ohio
 Gilbert designed four buildings at Oberlin: Finney Chapel (1909), the Cox Administration Building (1915), the Allen Memorial Art Museum, and Bosworth Hall (1931). He enjoyed a close working relationship with Oberlin's president Henry Churchill King, but his relationship with Oberlin deteriorated after King retired in 1927 and most of the design work and construction supervision of Bosworth Hall and its residential quadrangle was done by Gilbert's son Cass Jr., who had earlier supervised the construction of the Allen Memorial Hospital (1924) in Oberlin (now Mercy Allen Medical Center).
 Rodin Studios, Midtown Manhattan, New York, 1916–1917.
 Chase Headquarters Building, Waterbury, Connecticut, 1917–1919.
 This building was designed as the headquarters of the Chase Company and forms part of the Waterbury Municipal Center Complex, a unique concentration of Gilbert's architecture comprising the Waterbury City Hall, the Chase Bank Building and the Chase company headquarters, Chase's house, a dispensary and Lincoln House, a headquarters building for the city's charities.
 G. Fox & Co. department store, Hartford, Connecticut, 1918.
 Brooklyn Army Terminal, Sunset Park, Brooklyn, New York, 1919.
 Freedman's Bank Building (previously known as the Treasury Annex), Lafayette Square, Washington, D.C., 1919.
 R. C. Williams Warehouse, Chelsea, Manhattan, New York, 1919.
 The Detroit Public Library, main branch, 1921.
 The First Division Monument, President's Park, Washington D.C., 1924.
 West Virginia State Capitol, Charleston, West Virginia, 1924–1932.
 The James Scott Memorial Fountain, Belle Isle, Detroit, MI, 1925.
 United States Chamber of Commerce headquarters, Washington, D.C., 1925.
 Plans for cladding the George Washington Bridge support towers, New York–New Jersey, in masonry, 1926. Not carried out.
 New York Life Building, 1926.
 Gibraltar Building, 1927.
 headquarters for Prudential Insurance in Newark
 130 West 30th Street, "The Cass Gilbert," 1927–1928.
 Formerly offices and manufacturing spaces for businesses in the fur trade, now a luxury residential condominium.
 Embassy of the United States in Canada (100 Wellington Street), Ottawa, 1932.
Thurgood Marshall United States Courthouse, Manhattan, 1933.
The Seaside, Waterford, Connecticut, 1934.
 United States Supreme Court Building, Washington, D.C., 1935.
 Gilbert's last major project, guided to completion by his son, Cass Gilbert Jr. He died a year before it was completed. A vast Roman temple in the Corinthian order is penetrated by a cross range articulated with pilasters in very low relief. The central tablet in the richly sculpted frieze reads EQUAL JUSTICE UNDER LAW. His design for the U.S. Supreme Court chambers was based upon his design for the West Virginia Supreme Court of Appeals at the state capitol in Charleston. The pediment sculptures Liberty attended by order and Authority (great lawgivers Moses, Confucius, and Solon are on the West Portico) were executed by Hermon Atkins MacNeil.

Gallery

Name confusion with C. P. H. Gilbert
Cass Gilbert is often confused with Charles Pierrepont Henry Gilbert, another prominent architect of the time. Cass Gilbert designed the famous Woolworth Building skyscraper on Broadway for Frank W. Woolworth, while Woolworth's personal mansion was designed by C. P. H. Gilbert.

The Ukrainian Institute building on Manhattan's 5th Avenue is the work of C. P. H. Gilbert, and often incorrectly attributed to Cass Gilbert.

Cass Gilbert is sometimes also confused with his son, architect Cass Gilbert, Jr.

References
Notes

Further reading
 Christen, Barbara S. and Flanders, Steven (editors). Cass Gilbert, Life and Work: Architect of the Public Domain New York: W.W. Norton, 2001.
 Moutschen, Joseph. Architecture américaine – Une interview de l'architecte qui a construit la plus haute maison du monde (Cass Gilbert); in L'Equerre: Janvier 1930 p. 177; Février 1930 p. 187; Mars 1930, p. 196; L'Equerre, 1928–1939; Edition Foure-Tout, 2010, pp. 1350;

External links

 Cass Gilbert in MNopedia, the Minnesota Encyclopedia

 Cass Gilbert Society

Architecture
 Architectural tour of the US Supreme Court Building
 New York Architecture Images-Cass Gilbert

Archival collections
 Cass Gilbert Collection, 1897–1936 Archives Center, National Museum of American History
 Cass Gilbert Papers, Minnesota Historical Society.
 Guide to the Cass Gilbert collection, 2005 Abstract of the Gilbert papers from the New-York Historical Society
 Cass Gilbert collection, University Archives, University of Minnesota – Twin Cities
 Selected Cass Gilbert Architectural Drawings of the Detroit Public Library at Wayne State University Library contains 19 presentation drawings by Cass Gilbert of the Detroit Public Library, which he designed in 1921.
 Cass Gilbert Archival card catalog. Held by the Department of Drawings & Archives, Avery Architectural & Fine Arts Library, Columbia University.
 Selected Cass Gilbert Architectural Drawings and Plans for the Woolworth Building at Vanderbilt University Fine Arts Gallery contains around 200 works

1859 births
1934 deaths
People from Ridgefield, Connecticut
People from Zanesville, Ohio
19th-century American architects
 American neoclassical architects
F. W. Woolworth Company
Architects from Saint Paul, Minnesota
Fellows of the American Institute of Architects
Presidents of the American Institute of Architects
American railway architects
National Sculpture Society members
Honorary Members of the Royal Academy
20th-century American architects
Members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters
Members of the American Philosophical Society

Cass Gilbert


A kinetotroph or kinetic harvester is a hypothetical organism that would use kinetic energy to produce complex molecules like adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Kinetotrophs could obtain their energy from numerous sources like wind, tides, or currents; this would allow them to inhabit locations with minimal light for photosynthesis. Kinetotrophs could descend from chemotrophs, and have been hypothesized to take the form of sedentary ciliates and reed-like organisms.

There are no known kinetotrophs on Earth, likely because the process is less efficient than other sources of energy like light or chemicals. However, similar transducer systems have been observed in some organisms. For example, some fish possess a lateral line organ, which uses cilia to turn the movement of fluid into electric signals.

Mechanisms
The theoretical mechanics that would allow kinetotrophism vary widely. One pathway proposed by Dirk Schulze-Makuch and Louis N. Irwin involves lever-like proteins that would be moved by the flow of fluid. When inside a protein channel with cilia-like proteins that could act as channel guards, the levers could allow specific molecules into or out of the cell. Harnessing the Gibbs–Donnan effect, sodium ions could be made to enter the cell and fuel a hydrogen transporter similar to those in mitochondria, thus allowing for energy-storing molecules like ATP to be synthesized. This mechanism would act like a battery; thus, only enough time and a flow of fluid in the range of millimetres per second would be required for the synthesizing of complex molecules.

Another mechanism to derive energy from kinetics would be a spring-like structure. Fluid currents or tides could place pressure on cilia structures, bending them and creating tensile energy. When the pressure subsides, that tension would be released and could create usable energy.

Habitat
It has been proposed that kinetotrophs could exist underneath the ice sheet of the Jovian moon Europa. These organisms might attach to the underside of the ice sheet, or to substrates on the ocean floor. The kinetic energy these organisms would harness could be provided by convection cells, where currents are created by the varying temperatures of fluid throughout the water column.

References

Trophic ecology

Kinetotroph


Arshak II (or Arsaces II) (350-367) was the son of Diran. During his reign, Shapur II of Persia tried to take over Armenia once and for all. Arshak II was taken prisoner during talks about peace with Shapur and later killed himself in prison.

Despite having many troubles during his reign, Arshak II was able to change many parts of his kingdom for the better. They included:
The creation of many monasteries, to keep monks away from the problems of everyday life. They also helped spread the gospel
The building of hospitals
The creation of many schools to teach Assyrian and Greek, since the Holy Bible was read in those languages at that time
The ban of inbred marriages, polygamy, divorce, pagan rituals, drunkenness and killings for revenge
The better treatment of slaves

References
Translated from the Armenian: Mihran Kurdoghlian, Badmoutioun Hayots, A. hador [Armenian History, volume I], Athens, Greece, 1994, pg. 108-111

Monarchs of Armenia
350 births
367 deaths

Arshak II


Nicolas Den Hane was a bailiff of Vlamertinge around the beginning of the 14th century (1300s). He was mentioned in an investigation of the Vierschaar of Veurne. He had to resolve a conflict between some citizens of Vlamertinge and Jan Vander Kerckhove, the bailiff of nearby Poperinge. The conflict was about defining two Flemings' grounds.

