The 1958 FIFA World Cup was the sixth FIFA World Cup, a quadrennial football tournament for men's senior national teams, and was played in Sweden from 8 to 29 June 1958. It was the first FIFA World Cup to be played in a Nordic country.

Brazil beat Sweden 5–2 in the final in Solna, Stockholm, to claim their first title, having beaten France in the semi-final and Wales in the quarter-final. The tournament also marked the arrival of a then 17-year-old Pelé on the world stage, who scored in all three of Brazil's knockout games.

This was the first appearance of Wales at the FIFA World Cup. They would not qualify for another until 64 years later. This tournament also marked the debuts of fellow British side Northern Ireland, as well as the Soviet Union. West Germany the defending champions were eliminated by World Cup runners up Sweden and would lose to France in a third place match.

Host selection

Argentina, Chile, Mexico, and Sweden expressed interest in hosting the tournament. Swedish delegates lobbied other countries at the FIFA Congress held in Rio de Janeiro around the opening of the 1950 World Cup finals. Sweden was awarded the 1958 tournament unopposed on 23 June 1950.

Qualification

The hosts (Sweden) and the defending champions (West Germany) qualified automatically. Of the remaining 14 places, nine were allocated to Europe, three to South America, one to North/Central America, and one to Asia/Africa.

Aside from the main European zone matches, Wales, which finished second in its group behind Czechoslovakia, was drawn into a play-off with Israel after Israel won its group by default because its three opponents, Turkey, Indonesia and Sudan, refused to play. FIFA had imposed a rule that no team would qualify without playing at least one match, something that had happened in several previous World Cups. Wales won the play-off and qualified for the first time. With Northern Ireland making its debut, and England and Scotland also qualifying, this World Cup was the only one to date to feature all four of the United Kingdom's Home Nations.

This World Cup also saw the entry and qualification of the Soviet Union for the first time, while Argentina appeared for the first time since 1934.  It was also the first one for which Italy failed to qualify (Italy did not take part in the 1930 tournament but there was no qualification for that competition). Other teams that failed to qualify included two-time champions and 1954 semifinalists Uruguay, as well as Spain and Belgium.

On 8 February 1958, in Solna, Lennart Hyland and Sven Jerring presented the results of the draw where the qualified teams were divided into four groups. Seeding was geographical rather than by team strength, with each group containing one western European team, one eastern European team, one of the four British teams that had qualified, and one from the Americas.

List of qualified teams

The following 16 teams qualified for the final tournament.

AFC (0)
 None qualified
CAF (0)
 None qualified

NAFC (1)

CCCF (0)
 None qualified
CONMEBOL (3)

UEFA (12)

  (debut)

  (debut)
  (hosts)
  (debut)
  (title holders)

Format

The format of the competition changed from 1954: 16 teams still competed in four groups of four, but this time each team played each of the other teams in its group at least once, without extra time in the event of a draw. Two points were awarded for a win and one point for a draw. If the first two teams finished on equal points then goal average would decide who was placed first and second. As in 1954, if the second and third placed teams finished on the same points, then there would be a play-off with the winner going through. If a play-off resulted in a draw, goal average from the group games would be used to determine who went through to the next round. If the goal averages were equal then lots would have been drawn. These arrangements had not been finalised by the time the tournament started and were still being debated as it progressed. Some teams complained that a play-off match, meaning three games in five days, was too much, and before the second round of group matches FIFA informed the teams that goal average would be used before resorting to a play-off. This was overturned when the Swedish Football Association complained, stating that it was wrong to change the rules mid-tournament, but also because it wanted the extra revenue from playoff matches.

This was the first time that goal average was available to separate teams in a World Cup. It was used to separate the teams finishing first and second in one of the groups. However, all three playoffs finished with decisive results and so it was not needed to separate the teams involved in a tied playoff.

Almost all the matches kicked off simultaneously in each of the three rounds of the group phase, as did the quarter-finals and semi-finals. The exceptions were Sweden's three group matches, all of which were televised by Sveriges Radio; these started at other times so Swedes could attend other matches without missing their own team's. Apart from these, one match per round was televised, and relayed across Europe by the European Broadcasting Union (EBU). Many Swedes bought their first television for the World Cup.

The official ball was the "Top-Star VMbollen 1958" model made by Sydsvenska Läder & Remfabriks AB (aka "Remmen" or "Sydläder") in Ängelholm. It was chosen from 102 candidates in a blind test by four FIFA officials.

Summary

In Group 4, Pelé and Garrincha did not play until the last of Brazil's group games, against the Soviet Union. Pelé failed to score, but provided the assist to Vavá's second goal. Brazil won the game 2–0 (also thanks to an impressive exhibition of dribbling prowess by Garrincha) and the group by two points. Previously, they had drawn 0–0 with England in what was the first ever goalless game in World Cup history. Eventually, the Soviet Union and England went to a playoff game, in which Anatoli Ilyin scored in the 67th minute to knock England out, while Austria had already been eliminated. The English side had been weakened by the Munich air disaster earlier in the year, which killed three internationals on the books of Manchester United, including England's young star Duncan Edwards.

Playoffs were also needed in Group 1 (Northern Ireland beat Czechoslovakia to join the defending champions West Germany in the quarter-finals) and Group 3 (Wales topped Hungary to advance with hosts Sweden). Hungary had become a spent force after their appearance in the final of the previous tournament. They had lost their best players two years before, when they fled in the wake of the failed uprising against the communist regime. In a rather restrictive sense, from the 1954 team, only goalkeeper Gyula Grosics, defender Jozsef Bozsik and forward Nándor Hidegkuti remained.

In Group 2, Scotland faced Yugoslavia, Paraguay, and France. France topped the group, with Just Fontaine netting six goals. Yugoslavia finished second, while Scotland came in last.

The quarter-finals saw France's Just Fontaine continue in similar form as in the group stage, managing another two goals as France triumphed over Northern Ireland. West Germany's Helmut Rahn put them into the semi-finals with a single goal against Yugoslavia, while Sweden went through at the expense of USSR. The other game in the quarter-finals saw Pelé score the only goal for Brazil against Wales.

In the semi-finals, Sweden continued their strong run as they defeated West Germany 3–1 in a vicious game that saw the German player Erich Juskowiak sent off (the first ever German player to be sent off in an international game) and German veteran forward Fritz Walter injured, which further weakened the German team (substitutes were first allowed in the 1970 FIFA World Cup).

In the other semi-final, Brazil and France were tied 1–1 for much of the first half. However, 36 minutes into the game French captain and most experienced defender Robert Jonquet suffered broken leg in a clash with Vavá, and France was down to ten men for the rest of the game (substitutions were not allowed back then). Brazil dominated the rest of the match, as a Pelé hat-trick gave them a 5–2 victory. Fontaine of France added one goal to his impressive tally.

The third place match saw Fontaine score four more goals as France defeated West Germany 6–3. This brought his total to 13 goals in one competition, a record that still stands.

Final
The final was played in Solna, in the Råsunda Stadium; 50,000 people watched as the Brazilians went a goal down after four minutes. However Vavá equalised shortly afterwards and then put them a goal ahead before half time. In the second half, Pelé outshone everyone, notching two goals, including the first one where he lobbed the ball over Bengt Gustavsson then followed it with a precise volley shot. Zagallo added a goal in between, and Sweden managed a consolation goal.

The Final saw many records made in World Cup history that still stand . At age 17, Pelé simultaneously became the youngest player to participate in, score, and win a World Cup final. Conversely, Nils Liedholm became the oldest player to score in a World Cup Final at 35 years 263 days. This final had the highest number of goals scored by a winning team (5), the highest number of total goals scored (7), and together with the 1970 and 1998 finals shares the highest goal margin of difference (3); Brazil played in all those three finals.

The game is also notable for many firsts in FIFA World Cup. With the exception of the 1950 FIFA World Cup final group stage, this marked the first time that a World Cup host reached the final without winning it. Additionally, the match marked the first time two nations from different continents (Europe and South America) met in a World Cup final. It also marks the first and only World Cup hosted in Europe not won by a European team; a feat mirrored in 2014 where a World Cup hosted in the Americas was not won by a team from the Americas for the first time, with Germany beating Argentina 1–0 at the final.

Venues
A total of twelve cities throughout the central and southern parts of Sweden hosted the tournament. FIFA regulations required at least six stadiums to have a capacity of at least 20,000. If Denmark had qualified, the organisers had planned to use the Idrætsparken in Copenhagen for Denmark's group matches. The Idrætsparken was renovated in 1956 with this in mind, but Denmark lost out to England in qualification. When doubts arose about whether funding would be forthcoming for rebuilding the Ullevi and Malmö Stadion, the organisers considered stadiums in Copenhagen and Oslo as contingency measures.

The Råsunda Stadium was expanded from 38,000 for the World Cup by building end stands. Organising committee chairman Holger Bergérus mortgaged his house to pay for this. The new Malmö Stadion was built for the World Cup, replacing the 1896 Malmö Stadion at a new site. The Idrottsparken had 4,709 seats added for the World Cup. The Social Democratic municipal government refused to pay for this until the organisers threatened to select Folkungavallen in Linköping instead. At the Rimnersvallen, a stand from the smaller Oddevallen stadium was moved to Rimnersvallen for the World Cup. The crowd at Brazil v. Austria was estimated at 21,000, with more looking in from the adjoining hillside. The most used stadium was the Råsunda Stadium in Stockholm, which hosted 8 matches including the final, followed by the Ullevi Stadium in Gothenburg (the biggest stadium used during the tournament), which hosted 7 matches. The Malmö Stadium hosted 4 matches, Norrköping hosted 3 matches; Borås, Halmstad, Helsingborg, Västerås and Sandviken hosted 2 matches each and Örebro, Eskilstuna and Uddevalla each hosted 1 match.

Match officials

22 match officials were assigned to the tournament to serve as referees and assistant referees.

Europe
  Fritz Seipelt
  Lucien van Nuffel
  Martin Macko
  Carl Jørgensen
  Arthur Ellis
  Reginald Leafe
  Arne Eriksson
  Maurice Guigue
  István Zsolt
  Vincenzo Orlandini
  Jan Bronkhorst
  Joaquim Campos
  Jack Mowat
  Juan Gardeazábal Garay
  Sten Ahlner
  Raymond Wyssling
  Nikolai Latyshev
  Mervyn Griffiths
  Albert Dusch
  Leo Lemešić

South America
  Juan Brozzi
  José María Codesal

Seeding
There was no seeding for this World Cup; the teams were instead allocated geographically into four pots chosen by the FIFA Organising Committee. Teams were drawn from each pot into Groups 1–4 in numerical order.

