A Book Called Snare of Glory or  () is an Armenian legal and political work by the eighteenth-century Armenian merchant and intellectual Shahamir Shahamirian and his son Hakob Shahamirian. It contains a proposed constitution for a future independent Armenian state along parliamentary and republican lines. It was published at the author's printing press in Madras (modern-day Chennai, India) sometime between 1787 and 1789, although its title page lists the publication date as 1773. It is regarded as a landmark in Armenian intellectual and literary history and one of the earliest and most significant expressions of the ideals of the Enlightenment in the Armenian context. It has also been called the first constitution in Asia.

Snare of Glory consists of two main parts: a long introduction with historical and theoretical analysis, probably authored in part by Shahamirian's son Hakob (to whom the entire book is erroneously attributed on the title page), and the actual text of the draft constitution. The second, main part of the book is a draft constitution consisting of 521 articles, addressing issues ranging from the rights of citizens, the system of government, social and economic structure, education system and military of the future Armenian state. It declared all citizens of the future state to be born free and equal before the law, with freedom of speech, religion and economic activity. The political and economic system, however, was to be one that would favor Armenians of the Gregorian confession.

Background
Shahamir Shahamirian (1723–1797) was an Armenian from New Julfa in Iran who moved to India in the 1740s and became the wealthiest Armenian merchant in Madras after inheriting his uncle's fortune. At the time, Madras was home to a small but prosperous and influential community of about 200–240 Armenian merchants, mostly of New Julfan origin. In the second half of the eighteenth century, the fortunes of the Armenian merchants of India were declining because of the expansion of the British East India Company and its state-chartered monopoly in trade. This is thought to have influenced the social, political and cultural views of Indo-Armenians like Shahamir Shahamirian. Faced with shrinking commercial prospects in India, they became more concerned with Armenian education and national consciousness and with the state of their ancestral homeland, Armenia, then divided between the Ottoman Empire and Iran. Shahamir Shahamirian was one of the most prominent figures of this Armenian revival in Madras. Although Shahamirian was not well educated, he took a keen interest in literary and political matters and hired English and Armenian tutors. He also hired Movses Baghramian, a learned Armenian from Karabagh, to educate his sons Hakob and Yeghiazar. Shahamirian's ideas were influenced by Baghramian, as well as Joseph Emin, an Indo-Armenian who had traveled to Europe and spent years trying to organize a rebellion to free Armenia from Muslim rule.

The Shahamirians, Baghramian and their collaborators, known collectively as the Madras group, sought to rally Armenians in Armenia and the diaspora to educate themselves about their history and struggle against foreign rule. They advocated for the establishment of an independent Armenian state and the return of Armenians from the diaspora to their homeland. They were influenced by contemporary Enlightenment ideas such as constitutionalism, natural law, popular sovereignty and representative government. They expressed their ideas in a series of groundbreaking works published using the Armenian printing press founded in Madras by the Shahamirians in 1770 or 1771. The first of these works was  ("New Booklet Called Exhortation") by Movses Baghramian, which analyzes Armenian history to determine the reasons for the loss of Armenian statehood and calls on Armenians to prepare to struggle for their liberty. It advocates for the establishment of an Armenian state with a "firm constitution" and a "national parliament." Two of the works published by the Madras press were authored by Shahamir Shahamirian:  ("Booklet of Aim," 1783), which provided a communal constitution for the Armenians of Madras, and Snare of Glory, which provided a constitution for a future independent Armenian republic.

The final publication of Snare of Glory appears to have been delayed by the censuring of the activities of Shahamirian's group by Catholicos Simeon of Yerevan (head of the Armenian Church 1763–1780). In 1776, Catholicos Simeon reacted extremely negatively to the group's first book, , for its radical ideas. The Madras group had sent Simeon the work expecting to gain his support. Instead, the Catholicos excommunicated the book's author, Movses Baghramian, and demanded that Shahamirian close down the printing press and destroy all copies of . Shahamirian also sent the Catholicos a manuscript copy of the introductory section Snare of Glory for inspection. It was only after Simeon's death in 1780 that the Madras press was able to resume its activities.

After 1783, Shahamirian was in periodic contact with King Heraclius II of Georgia, whom he saw as a potential ally for the realization of the Madras group's political goals. Heraclius wrote to Shahamirian asking him to write a work to help improve the government of his realm. In a letter dated to 15 October 1787, Shahamirian wrote to Heraclius saying that he was unable to fulfil his request, but instead sent him a manuscript copy of the second, draft constitution part of Snare of Glory, which had not yet been printed at that point. Shahamirian also sent manuscript copies of the work prior to its publication to Catholicos Ghukas Karnetsi and Hovsep Arghutian, archbishop of the Armenians of Russia. Snare of Glory was finally printed sometime between late 1787 and 1789.

Authorship
The authorship and date of publication of Snare of Glory have been debated by scholars. The title page lists 1773 as the date of publication and Hakob Shahamirian (d. 1774), son of Shahamir, as its author. The 1773 dating was accepted by most scholars as fact until the 1920s, when historian Tadevos Avdalbegyan demonstrated that this is impossible, as the text contains references to events that took place after 1773, such as the American War of Independence and the death of Iranian ruler Karim Khan Zand. Additionally, on the basis of Shahamir Shahamirian's letters to the Georgian king Heraclius, Avdalbegyan argued that Snare of Glory was published in 1787 or 1788 and was authored by Shahamir Shahamirian himself. However, most of the introductory section of the book was probably written in 1773 by Hakob Shahamirian, while the main section containing the details of the constitution was added later by his father. Shahamirian attributed the entire book to Hakob in honor of his late son. Historians Abgar Hovhannisyan and Poghos Khachatryan suggest that Movses Baghramian and Joseph Emin also contributed to the composition of Snare of Glory. Thus, the final version of the work was written over the course of more than a decade, with interruptions, and involved up to four authors. Scholar Satenig Batwagan Toufanian concludes that this partly explains why the work "often lacks order and sometimes even coherence."

Contents
Snare of Glory consists of two main parts: a historical-theoretical introduction, and the text of the draft constitution of the future Armenian state. In the preface, the author explains the meaning of the title: the eponymous "snare of glory" is the system of laws laid out in the work that will "trap" pride or, in other words, constrain the ambition to be above the law or exploit others. The lengthy introduction identifies "despotic government" as the main cause of the Armenian people's suffering. It prescribes a state with a constitution, the rule of law, and representative government based on the principle of popular sovereignty as the solution.

The second, main part of the book is a draft constitution consisting of 521 articles, addressing issues ranging from the rights of citizens, the system of government, social and economic structure, education system and military of the future Armenian state. It declares all citizens of the future state to be born free and equal before the law, with freedom of speech, religion and economic activity. The political and economic system, however, was to be one that would favor Armenians of the Gregorian confession. Only they were to be eligible to hold office and own property, while people of other confessions or faiths would only be allowed to rent land. Apostasy by Gregorian Armenians was to be punishable by death. There would be no limitations on the right to be elected besides moral qualities. Deputies were to be elected for 3 years. The governing bodies were to be elected from among the deputies. Supreme and legislative power would be exercised by the parliament or senate, called the Hayots tun ("House of the Armenians"). A council of ministers consisting of 12 ministers and a president (called the nakharar) would exercise executive power. The parliament was to have its own presidency made up of 14 members. The president would also fulfil the role of foreign minister and commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The parliament was to supervise the activities of the council of ministers and have the right impeach the government.

There was also another special method for electing the president mentioned in the draft. A member of one of the old Armenian royal houses could be elected president for life, if he upheld the laws promulgated by the parliament. This exception was included to interest King Heraclius II of Georgia, whom the Madras group saw as a potential ally for the liberation of Armenia. Heraclius was a member of the Bagrationi dynasty, related to the Bagratunis that once reigned as kings of Armenia.

The draft constitution describes the structure, organization and powers of the other government organs and the court system. A supreme court would be established with elected members, as well as permanent local courts and juries for criminal cases. Many articles are devoted to issues of education, economic development, family relations and other issues. There was to be separation of church and state and schools would be separate from the church. Education would be compulsory for all citizens, regardless of gender. The state was to provide education and healthcare for the needy and orphans. The republic would be protected by a 90,000-strong standing army. Conscription would be carried out by lots: 5 men out of every 100 would serve for 7 years.