References

People from West Flanders
Year of death missing
1300s births

Nicolas Den Hane


Prof Alexander  Macalister FRS Hon.FRSE FSA FRAI (9 April 18442 September 1919) was an Irish anatomist, Professor of Anatomy, Cambridge University, from 1883 until his death.  He was a Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge.

Life
He was born in Dublin, the second son of Robert Macalister, secretary of the Sunday School Society of Ireland, and his wife (née Boyle). Alexander was educated locally then studied medicine at Trinity College, Dublin.

He qualified at the Irish Royal Colleges in 1861, became M.B. at Trinity College ten years later and M.D. in 1876. After acting as demonstrator of anatomy at the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, he was appointed professor of zoology, and eight years later professor of anatomy and chirurgery, at Dublin. In 1883, he succeeded Sir George Murray Humphrey in the chair of anatomy at Cambridge, and held this post for thirty-six years. He was a prolific writer.

Besides his "Text-book of Human Anatomy"(1889) for which he is best known, he was the author of "Introduction to Animal Morphology"(1876) and "Morphology of Vertebrate Animals" (1878) as well as of numerous papers on animal, morphology, human anatomy and small text-books for students. Macalister was also editor of the Journal of Anatomy between 1907 and 1916. He was a man of remarkable versatility, being an able mathematician as well as versed in archæology, Egyptology and draughtsmanship. Like his cousin, Sir Donald Macalister, he was a proficient linguist, having knowledge of fourteen languages.

Macalister received many honours. In 1881, he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. He was made hon. LL.D. of the Universities of Edinburgh, Glasgow and McGill and hon. D.Sc. and senator of the University of Dublin. He was Secretary of the Royal Irish Academy and President of the Anatomical Society (1897–99). His name has been attached to the fovea gastrica and the annulus femoralis s. cruralis.

King Henry VI investigation
On 4 November 1910 the body of King Henry VI in its brick vault in St. George's Chapel, Windsor (since 12 August 1484) was "investigated", with King George V's consent, by William Henry St John Hope and Canon John Neale Dalton, in the presence of the Dean and Canons, and various other people such as M.R. James, Provost of King's College, Cambridge (and later of Eton College, both founded by Henry VI), and Dr. A. Macalister, Professor of Anatomy at Cambridge. The vault was emptied of rubble, and at the centre was found a small lead chest containing the fragmented bones of "a fairly strong man, aged between 45 and 55", according to Macalister's report, published in The Times on 12 November 1910. The bones had previously been buried in Chertsey Abbey in 1471 until their removal in 1484.

Death
He died in Cambridge on 2 September 1919 after a long illness and was buried in the Parish of the Ascension Burial Ground in Cambridge with his wife Elizabeth, who had died in 1901.

Family

He married Elizabeth Stewart in 1866. Their children included the archaeologist R. A. Stewart Macalister and George Hugh Kidd Macalister.

References

 'MACALISTER, Alexander', Who Was Who, A & C Black, an imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing plc, 1920–2008; online edn, Oxford University Press, Dec 2007 accessed 8 March 2013

External links

1844 births
1919 deaths
Fellows of the Royal Society
Fellows of the Society of Antiquaries of London
Fellows of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland
Presidents of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland
Fellows of St John's College, Cambridge
Alumni of Trinity College Dublin
Place of birth missing
Professors of Anatomy (Cambridge)
Irish anatomists
Journal of Anatomy editors
Presidents of the Anatomical Society
Medical doctors from County Dublin
Scholars and academics from County Dublin

Alexander Macalister


Hotel Transylvania 2 is a 2015 American computer-animated comedy movie. It was produced by Columbia Pictures and Sony Pictures Animation. This is the sequel to Hotel Transylvania.

Voices
The movie is starring Adam Sandler as the voice of Dracula and Selena Gomez as Mavis, Dracula's daughter, and features Asher Blinkoff as Dennis.

Plot

Now that Dracula (Adam Sandler) has opened the Hotel Transylvania's doors to humans, things are changing for the better; however, Drac is secretly worried that his half-human grandson, Dennis, isn't showing his vampire side. So, while Mavis and Johnny are away, Drac enlists his friends to help him put the boy through a "monster-in-training" boot camp. But things really get batty when Drac's cantankerous, old-school dad (Mel Brooks) pays an unexpected visit.

2015 fantasy movies
2010s 3D movies
2015 horror movies
2010s monster movies
2010s sequel movies
2015 comedy movies
American animated movies
American comedy movies
American family movies
2010s American fantasy movies
American monster movies
American sequel movies
Columbia Pictures movies
2015 computer-animated movies
2010s English-language movies
Frankenstein movies
Hotel Transylvania
Movies about families
Movies about vacationing
Movies directed by Genndy Tartakovsky
Movies set in California
Movies set in Europe
Movies set in Scotland
Movies set in hotels
Screenplays by Adam Sandler
Werewolves in movies
Vampires in movies

Hotel Transylvania 2


Bhakti yoga (), also called Bhakti marga (, literally the path of Bhakti), is a spiritual path or spiritual practice within Hinduism focused on loving devotion towards any personal deity. It is one of the three classical paths in Hinduism which lead to Moksha, the other paths being Jnana yoga and Karma yoga.

The tradition has ancient roots. Bhakti is mentioned in the Shvetashvatara Upanishad where it simply means participation, devotion and love for any endeavor. Bhakti yoga as one of three spiritual paths for salvation is discussed in depth by the Bhagavad Gita.

The personal god varies with the devotee. It may include a god or goddess such as Ganesha, Krishna, Radha, Rama, Sita, Vishnu, Shiva, Shakti, Lakshmi, Saraswati, Parvati, Durga, and Surya among others.

The Bhakti marga involving these deities grew with the Bhakti Movement, starting about the mid-1st millennium CE, from Tamil Nadu in South India. The movement was led by the Saiva Nayanars and the Vaisnava Alvars. Their ideas and practices inspired bhakti poetry and devotion throughout India over the 12th-18th century CE. Bhakti marga is a part of the religious practice in Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Shaktism.

Philosophy

The Sanskrit word bhakti is derived from the root bhaj, which means "divide, share, partake, participate, to belong to". The word also means "attachment, devotion to, fondness for, homage, faith or love, worship, piety to something as a spiritual, religious principle or means of salvation".

The term yoga literally means "union, yoke", and in this context connotes a path or practice for "salvation, liberation". The yoga referred to here is the "joining together, union" of one's Atman (true self) with the concept of Supreme Brahman (true Reality).

According to Samrat Kumar, bhakti yoga is an Indian tradition of "divine love mysticism", a spiritual path "synonymous for an intimate understanding of oneness and harmony of the eternal individual with the Divine (the universal Being) and all creatures, a constant delight". According to Yoga Journal, yoga scholar David Frawley writes in his book that bhakti yoga "consists of concentrating one's mind, emotions, and senses on the Divine."

Bhagavad Gita

Bhakti yoga is one of three yoga taught in Bhagavad Gita. Bhakti yoga is a devotee's loving devotion to a personal god as the path for spirituality. The other two paths are jnana yoga and karma yoga. Jnana yoga is the path of wisdom where the individual pursues knowledge and introspective self-understanding as spiritual practice, and karma yoga is the path of virtuous action (karma) where one acts without expecting rewards or consequences, also known as nishkama karma. Later, new movements within Hinduism added raja yoga as the fourth spiritual path, but this is not universally accepted as distinct to other three.

Srimad Bhagavatam (Bhagavata Purana)

The Bhagavata Purana is a popular and influential text in the Vaishnavism traditions, and it discusses Ishvara pranidhana (devotion to a personal god). The Sanskrit text presents various modes of bhakti specifically to incarnations of Vishnu, particularly in terms of "Narayana, Krishna". According to Edwin Bryant, and other scholars, the Bhakti yoga taught in this text is inspired byYoga Sutras of Patanjali and Bhagavad Gita, and they focus on "the ultimate truths of the individual self and its loving relationship with a personal god". The presentation in the Bhagavata Purana is not in abstract terms, but through "charming and delightful tales that capture the heart and mind", the goal of Bhakti yoga, states Bryant.

The Uddhava Gita, which is the eleventh book of the Bhagavata Purana, discusses bhakti through a dialogue between Lord Krishna and Uddhava, his devotee. This text highlights the pure devotion and bhakti that the gopis of Vrindavan had for Lord Krishna.