Preventing the defending champions from meeting the hosts in the group stage, either by seeding or predetermined group positions, was a practiced tradition throughout the history of the FIFA World Cup, with 1934 and 1954 being the only two exceptions. This tradition continued in 1958, with West Germany as defending champion and host nation Sweden both being allocated into the same Western European Pot, which kept them from meeting in the group stage.

The geographical basis of the seeding attracted criticism, especially from Austria, who were drawn against the teams considered strongest in each of the other three pots.

Squads
For a list of all squads that appeared in the final tournament, see 1958 FIFA World Cup squads.

Group stage

Group 1

The West Germans, surprise world champions four years before, were still very strong, and fielded an exciting young forward in Uwe Seeler. The Germans had to contend with a real powerhouse in Argentina's team, competing for the first time since 1934. In fact, some experts thought Argentina had a very realistic chance of reaching the semi-finals or even winning the World Cup this time.
Czechoslovakia was a fairly strong team with a rich football tradition, and was considered to be no walkover for the West Germans or the Argentinians.

Nobody expected much from tiny newcomers Northern Ireland. But the Northern Irish had already shown that they could be a danger by knocking out double world champions Italy in World Cup qualifying.
In the end, the Northern Irish pulled off one of the biggest upsets in World Cup Finals history by qualifying for the quarter-finals, beating Czechoslovakia in a play-off.

Argentina experienced a horrible blow finishing last in the group with a −5 goal differential. Arriving home, the Argentinian team met the wrath of several thousand angry football fans at Ezeiza Airport in Buenos Aires.

 Northern Ireland finished ahead of Czechoslovakia by winning a play-off

Play-off

Group 2

The second group saw the largest number of goals scored in a single group in the 1958 World Cup with 31 goals in total (~5.16 goals per game). Just Fontaine of France scored 6 of his 13 goals in the tournament, making him the tournament's top scorer going into the quarter-finals.

None of the teams in this group had been particularly successful at previous World Cups. France, despite having hosted the 1938 event, had not achieved any real World Cup success, Yugoslavia had not been able to replicate their semi-final success of 1930 and Paraguay and Scotland were considered underdogs during the tournament.

France won the group ahead of Yugoslavia and would go on to finish third.

 France finished ahead of Yugoslavia on goal average

Group 3

The Swedish hosts could count themselves lucky in ending up in a rather weak group which they proceeded to win fairly easily with their powerful workmanlike football. The group included Hungary which had been considered by far the best team in the world some years ago – although the Hungarians could not beat West Germany in the final of the World Cup in 1954. But the Hungarian team had been dealt a blow by the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 after which star players like Sándor Kocsis and Ferenc Puskás left their homeland. Striker Nándor Hidegkuti was still playing, but he was by now 36 years old and nowhere near his previous form.

In spite of Hungary's recent travails, they were still considered a strong side and were expected to advance from their group. The success of Wales was a surprise but they drew all their group games and beat the Hungarians in a play-off match to follow Sweden into the knock-out stage. Wales played Brazil in the quarterfinals and became the recipient of young Pelé's first World Cup goal.

The 1–1 draw between Wales and Mexico was the first point scored by Mexico in a World Cup, having lost all eight matches in their previous three appearances in the World Cup, as well as their first match in this group against Sweden. To date, no other team has ever lost nine consecutive games in the World Cup.

The match between Hungary and Wales in Sandviken became the northernmost World Cup match in history.

 Wales finished ahead of Hungary by winning a play-off

Play-off

Group 4

Despite the disappointments of the previous tournaments, Brazil were considered extremely powerful, as would prove to be the case. The Soviet Union were the reigning Olympic champion and Austria had won the bronze medal in the 1954 World Cup in Switzerland, four years earlier. And although England, weakened by the loss of several players at the Munich air disaster, were not considered at their very best, they were still always a formidable team.

In the end, this group had the highest average attendance (31,320 per game), even higher than Group 3 with the host nation, Sweden.

The quality of the football in this group did not quite live up to expectations, however. Only 15 goals were scored in the whole group, only one more than Group 3. And when England and Brazil drew 0–0, it was the first time in World Cup history that a game ended goalless. It was also the first time Brazil had failed to score in a World Cup finals match.

Brazil won the group without conceding a single goal. The teenage Pelé played Brazil's last game against the Soviet Union. He did not score but drew wild reviews for his play. The Soviet Union, in their first World Cup, took second place.

 The Soviet Union finished ahead of England by winning a play-off

Play-off

Knockout stage

Bracket

Quarter-finals

Semi-finals

Third place play-off

Final

Goalscorers
With 13 goals, Just Fontaine was the top scorer in the tournament. , no player has ever scored more goals in a single FIFA World Cup Final stage. In total, 126 goals were scored by 60 players, with none of them credited as an own goal.

13 goals
  Just Fontaine

6 goals
  Pelé
  Helmut Rahn

5 goals
  Vavá
  Peter McParland

4 goals
  Zdeněk Zikán
  Lajos Tichy
  Kurt Hamrin
  Agne Simonsson

3 goals
  Omar Oreste Corbatta
  Raymond Kopa
  Roger Piantoni
  Hans Schäfer
  Todor Veselinović

2 goals

  José Altafini
  Milan Dvořák
  Václav Hovorka
  Derek Kevan
  Maryan Wisnieski
  Juan Bautista Agüero
  Florencio Amarilla
  José Parodi
  Jorge Lino Romero
  Anatoli Ilyin
  Nils Liedholm
  Ivor Allchurch
  Uwe Seeler
  Aleksandar Petaković

1 goal

  Ludovico Avio
  Norberto Menéndez
  Karl Koller
  Alfred Körner
  Didi
  Nílton Santos
  Mário Zagallo
  Jiří Feureisl
  Tom Finney
  Johnny Haynes
  Yvon Douis
  Jean Vincent
  József Bencsics
  József Bozsik
  Károly Sándor
  Jaime Belmonte
  Wilbur Cush
  Cayetano Ré
  Sammy Baird
  Bobby Collins
  Jackie Mudie
  Jimmy Murray
  Aleksandr Ivanov
  Valentin Ivanov
  Nikita Simonyan
  Gunnar Gren
  Lennart Skoglund
  John Charles
  Terry Medwin
  Hans Cieslarczyk
  Radivoje Ognjanović
  Zdravko Rajkov

All-Star Team
The team of the tournament voted by journalists was as follows:

 Goalkeeper: Harry Gregg
 Defenders: Orvar Bergmark, Hilderaldo Bellini, Nílton Santos
 Midfielders: Yuriy Voynov, Horst Szymaniak
 Forwards: Garrincha, Didi, Raymond Kopa, Pelé, Lennart Skoglund

Although Just Fontaine got more votes than any other forward, they were split between the left and right inside forward positions. The All-Star Team scored 12 goals in total. Fontaine scored 13.

FIFA retrospective ranking

In 1986, FIFA published a report that ranked all teams in each World Cup up to and including 1986, based on progress in the competition, overall results and quality of the opposition. The rankings for the 1958 tournament were as follows:

In popular culture
The 1958 FIFA World Cup is depicted in the 2016 American film Pelé: Birth of a Legend which is centered around Pelé and the Brazilian team's journey to winning the tournament.

See also

 Conspiracy 58, a mockumentary conspiracy theory film claiming the 1958 World Cup never happened.

References

Citations

External links

1958 FIFA World Cup Sweden , FIFA.com
Details at RSSSF

FIFA World Cup tournaments
International association football competitions hosted by Sweden
World Cup
World Cup
FIFA World Cup
International sports competitions in Malmö
International sports competitions in Gothenburg
FIFA World Cup
FIFA World Cup
Sports competitions at Olympia (Helsingborg)
Sports competitions in Sandviken
Sports competitions in Uddevalla
Sports competitions in Eskilstuna
Sports competitions in Västerås
Sports competitions in Norrköping
Sports competitions in Borås
Sports competitions in Örebro
Sports competitions at Stadionområdet (Malmö)

1958 FIFA World Cup


Selime formerly known as Salamis (Ancient Greek: Σαλαμίς) is a town (belde) and municipality in the Güzelyurt District, Aksaray Province, Turkey. Its population is 1,796 (2021).

History
In these fairy chimneys lived Christians fleeing from Romans. When Christianity was accepted in Rome, churchs and cathedrals were built here.

There is a battle castle on a hill there. the Byzantines fought Ali Pasha from the Seljuk Dynasty in this castle. Ali Pasha became a martyr. Selime Tomb was built for him. Also, since this place was under the rule of Ottoman for many years, the Ottomans built Sinan Bey Mosque (1524) here.

Selime;
It is one of the chimneys of volcano with heights of Hasan Mountain 3258 m, Melendiz Mountain 3000 m, Göllü Mountain 2650 m, which became active about 10 million years ago in the Upper Miocene period. This is a region where the precursor material cold tuffs that come out and cover a large area, then the tuffs that came into contact with the volcanic heat, and then the materials that flow from the craters and spread over the flat plain and form a layer of a certain thickness, is here. Natural events occurring over many millions of years "erosion; earthquakes, annual temperature difference, snow, rain, wind and [[Melendiz Stream] passing nearby ]] has provided this region with a magnificent natural look.

Selime became a municipality on July 1, 1992, with the status of municipality.

Places of Interest
 Selime Cathedral
 Selime Peri Bacalari
 Selime Sultan Tomb

Gallery

See also
 Selime Sultan Tomb

References

Populated places in Güzelyurt District, Aksaray
Town municipalities in Turkey

Selime, Güzelyurt


Silvina Milstein (born 12 February 1956, in Buenos Aires) is an Argentine composer and scholar of twentieth-century music, living in the United Kingdom and teaching at King's College London. Her music has been described as "turbulent and hesitantly ecstatic", as well as "highly poetic", "rich and dense". In 2018 her piece shan shui was nominated for the prestigious Royal Philharmonic Society Award for Chamber-Scale Composition.

Background and education

Milstein emigrated to Britain after the Argentinian military coup of 1976. Her early musical education had taken place at the Collegium Musicum of Buenos Aires and the Escuela de Bellas Artes of the University of La Plata. At Glasgow University her main composition teachers were Judith Weir and Lyell Cresswell. She was awarded a prize as the most distinguished female graduate in the Faculty of Arts. Later she studied under Alexander Goehr, with whom she has also carried out extensive research into the music of Arnold Schoenberg.