Sources and influences
Scholars agree that the author(s) of Snare of Glory were influenced by the ideas of the European Enlightenment, but the means and extent to which they interacted with Enlightenment-era texts is somewhat unclear. Interaction with the British in Madras and the English-language press there was probably the main way that Shahamirian and his collaborators encountered these ideas. Boghos Levon Zekiyan and Vahé Oshagan write that the influence of the ideas of John Locke and Montesquieu, such as the concept of the trias politica, is especially apparent in Snare of Glory. Oshagan suggests that the constitution was an elaboration of the existing communal organization of the Armenians of Madras, supplemented with elements of the "British model in Madras," although Satenig Batwagan Toufanian writes that there is insufficient evidence to support this claim. Batwagan Toufanian also notes that few similarities are discernible with the "Astrakhan Code," a communal lawbook of the Armenians of Astrakhan written between 1750 and 1765, thought to be a codification of the rules of communal organization of the Armenians of New Julfa, Shahamir Shahamirian's birthplace.

The Bible is by far the most quoted source in Snare of Glory, although the text does not reveal a very thorough knowledge of scripture. Batwagan Toufanian writes that the Bible and Christian philosophy constitute the most familiar, but not necessarily the sole, conceptual framework for Shahamirian. The history of Armenia of Movses Khorenatsi is mentioned explicitly in the text and drawn from extensively, as well as the geography Ashkharhatsuyts formerly attributed to Khorenatsi but now attributed to Anania Shirakatsi. References to the history of the Roman republic and empire are inexactly attributed in the text to "accounts of the Roman geographers." Batwagan Toufanian writes that Shahamirian probably learned about Roman history from some secondary sources, but it cannot be determined from which ones. The use of Roman history as an instructive example on government and politics reflects a certain familiarity with contemporary European intellectual themes.

Language
Snare of Glory is written in Classical Armenian heavily mixed with vernacular and foreign words and containing many grammatical and orthographical errors. Historian Tadevos Avdalbegyan describes the language of Snare of Glory as "illiterate, macaronic[...] Classical Armenian only in appearance."

Impact and legacy
Because of its small print run (slightly more than 100 copies), the immediate impact of Snare of Glory and other works published by the Shahamirian press was small. The Shahamirians were generally forgotten by the time their progressive ideas became more widespread among Armenians by the second half of the nineteenth century. Snare of Glory was reprinted for the first time in Tiflis in 1913. Interest in the Snare of Glory and the other works of the Shahamirian press increased after the Sovietization of Armenia in 1920. Soviet Armenian authors praised Shahamirian as the founder of the Armenian "bourgeois democratic movement," with Snare of Glory as the manifesto of this movement. After the independence of Armenia in 1991, interest in Snare of Glory rose again in connection with the question of a new constitution and state institutions for independent Armenia. Malik Telunts published an in-depth study of Snare of Glory in 1995, the year that the Constitution of Armenia was adopted. A partial reprint of Snare of Glory was published in 1999, and a full translation into modern Eastern Armenian was published by Poghos Khachatryan in 2002. Partial translations into Russian were made in the early 2000s. In 2018, Satenig Batwagan Toufanian published a detailed study of Snare of Glory with a full translation of the work into French.

Snare of Glory is sometimes erroneously called the first constitution in the world. It is, however, the first constitution in Asia. The authors Shahamir and Hakob Shahamirian are regarded as the first to import the concept of constitution into Armenian political thought; their portraits are displayed on the walls of the library of the Constitutional Court of Armenia. Gagik Harutyunyan, the former chairman of the Constitutional Court of Armenia, once referred to Snare of Glory as "essentially our first Constitution," which is "almost in conformance with today's requirements for the protection of individual rights and freedoms[…]"

References

Notes

Citations

Bibliography

External links

 Scan of original edition of Snare of Glory on greenstone.flib.sci.am
 Scan of 1913 edition of Snare of Glory on hathitrust.org
Armenian books
1780s books
Constitutions
Armenian literature
Early Modern history of Armenia

Snare of Glory


David Emil Reich (born July 14, 1974) is an American geneticist known for his research into the population genetics of ancient humans, including their migrations and the mixing of populations, discovered by analysis of genome-wide patterns of mutations. He is professor in the department of genetics at the Harvard Medical School, and an associate of the Broad Institute. Reich was highlighted as one of Nature's 10 for his contributions to science in 2015. He received the Dan David Prize in 2017, the NAS Award in Molecular Biology, the Wiley Prize, and the Darwin–Wallace Medal in 2019. In 2021 he was awarded the Massry Prize.

Early life
Reich grew up as part of a Jewish family in Washington, D.C. His parents are novelist Tova Reich (sister of Rabbi Avi Weiss) and Walter Reich, a professor at George Washington University, who served as the first director of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. David Reich started out as a sociology major as an undergraduate at Harvard College, but later turned his attention to physics and medicine. After graduation, he attended the University of Oxford, originally with the intent of preparing for medical school. He was awarded a PhD in zoology in 1999 for research supervised by David Goldstein. His thesis was titled "Genetic analysis of human evolutionary history with implications for gene mapping".

Academic career
Reich received a BA in physics from Harvard University and a PhD in zoology from St. Catherine's College in the University of Oxford. He joined Harvard Medical School in 2003. Reich is currently a geneticist and professor in the department of genetics at Harvard Medical School, and an associate of the Broad Institute, whose research studies compare the modern human genome with those of chimpanzees, Neanderthals, and Denisovans.

Reich's genetics research focuses primarily on finding complex genetic patterns that cause susceptibility to common diseases among large populations, rather than looking for specific genetic markers associated with relatively rare illnesses.

Genetic research

Split of chimpanzees and humans (2006)

Reich's research team at Harvard University has produced evidence that, over a span of at least four million years, various parts of the human genome diverged gradually from those of chimpanzees. The split between the human and chimpanzee lineages may have occurred millions of years later than fossilized bones suggest, and the break may not have been as clean as previously thought.  The genetic evidence developed by Reich's team suggests that after the two species initially separated, they may have continued interbreeding for several million years.
A final genetic split transpired between 6.3 million and 5.4 million years ago.

Indian population (2009)

Reich's 2009 paper Reconstructing Indian population history was a landmark study in the research on India's genepool and the origins of its population. Reich et al. (2009), in a collaborative effort between the Harvard Medical School and the Indian Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB), examined the entire genomes worth 560,000 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), as compared to 420 SNPs in prior work.  They also cross-compared them with the genomes of other regions available in the global genome database. Through this study, they were able to discern two genetic groups in the majority of populations in India, which they called "Ancestral North Indians" (ANI) and "Ancestral South Indians" (ASI). They found that the ANI genes are close to those of Middle Easterners, Central Asians and Europeans whereas the ASI genes are dissimilar to all other known populations outside India. These two distinct groups, which had split ca. 50,000 years ago, formed the basis for the present population of India.

A follow-up study by Moorjani et al. (2013) revealed that the two groups mixed between 1,900 and 4,200 years ago (2200 BCE–100 CE), after which a shift to endogamy took place and admixture became rare. Speaking to Fountain Ink, David Reich stated, "Prior to 4,200 years ago, there were unmixed groups in India. Sometime between 1,900 to 4,200 years ago, profound, pervasive convulsive mixture occurred, affecting every Indo-European and Dravidian group in India without exception." Reich pointed out that their work does not show that a substantial migration occurred during this time.

, representing a collaboration between the Estonian Biocenter and CCMB, confirmed that the Indian populations are characterized by two major ancestry components. One of them is spread at comparable frequency and haplotype diversity in populations of South and West Asia and the Caucasus. The second component is more restricted to South Asia and accounts for more than 50% of the ancestry in Indian populations. Haplotype diversity associated with these South Asian ancestry components is significantly higher than that of the components dominating the West Eurasian ancestry palette.

Human genetic map (2011)
Reich was a co-leader, along with statistician Simon Myers, of a team of genetics researchers from Harvard University and the University of Oxford that made the most complete human genetic map then known in July 2011.

Interbreeding of Neanderthals and humans (2010–2012)

Reich's research team significantly contributed to the discovery that Neanderthals and Denisovans interbred with modern human populations as they dispersed from Africa into Eurasia 70,000–30,000 years ago.