Traditions

Hinduism, in its scriptures such as Bhagavad Gita (chapter 7), recognizes four kinds of devotees who practice Bhakti yoga. Some practice it because they are hard pressed or stressed by anxiety or their life's circumstances and see Bhakti yoga as a form of relief. The second type practice Bhakti yoga to learn about god out of curiosity and intellectual intrigue. The third type seek rewards in this or in afterlife through their Bhakti yoga. The fourth are those who love god driven by pure love, knowing and seeking nothing beyond that experience of love union.

According to these Hindu texts, the highest spiritual level is the fourth, those who are devoted because of their knowledge of love. The Bhagavad Gita states that all four types of Bhakti yogi are noble because their pursuit of Bhakti yoga sooner or later starts the journey on the path of spirituality, it keeps one away from negativity and evil karma, it causes spiritual transformation towards the goal of Bhakti yoga, to "know god as the essence within themselves and their true self always with god".

Major traditions include the Shaiva who worship the god Shiva; the Vaishnava who worship the god Vishnu (or his avatars such as Krishna and Rama); and the Shakta who worship the goddess Shakti (or her avatars such as Durga, Kali, Lakshmi, and Parvati). These are all considered manifestations or aspects of the same metaphysical reality called Brahman in Hinduism.

Panchayatana puja

Panchayatana puja is a form of bhakti found in the Smarta tradition of Hinduism. It consists of the simultaneous worship of multiple deities: Shiva, Vishnu, Shakti, Surya and an Ishta Devata such as Ganesha or Skanda or any personal god of devotee's preference.

Philosophically, the Smarta tradition emphasizes that all images (murti) are icons of saguna Brahman, a means to thinking about the abstract Ultimate Reality called nirguna Brahman. The five or six icons are seen by Smartas as multiple representations of the one Saguna Brahman (i.e., a personal God with form), rather than as distinct beings. The ultimate goal in this practice is to transition past the use of icons, then follow a philosophical and meditative path to understanding the oneness of Atman (soul, self) and Brahman – as "That art Thou".

Saiva Siddhanta
The Śaivasiddhānta tradition favors Bhakti yoga, emphasizing loving devotion to Shiva. Its theology presents three universal realities: the pashu (individual soul), the pati (lord, Shiva), and the pasha (soul's bondage) through ignorance, karma and maya. The tradition teaches ethical living, service to the community and through one's work, loving worship, yoga practice and discipline, continuous learning and self-knowledge as means for liberating the individual soul from bondage.

The historic Shaiva Siddhanta literature is an enormous body of texts. The Shaiva Siddhanta practices have focussed on abstract ideas of spirituality, worship and loving devotion to Shiva as SadaShiva, and taught the authority of the Vedas and Shaiva Agamas.

Shakti Bhakti
Bhakti of goddess is another significant tradition, one found in Shaktism. The theology of oneness and unity of "the divine Goddess and the devotee", their eternal fearless love for each other is a theme found in Devi Gita, a text embedded inside the Devi-Bhagavata Purana. The specific Bhakti yoga practices amongst Shakta are similar to those in other traditions of Hinduism. The Shakta devotion is common in eastern states of India, particularly West Bengal. The personal god here varies, and includes Durga, Tara Ma (Buddhist influence), Kali and to a lesser extent Saraswati, Lakshmi, Bharat Mata (land goddess), according to June McDaniel.

Vaishnava Bhakti

The Bhakti yoga tradition has been historically most associated with Vaishnavism. The personal god here is Vishnu or one of his avatars. In many regions, the loving devotion is either to Vishnu-Lakshmi (god-goddess) together, or through Lakshmi who is considered the shakti of Vishnu. The specific avatar varies by the devotee and region, but the most common are Krishna and Rama.

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu

In the Krishna-oriented traditions of Vaishnavism, the Chaitanya Charitamrita by Krishnadasa Kaviraja interprets the section 7.5.23-24 of Bhagavata Purana to teach nine types of bhakti sadhana, in the words of Prahlada. David Haberman translates them as follows:

<blockquote> (1) śravaṇa ("listening" to the scriptural stories of Krishna and his companions), (2) kīrtana ("praising"; usually refers to ecstatic group singing), (3) smaraṇa ("remembering" or fixing the mind on Vishnu), (4) pāda-sevana (rendering service), (5) arcana (worshiping an image), (6) vandana (paying homage), (7) dāsya (servitude), (8) sākhya (friendship), and (9) ātma-nivedana (complete surrender of the self).</blockquote>

These nine principles of devotional service were incorporated by Rupa Goswami linked to Chaitanya Mahaprabhu as integral to spiritual practice focused on Krishna. The gopis practiced these forms of bhakti when they were separated from Shri Krishna.

Rupa Goswami and Jiva Goswami have offered significant commentary on bhakti. Rupa defines bhakti as "Bhakti is said to be service to Krishna, by means of the senses. This service is free of all limitations, dedicated to Him and pure [of self-motive]." Jiva aligns closely with this, stating that bhakti is the preeminent path to attaining perfection through service. The ultimate expression of bhakti is service to Krishna.

 Meher Baba
A movement led by Meher Baba states that "out of a number of practices which lead to the ultimate goal of humanity – God-Realization – Bhakti Yoga is one of the most important. Almost the whole of humanity is concerned with Bhakti Yoga, which, in simple words, means the art of worship. But it must be understood in all its true aspects, and not merely in a narrow and shallow sense, in which the term is commonly used and interpreted. The profound worship based on the high ideals of philosophy and spirituality, prompted by divine love, doubtless constitutes true Bhakti Yoga''". Pashayan concurs that Bhakti Yogis are found on the mat, delivering pizza, in academia, and in politics and international relations. Where you least expect it, there's a Bhakti Yogi in the room with you whereby common ground can be actualized into productive solutions of today's salient issues, and problems can be resolved.

See also
 Guru yoga
 Narada Bhakti Sutra
 Kirtan
 Karma Yoga
 Jnana Yoga

References

Bibliography

Bhakti movement
Yoga paths

Bhakti yoga


Polycarbophil calcium (INN) is a drug used as a stool stabilizer. Chemically, it is a synthetic polymer of polyacrylic acid cross-linked with divinyl glycol, with calcium as a counter-ion.

Clinical uses
It is used as stool stabilizer to treat constipation, diarrhea and abdominal discomfort. Bulk laxatives absorb liquid in the intestines and swell to form a soft bulky stool. The bulky mass stimulates the intestinal muscles, speeding stool transit time through the colon. Results usually occur within 12 to 72 hours. Calcium polycarbophil will not work without increased fluid intake.

Calcium polycarbophil has been marketed as an over-the-counter agent used for treating functional bowel disorder and as a bulk-producing agent.

A study looked at the effects of calcium polycarbophil on general irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) symptoms. Fourteen patients with IBS-diarrhea and twelve with IBS-constipation were given calcium polycarbophil for eight weeks and their colon transit times were measured with radiopaque markers in the colon. The patients with diarrhea reported fewer bowel movements, more solid stools and reduced abdominal pain. Patients with constipation reported more frequent bowel movements, looser stools and less pain.

The human stomach presents a mild acidic environment due to the presence of HCl. Polycarbophil absorbs about ten times its own weight of water under acidic conditions, but the swelling ratio markedly increases at above pH 4.0 and reaches 70 times the initial weight under pH-neutral conditions. The swelling of polycarbophil is not affected by non-ionic osmolarity, but by ionic strength, showing a decrease with increase of ionic strength. Monovalent metal ions such as sodium and potassium ions in gastrointestinal fluid do not reduce the equilibrium swelling of polycarbophil, but divalent ions such as calcium and magnesium ions do. However, calcium ions only slightly reduce the equilibrium swelling under sodium-rich conditions.

Adverse effects
Common side effects can include:

Mild stomach pain

 Bloating
Gas
Seek medical attention if:

 severe stomach cramps
 rectal bleeding
 no bowel movement within 3 days after using polycarbophil

References

Further reading

Laxatives
Acrylate polymers

Polycarbophil calcium


This calendar was initiated by King Shalivahana in 78 A.D. It was also known as Shaka era as it was the tribe that Shalivahana was in. Historians are confused of whether or not Shalivahana was Shaka himself or conquered Shaka. The Shaka calendar is both solar and lunar with the lunar month having the same number of months as the Vikram era. It begins on 22 March every year except in the Gregorian leap year which start on 21 March. The number of days in the Shaka era is 365.