In the late 1980s she held a Research Fellowship at Jesus College followed by a combined research and teaching Fellowship at King's College, Cambridge. She is now a professor of music at King's College London.

In addition to her own compositional work her interests concern the musical and intellectual environment of the Second Viennese School, and of Schoenberg in particular. The main core of her teaching is in composition, twentieth-century music history, and analysis of contemporary music.

Work as a composer

Over the past fifteen to twenty years she has explored musical forms arising from heightened states of awareness, borrowing from a wealth of artistic media and spiritual traditions. These preoccupations are evident in two works written for the London Sinfonietta – tigres azules, in which by her own account Milstein sought to investigate "the compositional potential of treating the 'present moment as an infinite dream'", and surrounded by distance …, an exploration of "the indefinable, yet seemingly precise manner in which musical shapes and configurations arise spontaneously as evocative appearances and illusory continuities, as described in the Lankavatara Sutra."

An important strand in Milstein's music is the use of evocative gestures that draw on the vernacular music of Buenos Aires, a procedure which she evolved in musica ciudadana (1995) and a media luz (2000) as a means of furnishing a composition with a sense of modality. These pieces are like kaleidoscopic collages made out of evocative fragments of characteristic rhythms, turns of phrase and sonorities from Argentinian popular music (tango, milonga, bolero), embodied in textures inspired by the music of the Second Viennese School.

The writer and musicologist John Fallas has pointed out a shift in her work around 1992, from works that carry genre titles – often Schoenbergian ones – to a concern with colour and fantasy.

Her music has been played by some of the leading orchestras, ensembles and performers in Britain and abroad, such as Ensemble Modern (Frankfurt), the London Sinfonietta, Lontano, the BBC Singers, the Endellion String Quartet and Jane Manning. Her compositions have been championed by the conductors Oliver Knussen and Odaline de la Martinez, who have been instrumental in the commissioning of many of them.

Research interests

In her book Arnold Schoenberg: notes, sets, forms, Milstein proposes a hypothetical reconstruction of Schoenberg's conception of compositional process in his twelve-tone music. The core of the book consists of detailed analytical studies, which rely heavily on factors outside the score (such as the sketch material, the composer's theoretical and philosophical writings, his musical development and cultural milieu). In this sense her work extends beyond the boundaries of textual analysis into the field of the history of musical ideas.

Although the main focus of Milstein's work for the last two decades has been in composition, there is much overlap between her analytical work and compositional thinking. For instance, her article on the first movement of Alexander Goehr's Schlussgesang (2003) is an attempt to provide a hypothetical reconstruction of the compositional process, from an embryonic sketch (displaying many technical annotations) to its fully fledged realization. This is the first study to offer a comprehensive technical discussion of Goehr's post-serial harmonic practice in its aesthetic context, and explores Goehr's synthesis of French and Austro-German approaches to tonality and modality and their relation to his understanding of Schoenbergian dodecaphony.

Milstein has recently addressed the role of cross-cultural memory in her work, commenting that "Having written a book on the nature of compositional process in Schoenberg's music in the eighties, I have reflected extensively on the implications of using traditional Western means for achieving musical continuity when dealing with symbolic spaces drawn from non-European traditions."

Selected compositions

[The following information is taken from fuller lists at  and.]

Janus for clarinet and electronic tape (1984, premiered by Lontano)
Sombras (1985; co-winner of the Ralph Vaughan Williams Trust/SPNM Orchestral Award)
String Quartet (1989, premiered by the Bingham String Quartet)
Piano Phantasy after Mozart K. 475 for solo piano (1992, revised in 2017)
Music of the City - Musica Ciudadana (1993; premiered by BBC Scottish Symphony Orchestra)
A love song for Psyche and Cupid* for mezzo-soprano, violin, cello and piano (1994; premiered by Jane Manning, Darragh Morgan, Kim Mackrell and Robert Keeley)
Nova Polska for chamber chorus, solo tenor and chamber orchestra (1995;  premiered by the BBC Singers and the London Chamber Symphony)
Book of Shadows for string quartet and narrator (1998; commissioned by the Endellion String Quartet)
of lavender light for chamber ensemble (1999; commissioned by Lontano)
a media luz (2000; premiered by BBC Scottish Symphony Orchestra)
The Unending Rose for solo violin (2001, commissioned by Darragh Morgan)
So light upon the wind … (Dante, Inferno, Canto V): aria for twelve instruments  (2002, commissioned by  Lontano)
fire dressed in black (2002, commissioned by Vanitas)
tigres azules (2004; commissioned by London Sinfonietta)
cristales y susurros – whispering crystals (2005; commissioned by Lontano)
surrounded by distance ... (2008; second London Sinfonietta commission)
a thousand golden bells in the breeze for double-manual harpsichord (2009, commissioned by Chau-Yee Lo; separate trio version for harp and 2 double basses, 2012)
de oro y sombra ... (2011; commissioned by Birmingham Contemporary Music Group, world premiere 25 September 2011)
ochre, umber and burnt sienna (2012; written for Lontano)
in a bowl of grey-blue leaves  for two pianos (2014)
ushnarasmou / untimely spring for mixed choir a cappella (2015), a setting of extracts from the Kumārasambhava commissioned by The Choir of King's College London
fretted sounding-boards for mezzo-soprano and piano (2015), a setting of John Fuller's 'A Short History of the Piano'
while your sound lingered on in lions and rocks for 2 trumpets and harp (2016), after a poem by Rainer Maria Rilke
shan shui (mountain – water) for mixed nonet (2017); nominated for the 2018 Royal Philharmonic Society Award for Chamber-Scale Composition
y la eternidad golpeteando por siempre en relojes de piedra (and eternity forever striking on clocks of stone) for piano and string quartet (2018), after a poem by Osip Mandelstam

Discography

fire dressed in black: chamber works performed by Lontano cond. Odaline de la Martinez
In Memoriam (includes Milstein's ushnarasmou / untimely spring), Choir of King's College London cond. Gareth Wilson, Delphian DCD34146
of gold and shadows Volume 1, Lorelt LNT 141
of gold and shadows Volume 2, Lorelt LNT 142

References

External links
 King's College London, Department of Music: staff pages
 Official Website, Silvina Milstein
 Composers Edition, Silvina Milstein
 Sound and Music composer profile
 Video interview with Silvina Milstein before premiere of de oro y sombra
 Rehearsal footage of Birmingham Contemporary Music Group preparing the premiere of de oro y sombra
 Inaugural lecture as Professor of Music, King's College London - 'Musings and reminiscences on the mysteries of composing music: forewords and postscripts', 19 October 2012

Academics of King's College London
Argentine composers
Argentine women composers
1956 births
Living people
Musicians from Buenos Aires

Silvina Milstein


Air Force One is a 1997 American action-thriller movie written by Andrew W. Marlowe and directed by Wolfgang Petersen. It is about a group of Russian terrorists hijacking Air Force One. It stars Harrison Ford, Gary Oldman, Glenn Close, Xander Berkeley, Jürgen Prochnow, William H. Macy, Dean Stockwell, Wendy Crewson, Philip Baker Hall and Paul Guilfoyle. The President of the United States  Bill Clinton praised it. The movie was composed by Jerry Goldsmith. It was released on July 25, 1997. It received positive reviews from critics. It currently has a 78% on rotten tomatoes and has a score of 61 out of 100.

References

Other websites
Air Force One DailyScript.com

1997 action movies
1997 thriller movies
Movies directed by Wolfgang Petersen
Movies composed by Jerry Goldsmith
1990s English-language movies
Columbia Pictures movies
Political movies
Movies about terrorism
Movies about dictators
1990s action thriller movies
American action thriller movies
American crime thriller movies
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Air Force One (movie)


Juan Bustos (December 8, 1935, Santiago – August 7, 2008) was a Chilean politician, law professor and lawyer. He served as the President of the Chamber of Deputies of Chile from March 13, 2008 until his death on August 7, 2008. He was known as an ardent opponent of the Augusto Pinochet dictatorship and the human rights abuses committed by the regime.

Bustos lived in exile for 14 years while Chile was ruled by the Pinochet military junta from 1973 until 1990. After his return he played a major role in uncovering cases of human rights abuses. Bustos, a top Chilean law professor and human rights lawyer, represented many of the families of people killed by the Pinochet government. During the Pinochet regime, nearly 3,000 people disappeared, while tens of thousands were arrested and tortured. Bustos represented the family of former Chilean Foreign Minister Orlando Letelier, an opponent of Pinochet who was killed by a car bomb in Washington D.C. in 1976. Letelier's assassination was linked to Pinochet military intelligence officials.

Bustos was first elected as a legislator in 1998 as a member of the Socialist Party of Chile. He served as President of the Chamber of Deputies of Chile on March 13, 2008, a position he held until his death in August 2008. He died before gaining congressional approval for the creation of a new institute to be tasked with investigating the disappearance of thousands of opponents of the Pinochet regime.

Bustos died of liver cancer in Santiago, Chile, on August 7, 2008, at the age of 72. He was survived by his wife and seven children.

Upon learning of Bustos's death, President Michelle Bachelet declared three days of national mourning.

References

1935 births
2008 deaths
Politicians from Santiago
Chilean people of Spanish descent
Socialist Party of Chile politicians
Deaths from cancer in Chile
Deaths from liver cancer
Chilean democracy activists
Chilean human rights activists
Presidents of the Chamber of Deputies of Chile
20th-century Chilean lawyers

Juan Bustos (politician)


The Khobar Towers bombing was a terrorist attack on part of a housing complex in the city of Khobar, Saudi Arabia, near the national oil company (Saudi Aramco) headquarters of Dhahran and nearby King Abdulaziz Air Base on 25 June 1996. At that time, Khobar Towers was being used as living quarters for coalition forces who were assigned to Operation Southern Watch, a no-fly zone operation in southern Iraq, as part of the Iraqi no-fly zones.

A truck bomb was detonated adjacent to Building #131, an eight-story structure housing members of the United States Air Force's 4404th Wing (Provisional), primarily from a deployed rescue squadron and deployed fighter squadron. In all, 19 U.S. Air Force personnel were killed and 498 of many nationalities were wounded.  The official 25 June 1996, statement by the United States named members of Hezbollah Al-Hejaz () as responsible. In 2006, a U.S. court found Iran and Hezbollah guilty of orchestrating the attack. In July 2020, a US court ordered Iran to pay $879m to the Khobar bombing survivors.