Genetic markers for prostate cancer
Reich's lab received media attention following its discovery of a genetic marker which is linked to an increased likelihood of developing prostate cancer.  Reich has also argued that the higher incidence of prostate cancer among African Americans, compared to European Americans, appears to be largely genetic in origin.

Indo-European origins
Reich has suggested that the Indo-European languages may have originated south of the Caucausus, in present day Iran or Armenia: "Ancient DNA available from this time in Anatolia shows no evidence of steppe ancestry similar to that in the Yamnaya (although the evidence here is circumstantial as no ancient DNA from the Hittites themselves has yet been published). This suggests to me that the most likely location of the population that first spoke an Indo-European language was south of the Caucasus Mountains, perhaps in present-day Iran or Armenia, because ancient DNA from people who lived there matches what we would expect for a source population both for the Yamnaya and for ancient Anatolians. If this scenario is right the population sent one branch up into the steppe – mixing with steppe hunter-gatherers in a one-to-one ratio to become the Yamnaya as described earlier – and another to Anatolia to found the ancestors of people there who spoke languages such as Hittite."

Software tools
Reich has developed ADMIXTOOLS 2, an R software package primarily used for analyzing admixture, in collaboration with Nick Patterson.

Books
 Who We Are and How We Got Here, Oxford University Press, 2018

Notes

References

Sources

External links

 How Genetics Is Changing Our Understanding of 'Race' by David Reich
 "How Not To Talk About Race And Genetics" – a statement by 67 scholars criticizing Reich's treatment of "race" in his book Who We are and How We Got Here
 Harvard.edu – Dr. Reich's Lab
 David Reich, Who we are how we got there by Jared Diamond

1974 births
Alumni of St Catherine's College, Oxford
American geneticists
Archaeogeneticists
Living people
Genetic epidemiologists
Harvard College alumni
Harvard Medical School faculty
Howard Hughes Medical Investigators
Jewish American scientists
Paleogeneticists
21st-century American Jews

David Reich (geneticist)


Attack Attack may refer to:

 Attack Attack! (American band), an American band (with one exclamation mark)
 Attack Attack! (album), the American band's second studio album released in 2010
 Attack! Attack! (Welsh band), a Welsh band (with two exclamation marks)
 Attack! Attack!, 2008 debut album of Attack! Attack! (Welsh band), released in USA as Attack! Attack! UK
 "Attack Attack", song by Yellow Bird, a project of Peter Shelley and Marty Wilde 1974

See also
 Attack attack skip attack attack, a basketball maneuver

Attack Attack


An emery ball is an illegal pitch in baseball, in which the ball has been altered by scuffing it with a rough surface, such as an emery board or sandpaper. This technique alters the spin of the ball, causing it to move in an atypical manner, as more spin makes the ball rise, while less spin makes the ball drop. The general term for altering the ball in any way is doctoring. The emery ball differs from the spitball, in which the ball is doctored by applying saliva or Vaseline. Vaseline or saliva smooths the baseball, while the emery paper roughens it.

Russ Ford discovered the emery ball in the minor leagues in 1907 when he saw what a scuff on a baseball did to its movement. He began keeping emery paper in his baseball glove. Though he initially kept the pitch a secret, he had to inform his catcher, Ed Sweeney, about it. Sweeney taught it to other pitchers, and the pitch was discovered when an umpire found emery paper in Ray Keating's glove in 1914. The pitch was outlawed, and led to the banning of the spitball.

Development
In 1907, Russ Ford, a pitcher for the Atlanta Crackers of the Southern Association, was warming up under a grandstand with catcher Ed Sweeney when a ball struck a concrete pillar. He threw the ball again and noticed that it moved differently than before. Ford soon learned that by making a rough patch on one side of the ball, he could use the rough spot to get a firmer grip on the ball and increase the spin rate as he threw, making it harder to hit. Ford first used the pitch in a game in 1909, hiding a piece of emery paper in his baseball glove.

Ford joined the New York Highlanders of the American League in 1910. He told Sweeney, who also played for the Highlanders, how he had perfected the pitch and taught him how to catch it. Ford publicly claimed to be throwing a spitball, which was legal at the time. According to Sweeney, only two others on the team knew: Eddie Foster and Earle Gardner. They were roommates when the Yankees played on the road, and Ford told them about the pitch. Gardner went to the Toledo Iron Men of the American Association in 1912, where he taught the pitch to Cy Falkenberg. Other pitchers began to learn to throw the emery ball, and it was suspected that Sweeney taught them. Foster never told anybody about the pitch; when Foster played for the Washington Senators and Falkenberg pitched against them during the 1914 season, Senators' manager Clark Griffith noticed that he had the same pitch as Ford and questioned Foster, who said nothing.

Another origin story suggests that George Kahler of the Cleveland Indians discovered the pitch and taught it to Vean Gregg. When Gregg went to the Boston Red Sox, he taught it to Smoky Joe Wood. In The Neyer/James Guide to Pitchers, Rob Neyer and Bill James refer to Kahler as the second pitcher to use the emery ball. Other pitchers who used the emery ball included Lefty Leifield and Johnny Lush.

Public discovery
On September 12, 1914, during a game between the Philadelphia Athletics and New York Yankees, Philadelphia's Eddie Collins struck out against Ray Keating of the Yankees in the first inning. Suspicious of how Keating made his pitches move, Collins did not swing at a pitch in his second at bat. After Collins struck out for the second time, he asked the home plate umpire, Tom Connolly, to inspect the ball. Connolly took the ball and found it to be scuffed. He inspected Keating's glove and found a piece of emery paper inside.

Connolly sent two scuffed balls and a piece of emery paper to Ban Johnson, the president of the American League. Johnson declared that players caught using the emery ball would face a $100 fine ($ today) and a 30-day suspension. James A. Gilmore barred its use in the Federal League in 1915, also mandating a 30-day suspension, but with a $200 ($ in current dollar terms) fine. The National League also barred its use. Umpires began taking scuffed baseballs out of play, which doubled the number of baseballs required for a game.

Following the discovery of the emery ball, Griffith began to call for outlawing the spitball, which occurred after the 1919 season. In the rules of baseball, Rule 8.02(6) specifically bars "what is called the shine ball, spit ball, mud ball or emery ball." A 2007 alteration of the baseball rules changed the punishment to a mandatory ejection and 10-game suspension.

Further use
Whitey Ford was accused of scuffing baseballs in his later career. He acknowledged using a custom ring and a rasp to scuff baseballs later in his career, and said that he sometimes used his belt buckle or catcher Elston Howard's shin guards. He denied doing it in 1961, the year he won the Cy Young Award.

Don Sutton was often accused of scuffing baseballs during his career. Tommy John was also accused. Rick Honeycutt was caught with a thumbtack taped to his thumb and sandpaper hidden in his glove on September 30, 1980. He was suspended for 10 games.

In 1985, Jim Frey, the manager of the Chicago Cubs, accused Mike Scott of the Houston Astros of using sandpaper to scuff baseballs. The New York Mets accused Scott of using the emery ball in the 1986 National League Championship Series. In an interview in 2011, Scott said, "I've thrown balls that were scuffed but I haven't scuffed every ball that I've thrown."

Joe Niekro of the Minnesota Twins was caught doctoring baseballs in 1987. During a game, umpire Tim Tschida asked him to empty his pockets and a nail file and sandpaper that had been touched up to be flesh-colored came out.  Niekro, who also threw a knuckleball, claimed that he used the nail file on his nails for the knuckleball. The sandpaper had been glued to Niekro's hand.  A week after Niekro was caught, Kevin Gross of the Philadelphia Phillies was caught with a piece of sandpaper in his glove. Brian Moehler of the Detroit Tigers was caught with sandpaper in his glove in 1999, and served a ten-game suspension.

See also
Cheating in baseball
Ball tampering, the equivalent in cricket

References

Baseball pitches
Banned sports tactics
Cheating in baseball
Major League Baseball controversies

Emery ball


Magarach Ruby or Rubinovyi Magarcha is a red Crimean wine grape variety that is a crossing of Cabernet Sauvignon and Saperavi. The crossing was carried out at the Magarach viticultural institute at Yalta, Crimea in 1928 in what was then the Soviet Union.