Saka samvat


Fellow Passengers is a three-actor narrative theatre adaptation of Charles Dickens' 1843 novella A Christmas Carol, written by Greg Carter.  The title is derived from a first-scene speech by Fred, the nephew of Ebenezer Scrooge, who says: "I have always thought of Christmas time, when it has come round... as a good time: a kind, forgiving, charitable, pleasant time: the only time I know of, in the long calendar of the year, when men and women seem by one consent to open their shut-up hearts freely, and to think of people below them as if they really were fellow passengers to the grave, and not another race of creatures bound on other journeys."

Passengers opened at Strawberry Theatre Workshop in Seattle, Washington in December, 2004.  The original director was Rhonda J Soikowski, and the acting ensemble was Todd Jefferson Moore, Gabriel Baron, and Marty Mukhalian.

Plot
Fellow Passengers uses nearly every word of the original Dickens novella activated by the cast as narrative theatre.  The purpose is to restore the satire and political comment omitted from more common dramatic adaptations of the story. Three actors (including one woman) rotate into the role of Scrooge. In the original production, the play was set in an attic with found objects taking the place of many characters: a broken stool played Tiny Tim, a lantern stood in for the Ghost of Christmas Past, a large double-bass trunk represented the Ghost of Christmas Future.

Critical reception
"At this time of year, when Dickens' story has such particular resonance, this evocative, thoughtfully realized production is bound to elicit as much surprise as delight. For those who think they know A Christmas Carol so well that there's no need for further exposure, Fellow Passengers is a refreshing and vital reintroduction to Dickens' masterpiece." ––Chris Comte

"In Fellow Passengers playwright Greg Carter has brought the story back to life more certainly than the ghost of Jacob Marley, and he uses that renewed vitality to return us to something much closer to Dickens. In the place of the usual sweet sentimentality and festive affirmation of good spirits and merrymaking, this superb production gives us a real ghost story, fearsome in its threat and uncompromising in its moral imperative... Make no mistake, these are three actors working at the top of their game, in a show that allows them to do everything that live theatre is uniquely capable of doing..." ––Jerry Kraft

"A bracing, absorbing, three-actor version of A Christmas Carol that emphasizes the moral behind the story: that Yuletide is a time to reclaim one's sense of compassion for others less fortunate than oneself." ––Misha Berson

"Mukhalian, Smith and Moore trade-off stints of playing Scrooge in Fellow Passengers, a spare but in some ways spectacular version of Charles Dickens' 1843 story A Christmas Carol. What the show lacks in impressive costumes, settings and crowd scenes it makes up for in inspired acting. The performers showcase Dickens' humane insights and witty writing." ––Joe Adcock

See also
 Adaptations of A Christmas Carol

References

External links
 Strawberry Theatre Workshop Official Website

Plays based on A Christmas Carol
Christmas plays
2004 plays

Fellow Passengers


Mountain State University (MSU) was a private university in Beckley, West Virginia.  It closed in 2013.  It was formerly named Beckley College and then The College of West Virginia.

Its Beckley campus is now occupied by West Virginia University Institute of Technology.  Its other campus in Martinsburg, West Virginia was sold to a private developer.

History

Early history
The university was founded in 1933 as Beckley College, a junior college, and continued as such until 1991, when it achieved four-year status and was renamed The College of West Virginia. In 2001, the school was renamed Mountain State University.

Later history
Mountain State University's former president since 1990, Dr. Charles H. Polk, was widely credited for much of the school's previous success. However, many blamed Polk along with his senior administration and MSU's Board of Trustees when the university began facing issues over its continued accreditation. Polk and MSU's Board of Trustees were named as defendants in over 300 lawsuits arising out of the loss of the university's accreditation. A settlement was reached under which MSU admitted no wrongdoing.

In 2009, Polk received over $1.8 million in compensation. According to The Chronicle of Higher Education, Polk was the sixth-highest-paid private-college president in the country that year. However, according to Dr. Jerry Ice, then-chairman of the Mountain State University Board of Trustees, Polk's actual 2009 salary was $450,000, and included a one-time deferred retirement package that the board established in 2004 and was required to pay out in 2009. As a means of recouping the funds for MSU, the board also purchased a $2 million insurance policy on Polk that will be paid back to the institution upon his death.

On January 19, 2012, Dr. Jerry Ice, former Chairman of Mountain State University's Board of Trustees, announced the termination of Polk's employment as president of Mountain State University. Dr. Richard E. Sours was chosen to replace Polk as interim president until the university's closing.

Loss of accreditation
On June 28, 2012, the Higher Learning Commission, the regional accrediting authority for the North Central Association of Colleges and Schools, withdrew the accreditation of Mountain State University, effective August 27, 2012. The date was subsequently extended until December 31, 2012 to allow the university to 'teach out' those students close to graduation.

On August 6, 2012, MSU's Board of Trustees formally appealed the withdrawal of MSU's accreditation with the Higher Learning Commission. On December 18, 2012, the Appeals Panel voted to sustain the Commission's action. MSU's regional accreditation terminated on December 31, 2012. All degrees conferred by MSU on or before this date are valid and are fully accredited by the Higher Learning Commission. MSU closed effective January 1, 2013. The Higher Learning Commission was heavily criticized for its closed door decision-making policies and lack of the availability of official minutes detailing its discussions and actions during this time.

In May 2014, the Mountain State University Board of Trustees filed a lawsuit against the Higher Learning Commission seeking to restore the university's accreditation. In 2017, the United States District Court for the Southern District of West Virginia granted the Higher Learning Commission's Motion for Summary Judgment, effectively ending MSU's lawsuit in favor of the Higher Learning Commission.

On August 13, 2014, UC announced that a settlement had been reached between itself, MSU, and the plaintiffs in various lawsuits arising out of the loss of MSU's accreditation. MSU's insurance company established an $8.5 million fund to compensate affected students and MSU liquidated its remaining assets. The settlement was given preliminary court approval on October 6, 2014. Final court approval was given on March 9, 2015. MSU's former Beckley campus was sold to West Virginia University. MSU ceased to exist as a legal entity on May 17, 2018.

UC is the permanent custodian of MSU's student records. Transcripts from Beckley College, The College of West Virginia and Mountain State University may be purchased through the National Student Clearinghouse.

Reuse of campuses
On August 1, 2012, the University of Charleston (UC) announced that they would assist MSU in the 'teach-out' process, and would admit any MSU student in good standing who chose to attend UC. UC also announced that it would establish new four-year campuses on the Beckley and Martinsburg sites, to be known as the University of Charleston-Beckley and University of Charleston-Martinsburg, respectively.

The University of Charleston established campuses on MSU's former Beckley and Martinsburg, West Virginia locations on January 1, 2013. UC later vacated the former Martinsburg campus (the property was sold to a third-party buyer), and established a new location in Martinsburg.

UC vacated the former Beckley campus after the 2014-15 academic year and established a new campus in Beckley.  On December 31, 2014, West Virginia University announced that it would purchase MSU's former Beckley campus for $8 million. On September 1, 2015, the WVU Board of Governors approved a plan to move the West Virginia University Institute of Technology from its then-current campus in Montgomery to the former MSU campus in Beckley.

Academics
The university offered more than 60 undergraduate, master's, and certificate programs, as well as a doctoral degree program. Most of the university's programs focused on the professions in business, technology, and health and human services. Many of MSU's degree programs were available online.

College preparatory school
From 2002 to 2010, Mountain State University operated a private, nonsectarian college preparatory school from grades K–12 known as the Academy at Mountain State University, or Mountain State Academy (MSA), in Beckley, West Virginia. The school was also occasionally referred to as MSU Academy.

Although founded in 2002, MSA classes first began during the 2003–2004 academic year with grades 8–10. During the 2004–2005 academic year, the academy eliminated its eighth grade class, but added an eleventh grade class to accommodate advancing sophomores. During the 2005–2006 academic year, the academy became a full-fledged high school, adding a twelfth grade to accommodate advancing juniors. The class of 2006 became the academy's first graduating class. Members of the class of 2007 were the first students to attend the academy for all four of their respective high school years. The school later added grades 6–8 and eventually grades K–6. The class of 2010 was the academy's last graduating class.

MSA students were permitted to take classes at MSU for both weighted academy and college credit free of charge (less the cost of MSU textbooks). Admission to the academy was based on a student's scholastic merit. The cost of attending the academy was originally approximately $8,000.00 per academic year, plus the cost of textbooks and meals at MSU. However, the academy later adopted a sliding scale for tuition based on a student's household income. All students with a 3.5 cumulative GPA or above were designated as honor graduates. The academy also hosted a chapter of The National Honor Society. MSA students were required to attend the academy for at least three years in order to be considered for the titles of valedictorian, salutatorian, or honorarian.