The attack

On 13 November 1995, a car bombing in Riyadh outside the headquarters of the OPM-SANG killed six Americans and two Indian citizens and injured about 70 others. This attack led the U.S. forces stationed at Khobar Towers to raise the threat condition to THREATCON DELTA. Days after this car bombing, military commanders briefed soldiers and airmen at Khobar that the U.S. had received anonymous communications from an organization claiming to have carried out the Riyadh attack. The attackers claimed their goal was to get the United States Armed Forces to leave the country, and that Khobar Towers would be attacked next if troop withdrawal did not begin immediately. It was at this time that surveillance and other suspicious activity near the perimeter fences of Khobar Towers was noted by United States Air Force Security Forces; however, the forces were forbidden by the Saudi government to act in any capacity outside the perimeter of the compound, and the surveillance continued with near impunity.

The attackers were reported to have smuggled explosives into Saudi Arabia from Lebanon. Al-Mughassil, Al-Houri, Al-Sayegh, Al-Qassab, and the unidentified Lebanese man bought a large latrine service tanker truck in early June 1996 in Saudi Arabia. Over a two-week period they converted it into a truck bomb. The group now had about  of plastic explosives, enough to produce a shaped charge that detonated with the force of at least  of TNT, according to a later assessment of the Defense Special Weapons Agency. The power of the blast was magnified several ways. The truck itself shaped the charge by directing the blast toward the building. Moreover, the relatively high clearance between the truck and the ground gave it the more lethal characteristics of an air burst.

It was originally estimated by U.S. authorities to have contained  of explosives. Later the General Downing report on the incident suggested that the explosion contained the equivalent of  of TNT. The attackers prepared for the attack by hiding large amounts of explosive materials and timing devices in paint cans and  bags underground in Qatif, a city near Khobar. The bomb was a mixture of petrol and explosive powder placed in the tank of a sewage tanker truck.

Initially, the attackers attempted to enter the compound at the main checkpoint. When they were denied access by U.S. military personnel, at around 9:43 p.m. local time, they drove a Datsun scout vehicle, another car and the bomb truck, to a parking lot adjacent to building #131. A chain link security fence and a line of small trees separated the car park, used for a local mosque and park, from the housing compound. The perimeter of Building #131 was approximately  from the fence line, with a perimeter road between the fence and building which was often used by military personnel for jogging. The first car entered the car park and signaled the others by flashing headlights. The bomb truck and a getaway vehicle followed shortly after. The men parked the truck next to the fence and left in the third vehicle. The bomb exploded three to four minutes later at approximately 10:20 p.m. local time.  The blast was so powerful that it was felt  away in the Persian Gulf state of Bahrain.

A U.S. Air Force security policeman, Staff Sergeant Alfredo R. Guerrero, was stationed atop Building #131 when he witnessed the men, recognized the vehicles as a threat, reported it to security, and began a floor-by-floor evacuation of the building. His actions are credited with saving dozens of lives. Many of the evacuees were in the stairwell when the bomb went off. The stairwell was constructed of heavy marble and was located on the side of the building away from the truck bomb, perhaps the safest location in the building. For his actions, Guerrero was awarded the Airman's Medal.

Another security measure is thought to have minimized damage; along the security fence were Jersey barriers, concrete barriers commonly used along roadways. These deflected the blast energy upward, and away from the lower floors of the building, perhaps even preventing a total collapse of the structure.

The force of the explosion was enormous. The size of the explosion created an intense dust storm as the forces of the high pressure blast wave and the subsequent vacuum forces caused considerable damage in their own right. Several military vehicles parked to the left side of building #131 suffered no direct impact from debris, but were heavily damaged by the sheer intensity of the shock wave.

The explosion heavily damaged or destroyed six high rise apartment buildings in the complex. Windows were shattered in virtually every other building in the compound and in surrounding buildings up to a mile (1.6 km) away. A very large crater,  wide and  deep, was left where the truck had been.  Within a few hours of the blast, the crater began to fill with salt-water from the Persian Gulf.  In the minutes following the blast, the residents of the complex evacuated severely injured U.S. military personnel from the area. With power out in many of the buildings near #131, the scene was chaotic and tense as little was known about the safety of the area from further attacks. Many residents later gathered in the local dining facility, set up as a triage center, and saw breaking news of the event on large projection televisions intended to bring news of events back home to the troops.

Victims
In all, 19 U.S. Air Force personnel were killed:

 Captain Christopher Adams
 Captain Leland Haun
 Master Sergeant Michael G. Heiser
 Master Sergeant Kendall K. Kitson
 Technical Sergeant Daniel B. Cafourek
 Technical Sergeant Patrick P. Fennig
 Technical Sergeant Thanh V. Nguyen
 Staff Sergeant Ronald King
 Staff Sergeant Kevin Johnson
 Sergeant Millard D. Campbell
 Senior Airman Earl F. Cartrette Jr.
 Senior Airman Jeremy A. Taylor
 Airman 1st Class Christopher Lester
 Airman 1st Class Brent E. Marthaler
 Airman 1st Class Brian W. McVeigh
 Airman 1st Class Peter W. Morgera
 Airman 1st Class Joseph E. Rimkus
 Airman 1st Class Justin Wood
 Airman 1st Class Joshua E. Woody

Aftermath

Investigation
After the blast, an assessment crew consisting of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), Diplomatic Security Service (DSS), and United States Air Force Office of Special Investigations (AFOSI) was sent to assess the risk to other security compounds in Saudi Arabia, and to offer suggestions for the Khobar Towers complex. It was suggested that Mylar tape be used to coat the windows for a barrier, but the cost, about US$4.5 million, was considered prohibitive. It was also suggested that the perimeter be expanded to at least 500 feet to protect servicemen from flying glass.

Intelligence and security failures
After the bombing of Khobar Towers, the U.S. military and intelligence community came under heavy criticism for their lack of preparation and foresight for what was considered an intelligence failure. According to the New York Times, "significant shortcomings in planning, intelligence, and basic security left American forces in Saudi Arabia vulnerable."

Numerous warnings had been made available to the intelligence community and military command, and up to "ten incidents [were] reported suggesting that the Khobar Towers are under surveillance" from April to June 1996. These warnings came both before and after the beheadings of four Saudi nationals after their publicly confessed role in the November 1995 attacks in Riyadh. Clinton Administration officials admit that they "received a wave of threats against Americans and American installations in Saudi Arabia" in the weeks leading up to the attack, "but failed to prepare adequately for a bomb of the power that killed 19 American military personnel." Threats were also downplayed by the Saudis when Defense Minister Prince Sultan bin Abd al-Aziz al-Saud characterized acts carried out by Saudi Islamic jihadists in 1995 as "boyish", and stated that the Saudi "Kingdom is not influenced by threats". Senator Arlen Specter (R-PA) commented during a Senate intelligence committee meeting by saying "there was no intelligence failure ... there had been more than 100 intelligence reports on alerts of a general nature, and very specific reports" of an extant and present threat to the Khobar Towers complex.

The CIA was blamed for misjudging the bomb-making capabilities of Saudi militants, arbitrarily deciding that no bomb could exceed the size of that used in the November 1995 bombings in Riyadh (200 lbs). According to official U.S. government estimates, the Khobar bomb weighed in at approximately 5,000 pounds. American commanders were also blamed, as they had not taken every precaution advised by the Pentagon; specifically, because "the project was deemed too costly", they had failed to implement a recommendation to coat Khobar's windows with plastic to prevent flying glass.

The main security concern at the Khobar Towers compound before the bombing had been the prevention of an attack similar to the 1983 Beirut barracks bombings, when a vehicle-bomb entered the compound itself. Yet the Pentagon's report from that incident suggested, as did the Khobar report, that a Beirut-sized bomb would still have caused significant damage from as far as 300 feet away. Officials concluded with the observation that bomb size was less important to the production of catastrophic results than that same bomb's effective proximity (blast radius).

Operational relocation
As a result of the terrorist attack, U.S. and coalition military operations at Khobar and Dhahran were subsequently relocated to Prince Sultan Air Base, a remote and highly secure Royal Saudi Air Force installation near Al-Kharj in central Saudi Arabia, approximately 70 miles from Riyadh. American, British, and French military operations would continue at Prince Sultan until late-2003, when French forces withdrew and American and British operations shifted to Al Udeid Air Base in Qatar.

Culpability

Initial blame
The bombing of Khobar Towers, according to the Saudi government, was carried out by "Saudi Islamic militants, including many veterans of the Afghan War." One U.S. official claimed that "it now seems it was not an isolated case. There is an organization of violent opponents whose members are loosely connected, organized in semi-independent cells like other violent fundamentalist movements in the Arab World."

Indictment
In April 1997, the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Gen. John Shalikashvili, said that the Pentagon did not have sufficient evidence about the bombers to consider retaliation against foreign countries that may have played a role.

In June 2001, an indictment was issued in United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia in Alexandria, Virginia charging the following people with murder, conspiracy, and other charges related to the bombing:
 Ahmed Ibrahim Al-Mughassil
 Hani al-Sayegh who had been previously in U.S. custody but deported to Saudi Arabia, when charges against him were dropped due to a lack of evidence.
 Ali al-Houri
 Hani al-Sayegh
 Ibrahim al-Yaqoub
  Abdel Karim al-Nasser
 Mustafa al-Qassab
 Sa'ed al-Bahar
 Abdallah al-Jarash
 Hussein al-Mughis
 Ali al-Marhoun
 Saleh Ramadan
 Mustafa al-Mu'alem
 Fadel al-Alawe
 John Doe (described as a Lebanese)

In July 2001, Saudi Arabia said that eleven of the people indicted in the US were in custody in Saudi prisons, and were to be tried in Saudi court, as the country refused to extradite any of them to the United States to stand trial.  The government has not since made public the outcome of the trial or the whereabouts of the prisoners.

In August 2015, Arab newspaper Asharq Al-Awsat reported that Ahmed Ibrahim Al-Mughassil, a leader of the gulf shia group Hezbollah Al-Hejaz found to be responsible for the bombing, had been arrested in Beirut and transferred to Saudi Arabian custody; an anonymous American intelligence officer told The New York Times that the Saudi government had not confirmed the arrest, but U.S. intelligence believed the report was accurate.