Synonyms
Rubinovyi Magarcha is also known under the synonyms Crossing 56, Magarach 56, Magaracha Rubinovyi, Magaratch 56, Roter Rubin Von Magaratsch, Roubinovy Magaratcha, Roubinoy De Magaratch, Rubin Von Magaratch, Rubinovi Magaraca, and Rubinovyi Magaracha.

References

Red wine grape varieties
Russian wine

Magarach Ruby


The Contemporary Art Museum (Macedonian: Музеј на современата уметност) is one of the largest and most complete national institutions of North Macedonia. Located in the capital city of Skopje, the museum was founded in 1963 following the disastrous earthquake that hit the city. The building project was donated by the Polish Government.

Collection
The collection is made up of two segments; international and national. The international segment of the collections reflects the modern art from almost all parts of the world. The larger part of the collection marks the art movements of the 1950s, 1960's and 1970s, although it contains also around a hundred works of the early modern art. The older exhibits are mainly highlighted by works of Emil Filla, Fernand Léger, and André Masson. The works of the internationally well-known artists are of special importance, such as Pablo Picasso, Hans Hartung, Victor Vasarely, Alexander Calder, Pierre Soulages, Alberto Burri, Christo, Tadeusz Kantor, Robert Jacobsen, Etienne Hajdu, Zoltan Kemeny, Jerzy Nowosielski, Robert Adams, Emilio Vedova, Jan Cybis, Antoni Clavé, and Georg Baselitz.

External links

 Official Website

References

Macedonian art
Buildings and structures in Skopje
Museums in North Macedonia
Old Bazaar, Skopje

Museum of Contemporary Art (Skopje)


Gavin Lyle Hill (born 11 December 1965) is a New Zealand former rugby union and rugby league footballer who played in the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s, and coached rugby union the 2000s. He resided in Wellington for 10-years before moving back to Auckland in 2008 to take a coaching position in the Air New Zealand Cup.

He was a flanker and number eight in rugby union and then a / in league when he switched codes in 1991. In both rugby and league he was unusual, being a forward who kicked goals. Hill was also a very promising fast bowler and belligerent batsman in cricket for both Taranaki and Canterbury before rugby took over his career.

Rugby union
He originally played rugby union as a flanker for the Taranaki, Canterbury and Wellington. He also represented the New Zealand Māori Team. Hill returned to rugby union in 1998 and played out the rest of his playing career in Wellington and alternating in the off seasons to Europe and Canada playing club rugby. He first made a name for himself as a 17-year-old when beat the cream of New Zealand rugby in a national goal kicking competition. Participants included Grant Fox, Richard Wilson, Mark Finlay, Allan Hewson, Richard Dunn and Robbie Deans – notable for being All Blacks. Hill comes from a prominent sporting family – 5 of his great uncles (Warbrick) were part of the first ever New Zealand team to leave New Zealand (1884 Native team). One of those brothers – Joe Warbrick went on to become an All Black and play a major part in the beginnings of All Black rugby. Other notables were the famous All Black lock cum flanker during the 1950s Stan "Tiny" Hill who later went on to be an All Black selector. Tiny's two sons' Stan and John went on to represent New Zealand in Basketball and Stans' son Ben now is a current Tall Black. Hills father Brian was a prominent flanker for Taranaki and another uncle – Greg Hill played for the New Zealand Armed Services and Wanganui. His brother David was a New Zealand Armed Services representative. Another cousin Wayne Hill was a New Zealand Colt and prominent winger for North Harbour and Auckland during the 1980s. Hill coached club rugby in the Wairarapa domestic club competition. He is now residing in Auckland coaching the Auckland Storm in the Air New Zealand Cup for 2008.

Rugby league
He switched to rugby league in 1992, as union was not professional at that time. He played for the Canterbury Bankstown Bulldogs (1992–93), Featherstone Rovers (1993), Waikato Cougars (1994), Auckland Warriors (1995–96) and for the New Zealand Kiwis (1992–96) national side. He also represented New Zealand national rugby league team in the 1996 World Champion nines side in Fiji, the New Zealand Residents in 1994 and the New Zealand Māori league team notable for defeating the British Lions team and Papua New Guinea teams in 1996. After Hill finished with the Auckland Warriors, he played a season in the domestic club competition in Auckland with the Northcote Tigers before he moved to Wellington and returned to rugby union successfully. Hill's transition from rugby union to rugby league was even more remarkable because he is one of the few forwards in rugby union to successfully make the switch. Hill made the New Zealand Kiwis only after three games of rugby league for the Canterbury Bankstown Bulldogs.

References

1965 births
Living people
People educated at Stratford High School, New Zealand
Canterbury rugby union players
Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs players
Featherstone Rovers players
Māori All Blacks players
New Zealand Māori rugby league team players
New Zealand national rugby league team players
New Zealand rugby league players
New Zealand rugby union coaches
New Zealand rugby union players
New Zealand Warriors players
Northcote Tigers players
Rugby league players from Taranaki
Rugby union players from Taranaki
Rugby league props
Rugby league second-rows
Taranaki rugby union players
Waikato rugby league team players
Wellington rugby union players

Gavin Hill


Chen Danyan (; born 18 December 1958) is a writer based in Shanghai, China. Born in Beijing, she moved to Shanghai as a child and her writing revolves around Shanghai and Shanghainese women. She is best known for her trilogy of biographical narratives: Shanghai Memorabilia, Shanghai Princess, and Shanghai Beauty.

Life and work

Chen first published articles in Chinese journals in the 1970s. After studying Chinese literature at East China Normal University (1978–1982) she worked as an editor for the Children's Epoch magazine.

She dealt mainly with Chinese literature until the mid-eighties when she started writing on the life and the emotional world of adolescent girls. The autobiographical novel Nine Lives (1992) dealt with childhood experiences of the Cultural Revolution. She received the UNESCO-Prize for Peace and Tolerance for Nine Lives and was nominated in 1996 for German Youth Literature Prize. Central to her recent work is an exploration of the world of the young generation in China which has grown up as a result of the one-child family policy of the past two decades.

Another focus of her literary career is articles about her hometown of Shanghai.

Selected works

1995 - Nine Lives - a childhood in Shanghai. Zurich.
1996 - Niuyue jiari (New York Holidays). Shanghai.
1998 - Shanghai Memorabilia (上海的风花雪月)
1999 - Shanghai Princess (上海的金枝玉叶). Beijing. . English edition 2010
2000 - Shanghai Beauty (上海的红颜遗事) - Yao Yao and her mother Shangguan Yunzhu. Beijing.
2002 - Yu he ta de zi xing che. Beijing.
2003 - Slow Boat To China. (慢船去中国) Shanghai.  【Version 1】: 《Slow Boat To China》 , 【Version 2】: 《Slow Boat To China-Fanny》Part 1 , 《Slow Boat To China-Jenny》Part 2
2006 - Shanghai: China's Bridge to the Future (Cultural China, Man and the Land). Rhinebeck, NY.

References

1958 births
Living people
Writers from Shanghai
East China Normal University alumni
Chinese women novelists
International Writing Program alumni
People's Republic of China novelists
Chinese children's writers
Chinese women children's writers

Chen Danyan


Wang Zhongyu (born February 1933) is a Chinese engineer, politician, and diplomat of the People's Republic of China. An associate of Zhu Rongji, he was involved with the modernization and continued opening up of China and its economy during the 1990s and 2000s.

Life
Wang Zhongyu was born in February 1933 in Changchun, then the capital of the Japanese puppet state of Manchuria. (It now forms part of the northeastern Chinese province of Jilin.) He attended Changchun's now-prestigious High School Attached to Northeast Normal University, followed by studies at the Light Industry Vocational School in Shenyang (1950–1953). He worked as a technician at the Jilin Paper Mill before joining the Communist Party in May 1956, after which he slowly rose in position from deputy workshop head to engineer to deputy factory director to chief engineer of the factory by 1980. At that point, he was named deputy director of Jilin's provincial Light Industry Bureau in 1980.