The academy was permanently closed in August 2010. Enrollment stood at approximately 100 students at the school's closing. The Academy's basketball team, which was nicknamed the Falcons, defeated nationally ranked Oak Hill Academy in 2010.

Athletics
The Mountain State athletic teams were called the Cougars. The university was a member of the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA), primarily competing in the Kentucky Intercollegiate Athletic Conference (KIAC; now currently known as the River States Conference (RSC) since the 2016–17 school year) from 2007–08 to 2011–12 (all sports excluding men's basketball, which only competed as an NAIA Independent during that tenure until a few seasons after [2009–10]). The Cougars previously competed in the defunct West Virginia Intercollegiate Athletic Conference (WVIAC) (then affiliated with the NAIA, later affiliated in the Division II ranks of the National Collegiate Athletics Association (NCAA)) from 1946–47 to 1976–77.

Mountain State competed in nine intercollegiate varsity sports: Men's sports included basketball, cross country, soccer and track & field; while women's sports included cheerleading, cross country, soccer, track & field and volleyball.

Men's basketball
Mountain State won the 2004 NAIA Division I men's basketball tournament. Mountain State was the national runner-up in the 2003 NAIA Division I men's basketball tournament. Additionally, the Cougars were the national runner-up in the 2008 NAIA Division I men's basketball tournament and in the 2011 NAIA Division I men's basketball tournament. MSU advanced to the final four in 2012.

Notable Alumni
 Charles Sheedy - Member of the West Virginia House of Delegates

References

External links
 Official website
 Official athletics website

Defunct private universities and colleges in West Virginia
Universities and colleges established in 1933
Educational institutions disestablished in 2012
1933 establishments in West Virginia
Beckley, West Virginia

Mountain State University


Otto von Pack (c. 1480 – 8 February 1537), German conspirator.

Life
He studied at the University of Leipzig, and obtained a responsible position under George, Duke of Saxony, which he lost owing to his dishonesty. In 1528, he revealed to Philip, Landgrave of Hesse, the details of a scheme agreed upon in Breslau by the archduke Ferdinand, afterwards the emperor Ferdinand I, and other influential princes, to conquer Hungary for Ferdinand and then to attack the reformers in Germany.

Pack was sent to Hungary to concert joint measures with John Zapolya, the opponent of Ferdinand in that country, but John, Elector of Saxony, advised that the associates of Ferdinand should be asked to explain their conduct, and Pack's revelations were discovered to be false; the copy of the treaty which he had shown to Philip proving to be a forgery.

For some time, Pack lived the life of a fugitive, finally reaching the Netherlands, where he was seized at the request of Duke George. Examined under torture, he admitted the forgery, and the government of the Netherlands passed sentence of death, which was carried out on 8 February 1537. This affair has given rise to an acute controversy whether Philip of Hesse was himself deceived by Pack, or was his assistant in concocting the scheme.

Further reading
W. Schomburgk, Die Packschen Handel (Leipzig, 1882);
H. Schwarz, Landgraf Philipp von Hessen und die Packschen Handel (Leipzig, 1881);
St Ehses, Geschichte der Packschen Handel (Freiburg, 1881) and Landgraf Philipp von Hessen und Otto von Pack (Freiburg, 1886);
L. von Ranke, Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der Reformation (Leipzig, 1882).

German outlaws
1480s births
1537 deaths

Otto von Pack


Basketbrawl is a sports video game released for the Atari 7800 in 1990, then for the Atari Lynx in 1992. It is a basketball simulation which allows hitting and fighting with other players. The name is a portmanteau of basketball and brawl. It is similar to the 1989 Midway arcade game Arch Rivals which had the tagline "A basket brawl!"

Atari released another sports/fighting combo for the Atari 7800 in 1990 as Ninja Golf. Both were in the final 11 games published by Atari for that system in 1990-91 before dropping support.

Objectives
The main objective in Basketbrawl is to become the baddest gang in town by winning the tournament known as "Basketbrawl." The tournament is composed of three separate games or levels against the opposing city gangs. The difficulty increases by adding stronger weapons and additional players to the other gang. The games are six minutes long and you win by outscoring your opponent, similar to real-life basketball. One major scoring change is that every basket is two points regardless of the shot's length. If time expires with the score tied, overtime will be the first team to score wins.

Strategy
The game can be played by up to two players simultaneously, where the additional player plays as a teammate. When it comes to strategy there truly is none as the game acts as a free-for-all with the only goal being to outscore the other team. In terms of game controls, the user solely uses the A and B button.

Boosts & Weapons
Within the game there will be a plethora of objects that can assist the user in a variety of ways: increasing health, shooting, overall power, stamina, or speed. These boosts are labeled by milk, lightning bolt, fist, heart, and a sneaker. These boosts stay in effect for the whole six minute game and are erased after. Weapons also appear on the court, which gives this game its "brawl" aspect. These weapons can be used to injure opposing players by throwing it at them, including throwing the basketball itself. Once a player's health is decimated he lies on the ground where his body then acts as an obstacle for players for the remainder of the game.

Presentation
The graphics accompanying this game are very similar to other games released on the Atari 7800 at this time. The background used within this game emulates a basketball court in the middle of a city with graffitied walls, demonstrating the presence of gangs to the user's mind.

Review
The evaluation for this game is extremely negative. The aspect of fighting and combat within a basketball game doesn't match or mesh with the overall outcome of the game. Produces a gameplay style that can best be described as random. A poor attempt to be unique and different. In terms of positivity, the game does offer a great comedic aspect into the history of games and a great leisure play when accompanied with another user.

Reception
In a 1992 review, Robert Jung gave the Lynx version a 4 out of 10, concluding that "Basketbrawl takes an idea loaded with potential, then removes most of the excitement by combining weak sports action and weak combat action."

In a non-contemporaneous review, Atari 7800 Forever gave Basketbrawl a 4 out of 5: "Although not a pure blooded sports game, Basketbrawl without question is the best sports title for the 7800."

References

External links

1990 video games
Atari 7800 games
Atari Lynx games
Basketball video games
Multiplayer and single-player video games
Video games developed in the United States

Basketbrawl


Andrés Segovia Torres, 1st Marquis of Salobreña (21 February 1893 – 2 June 1987), was a virtuoso Spanish classical guitarist from Linares, Jaén, Andalucia, Spain. He was always known as Andrés Segovia.

He was one of the best known and most influential classical guitar personalities of the 20th century. He had a big influence on later guitarists, because of his performances and recordings, and his masterclasses. Important guitar works were dedicated to him by composers such as Federico Moreno Torroba.

Segovia led the development of the Spanish guitar as an instrument for classical art music. As well as works dedicated to him by modern composers, he also transcribed classical works originally written for other instruments. He is remembered for his expressive performances: his wide palette of tone, and his distinctive (often instantly recognizable) musical personality in tone, phrasing and style.

Segovia was especially fond of the compositions of the Brazilian musician Heitor Villa-Lobos. In the 1920s, Segovia met Villa-Lobos and commissioned a guitar study: the composer responded with a set of twelve, each taking a tiny detail or figure from Brazilian chorões (itinerant street musicians).

Two films were made of his life and work. They are available on DVD called Andrés Segovia  in Portrait. His final RCA LP record (ARL1-1602), Reveries, was recorded in Madrid in June 1977.
In 1984, Segovia was the subject of a thirteen part series broadcast on National Public Radio, USA, entitled Segovia! The series was recorded on location in Spain, France, and the United States.

References

Spanish guitarists
1893 births
1987 deaths
Spanish musicians

Andrés Segovia


Novak, also known as Cindell Spur, is a ghost town in Lawrence County, South Dakota, United States. It was an early mining camp.

History
Novak was founded next to Greenwood, as the latter began to decline, in the early 1900s. Investors in the Safe Investment Mine and Mill settled in Novak. Safe Investment grew to have a bad reputation, as investors realized that they were actually losing money. In 1903 and 1904, the Novak mine began to develop. By 1906, they had paid off their debt. As the mining company grew, so did the town. In 1907, there were no saloons or dance houses. Gambling occasionally went on in the boarding house. The Black Hills & Fort Pierre Railroad built a branch to the town. There were three houses built by the mining company and several other cabins, and a school that served six students. Novak used the cemetery in Greenwood instead of building its own. A nearby creek was used for water.

The mine eventually ran its course and was no longer profitable. After the mining operations shut down, most of the residents left Novak. The school closed and the remaining children traveled to Benchmark for school. Until about the 1980s, Novak had two permanently occupied houses, but soon after that, the remaining residents either died or left, and Novak was officially abandoned. In 1974, the only remains of the town were two buildings and a large meadow.