Attribution to al-Qaeda
Abdel Bari Atwan wrote:

In 2004, the 9/11 Commission noted that Osama bin Laden was seen being congratulated on the day of the Khobar attack, and stated there were reports in the months preceding the attack that Bin Laden was seeking to facilitate a shipment of explosives to Saudi Arabia. According to the United States, classified evidence suggests that the government of Iran was the key sponsor of the incident, and several high-ranking members of  their military may have been involved. A U.S. federal court speculated that the Khobar Towers bombing was authorized by Ali Khamenei, the Supreme Leader of Iran.

William Perry, who was the United States Secretary of Defense at the time that this bombing happened, said in an interview in June 2007 that "he now believes al-Qaida rather than Iran was behind a 1996 truck bombing at an American military base."

On 22 December 2006, high court judge Royce C. Lamberth ruled that Iran and Hezbollah were directly and personally responsible for the attack, stating that the leading experts on Hezbollah presented "overwhelming" evidence of the group's involvement and that six captured Hezbollah agents detailed the role of Iranian intelligence and military officials in providing money, explosives, arms and weapons, plans, and maps. This decision was reached as a default judgment, however, in which the Iranian government was not represented in court, because they chose not to challenge the allegations in a U.S. courtroom.

Implications for U.S.-Iran relations
Within days of the blast, counterterrorism officials on President Clinton's National Security Council staff concluded that elements inside Iran, specifically the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC), were the perpetrators. They put pressure on the president and his national security adviser, Sandy Berger, to take action. They were joined by others inside and outside the administration, notably FBI Director Louis J. Freeh and New York Times columnist Thomas Friedman. Before taking action, President Clinton insisted on proof that could stand up in both a court of law and the court of public opinion. In the meantime, he ordered a review of military options in case of a decision to punish Iran.

By the time Saudi Arabia and the FBI concluded their investigations, Iranians had elected a new president, Mohammad Khatami, in May 1997. Khatami surprised the international community by urging a "dialogue of civilizations" with the West in order to overcome almost two decades of animosity and Iranian isolation. Clinton, who had initially taken a stand toward the Islamic Republic, including imposing major economic sanctions on the country, reversed his thinking in the hope that Khatami potentially represented a game-changing shift in Iran's conduct.

The prospect of an opening with Tehran, which intrigued many U.S. allies and even domestic critics of administration policy, drove Clinton's response to the Khobar attack. The White House and State Department sent various signals to the Iranians, some of which they reciprocated, but ultimately hopes for a significant improvement in relations remained unfulfilled.

In June 1999, Clinton authorized what he later called a "Hail Mary," sending a direct message to Khatami. Delivered by Omani Foreign Minister Yousef bin Alawi in July, the letter attempted to achieve multiple purposes: to signal Tehran that Washington was open to a rapprochement but also to make clear that the United States held the IRGC responsible for the bombing. Clinton was under pressure from FBI Director Freeh and other domestic actors to press for accountability for the attack.

The attempt backfired. Although Khatami was reportedly happy with the American initiative, especially because it was accompanied by an oral message of strong personal support from Clinton delivered by the Omani envoy, the Iranian president's colleagues in the leadership, including Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei, reacted vehemently to the text of the letter.  Two months later, the Iranians responded with a written denunciation of the allegation of culpability and a refusal to consider boosting bilateral ties under such circumstances.

Beyond the Clinton administration's miscalculation of Iranian politics, the episode showed that the bombing would continue to cast a long shadow over U.S.-Iran relations in years to come.

See also
 List of Islamist terrorist attacks
 1983 Beirut barracks bombings
 2004 Khobar massacre
 Terrorism in Saudi Arabia
 Iran and state-sponsored terrorism
 Riyadh compound bombings (12 May 2003). The next major attack, which triggered a second series of terrorist attacks.
 The Kingdom: Feature film  inspired by the attack.
 The Siege, a 1998 film that utilizes stock footage from this bombing to portray a fictitious bombing of an army barracks

References

External links
 Bombing of Khobar Towers, Rewards for Justice Program, US Department of State
 House National Security Report hosted at the Federation of American Scientists
 Department of Defense Casualty Releases
 Memorial site for the soldiers lost in the Khobar Towers tragedy

1996 in Saudi Arabia
1996 in Iran
1996 in the United States
1996 crimes in Saudi Arabia
June 1996 events in Asia
Terrorist incidents in Saudi Arabia in 1996
Islamic terrorist incidents in 1996
Mass murder in 1996
Explosions in 1996
Attacks on military installations in the 1990s
Building bombings in Asia
Car and truck bombings in Asia
20th-century history of the United States Air Force
Khobar
Islamic fundamentalism in the United States
Iran–United States relations
Iran–Saudi Arabia relations
Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict
Saudi Arabia–United States relations
Presidency of Bill Clinton
Hezbollah attacks

Khobar Towers bombing


Superscalar technology supports basic parallel computing (specifically, instruction-level parallelism) on one CPU (processor), which allows more than one instruction in each clock cycle by using more than one execution unit at the same time.

Superscalar processors are often pipelined as well, but that's a different technology that allows more than one instruction at once in each execution unit, rather than using multiple execution units at once.

Superscalar technology usually involves:
 Instructions coming into the processor in order.
 The processor looking for data dependencies while it runs.
 Loading more than one instruction in each clock cycle

The simplest processors are scalar processors. On a scalar processor, instructions usually work with one or two data items at once. On a vector processor, instructions usually work with many data items at once. A superscalar processor is a mix of a scalar process and a vector processor: each instruction processes one data item, but more than one instruction runs at once, so many data items are handled at once by the processor.

In a superscalar processor, it's very important to have an accurate instruction dispatcher, so that the execution units are always busy with work that probably will be needed. If the instruction dispatcher isn't accurate, the processor will have to throw away some work and might not be any faster than a scalar processor. In 2008, all normal CPUs were superscalar, and could have up to 4 ALUs, 2 FPUs, and 2 SIMD units.

Limitations
The efficiency of superscalar design is limited by three things:
 How much parallelism is in the instruction list
 How long the dispatcher takes to check dependencies and how long register renaming takes
 The branch instruction processing
Existing programs have different levels of parallelism. In some cases, instructions are not dependent on each other and can be executed at the same time. In other cases, they are interdependent: one instruction affects another. The instructions a = b + c; d = e + f can be run in parallel because none of the results depend on other results, but the instructions a = b + c; b = e + f will probably have to be run in a specific order because a depends on b.

Although there might not be any interdependent instructions in the list, a superscalar processor still has to check for them, because there's no way to be sure there aren't any unless it checks, and if a dependency is missed the results will be wrong. No matter how fast the processor is, this limits how many instructions can be run at the same time. Checking for dependencies gets harder and harder, even while improvements in hardware manufacturing allow for more execution units in each CPU core.

Alternatives
 Simultaneous multithreading: often written as "SMT", this is a technique for improving the total speed of superscalar processors. SMT allows many independent threads of execution, to make better use of the resources available inside a modern superscalar processor.
 Multi-core processors: a multi-core CPU has many processors that each have their own instruction lists, rather than just many execution units.
 Pipelined processors: a pipelined CPU supports multiple instructions at different stages of execution inside each execution unit.

All of these techniques can be (and often are) combined in a single CPU, so it is possible to have a multicore CPU is where each core is an independent processor with many parallel superscalar pipelines. Some multicore processors also include vector capability.

Related pages
 Parallel computing
 Instruction-level parallelism
 Simultaneous multithreading (SMT)
 Multi-core processors

References
 Mike Johnson, Superscalar Microprocessor Design, Prentice-Hall, 1991,
 Sorin Cotofana, Stamatis Vassiliadis, "On the Design Complexity of the Issue Logic of Superscalar Machines", EUROMICRO 1998: 10277-10284
 Steven McGeady, "The i960CA SuperScalar Implementation of the 80960 Architecture", IEEE 1990, pp. 232–240
 Steven McGeady, et al., "Performance Enhancements in the Superscalar i960MM Embedded Microprocessor," ACM Proceedings of the 1991 Conference on Computer Architecture (Compcon), 1991, pp. 4–7

Other websites
 School of Computing, Clemson University

Computer architecture

Superscalar


Exact Audio Copy (EAC) is a CD ripping program for Microsoft Windows. The program has been developed by Andre Wiethoff since 1998. Wiethoff's motivation for creating the program was that other such software only performed jitter correction while scratched CDs often produced distortion.

Overview
Exact Audio Copy is proprietary freeware, free for non-commercial use. It is written for Microsoft Windows. It has also been tested to work under newer versions of Wine on Linux.

EAC is used to convert the tracks on standard audio CDs to WAV files, which can then be transcoded into other formats. These include lossy ones such as MP3, AAC, Ogg Vorbis, or lossless ones such as ALAC, FLAC, or WavPack using external encoders. It also has the option of using the Windows Audio Compression Manager (ACM Codecs) for direct compression. It supports AccurateRip, which automatically compares the copy with rips made by others, and can automatically create cue sheets, with all gaps, track attributes, ISRC, and CD-Text included. EAC also supports automatic ID3 tagging using Internet-based databases such as freedb, GD3 (see below), or a local database.

If there are uncorrectable errors the software reports the error location.

EAC is popular among audiophiles for its accuracy and ability to rip slightly damaged audio compact discs.

A licensed version of Exact Audio Copy called Rockstar Custom Tracks was released by Rockstar Games in collaboration with Andre Wiethoff for use on the PlayStation Portable release of Grand Theft Auto: Liberty City Stories and Grand Theft Auto: Vice City Stories.

History
The program was created by Andre Wiethoff in 1998, while he was a student at the University of Dortmund in Germany. Wiethoff stated that he became "fed up with other audio grabbers" that only do jitter correction while scratched CDs often produce distortions, and decided to develop his own.

In release 1.0b1, EAC supported the downloading of CD cover art, and in b2, an option was added to have the ID3 information, such as artist, CD title, track names, and cover art downloaded automatically from the GD3 database. Release 1.0b1 removed support for Windows 2000 and older versions of Windows.

Version 1.1 was released in 2015. Version 1.2, released in 2016, provided mainly bug fixes for the cdrdao component and updated the cover search in the freedb++ plugin. Version 1.3 was a hotfix released soon after version 1.2. Version 1.4 was released in 2020 with version 1.5 released soon after as a hotfix.

See also
 Ripping

References

External links

Windows-only freeware
Windows CD ripping software
1998 software

Exact Audio Copy


Vincent Mauger is a French contemporary sculptor born in 1976 in Rennes who lives and work near Nantes.