After studying at the Central Party School in Beijing in 1981 and 1982, he rose very quickly through the ranks of Jilin's provincial administration as it accommodated itself to the economic and structural reforms undertaken by Deng Xiaoping. Wang returned to Jilin as the director of the province's Light Industry Bureau (1982–1983), was promoted to vice-governor and secretary-general of the provincial Communist Party (1983—1985), and then served as acting governor of Jilin Province from 1985 to 1989. He then served as governor in his own right until 1992. While serving as acting and full governor, he was also deputy secretary of the provincial party. During Wang's tenure, Jilin began to adapt itself to Deng's policies but in a slow and half-hearted fashion, needing to spend extra time combating bureaucratic growth and adapting policies years later than more progressive provinces like Shandong. The favored position of northeastern industries under Mao Zedong and the province's lack of a port limited its people's desire and ability to participate in China's new economy.

Wang then received national assignments. Having been an alternate member of the 13th Central Committee of the Communist Party (1987–1992), he was named a full member of its 14th and 15th sittings (1992–2002). In particular, Wang was a minister-level deputy director and secretary at the State Planning Commission from 1993 to 1998, where he headed its State Economic and Trade Commission under direction from Zhu Rongji. The SETC's remit was to promote a market economy in more spheres of Chinese life. It was particularly focused on reforming state-owned enterprises to accommodate allocation of their resources by prices set by a more open market and adjusting governmental policies to accommodate this. Jilin had many SOEs, which Wang had long experience with, and he became one of the most vocal champions of Zhu's policies to modernize and improve them.

During this period, Wang was one of the most powerful leaders in the Chinese administration. He was part of a consultative group tasked with exploring how far and fast the PRC could move towards democracy; the group's ultimate decision was to leave open elections limited to the local level, where they permitted immediate and daily grievances to be addressed without impacting Beijing's general guidance over the country. Wang also used his national influence to push for more development in Jilin, particularly the establishment of international agreements permitting Hunchun on the Tumen River to freely access the Sea of Japan across the narrow spit of territory held by North Korea and Russia. This had been a pet project of his since 1988, when the first regional conference on the topic had been held in Changchun. To permit the use of larger vessels, cooperation has slowly developed between China and North Korea in order to allow the Chinese to use the seaport of Rason, with Hunchun functioning more as its railway hub.

Again with the assistance of Zhu Rongji, Wang served as secretary-general of the State Council from March 1998 to March 2003, during which time he was appointed president of the National School of Administration (now the "Academy of Governance"), helped revamp the administration of the One Child Policy, served as the head of the leading group that oversaw China's 5th national census, and sat as a member of the steering committee that oversaw the 2001 APEC summits around China. In 1999, he also participated in the transfer of Macao from Portuguese to Chinese control. From 5 March 2003 to 5 March 2008, he was vice-chairman of the People's Political Consultative Conference. In 2005, he headed a Chinese diplomatic mission to Ghana from May 31 to June 2. He served as president of the International Association of Economic and Social Councils and Similar Institutions from 2005 to 2007.

See also
 Opening Up Policy & the "Three Represents"
 History of the PRC from 1989 to 2002
 Politics of the People's Republic of China

References

Citations

Bibliography

 .
 .
 .
 .
 .
 .
 .
 .
 .
 .

1933 births
Governors of Jilin
Alternate members of the 13th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party
Members of the 14th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party
Members of the 15th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party
Living people
State councillors of China
Vice Chairpersons of the National Committee of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference

Wang Zhongyu (politician, born 1933)


Molecular weight cut-off or MWCO refers to the lowest molecular weight solute (in daltons) in which 90% of the solute is retained by the membrane, or the molecular weight of the molecule (e.g. globular protein) that is 90% retained by the membrane.

This definition is not however standardized, and MWCOs can also be defined as the molecular weight at which 80% of the analytes (or solutes) are prohibited from membrane diffusion.

Commercially available microdialysis probes typically have molecular weight cutoffs that range from 1,000 to 300,000 Da, and larger thresholds of filtration are measured in µm.

Microdialysis may also be used to separate nanoparticles from the solutions in which they were formed. In such a separation, the eluate will consist of non-complexed reactants and components.

Ultrafiltration membrane manufacturers commonly produce and offer MWCO's of 2k, 5k, 10k, 30k, 50k, 100k, and 1,000k. Devices offered range from laboratory focused centrifugal devices (100ul to 100ml) to laboratory and bioprocessing relevant tangential flow filtration (TFF) devices (50ml to hundreds of litres).

References

Biochemistry
Physical chemistry
Membrane technology

Molecular weight cut-off


Count of Neiva (in Portuguese Conde de Neiva) is a Portuguese title granted, in 1373 by King Ferdinand I of Portugal, to Dom Gonçalo Teles de Meneses, brother of Queen Leonor Telles de Meneses.

Dom Gonçalo was also Lord of Faria, and that is why some authors, incorrectly, call him Count of Neiva and Faria.

Later, the County was granted to Fernando of Braganza and when Fernando became 2nd Duke of Braganza (1461), Count of Neiva became a subsidiary title of the House of Braganza.

List of the Counts of Ourém
Gonçalo Teles de Meneses ( ? -1403);
Fernando I, Duke of Braganza (1403-1478).

(for the list of holders after this date, see Duke of Braganza)

See also
Count of Barcelos
Duke of Braganza
House of Braganza
List of Portuguese Dukedoms
List of Countships in Portugal

External links
 Genealogy of the Counts of Neiva, in Portuguese

Bibliography
"Nobreza de Portugal e do Brasil" – Vol. III, page 47. Published by Zairol Lda., Lisbon 1989.

Countships of Portugal
1373 establishments in Europe
14th-century establishments in Portugal

Count of Neiva


Durante is both an Italian surname and a masculine Italian given name. Notable people with the name include:

Surname:
Adriano Durante (1940–2009), Italian professional road bicycle racer
Andrew Durante (born 1982), Australian football (soccer) player
Annalisa Durante (1990–2004), Italian murder victim
Anthony Durante (1967–2003), American professional wrestler
Carlo Durante (1946–2020), Italian paralympic athlete
Charlotte Durante (born 1944), American businesswoman and community activist
Checco Durante (1893–1976), Italian film actor
David Durante (born 1980), American artistic gymnast
Eli Durante, retired Brazilian football (soccer) player
Francesco Durante (1684–1755), Neapolitan composer
Francesco Durante (1844–1934), Italian politician and surgeon

Henry Durant founding president of the University of California
Jimmy Durante (1893–1980), Italian-American entertainer
Margaret Durante (born 1988), American country music singer
Mark Durante, American pedal steel guitarist
Nicandro Durante (born 1956), Brazilian businessman
Richard Durante (1930–2003), Canadian politician
Silvestro Durante (died 1672), Italian church musician and composer
Viviana Durante (born 1967), Italian-born English prima ballerina

Given name:
Durante Alberti (1538–1613), Tuscan painter
Durante degli Alighieri a.k.a. Dante Alighieri (1265–1321), Florentine poet

See also

Durante (grape), another name for the Italian wine grape Coda di Volpe
Durant (disambiguation)
Dante (disambiguation), originally a contracted version of Durante

Italian-language surnames
Italian masculine given names
Masculine given names

Durante


The Lithuanian National Prize for Culture and Arts (), established in 1989, is an award granted for achievements in culture and the arts. It has been awarded annually in six categories since 2006 (between 1989 and 2006 there were nine categories). The prize is formally bestowed on February 16, when the decorations and diplomas are presented to the laureates at Presidential Palace, commemorating the anniversary of the 1918 Act of Independence of Lithuania.

The award honors significant recent achievements in cultural fields and works by artists or art collectives. The honorees may be citizens of Lithuania or members of the Lithuanian World Community. When the award was first established, works accomplished during the previous five years were considered; this period was extended to seven years in 2008. The candidacies are open each year until September 15, and the winners are announced on December 15. Each "Lithuanian National Prize" consists of a memorial sign, a diploma, and a monetary grant (circa 104,000 litas). A single person can only receive the National Prize once.

The candidates for the Prize are now nominated by professional associations and societies; before 2008 the nominations could be made by members of the public. The laureates are selected by a special committee.

 there were 156 laureates of the Prize.

References

See also

 List of the Recipients of the Lithuanian National Prize

Awards established in 1989
Lithuanian awards


The POST, in most computers, is a self-test that checks the OS(s) available and boots from the OS selected. POST stands for Power On Self Test. Computers that have an operating system perform a POST before loading the OS, and many imbedded systems also do a POST.