Geography
Novak is located in the northern Black Hills in Lawrence County,. Founded on the bank of Boxelder Creek, it is located along what is today Nemo Road. It is 2.5 miles away from Benchmark and three miles northwest of Nemo.

See also
Black Hills Gold Rush
Nemo, South Dakota

References

Ghost towns in South Dakota
Geography of Lawrence County, South Dakota
Mining communities in South Dakota

Novak, South Dakota


St Leonard's Hospital is a grade II* listed timber-framed building in Tickhill, South Yorkshire, in England.  It was originally constructed in the 15th century as a monastic building.

The first hospital in Tickhill dedicated to Saint Leonard was on Spital Hill, a marshy location outside the built-up part of the town, considered suitable as accommodation for lepers.  It was already in existence by 1225, when Walter de Gray, Archbishop of York, deplored the decayed condition of the friars attending and called for charitable donations.  The lepers were first mentioned in 1236, while from 1290, John Clarel attempted to improve conditions at the hospital.  There has been scholarly debate as to whether this is the same foundation as that of St Thomas in the marsh, a cell of Humberston Abbey.

In 1470, the hospital was relocated to the north side of Tickhill Market Place.  An inscription above the door suggests that the rebuilding was the work of a John Leftwul.  The reasons for the move are unknown, but David Hey notes that this must have involved a change in purpose, as town centres were not considered suitable locations for lepers.  The building eventually declined; by the 1840s, it was used as tenements, but the facade was substantially intact.  It was heavily restored in 1851, with the upper floor being completely rebuilt in a Gothic revival style.  In 1898, it was purchased by the local parish church, who turned it into a parish meeting room.  It was again restored in 2007.

As it stands, the hospital has ten bays separated by wooden posts, carrying half-fan vaulting supporting an oversailing upper storey.  The top floor has three distinctive windows with straight sides but pointed heads.  It was made a listed building in 1961 and is currently listed at grade II*.

See also
Grade II* listed buildings in South Yorkshire
Listed buildings in Tickhill

References

External links
 Tickhill Parish Room

15th-century architecture
Gothic Revival architecture in South Yorkshire
Grade II* listed buildings in South Yorkshire
Monasteries in South Yorkshire
Timber framed buildings in Yorkshire
Tickhill

St Leonard's Hospital, Tickhill


Ronen Palan (born 21 March 1957) is an Israeli-born economist and Professor of International Political Economy in the Department of International Politics at the City University London. He has many books and articles on the political economy of the state, globalisation and state strategies, and evolutionary approaches to the study of international relations. Ronen Palan was of the founding editors of the Review of International Political Economy. Palan's major empirical work is the area of offshore financial centres and tax havens. Palan has argued that offshore finance "is certainly not the sole cause for the decline of the nation-state, but it must be seen as an important contributing factor to the decline".

In January 2016, Palan acted as an advisor to the BBC's documentary, Britain's Trillion Pound Paradise – Inside Cayman. In May 2017, Palan also featured in the documentary, "The Spider's Web: Britain's Second Empire" on the U.K.'s relationships with tax havens.

As a student, Palan attended the London School of Economics, where he produced his PhD thesis Patterns of non-governmental interactions as a bridge between the structuralist theory of the state and the study of international relations. He subsequently worked at Newcastle University and the University of Sussex before joining Birmingham University in 2007. Palan has authored and edited a number of books, including Global Political Economy: Contemporary Theories (edited, Routledge, 2000), The Offshore World: Sovereign Markets, Virtual Places, and Nomad Millionaires (Cornell University Press, 2003), The Imagined Economies of Globalisation (with Angus Cameron, Sage, 2004) and Tax Havens: How Globalization Really Works (with Richard Murphy, Christian Chavagneux, Cornell University Press, 2010).

Palan is married and has two sons.

Books

References

Academics of City, University of London
Israeli political scientists
Living people
1957 births

Ronen Palan


Per Rune Henriksen (born 14 March 1960) is a Norwegian politician for the Labour Party.

He was born in Bergen as a son of mason Theodor Johan Henriksen and office secretary Karen Warhuus. He started school at Landås in 1967, and finished school in 1978. He was a carpenter apprentice from 1978 to 1979, and worked within construction from 1978 to 1991, except for a period from 1988 to 1990 when he joined a peace corps for the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation in Kenya. He was then a full-time trade unionist from 1992 to 2005. He was a secretary for the regional chapter of the Confederation of Trade Unions (LO) from 1997 to 2005. He had been a board member of his trade union chapter Tømrernes Fagforening in the United Federation of Trade Unions from 1984 to 1988, and secretary from 1991 to 1996.

He was a deputy member of Bergen city council from 1995 to 1999. He chaired the county party chapter since 2003 to 2009, having been deputy chair from 2002 to 2003. From 2002 to 2009 he is also a member of the Labour Party national board. He was elected to the Parliament of Norway from Hordaland in 2005, and was re-elected in 2009. In September 2010 he was appointed as a State Secretary in the Ministry of Petroleum and Energy. He left behind his seat in Parliament, which was taken by Jette F. Christensen. In May 2013 he resigned as State Secretary to concentrate on being re-elected in 2013, in which he succeeded.

He was the chair of Bergen og Omegn Boligbyggelag from 2000 to 2006 and a board member of the Norwegian Federation of Co-operative Housing Assiciations from 2003 to 2005.

References

1960 births
Living people
Norwegian trade unionists
Labour Party (Norway) politicians
Politicians from Bergen
Members of the Storting
Norwegian state secretaries
21st-century Norwegian politicians

Per Rune Henriksen


Association of Public Treasurers of the United States and Canada (APTUSC) is the professional society of active public treasurers of counties, provinces, cities, and special districts in the United States and Canada.  It sets ethical standards for the treasury profession in state and local government.

The treasurer of a public agency is elected by the voting public or are appointed staff.  Public treasurers are primarily responsible for managing the revenue and cash flow of the agency. This officer is also responsible for banking, collections of user fees such as utility usage and business licenses, and communicating financial performance and forecasts to the community.

Membership role

Members are treasurers of municipalities and other local government agencies, whether elected or appointed, having responsibility for collection, receipt, reporting, custody, investment or disbursement of municipal funds.  Municipal funding sources are commonly property tax, sales tax, income tax, utility users tax (UUT), transient occupancy tax (hotel occupancy), and user fees such as licensing and permit fees.

Many Treasurers are elected, and are therefore directly accountable to their constituents; the remainder are appointed either by City Council or City Manager.

Professional standards setting

APTUSC offers a Certified Public Finance Administrator (CPFA) certification program.  CPFA is a professional post-nominal awarded to a public treasurer who meets standards of education, experience and a stated commitment to a code of ethics. CPFA candidates must meet or exceed requirements in two areas; 50% educational standards and 50% experience and training requirements.  Certification is also designed as a guide for municipal treasurers to become valued administrators in local government.

Training and education in municipal treasury

APTUSC has technical and professional committees that deal with issues facing treasurers, their agencies and the public. APTUSC also provides web-based technical support resources, educational material, conferences and technical publications for its members. APTUSC's annual conferences provide an array of education across many topics and are held annually between various locations. The association conducts workshops to provide training and education on investments, cash management, bond sales, management skills, communications, and legislation.

Code of Ethics

The following Code of Ethics, governing the professional conduct of active members of the California Municipal Treasurers Association, sets a standard of conduct in government finance:
 Purpose - This Code of Professional Ethics ensures a uniform adherence to the Association's longstanding policies related to legal, moral and professional standards of conduct. This code also informs the public at large as to how the Association approaches matters involving ethics. The principles set forth in this code shall govern the conduct of all members of APTUSC.
 Fiduciary Responsibility - A member shall exercise prudence and integrity in the management of funds in their custody and in all financial transactions for which they are responsible.
 Responsibility as Public Officials - A member shall adhere to concepts of effective and efficient local government service being provided by elected and appointed Public Treasurers. A member shall conduct himself or herself at all times in a manner which serves the public interest and maintains the good reputation of the profession. A member shall uphold the letter and spirit of the law and report violations of the law to the appropriate authorities.
 Professional Development - A member shall observe professional technical standards and continually strive to acquire knowledge and improve levels of competence in Treasury management. A member shall strive to enhance the competence of colleagues and encourage those seeking to enter the field of Public Treasury.
 Professional Integrity – Information - A member shall respect and protect privileged information. A member shall conduct government openly so the public may make informed judgments and hold public officials accountable. A member shall be sensitive and responsive to inquiries from the public and the media.
 Professional Relationships - A member shall maintain the highest ideals of honor, integrity, and objectivity in all professional relationships.
 Conflict of Interest - A member shall not seek any favor or accept any personal gain which would influence, or appear to influence, objectivity or conduct of official duties.
 Member Misconduct - The Association shall not accept or condone unethical conduct under any circumstances. A member found by the Board of Directors to be in violation of any provision of this Code of Ethics shall be expelled from membership for a length of time to be determined by the Board and, if the member holds the designation of CPFA, such designation shall be revoked.