After graduating from the École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts of Paris and Angers (prof. Richard Deacon), he achieved his formation by a Phd at the National School of Fine Arts of Nantes.

His work is mostly composed by sculptures, drawings, videos that intend to materialize what could be a mental space. In his site-specific installations, he opposes the exhibition space with the mental perception of another space, leading the visitor through a confusing experience, for example at the Centre d'Art de la Maréchalerie of Versailles in 2013. He takes inspiration from mathematics, computer generated imagery but also from architecture and urbanism. His materials for sculpture and installation are often modular simple construction material such as bricks, concrete blocks, wood, glass or pvc tubes.
He is currently represented by the Galerie Bertrand Grimont in Paris.

References

External links
 artist's website

1976 births
Living people
20th-century French sculptors
French male sculptors
21st-century French sculptors
21st-century French male artists
Breton artists

Vincent Mauger


The blackspotted topminnow, Fundulus olivaceus, is a species of fish in the family Fundulidae: the topminnows and North American killifishes. It is native to the south-central United States, where it is known from the drainages of the Mississippi River from Illinois to the Gulf of Mexico and as far west as Galveston Bay.

This species lives in clear streams with fast currents and sand or gravel substrates. It can often be found near the thick vegetation along the banks of the streams. It is omnivorous, consuming some plant matter along with a main diet of insects and other arthropods.

Description
The blackspotted topminnow has an elongate body up to  long. It is brownish yellow to olive green on its upper side and has a wide, dark lateral band and distinct dark spots. The male has longer fins than the female and the fins of the male may take on a yellowish color during breeding. This species is very similar to the blackstripe topminnow (Fundulus notatus), which also has a dark lateral band. It can be distinguished from F. notatus by its darker, more numerous spots. The two may hybridize. In Fundulus olivaceus, the gill slit extends the dorsal to the uppermost pectoral fin ray. The distance from the origin of the dorsal fin to the end of the hypural plate is less than the distance from the origin of the dorsal fin to the preopercle or occasionally about equal to that distance. The mouth is sightly supraterminal.

Diet
The blackspotted topminnow eats various arthropods and algae.

Habitat
This species occurs near the surface in quiet or flowing, relatively clear, sand-gravel bottom headwaters, creeks, and small rivers; often occurring along margins near thick stands of emergent vegetation.

Reproduction and life cycle
Spawning season for the blackspotted topminnow stretches from March to early September, with peak spawning occurring in May. On occasion, large males have been observed keeping an open territory of three square meters, Males seldom tolerate females in the wild, except during morning or evening spawning activities. In the aquarium, however, thus fish loses its wild traits, and becomes less aggressive. When spawning approaches, though, the males start to reveal their wild, aggressive traits. The males will approach each other head-on, and exhibit flaring opercula and gular areas—very similar to cichlid or betta behavior. They will then begin to slap and bite each other's flanks until one backs down. Ripe eggs are an average of 2.14 mm in diameter. The outer egg membrane has filaments that tend to be restricted to one area forming a tuft. The eggs hatch in 10–14 days while the fish lives for about 3 years.

Distribution
Range of the blackspotted topminnow includes the Gulf Slope, from Galveston Bay drainage, Texas, east to Choctawhatchee River system, Florida, and middle Chattahoochee River drainage, Georgia; Mississippi River basin from the Gulf to southeastern Kansas, central Missouri, southern Illinois, western Kentucky, and eastern Tennessee.

Etymology
The scientific name of the blackspotted topminnow can be broken down in order to understand its meaning. The genus name Fundulus, is from the Latin name Fundus, meaning "bottom". The species name olivaceus means "olive-colored".

References

O
Freshwater fish of the United States
Endemic fish of the United States
Fish of the Eastern United States
Fauna of the Plains-Midwest (United States)
Fauna of the Southeastern United States
Least concern biota of the United States
Taxa named by David Humphreys Storer
Fish described in 1845

Fundulus olivaceus


A house show or live event is a professional wrestling event produced by a major promotion that is not televised, though they can be recorded. Promotions use house shows mainly to cash in on the exposure that they and their wrestlers receive during televised events, as well as to test reactions to matches, wrestlers, and gimmicks that are being considered for the main televised programming and upcoming pay-per-views.

House shows are entire events and not the same as dark matches—untelevised matches that occur as part of an event that was already being televised. House shows are also often scripted to make the face wrestlers win most matches, largely to send the crowd home happy. If a heel defends a title, the face may win by disqualification, preventing the title from changing hands.

Until January 11, 1993 most televised professional wrestling programs were taped weeks in advance in small studios and featured run-ins, promos and primarily squash matches (unless it was part of an ongoing feud or a title match), which revolved around feuds between upper level talent that were to be settled at an upcoming house show at WWF's flagship arenas of the time —Madison Square Garden in New York City, the Spectrum in Philadelphia and the Boston Garden in Boston. However, with the advent of weekly shows such as WWF's Monday Night Raw (where competitive matches between upper level talent and storylines play out as they happen in front of a live audience), and with the increase in number of pay-per-view events held by promotions, angles are now typically developed during weekly shows, and resolved during the next pay-per-view (or, on occasion, a special episode of the series).

Production

Since house shows are not televised, promotions do not usually deploy the same setup for staging or pyrotechnics used for their television counterparts. In the past, a WWE house show would consist mainly of a ring, essential lighting, and a crowd. In late 2011, WWE invested US$1.5 million in production improvements, which included three LED-lit entrance stages (one each for Raw and SmackDown, and one backup) featuring a ramp and video display, and leveraging venues' existing AV equipment for multimedia such as entrances. As of 2021, WWE has used a stage that resembles a scaled-down version of their TV show counterparts.

During the first brand extension, each WWE tour was exclusive to either the Raw or SmackDown brand. This remained the case through 2012, even after the first brand extension ended in 2011 on televised programming. In 2013, the shows were rebranded as "WWE Live", with NXT house shows subsequently branded as "NXT Live". After WrestleMania 38 in April 2022, WWE began to brand house shows held on weekends as "Saturday Night's Main Event" (reviving the branding of a former WWE television series) and "Sunday Night Stunner".

Because house shows are not televised, sometimes controversial things occur during them (although this is rare) which might not happen on a televised show. For example, on May 19, 1996, the MSG "Curtain Call", which was also a rare example of a shoot, occurred at a house show taped at Madison Square Garden. At the same show, The Bodydonnas lost their WWF Tag Team Championship to The Godwinns.

With the advent of WWE Network, WWE has televised portions of what are otherwise house shows as hour-long specials on the service, such as Starrcade—an event that shares the name with the flagship pay-per-view of the now-defunct WCW (whose assets were acquired by WWE), and The Shield's Final Chapter—a special which featured Dean Ambrose's final WWE appearance with his stable The Shield before his departure from the promotion.

Starting in March 2023, All Elite Wrestling launched a series of house shows under the "House Rules" brand.

Title changes

Most major promotions try to develop their angles only during televised shows and will rarely book a major development (such as a title change) for house shows. House show title changes can occur both to gauge how fans would react to a certain outcome, and allow for outcomes that would appeal to local fans—such as Edge winning his first WWF Intercontinental Championship over Jeff Jarrett at a 1999 house show in Toronto.

If there is a title change, the title usually changes back during the same show or at another show on the loop before another televised event, like several titles changes of the WWE Hardcore Championship or when Booker T and Chris Benoit traded the WCW World Television Championship back-and-forth on several house shows, with Booker (the official champion) always having the title back in time for Nitro. Edge similarly lost the aforementioned Intercontinental Championship to Jarrett at Fully Loaded the very next evening in Buffalo.

Even rarer is the top title of a promotion changing hands. This has occurred relatively few times, notable occurrences include Bret Hart winning the then WWF Championship from Ric Flair in 1992 at a live event in Saskatchewan and Diesel winning the then WWF Championship from Bob Backlund in 1994 at a live event in Madison Square Garden.

There have also occasions when title changes occur but are not recognized by the promotion. Some notable house show title changes include an August 10, 1987 match where The Rougeau Brothers (Raymond and Jacques) went over the champion Hart Foundation (Bret Hart and Jim Neidhart) to take the WWF Tag Team championship in the Rougeau's home town of Montreal. This change (and the eventual "decision reversal") was only ever mentioned during segments taped specifically for and shown in the Montreal market.

A fictional house show can be used to explain a sudden vacation or change of a title caused due to backstage issues on television. For example, on October 4, 1999 edition of WCW Monday Nitro, the commentators stated that Psychosis had defeated Lenny Lane for the WCW Cruiserweight Championship on an unspecified house show (thereby giving the title to Psychosis), after WCW management was forced to drop Lane's gimmick that was perceived as offensive by the GLAAD.

As a metaphor
The phrase has been used to pejoratively describe WWE pay-per-views intended primarily for specific markets, including UK-only pay-per-views such as Insurrextion and Rebellion, and WWE's events in Saudi Arabia. In 2019, Shawn Michaels defended his one-off return at WWE's 2018 Crown Jewel  pay-per-view in Saudi Arabia (reuniting D-Generation X to participate in a tag team match against The Brothers of Destruction) despite his retirement, describing the event as being a "glorified house show" that was not as important as WrestleMania or "coming back as the Heartbreak Kid".

See also
 Glossary of professional wrestling terms

References

Professional wrestling slang

House show


Disney Girlz Rock 2 is a follow-up to the 2005 compilation of the same name. It includes some of the most popular female Disney artists like Miley Cyrus, Demi Lovato, Vanessa Hudgens, Ashley Tisdale, and Selena Gomez, as well as former Disney-turned-mainstream teen-pop acts and girl groups such as Hilary Duff and Aly & AJ. This album also contains a song by KSM. The CD was released on September 9, 2008. The album contains mostly songs that have been used on Disney Channel films and television series, as well as songs from artists that have received airplay on Radio Disney.

Track listing

References

2008 compilation albums
Pop compilation albums
Walt Disney Records compilation albums
Disney Channel albums

Disney Girlz Rock 2


Kristen Sze is an American television news journalist.

Biography

Kristen Sze was born in Taiwan. After she and her family moved to the United States and settled in the San Francisco Bay Area, she enrolled at Aragon High School and began writing for the school newspaper. After graduating from high school, she enrolled at the University of California, Berkeley, where she reported for the campus radio station while working as an intern at several Bay Area television stations. She graduated from UC Berkeley with a Bachelor of Arts degree in Political Science.