A POST usually checks the crucial, files, folders, and components. Once the POST is completed, a selected OS will take control and finish the startup process.

If the POST fails, usually a BSOD displays (Blue Screen of Death, most commonly) and offers recovery options such as safe mode.

Other tools
LKGC (Last Known Good Configuration) reverts to the last non-problematic, successful bootup. It is similar to System Restore, but its primary function is to allow the user to use the computer normally, unlike System Restore, which does not guarantee a fix. Also, LKGC is unrevertable, unless you successfully bootup again.

System Restore works by allowing the user to open a wizard, then select a "restore point". The user must restart for the point to take effect, but the system will start as normal.

System Repair is typically found on the hard disk of your computer and contains options that can be used to fix the system. However, in serious cases, the OS may need to be reinstalled.

References

Computer hardware

Power-on self test


Professional doctorate is the name given to an academic title. People who studied certain branches get a degree of Dr. at the end of their regular studies. This is mostly the case in branches such as medicine and law.  This is not comparable to someone spending years writing and defending a thesis. It is more like a Master's degree, which people get after studying 4 to 5 years.

Academic degrees

Professional doctorate


Lydia Marie Clarke (April 14, 1923 – September 3, 2018) was an American actress and photographer. In 1944, she married Academy Award-winning actor Charlton Heston. They had two children and would remain married until Heston's death in 2008. She starred in The Atomic City, Bad for Each Other, and in Will Penny.

She was born in Two Rivers, Wisconsin and died at the Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center in Los Angeles on September 3, 2018, aged 95.

References

Other websites

1923 births
2018 deaths
American movie actors
American photographers
Actors from Wisconsin

Lydia Clarke


The Prophecy of the Lake (La profecía del lago) is an unreleased and lost Bolivian silent feature film, directed by José María Velasco Maidana and completed in 1925.

It was Velasco Maidana's first film, and would have been the second ever Bolivian-made fiction feature released, just after Pedro Sambarino's Corazón Aymara (1925). Set in contemporary Bolivia, it was a love story between an Aymara man and the daughter of a white landowner. Scheduled for release on July 28, it was censored and cancelled by the authorities, due to its "social critique" (highlighting the condition of indigenous Bolivians) and the controversial idea of a white woman falling in love with an indigenous man. The government ordered Velasco Maidana to surrender the film to be burned; in a 1979 interview, the director and his wife recalled that he threatened to burn himself along with his work. He managed to hide it in the walls of his house.

Velasco Maidana subsequently directed Wara Wara (1930), which was accepted by censors as it reversed the gender roles and moved the setting to the sixteenth century, portraying the love of a conquistador for an Inca princess. The Prophecy of the Lake is a lost film, as there are no known copies of it in existence; Wara Wara is the only known surviving work from Bolivia's silent-film era.

See also
List of lost films

References

External links

Bolivian silent films
Bolivian black-and-white films
Lost Bolivian films
Unreleased films
Films set in Bolivia
1920s romance films
Films directed by José María Velasco Maidana

The Prophecy of the Lake


"Seek" is the 18th episode of the tenth season of the American police procedural drama NCIS, and the 228th episode overall. It originally aired on CBS in the United States on March 19, 2013. The episode is written by Scott Williams and directed by Michael Weatherly, and was seen by 19.79 million viewers.

In the episode, a widowed Marine wife, whose husband was seemingly killed by a Taliban sniper, asks Gibbs' help to find out the truth. Meanwhile, Vance is conducting interviews for a nanny.

Plot
In Afghanistan, EOD specialist Marine Sergeant Theodore "Ted" Lemere is shot and killed by a sniper after leading a trapped child out of a minefield with the help of his bomb sniffing dog, Dex.

Lemere's widow, Ruby, approaches Gibbs, showing him a video message left behind by Lemere indicating that he might have been deliberately targeted. Abby's analysis of the bullet that killed Lemere appears to confirm this, after tracing the bullet to an American manufacturer. Gibbs suspects that the lead dog handler of a civilian contractor, Beta Co, might be responsible since he and Lemere had gotten in a fight previously, though they lack evidence to prove it. Ruby then receives a gold medallion in the mail, which is revealed to have been looted from Afghanistan. When a thief attempts to break into the Lemere household to steal the medallion, Dex chases the thief away.

Gibbs and McGee decide to take Dex back to Afghanistan to investigate the crime scene while the rest of the team processes the evidence the thief left behind. DiNozzo and Ziva arrest the thief, who was using his contacts in Beta Co to smuggle looted Afghani artifacts into the US. Lemere stumbled onto the looting racket while he and Dex were clearing abandoned houses and refused the contractor's offer to assist them.  Gibbs confronts the Beta Co contractors, pointing out one of them was a former Special Forces marksman. The marksman draws his weapon on Gibbs, but Dex lunges and takes the bullet instead, before the marksman is shot dead by Gibbs. The surviving contractor is arrested for Lemere's murder.

At Lemere's funeral, Gibbs approaches Ruby and tells her that due to the wounds he suffered, Dex has been permanently retired from the Marines, meaning he can stay with Ruby, much to her joy. The episode then ends with a phoof of Dex sitting by Ruby's side as the two study the coffin.

Meanwhile, Director Vance is interviewing potential nannies to take care of his children but keeps rejecting the applicants. He confides in Ziva (whose father died in the same attack that killed Vance's wife) that he's afraid that if he hires a nanny, it will signify that he has moved on from his wife's death. Ziva tells Vance that only he can decide when to move on - let no one else dictate when he should. Inspired, Vance finally decides on which nanny to hire.

Production
"Seek" is written by Scott Williams and directed by Michael Weatherly. "It all started with a photograph", Williams said about the story behind the episode. "Last year, the touching image of a black lab named Hawkeye laying faithfully beside the flag-draped casket of his late master, Navy SEAL hero Jon Tumilson, swept the internet and made headlines most everywhere. It served as yet another stark reminder of the sacrifices made by our military men and women and their families (pets included)", Williams continued.

According to Williams, the episode is "dedicated to military working dogs and their brave handlers everywhere".

This is the second episode of NCIS directed by series star Michael Weatherly, the first being "One Last Score" back in 2011.

Reception
"Seek" was seen by 19.79 million live viewers following its broadcast on March 19, 2013, with a  3.2/10 share among adults aged 18 to 49. A rating point represents one percent of the total number of television sets in American households, and a share means the percentage of television sets in use tuned to the program. In total viewers, "Seek" easily won NCIS and CBS the night. The spin-off NCIS: Los Angeles drew second and was seen by 16.84 million viewers. Compared to the last episode "Prime Suspect", "Seek" was down in both viewers and adults 18–49.

Douglas Wolfe from TV Fanatic gave the episode 4.5/5 and stated that "You can never go wrong putting a dog into the star seat in any TV episode. And Dexter filled the role especially well in "Seek," a NCIS' story about a K9 expert who was killed by a sniper after saving a child from a Taliban mine field in Afghanistan. [...] The writing for this episode (kudos to Scott Williams) was clever.  Even the name of the episode - "Seek" - served to bring the themes together in a collage of purpose:  Vance was seeking a nanny; Ziva was seeking Bodnar; the NCIS team was seeking Ted's killer; and Dex... well, Dex's purpose was to seek out mines and IEDs."

References

2013 American television episodes
NCIS (season 10) episodes

Seek (NCIS)


Do Not Track (DNT) is a formerly official HTTP header field, designed to allow internet users to opt-out of tracking by websites—which includes the collection of data regarding a user's activity across multiple distinct contexts, and the retention, use, or sharing of data derived from that activity outside the context in which it occurred.

The Do Not Track header was originally proposed in 2009 by researchers Christopher Soghoian, Sid Stamm, and Dan Kaminsky. Mozilla Firefox became the first browser to implement the feature, while Internet Explorer, Apple's Safari, Opera and Google Chrome all later added support. Efforts to standardize Do Not Track by the W3C in the Tracking Preference Expression (DNT) Working Group reached only the Candidate Recommendation stage and ended in September 2018 due to insufficient deployment and support.