See also

 California Municipal Treasurers Association (CMTA)
 GASB
 Public Finance
 State Government
 State Treasurer
 United States Department of the Treasury

References

External links

 California Municipal Treasurers Association
 Association of Public Treasurers of the United States and Canada

Government-related professional associations in the United States
Professional certification in finance
Public finance
Companies based in Silver Spring, Maryland
1967 establishments in Maryland
Professional associations based in the United States


{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict          = Battle of Kumanovo
| partof            = the First Balkan War
| image             = Kumanovo1912 marcossouza.jpg
| image_size        = 300px
| caption           = First Balkan War. The Serbian Front (Serbia) The march of the armies before the battle of Kumanovo.
| date              = 23–24 October 1912
| place             = Kumanovo district, Sanjak of Üsküp, Kosovo Vilayet, Ottoman Empire
| casus             =
| territory         =
| result            = Serbian victory
| combatant1        =
| combatant2        =
| commander1        =  Radomir Putnik Prince Alexander Stepa Stepanović Božidar Janković Ahmed Ademović
| commander2        =  Halepli Zeki Pasha(Vardar Army) Fethi Pasha(VII Corps)
| units1            =  First Army Second Army Third Army
| units2            =  V Corps VI Corps VII Corps
| strength1         = 132,000 men148 artillery pieces100 machine guns
| strength2         = 65,000 men164 artillery pieces104 machine guns
| casualties1       = 687 killed3,280 wounded597 missingTotal: 4,564
| casualties2       = 1,200 killed3,000 wounded327 captured98 artillery pieces lost Total: 4,500
| campaignbox       =
| notes             = {{center| 3,000 people were massacred by the Serbian army between Kumanovo and Uskub<ref>'Albania's Golgotha. Leo Freundlich</ref>}}
}}

The Battle of Kumanovo (, ), on 23–24 October 1912, was a major battle of the First Balkan War. It was an important Serbian victory over the Ottoman army in the Kosovo Vilayet, shortly after the outbreak of the war. After this defeat, the Ottoman army abandoned the major part of the region, suffering heavy losses in manpower (mostly due to desertions) and in war materiel.

Background
The objective of the Royal Serbian Army plan was to destroy the Ottoman army in a decisive battle before the Ottomans could complete the mobilisation and concentration of forces. The Serbian planners assumed that the main Ottoman force would be deployed defensively in the valley of Vardar and on the strategically important plateau of Ovče Pole. The Serbian Commander-in-Chief was General Radomir Putnik. The aim was to double envelop the Ottoman army by using three armies:

First Army, under Crown Prince Alexander, composed of five infantry and one cavalry division (132,000 men), was deployed in the area around Vranje, with the task to attack the enemy frontally.
Second Army, under Stepa Stepanović, composed of one Serbian and one Bulgarian division (74,000 men), deployed in the area around Kyustendil, was assigned to the easternmost attack, with the objective of attacking the right flank of the enemy.
Third Army, under Božidar Janković, composed of four infantry divisions and one infantry brigade (76,000 men), deployed in two groups, the first one at Toplica and the second one at Medveđa, was assigned to the westernmost attack, with the task to take Kosovo and then move south to attack the left flank of the enemy.
Smaller units were sent to take Sandžak.

According to the initial Ottoman plan, created by Colmar Freiherr von der Goltz, the Ottoman forces in Macedonia would stay in defense and, if necessary, retreat to Albania. The decisive battle would take place in Thrace, versus the Bulgarian army. However, Nazim Pasha, the newly appointed commander-in-chief of the Ottoman army, decided to surprise the Serbs by taking an offensive in Macedonia. The plan also included the offensive in Thrace. His goal was to win the initial battles against the surprised allies, hoping that the Great powers would then intervene and stop the war.

The Ottoman mobilisation in Macedonia was slow, and the Ottoman  Vardar Army, led by Zeki Pasha, had little more than a half of its manpower mobilised when the war started. The army was composed of:

V Corps, under Said Pasha, composed of 4 divisions (32,000 men), deployed in the area around Štip.
VI Corps, under Cavit Pasha, composed of two divisions (6,000 men), deployed in the area around Veles.
 VII Corps, under Fethi Pasha, composed of three divisions (19,000 men), deployed in the area around Kumanovo.
 Smaller units in Kosovo.

Prelude

Even before the war was declared, border skirmishes occurred. On the 15 October, the front of the Toplica group of the Third Army, Serbian chetniks, acting on their own, attacked the Ottoman forces; although the Serbian deployment had not been completed yet. The Ottomans counterattacked, but they were stopped by the Morava Division II. The fighting on the border lasted until 19 October when the Ottomans were forced to retreat. On 21 October the entire Third Army began its advance and on 22 October, without serious resistance, entered Pristina.

On 18 October, Bulgarian 7th Rila Infantry Division of the Second Army started its advance towards Gorna Dzhumaya, while the rest of the army advanced towards the village of Stracin and captured it on 21 October.

The First Army crossed the border on 20 October and in the evening of 22 October reached the outskirts of Kumanovo.

At the other side, as soon as his forces were deployed, Zeki Pasha decided to take the offensive towards Kumanovo. In the evening of 22 October, Vardar Army gathered in the valley of Pčinja River. While Zeki Pasha had the precise information about the strength and disposal of the Serbian forces, the Serbian command did not realise that the battle with the main Ottoman force would start the very next morning. Not expecting the attack, Serbs did not fortify their positions, which were topographically strong. Still, only two out of five infantry divisions were deployed in the front echelon – Danube Division I on the left wing, with the Cavalry Division behind it, and Morava Division I on the right wing. The left flank was particularly vulnerable, because Srtevica, the important topographic object, was defended by local irregulars.

During the night of 22–23 October, VI Corps 17th Infantry Division and Monastir Infantry Division crossed Pčinja and took the position in the Ottoman centre, on the hill of Zebrnjak. The main forces of V Corps 13th Infantry Division and Štip Infantry Division remained on the left bank of Pčinja, forming the right of the Ottoman's which was acting as a reserve and protecting the route from Stracin, while the main forces of VII Corps 19th Infantry Division and Üsküb Infantry Division were on the left side.

Battle

23 October

The morning of 23 October was foggy, and reconnaissance could not be performed properly. On the Serbian left flank, the observers noticed the troops of 17th Infantry Division in movement, but mistook them for the Ottoman battery withdrawing from Stracin. Troops of the 18th regiment of Danube Division I, which moved forward to capture it, were pushed back, as well as the reconnaissance forces of Cavalry Division.

Observing the retreat of these Serbian units, Zeki Pasha concluded that the Serbian left wing was weak. Since there were no actions of the Second Army from Stracin, he decided to attack. Around 11:00, with artillery support, V and VI Corps attacked the positions of Danube Division I. Soon, 13th and 17th Infantry Division forced the 18th regiment to retreat in disorder, but, instead of continuing the attack, Zeki Pasha waited for the arrival of Štip Infantry Division from the rear to use this division to attack the Serbian flank and rear. That enabled the Serbian 7th regiment to aid the wavering 18th regiment and to consolidate a defense. Soon after that, the Serbian 8th regiment arrived, and 7th regiment was able to move to the left flank and reinforce the defense of Srtevica, which was endangered by an attack by the Štip Infantry Division. On the right flank of Danube Division I, its 9th regiment halted the advance of the weakened Monastir Infantry Division.

Around 12:00, VII Corps started its attack on the positions held by Morava Division I. However, Serbian infantry and artillery were already deployed for combat, as the artillery fire from the east suggested that the battle had started. After the initial Ottoman progress, Serbs counterattacked and pushed them back to their starting positions. After the Serbian counterattack, Ottoman units were kept at bay by the well organised Serbian artillery fire until the end of day.

The Serbian rear echelon divisions (Danube Division II on the left, Drina Division I in the centre and Timok Division II on the right) and the army artillery were not informed about the combat operations. They remained in the rear, without participating in the first day of the battle. The First Army command did not receive precise information about the battle and did not have any influence on the actual combat. Despite these facts, the Ottoman attack of the 23 October was not successful, mostly thanks to "the high devotion of (Serbian) troops and lower officers''".