Career in journalism
In the early years of her television journalism career, she reported in Binghamton, New York, Fresno, California, Philadelphia and New York City.

In 1998, she joined KGO-TV, an ABC affiliate television station in San Francisco. In 1999, she won an Emmy Award for Best Children/Youth Segment. In 2002, she won an Emmy Award for her work hosting KGO-TV's "Profiles Of Excellence."  And in 2011, she was voted for "Best News Anchor" by the San Francisco BayList magazine. She was co-anchors KGO-TV's ABC 7 Morning News (weekday mornings 4:30–7:00 a.m.) with Eric Thomas and now she co-anchors KGO-TV's ABC 7 News (weekday mornings 11–11:30 a.m.) and co-anchors KGO-TV's ABC 7 news (weekday 5 p.m.)

Volunteering
She volunteers at the school attended by her two children. She supports the San Francisco Giants baseball team and the California Golden Bears college sports teams and also enjoys bargain-hunting and running.

She volunteers at a number of community organizations: the Ronald McDonald House of San Francisco, California, the Chinese-American Voter Education Committee in San Francisco, California, the Chinatown Community Children's Center in San Francisco, California, the San Mateo County, California's Childcare Coordinating Council in Redwood City, California, Self Help for the Elderly in San Francisco, California, Chinese Historical Society in San Francisco, California, the Angel Island Immigration Station Foundation in San Francisco, California, Professional Businesswomen's Conference in San Francisco, California Rotary Club of San Mateo's "Reach For The Stars" in San Mateo, California, honoring high school leaders, the San Mateo County's Hall of Fame and the Crisis Center in San Mateo County, California, and fundraising for San Francisco City College's Culinary Arts and Hospitalities program in San Francisco, California.

External links
- Kristen Sze page @ The KGO-TV Website
/verified-facts.com/kristen-sze/

Taiwanese emigrants to the United States
American television journalists
American women television journalists
American women journalists of Asian descent
Living people
University of California, Berkeley alumni
Journalists from California
Journalists from the San Francisco Bay Area
Year of birth missing (living people)
21st-century American women

Kristen Sze


Spherical Objects were a band in the Manchester, UK-based experimental independent post-punk scene of the late 70s (including other more or less experimental groups like The Passage, Steve Miro & The Eyes, Tirez Tirez and Grow Up). All these bands were hosted under the Object Music record label. Many of them shared musicians, thus the movement looked more like a musical collective (there was indeed a Manchester Musicians Collective, co-founded by Dick Witts of The Passage).

Leader and heart of the band was Steve Solamar (real name Steve Scrivener), a distinct song/lyrics writer with a peculiar vocal style that has been described as either "terrible", or at least "idiosyncratic".

In summer 1978, they recorded their first LP, Past And Parcel. Their best came with Elliptical Optimism (1979) and Further Ellipses (1980).  The former still keeps contact with punk and 60s garage sound. Further Ellipses somewhere departs from the DIY sound of previous releases and puts more emphasis on ultra-romantic melodic synthesizer tunes (The "Final Part", "The Root"), a small share of Latin guitar melancholy and a better polished production. Nevertheless, tracks like Set Free betray the strong influence of gospel & rhythm & blues; an unusual feature for a British post-punk band of that period.

In 1980, Solamar collaborated with Steve Miro as the Noyes (i.e. "noise") Brothers, to produce more experimental music forms. They recorded a double LP (Sheep From Goats), which was far more unconventional than anything they had created with their own bands. Other Solamar projects were Warriors and Alternomen Unlimited, while John Bisset Smith was involved into the band Grow Up (all recording for Object Music).

In 1981, Spherical Objects recorded their last LP, No Man's Land. It was a return to more archetypal rock forms like those perverted and twisted in Elliptical Optimism."

After 1981 very little information exists for Steve Solamar or other Spherical Objects members. Solamar changed gender and, soon after No Man's Land, disbanded Spherical Objects and stopped supporting the Object Music label, because she wanted to make a radical change in her life. Duncan Prestbury is now teaching at The Manchester College (formerly City College Manchester) and playing Nu-Jazz. He is also the co-founder of the production companies ganzfeldmusic and FireTrain Music. Between 2008 and 2010 LTM undertook an extensive Object reissue program, including CD versions of all four Spherical Objects albums as well as the Noyes Brothers set.

 Band members
 Steve Solamar (Guitar, Vocals, Harmonica)
 John Bisset Smith (Guitar, Vocals)
 Frederick Burrows (Bass, Guitar)
 Duncan Prestbury (Keyboards, Vocals)
 Roger Hilton (Drums)

 Discography
 Past And Parcel - Object Music (LP, 1978) (CD, 2008)
 The Kill/The Knot - Object Music (7", 1978)
 Seventies Romance/Sweet Tooth - Object Music (7", 1979)
 Objectivity The Object Singles Album (various artists compilation, Object Music, 1979)
 Elliptical Optimism - Object Music (LP, 1979) (CD, 2008)
 Further Ellipses - Object Music (LP, 1980) (CD, 2008)
 No Man's Land'' - Object Music (LP, 1981) (CD, 2008)

Notes

References
The Object Music Discography
Artist biography at LTM, by Louise Alderman
Review of Spherical Objects by Ira Robbins/David Sprague at Trouser Press
Review of Spherical Objects at Boomkat (commercial site)

External links
Spherical Objects at MySpace.com

Musical groups from Manchester
English post-punk music groups

Spherical Objects (band)


Air Marshal Asghar Khan (17 January 1921 – 5 January 2018) was Pakistani politician, aviation historian, peace activist, and retired three star rank air force general.

Khan served as the first native Commander in Chief of the Pakistan Air Force (PAF) under President Iskander Mirza (1956–59) and under President Ayub Khan until resigning in 1965 before the start of the air operations of the PAF during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965.

In 1970, Asghar Khan founded the secular party, the Tehrik-e-Istiqlal, but performed poorly in 1970 parliamentary elections.

Khan died on 5 January 2018 in Abbottabad, Pakistan of complications from Parkinson's disease at the age of 96.

References

1921 births
2018 deaths
Politicians from Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
Pakistani historians
Pakistani military people

Asghar Khan


A neutron-velocity selector is a device that allows neutrons of defined velocity to pass while absorbing all other neutrons, to produce a monochromatic neutron beam. It has the appearance of a many-bladed turbine. The blades are coated with a strongly neutron-absorbing material, such as Boron-10.

Neutron-velocity selectors are commonly used in neutron research facility to produce a monochromatic beam of neutrons. Due to physical limitations of materials and motors, limiting the maximum speed of rotation of the blades, these devices are only useful for relatively slow neutrons.

References

External links
 A commercially available neutron velocity selector for neutron research ()

Biological techniques and tools
Neutron-related techniques

Neutron-velocity selector


Antonin-Marie Moine (30 June 1796 – 18 March 1849) was a French romantic sculptor in the first half of the 19th century.

Biography
Moine was born in Saint-Étienne.

He began his career as a landscape painter, before becoming a sculptor. He obtained some success exhibiting at the Salon in the early 1830s. From 1835 to 1840, Antonin Moine worked, alongside Louis-Parfait Merlieux and Jean-Jacques Elshoecht (said Carle Elshoecht), on the creation of sculptures commissioned for the Fontaine des Mers and the Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi devoted to the beautification of the Place de la Concorde, as decided by the Mairie de Paris, its owner since 1828. The work was attributed to architect Jacques-Ignace Hittorff.

In 1836, Moine sculpted some of the three Néréides which are on each fountain.

Antonin Moine committed suicide in Paris on 18 March 1849.

Legacy
A square was named after him in Saint-Étienne.

A portrait of Moine by Herminie Déhérain, exhibited at the Paris Salon in 1833, is today in the collection of the musée national des châteaux de Versailles et de Trianon.

References

1796 births
1849 deaths
19th-century French sculptors
French male sculptors
Artists from Saint-Étienne
Artists who died by suicide
1840s suicides
19th-century French male artists
Suicides by firearm in France

Antonin Moine


Cecil Carlton Hughson, (February 9, 1916 – August 6, 1993) was a Major League Baseball starting pitcher who played his entire career in the American League with the Boston Red Sox (1941–44, 1946–49). He batted and threw right-handed.

Early life
A native of Kyle, Texas, Hughson played collegiately at the University of Texas at Austin.

Professional career

Hughson enjoyed his best season in 1942, posting a 22–6 record with a 2.59 ERA, and also leading the league in victories, strikeouts (113), complete games (22), innings pitched (281.0) and batters faced (1150). In 1943, he won 12 games with 114 strikeouts and a 2.64 ERA, and again led the league in complete games (20). He also had his best year batting, posting career highs in hits, runs, doubles, walks, batting average and RBI's. He led the league in winning percentage (18-5,.783) and WHIP (9.43), and also had a career-best ERA of 2.26.

After serving in the military in 1945, he won 20 games in 1946, led the league in walks per nine innings (1.65), set a career high in strikeouts with 172, and completed 21 of 35 starts.  His several 1-0 shutouts led to an early pennant-clinching for the Red Sox.  But he fell to 12 wins in 1947, and finished his career when at the age of 33 after two seasons in relief.

Career statistics

In an eight-year career, he posted a 96–54 won-lost record with 693 strikeouts and a 2.94 ERA in 1375.2 innings. His control was good enough for an effective 1.86 strikeout-to-walk ratio (693-to-372). He was an American League All-Star for three consecutive years (1942–44).

Player profile
Hughson was a successful and competitive major league pitcher who was not averse to throwing close to batters, changing speeds by mixing a hard fastball with an overhand curveball. At the height of his career, arm and shoulder injuries threatened permanent disability and hastened his retirement.

Legacy
He was enshrined in the University of Texas Hall of Honor in 1970, the Texas Sports Hall of Fame in 1987, and the Boston Red Sox Hall of Fame in November 2002.

Personal life
He was one of the first in the United States to raise Charolais cattle.  He served on the local school board of trustees in the 1950s where he was one who led the effort to integrate the public schools. In the 60s he developed part of his ranch into the Hughson Heights subdivision.

He died in San Marcos at age 77, and is buried in San Marcos Cemetery.