DNT is not widely adopted by the industry, with companies citing the lack of legal mandates for its use (see Do Not Track legislation), as well as unclear standards and guidelines for how websites are to interpret the header. Thus, critics purport that it is not guaranteed enabling DNT will actually have any effect at all. The W3C disbanded its DNT working group in January 2019, citing insufficient support and adoption. Apple discontinued support for DNT the following month, citing browser fingerprinting concerns. As of March 2023, Mozilla Firefox continues to support DNT, where it is turned on by default in private browsing mode and optional in regular mode.

In 2020, a coalition of US-based internet companies announced the Global Privacy Control header that spiritually succeeds Do Not Track header. The creators hope that this new header will meet the definition of "user-enabled global privacy controls" defined by the California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA) and European General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR). In this case, the new header would be automatically strengthened by existing laws and companies would be required to honor it.

Operation
The DNT header accepts three values: 1 in case the user does not want to be tracked (opt-out), 0 in case the user consents to be tracked (opt-in), or null (no header sent) if the user has not expressed a preference. The default behavior required by the standard is not to send the header unless the user enables the setting via their browser or their choice is implied by the use of that specific browser.

History
In 2007, several consumer advocacy groups asked the U.S. Federal Trade Commission to create a Do Not Track list for online advertising. The proposal would have required that online advertisers submit their information to the FTC, which would compile a machine-readable list of the domain names used by those companies to place cookies or otherwise track consumers.

In July 2009, researchers Christopher Soghoian and Sid Stamm implemented support for the Do Not Track header in the Firefox web browser via a prototype add-on. Stamm was, at the time, a privacy engineer at Mozilla, while Soghoian soon afterward started working at the FTC. One year later, during a U.S. Senate privacy hearing, FTC Chairman Jon Leibowitz told the Senate Commerce Committee that the commission was exploring the idea of proposing a "do-not-track" list.

In December 2010, the FTC issued a privacy report that called for a "do-not-track" system that would enable people to avoid having their actions being monitored online.

One week later, Microsoft announced that its next browser would include support for Tracking Protection Lists that block tracking of consumers using blacklists supplied by third parties. In January 2011, Mozilla announced that its Firefox browser would soon provide a Do Not Track solution, via a browser header. Microsoft's Internet Explorer 9,
Apple's Safari, Opera and Google Chrome all later added support for the header approach.

In August 2015 a coalition of privacy groups led by the Electronic Frontier Foundation using W3C's Tracking Preference Expression (DNT) standard proposed that "Do not track" be the goal for advocates to demand of businesses.

In January 2019, the W3C Tracking Protection Working Group was disbanded, citing "insufficient deployment of these extensions" and lack of "indications of planned support among user agents, third parties, and the ecosystem at large." Beginning the following month, Apple removed DNT support from Safari, citing that it could be used as a "fingerprinting variable" for tracking.

Internet Explorer 10 default setting controversy
When using the "Express" settings upon installation, a Do Not Track option is enabled by default for Internet Explorer 10 and Windows 8. Microsoft faced criticism for its decision to enable Do Not Track by default from advertising companies, who say that use of the Do Not Track header should be a choice made by the user and must not be automatically enabled. The companies also said that this decision would violate the Digital Advertising Alliance's agreement with the U.S. government to honor a Do Not Track system, because the coalition said it would only honor such a system if it were not enabled by default by web browsers. A Microsoft spokesperson defended its decision however, stating that users would prefer a web browser that automatically respected their privacy.

On September 7, 2012, Roy Fielding, an author of the Do Not Track standard, committed a patch to the source code of the Apache HTTP Server, which would make the server explicitly ignore any use of the Do Not Track header by users of Internet Explorer 10. Fielding wrote that Microsoft's decision "deliberately violates" the Do Not Track specification because it "does not protect anyone's privacy unless the recipients believe it was set by a real human being, with a real preference for privacy over personalization". The Do Not Track specification did not explicitly mandate that the use of Do Not Track actually be a choice until after the feature was implemented in Internet Explorer 10. According to Fielding, Microsoft knew its Do Not Track signals would be ignored, and that its goal was to effectively give an illusion of privacy while still catering to their own interests. On October 9, 2012, Fielding's patch was commented out, restoring the previous behavior.

On April 3, 2015, Microsoft announced that starting with Windows 10, it would comply with the specification and no longer automatically enable Do Not Track as part of the operating system's "Express" default settings, but that the company will "provide customers with clear information on how to turn this feature on in the browser settings should they wish to do so".

Adoption
Very few advertising companies actually supported DNT, due to a lack of regulatory or voluntary requirements for its use, and unclear standards over how websites should respond to the header. Websites that honor DNT requests include Medium and Pinterest. Despite offering the option in its Chrome web browser, Google did not implement support for DNT on its websites, and directed users to its online privacy settings and opt-outs for interest-based advertising instead. The Digital Advertising Alliance, Council of Better Business Bureaus and the Direct Marketing Association does not require its members to honor DNT signals.

Use of ad blocking software to block web trackers and advertising has become increasingly common (with users citing both privacy concerns and performance impact as justification), while Apple and Mozilla began to add privacy enhancements (such as "tracking protection") to their browsers, that are designed to reduce undue cross-site tracking. In addition, laws such as the European Union's General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) have imposed restrictions on how companies are to store and process personal information.

Princeton University associate professor of computer science Jonathan Mayer, who was a member of the W3C's working group for DNT, argued that the concept is a "failed experiment".

Global Privacy Control
Global Privacy Control (GPC) is a proposed HTTP header field and DOM property that can be used to inform websites of the user's wish to have their information not be sold or used by ad trackers. GPC was developed in 2020 by privacy technology researchers such as Wesleyan University professor Sebastian Zimmeck and former Chief Technologist of the Federal Trade Commission Ashkan Soltani, as well as a group of privacy-focused companies including the Electronic Frontier Foundation, Automattic (owner of Tumblr and WordPress), and more. The signal has been implemented by DuckDuckGo's privacy extension, The New York Times, and privacy browser Brave and is supported by Firefox creator, Mozilla as well as former California Attorney General Xavier Becerra. GPC is a spiritual successor to the Do Not Track header that was created in 2009 but didn't find widespread success due to the lack of legislation that would require companies to legally respect the Do Not Track header.

GPC is a valid do-not-sell-my-personal-information signal according to the California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA), which stipulates that websites are legally required to respect a signal sent by users who want to opt-out of having their personal data sold. In July 2021, the California Attorney General clarified through an FAQ that under law, the Global Privacy Control signal must be honored.

On August 24, 2022, the California Attorney General announced Sephora paid a $1.2-million settlement for allegedly failing to process opt-out requests via a user-enabled global privacy control signal.

See also
 Blur (browser extension)
 P3P
 Evil bit

 Better Business Bureau
 Data & Marketing Association

References

External links
 IETF Internet Draft: Do Not Track: A Universal Third-Party Web Tracking Opt Out, March 7, 2011
 Do Not Track at Electronic Frontier Foundation
 Do Not Track at Mozilla
 Do Not Track at Securiti

Hypertext Transfer Protocol headers
Internet privacy

Do Not Track


The Khongirad (Mongolian: ᠬᠣᠩᠭᠢᠷᠠᠳ; Хонгирад; Khonghirad; ), also known as Qongirat (Qoñğyrat/Қоңғырат), was one of the major divisions of the Mongol tribes. Variations on the name include Onggirat, Ongirat, Qongrat, Khungirat, Kungrad,<ref name=McChesneyp202>Central Asia: Foundations of Change, by R. D. McChesney, pub Darwin Press, 1996, p202.</ref> Qunghrãt, Wangjila (王紀剌), Yongjilie (雍吉烈), Qungrat, and Guangjila (廣吉剌) in Chinese sources. Their homeland was located in the vicinity of Lake Hulun in Inner Mongolia and Khalkha River in Mongolia,M. Sanjdorj, History of the Mongolian People's Republic, Volume I, 1966 where they maintained close ties with the ruling dynasties of northern China. Because the various Hongirad clans never united under a single leader, the tribe never rose to great military glory. Their greatest fame comes from being the primary consort clan of the ruling house of Genghis Khan's Mongol empire. Genghis Khan's mother (Hoelun), great grandmother, and first wife were all Khongirads, as were many subsequent Mongol Empress and princesses.