24 October

Uninformed about the situation in the field, the First Army command did not realise that the attack of the main Ottoman forces had occurred, as those forces were expected on Ovče Pole. Assuming that the Ottoman units north of Kumanovo were merely forward detachments, it ordered the troops to continue their advance towards south, as previously planned. After midnight, it received a report from Danube Division I which stated that the division was attacked by the strong enemy forces and suffered heavy casualties, but at that moment it was too late for any change of orders.

On the other side, Zeki Pasha decided to continue the attack with the hope that his forces would be able to achieve victory on the following day.

The Ottoman attack on their right wing started around 5:30. VI Corps was assigned to tie up as many enemy forces as possible by attacking from the front, while Štip Infantry Division was again assigned to flank attack. Danube Division I again had to withstand heavy pressure, but around 10:00 parts of Danube Division II arrived from the rear and strengthened the defense. At the same time, Cavalry Division moved to the left bank of Pčinja and slowed the advance of Ottoman forces towards Srtevica. Around 12:00, parts of Danube Division II reinforced the defense of Srtevica, definitely stopping the advance of the Ottoman right wing.

On the left Ottoman wing, a lot of reservists from Üsküb Infantry Division had deserted during the night, upon hearing that the Third Army had captured Pristina and that it was marching towards Skopje. Still, at 5:30, VII Corps started the attack. However, Morava Division I counterattacked at 6:00 and with the arrival of Timok Division II from the rear they forced the entire Ottoman left wing to retreat.

Around 9:30, Drina Division II from the rear echelon of the First Army arrived to the front and attacked the Ottoman centre. Around 11:00, Monastir Infantry Division started to retreat. The commander of VI Corps managed to temporarily halt the Serbian advance by using his last reserves, but in the repeated attack around 13:00, Drina Division I captured Zebrnjak, the main object in Ottoman defense, and forced 17th Infantry Division to retreat. With Üsküb Infantry Division and Monastir Infantry Division already retreating, the battle was resolved. At 15:00, Morava Division I entered Kumanovo.

Ottoman forces retreated in disorder: VII  and parts of VI Corps towards Skopje and V and parts of VI Corps towards Štip and Veles. Serbian troops missed the chance to pursue them.

Aftermath
The Ottoman Vardar Army fought the battle according to plan, but despite this, suffered a heavy defeat. Although Zeki Pasha operationally surprised the Serbian command by his sudden attack, the decision to act offensively against the superior enemy was a grave error which determined the outcome of Battle of Kumanovo. On the other side, the Serbian command started the battle without plans and preparations, and missed the chance to pursue the defeated enemy and effectively end the operations in the region, although it had the fresh troops of the rear echelon available for such action. Even after the end of battle, the Serbs still believed that it was fought against weaker Ottoman units and that main enemy forces were on Ovče Pole.

Nevertheless, the Battle of Kumanovo was a decisive factor in the outcome of the war in the region. The Ottoman plan for an offensive war had failed, and the Vardar Army was forced to abandon much territory and lost a significant number of artillery pieces without the possibility to reinforce, because the supply routes from Anatolia were cut.

The Vardar Army was not able to organise the defense on Vardar River and was forced to abandon Skopje, retreating all the way to Prilep. The First Army advanced slowly and entered Skopje on 26 October. Two days later, it was strengthened by Morava Division II, while the rest of the Third Army was sent to Western Kosovo and then through northern Albania to the Adriatic coast. The Second Army was sent to aid the Bulgarians in the Siege of Adrianople, while the First Army was preparing for an offense towards Prilep and Bitola.

Notes

Citations

References

External links
Lecture (in Serbian) - Battle of Kumanovo - the crown jewel of Serbian military strategy
Balkan Wars: Battle of Kumanovo 1912 (DOCUMENTARY)
Song about the Kumanovo battle written 1 year after the original battle

Battles of the First Balkan War
Conflicts in 1912
1912 in the Ottoman Empire
Battles involving the Ottoman Empire
Battles involving Serbia
Military history of North Macedonia
Kosovo vilayet
Vardar Macedonia (1912–1918)
Battles of the Ottoman–Serbian Wars
October 1912 events

Battle of Kumanovo


Jean Elleinstein (6 August 1927 – 16 January 2002) was a French historian specializing in communism.

Biography
Son of a small industrialist, Jean Elleinstein had to cross the demarcation line in 1941 and live illegally until 1944 when he joined the Milices Patriotiques (Patriotic Militia) in Megève. He joined the French Communist Party at the Liberation at the age of seventeen. He soon became a Party member, first as a journalist with the communist press agency, then at the PCF press office, before being assigned to the Mouvement Jeunes Communistes de France and the World Federation of Democratic Youth.

His activities against the Indochina war, caused him to spend a few weeks in prison in 1949, then sixteen months in hiding in 1952–53. He then resumed his studies, became a professor in 1954, passed the CAPES (diploma in teaching - secondary schools) in history in 1958, his diploma in teaching higher education in 1960 and was appointed lecturer. At the same time, he was responsible for the founding of the Union of Communist Students.

The 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1956 and, in 1960–1961, the "Servin-Casanova affair" - named after two high-ranking Communist leaders sanctioned for their Khrushchevian theses - shook his convictions. A little marginal in the party, but strongly supported by Roland Leroy,  Elleinstein used a freedom of tone that brought him closer to the Italian or Spanish communists. Appointed deputy director of the Center for Marxist Studies and Research, between 1972 and 1975 he published a 4-volume history of the Soviet Union (Histoire de l'URSS) in which he diverted substantially from the orthodox version that had been expressed since 1945 by Jean Bruhat. In line with the policy of openness of the time of the Union of the Left and Eurocommunism, his history was authorised by the PCF.  Further exploiting his freedom to speake, in 1975 Elleinstein published History of the Stalinist phenomenon  in which he analyzes Stalinism as the unfortunate product of historical circumstances.

The 22nd French Communist Party Congress in 1976   was marked by an attempted break with the Soviet system spearheaded by . Ellerstein became the non-official spokesman for a communism now redefined to be democratic and revised, with his book, Le PC, (the  French Communist Party), and his Open Letter to the French people about a reformed republic based on the Programme commun,

Following the failure of the Union of the Left in 1977 and the rapprochement of PCF leader Georges Marchais with Brezhnev, and especially in view of Ellerstein's regular contributions to Le Figaro Magazine, by the second half of 1980,  the conventional wisdom among upper echelons of the PCF was "that he had ejected himself from the party" and that there was therefore no need to eject him formally.

Notes and references

Bibliography
  The Revolution of Revolutions , Paris, Social Publishing, 1967.
 "History of the USSR", in 4 volumes: "The conquest of power, 1917-1921" (Paris, Social Publishing, Our time collection, 1972, 215 p.);  Socialism in one country  (Paris, Social Editions, 1973, 313 p.); "USSR at War, 1939-1946" (Paris, Social Editions, 1974, 236 p.); "The contemporary USSR" (Paris, Social Editions, 1975, 323 p.).
 "History of the Stalinist phenomenon", Paris, Grasset, 1975, 248 p.
  The PC , Paris, Grasset, 1976, 210 p.
  Letter open to the French on the Republic of the Common Program , Paris, Albin Michel, 1977, 215 p.
  A certain idea of communism , Paris, Julliard, 1979.
  Unexpected dialogue , with Thierry Maulnier, Flammarion, 1979.
 "History of Communism (1917-1945)", Paris, Janninck Edition, 1980, 158 p.
  They deceive you, Comrades , Paris, Pierre Belfond, 1981, 214 p.
  Marx, his life, his work , Paris, Fayard, 1981, 735 p.
 Jacques Grandjonc: "Jean Elleinstein: Marx, his life, his work, Fayard, Paris 1981" ("Cahiers d'Etudes Allemiques", University of Provence, Aix Center, 1982, 1 -15 ) German ( Wie eine Biographie von Marx nicht zu schreiben ist ) ( Beiträge zur Marx-Engels-Forschung 15 , Berlin 1984, )
 'Stalin' ', Paris, Fayard, 1984, 575 p.
 "World History of Socialism", Armand Colin, 1984.
  Goliath against Goliath 1941-1949; the childhood of the Great , Paris, Fayard, 1986.
  The cold peace; history of US-USSR relations since 1950 , Paris, London, 1988.
  From one Russia to another, life and death of the USSR '', Éditions Sociales, 1992, 763 p.

Related article
 Kremlinology

1927 births
2002 deaths
20th-century French historians
Historians of communism
French Communist Party members
French Marxist historians

Jean Elleinstein