See also
 List of Major League Baseball annual strikeout leaders
 List of Major League Baseball annual wins leaders

External links

Cowboy on the Mound: The Tex Hughson Story
Interview with Tex Hughson conducted by Eugene Murdock on May 30, 1987, in San Marcos, Texas: Part 1, Part 2

1942 Al Mathewson Award (article)
American Heroes (profile)
Baseball Reference (career statistics and analysis)
San Marcos Natural Areas

American League All-Stars
American League strikeout champions
American League wins champions
Boston Red Sox players
Major League Baseball pitchers
1916 births
1993 deaths
Baseball players from Texas
Texas Longhorns baseball players
People from Buda, Texas
Sportspeople from Hays County, Texas
Austin Pioneers players

Tex Hughson


It Happened in Paris (French: C'est arrivé à Paris) is a 1952 French comedy film directed by Henri Lavorel and John Berry and starring Henri Vidal, Evelyn Keyes and Jean Wall.

Cast
 Henri Vidal as Vladimir Krasnya
 Evelyn Keyes as Patricia Moran
 Jean Wall as Hugo
 Frédéric O'Brady as Otto
 Nicolas Amato
 Andrès
 Jean-François Calvé
 Marcel Charvey as Le maître d'hotel
 Max Dalban as Le boucher
 André Dalibert as Le fleuriste
 Paul Faivre as Le turfiste
 Pierre Gay as Le barman
 Émile Genevois as Le groom
 Camille Guérini as Le père de la petite fille
 Clément Harari
 Fred Hébert
 Kirchberger
 Robert Lombard as Marcel
 Paul Mesnier
 Bernard Musson as Le contrôleur à la gare
 Jean Ozenne as L'oncle
 Germaine Reuver as Madame Poteau
 André Roanne as Le gérant du restaurant
 Pierre Sergeol as Le garagiste
 Michel Vadet

References

Bibliography
 Rebecca Prime. Hollywood Exiles in Europe: The Blacklist and Cold War Film Culture. Rutgers University Press, 2014.

External links

1952 films
1952 comedy films
French comedy films
1950s French-language films
Films directed by Henri Lavorel
Films directed by John Berry
Films set in Paris
French black-and-white films
Films scored by Norbert Glanzberg
1950s French films

It Happened in Paris (1952 film)


Blacktail Butte () is a butte mountain landform rising from Jackson Hole valley in Grand Teton National Park in the U.S. state of Wyoming. Blacktail Butte was originally named Upper Gros Ventre Butte in an early historical survey conducted by the U.S. Geological Survey. Most of Blacktail Butte is densely forested with a mixed fir forest of lodgepole pine, Douglas fir and Engelmann spruce, with scattered pockets of aspen.  There are several large sedimentary rock outcroppings, which are used by rock climbers. This butte is a principal landmark in Jackson Hole, with much of the Jackson Hole valley floor and many portions of the Teton Range visible from its hillsides.

The butte is named after black-tailed deer, also known as mule deer.  Bighorn sheep, mule deer, white-tailed deer, pronghorn antelope, and bison are commonly found in the area, along with grizzly bears and gray wolves.  Most notably, many thousands of elk cross through the area during their annual migration to and from their winter feeding grounds on the National Elk Refuge.

Local lore claims that the name reflects the fact that the north face and ridge lines are so heavily wooded that they appear black, as compared to the other slopes, which have sage brush, scrub grass, and fewer trees.  There is also a scenic overlook nearby with the same name, Blacktail Pond.

At the base of the butte is Mormon Row, a popular place for photographers and tourists, with the photogenic Moulton Barn and herds of bison.

See also
 Geology of the Grand Teton area

References

External links

Landforms of Grand Teton National Park
Landforms of Teton County, Wyoming
Buttes of Wyoming

Blacktail Butte


Byaroza (; ), formerly Byaroza-Kartuzskaya, is a town in Brest Region, Belarus. It serves as the administrative center of Byaroza District. As of 2023, it has a population of 28,397.

History
The village of Biaroza (meaning birch) was first mentioned in 1477 as part of the Slonim paviet. In the 15th century, the village probably received the town charter. Between 1538 and 1600 it was an important centre of Calvinism. Later the town became the private property of the Radziwiłł family.

In the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth

In the 17th century, the village belonged to Sapieha family, who founded a fortified monastery and a palace here. In 1648, the monastery was presented to the Carthusian monks. They came from the Italian town of Treviso and settled here. In gratitude for this deed, Pope Alexander VII granted the title of a prince to Lew Sapieha. The monastery was also expanded and became one of the biggest charterhouses (Carthusian monasteries) in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Carthusian order gave its name to the second part of the town's name in the form in which it has been used till late 1940s: Biaroza-Kartuzskaya (Polish: Bereza Kartuska).

During the Great Northern War, the monastery housed a conference held by King Augustus II of Poland and Peter I of Russia. In 1706, the fortified monastery was put under siege and then taken by assault and looted by the forces of Charles XII of Sweden. Two years later, the Swedish forces looted the area again, which resulted in almost total depopulation of the town. It was also damaged by the armies of Alexander Suvorov in 1772, during the Partitions of Poland.

Under Russian rule
After the partitions, the town and the monastery were annexed by Russia in 1795. After the November Uprising of 1831 the town was captured by the Russian armies and then looted. The monastery was closed by tsarist authorities and in 1866, after the January Uprising, the whole complex was partially demolished, and the bricks were used for construction of a Russian prison and barracks nearby. The baroque church was destroyed in 1868. After the uprising, the town became a part of the so-called Pale of settlement and was repopulated with Jews expelled from other areas of the Russian Empire. By the 20th century, they constituted more than 70% of the city's inhabitants. In 1842, a new road was opened between Moscow and Warsaw and passed through the town, which started a period of economic prosperity.  In 1871, a Warsaw-Moscow railroad was laid only  from the town, connecting the town with the nearby major cities of Brest and Minsk. In 1878, the town had a marketplace, 7 streets and approximately 200 houses. Both the town and the adjoining area had approximately 5,000 inhabitants. Apart from the Catholic and Uniate Churches, there was also a synagogue, Jewish baths and a market just outside the city limits.

In the 20th century
In 1915, during the First World War, the town was occupied by the Imperial Germany and in 1918 claimed by the short-lived Belarusian People's Republic. The town was captured by the Red Army on January 19, 1919, during the Soviet westward offensive of 1918–19 (Target-Vistula). Within one month, the Polish Army reclaimed the area, and recaptured the town on February 14, 1919. During the Polish-Bolshevik War the town became a notable location of two major battles including the war's very first and the second Battle of Bereza Kartuska (1920). At the end of the Polish–Soviet War the town was ceded to Poland in the Peace of Riga signed by Soviet Russia (acting also on behalf of Soviet Belarus). The peace treaty remained in force until the Soviet invasion of Poland in 1939.

Polish prison

A Polish political prison camp was created in Bereza Kartuska in 1934. The former Russian barracks and prison were turned into an internment camp for both Polish right-wing extremists from the ONR, Ukrainian separatists from the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists and members of the Communist Party of Poland and the Communist Party of Western Ukraine, and later also for members of opposition parties, journalists critical of the government and people suspected of common crimes. Inmates were sent there for up to three months without the involvement of the courts, based solely on the administrative decision of the police or the voivode. In this way, many Belarusians who resisted Polonization found themselves in the Bereza Kartuska camp.

The legal basis for the camp opening was openly questioned and its existence was often criticized by opponents of the Sanacja movement, which from its inception called it a "concentration camp". The camp was closed in September 1939, during the invasion of Poland.

After 1939
In 1939 the town was captured by the Red Army and incorporated into the Byelorussian SSR. After the outbreak of the German-Soviet War, the town was captured by the German Army on 23 June 1941. The German occupation lasted until 15 July 1944. During this time, Byaroza was administered as a part of Generalbezirk Wolhynien und Podolien of Reichskommissariat Ukraine.

During World War II, a ghetto was created in the town for Jews who fled there from the surrounding areas. Under the Nazi German occupying administration — which had merged Byaroza, along with most of western Polesia, into the Reichskommissariat Ukraine — more than 8,000 people were killed in mass executions or were starved to death. Numerous pro-Soviet and pro-Ukrainian partisan units were active in the area around Byaroza before Red Army troops finally liberated the town on 15 July 1944. Repopulated with Belarusian and Russian peasants, the town was rebuilt after the destruction of World War II. After a minor building materials factory was opened in the town, another period of fast growth followed.

During the postwar period a Soviet aviation military base was placed close to Biaroza.

In 1958-1967 a hydroelectric power station was built in the Biaroza Raion.

In 1991, after the dissolution of the USSR, the town became part of the independent Republic of Belarus.

Mayors
 Berl (Dov) Ribak (1882 - 1915)
 Naftali Levinson (1915 - 1919 acting, 1919 - 1939?)

Heads of Biaroza District Executive Committee
 Yury Narkevich (2005 - 2016)
 Leanid Martyniuk (since 2016)

Landmarks
Although the 17th-century monastery was mostly destroyed in the 19th century, there are some ruins remaining. Among them are:
 Historical gateway with a decorative façade
 Parts of fortifications surrounding the monastery with several towers partially preserved
 Ruins of the octagonal church tower
 Ruins of the hospital
 Several buildings later incorporated into the tsarist prison.

People from Byaroza
 Jakob Klatzkin, Jewish philosopher
 Kadia Molodowsky, Jewish poet and writer
 Kseniya Koçyiğit, Belarusian-born Azerbaijani professional volleyball player

See also
 Battle of Bereza Kartuska

Notes

References

External links

 Photos on Radzima.org
 Biaroza on Googlemaps
 Kartuz-Bereza, Our Town Memorial Book on JewishGen
 Kartuz-Bereza cemetery

Towns in Belarus
Populated places in Brest Region
Pruzhansky Uyezd
Polesie Voivodeship
Holocaust locations in Belarus
Byaroza District

Byaroza


A Shabbat pedestrian crossing or hands-free pedestrian crossing is an automatically controlled device which allows Orthodox Jews to use pedestrian crossings on Shabbat. The first such crossing is to be installed in the north London suburb of Finchley.

The need for such a device arises for Jews who observe Sabbath laws and are prohibited from operating electrical machinery. Instead of having to press an electric button to operate the crossing system, every 90 seconds, traffic lights will automatically turn red giving a chance for pedestrians to cross.

Similar arrangements also occur in other places.  In Highland Park, New Jersey, pedestrian crossing lights cycle automatically on the Sabbath, though they are operated by buttons during the week.

See also
 Electricity on Shabbat in Jewish law
 Shabbat elevator
 Shabbat microphone

References

Pedestrian crossings
Shabbat innovations

Shabbat pedestrian crossing