During the Yuan dynasty they were given the title Lu Wang ("Prince of Lu"; ), and a few Khongirads migrated west into the territory of modern Uzbekistan and Turkistan Region where they became governors of Khwarazm and were known as the Sufi dynasty. After a brief period as independent rulers, they were subjected by Timur.

Origin
The Khongirads are often identified as the descendants of the ancient Wuku/Wugu tribe in Tang Dynasty records. The tribe's own origin myth claims that they were descended from three brothers born of a golden vessel—Jurluq Mergen, Quba Shira, and Tusbu Da'u. The descendants of these brothers formed the Hongirad tribe, but feuds quickly splintered the tribe and gave rise to the offshoot tribes of the Ikires, Olkhonud, Karanut, Gorlos, and Qongliyuts. Only the descendants of Jurluq Mergen retained the tribal name of Hongirad. One of the most famous Hongirad ancestors was Miser Ulug, an Onggirat Hercules who was super-humanly strong and often slept for days at a time.

Many names of the 12th century's Hongirads and their subtribes have Mongol origin:The Secret History of the Mongols

Dei Setsen — tsetsen (wise)
Jurluq Mergen — zörlög (path) mergen (wise). (See Merkit)
Quba Shira — goo (beautiful) shar (yellow). In the 1680s Zasagt Khan of the Khalkha Mongolia was Shar (Shira). (See Alan Gua).

Subtribes
Hongirad — khun (swan), khungiin (swan's), ard (person); swan person. Swan is one of Mongol totems. (See Oirats).
Qongliyuts — Khonkhluud; khonkh (bell), "iud" or "uud" is plural suffix.
Gorlos — Modern Southern Mongol subgroup
Ikires — Ikhires: ikh (great), ikhes (chief, noble)
Karanut — Kharnuud: khar (black), "iud" or "uud" is plural suffix
Olkhunut — Olkhunuud, "uud" is plural suffix. They have three subgroups:
Alag aduutan: alag (piebald), aduutan (horse herder); piebald horse herder.
Shar khonit: shar (yellow), khoni (sheep); yellow sheep breeder.
Ulaan zalaat: ulaan (red), zalaa (tassel); person who wears hat with red tassel. Today, Mongols call themselves "red-tasseled Mongols" because Mongols wear hat with red tassel and they adore fire. Fire is a general symbol of eternal growth, wealth, and success and a figure of fire is used in Mongolian flag, coat of arms and Soyombo symbol. The three tongues of the flame represent the past, present, and future.

Shamanic practices continue in present-day Mongol culture.Local Belief Systems , by Professor Mark Bender. Ohio State University.

Relationship with the Mongols: The Legend of Ergune Khun

According to Mongol legend, two warriors named Kiyan (Khiyad) and Negus (Mongolian: Nokhos, dog or wolf) were defeated in battle and forced to seek shelter in an enclosed valley called Ergune khun ("steep cliffs"). After several generations the descendants of these heroes became too numerous for the valley to support, but no one remembered the way out. A blacksmith came up with a solution—they would create their own way out by melting an exposed iron vein that existed in one of the encircling mountains. Building a massive fire and stoking it with 70 large bellows, the trapped clan did just that and succeeded in creating a passage to the outside world. Once free, the people of Kiyan and Negus went on to create several tribes, including the Mongols and the Hongirads (whose susceptibility to gout was explained by the "fact" that their ancestors were the first to flee Ergene Qun, so they burned their feet on the hot iron).

Consort Tribe

In addition to having a shared ancestry with the Mongols in general, the Hongirads also shared ancestors with the Mongol royal line, whose originator, Alan Qo'a, was a woman of the Kharlas clan, an offshoot of the Khongirads founded by the legendary Miser Ulug. Down to the 12th century, Mongol rulers such as Khabul Khan and his great-grandson Genghis Khan
were still taking Khongirad wives. Yesugei Ba'atur, the father of Genghis Khan, was not a high ranking Mongol leader, but even he secured himself an Onggirat wife by stealing one from another man. The wives of most rulers of the Yuan Dynasty and Golden Horde were also from the Hongirad.  That is why, they held enormous powers behind the courts in both states. They forced the rulers of the Golden Horde to make peace with Kublai in 1280s and convinced Tokhta Khan to accept supremacy of the Great Khan in 1304. The Hongirad under queen Dagi and Temüder, the Minister of the Secretariat,  reached their political peak in the Yuan Dynasty, the principal state of 4 khanates, during the reign of Gegeen Khan Shidebala (r.1321-1323). They built Yingchang city in modern Inner Mongolia in 1271.

After the death of the last Yuan emperor, Toghan Temur, who lost his imperial status in China and other Mongol khanates, a body of the Khongirat and Olkhunut (Borte's clan) surrendered to the Ming Dynasty in 1371. Meanwhile, the Khongirad, belonged to the southern Khalkha tumen in modern Inner Mongolia and Olkhunuts lived in modern Khovd Province.

Transoxiana

In the 18th century the basins of the Amu Darya and Syr Darya passed under the control of three Uzbek khanates claiming legitimacy in their descent from Genghis Khan. These were, from west to east, the Khongirads based on Khiva in Khwārezm (1717–1920), the Manghud in Bukhara (1753–1920), and the Mings in Kokand (Qǔqon; c. 1710–1876). The Sufi Dynasty (1359–1388) which was founded by the Qongirat elites in Khwārezm ruled their own state under the Jochids and Timur. The Qongirat Inaks became de facto rulers of the Khanate of Khiva in 18th century and their descendants assumed the title of khan themselves in 1804. On 2 February 1920, Khiva's last khan, Sayid Abdullah, abdicated before its territory was finally incorporated into the Soviet Union in 1924.

Descendants are found among the people in Mongolia and the Yugurs in Gansu, China, and little bit in the Karakalpaks and the Uzbegs.

Kazakhstan

Now, a Kazakh tribe of the Middle Juz named Qoñyrat [Қоңырат] and less often Qoñğyrat [Қоңғырат] (also spelled as Kongyrat, Konrat, etc.'') are considered descendants of Khongirads (Ongrat, Kungrat in (Gumilev, n.d). Around the beginning of the 20th century CE, the Kazakh Qongyrats lived mainly in what is now Turkistan Region (formerly South Kazakhstan Region), especially in the vicinity of the city of Turkistan. This region borders Uzbekistan, and a majority of the local population has at times been recorded as Uzbek; the part of the region in which the Kazakh Qongırats were concentrated was located between the Sır River and the lower reaches of the Chu River where it disappears in the steppe. The Qongyrat tribe of Kazakhs are notable for the extremely high frequency among them (64/95 = 67.37%) of Y-DNA that belongs to haplogroup C-M407, a clade that otherwise has been observed with greatest frequency among Buryats (117/217 = 53.9%, 40/80 = 50.0%, 86/298 = 28.9% (mostly northern and western)) and other indigenous peoples of Buryatia (15/28 = 53.6% Sojots, 27/51 = 52.9% Hamnigans). Members of C-M407 also have been found with lower frequency among Mongols in Mongolia, Kalmyks (especially Dörwöds), Manchus in China, and Yakuts in Sakha Republic.

Dariga Nazarbayeva's children are Kongyrat.

Rule of Khiva
They ruled the Khiva khanate from 1763 to 1920.

Notes

External links
Onggirats at Chinaknowledge
Hongirad tribe of Kazakh people - from Wikipedia Hongirad introduction in Kazakh language

Mongols
Mongol peoples
Darlikin Mongols
History of Mongolia

Khongirad


Milada Šubrtová (24 May 1924 – 1 August 2011) was a Czech operatic soprano who had a lengthy career at the National Theatre in Prague from 1948 through 1991. She was part of an instrumental group of the post-World War II Czech opera singers that was responsible for popularizing Czech opera internationally. She drew particular acclaim for her portrayals of the title heroines in Leoš Janáček's Jenůfa and Antonín Dvořák's Rusalka. Her voice is preserved on a few complete opera recordings made on the Supraphon label. In 1998 she was honored with a Thalia Award.

Biography
Born in Lhota, Šubrtová moved to Prague and studied singing with Zdeněk Knittl, while working as a secretary in the civil service. She made her professional opera debut in 1946 as Giulietta in Jacques Offenbach's The Tales of Hoffmann at  the "Grand Opera of 5th May". She became a principal artist at the Prague National Theatre in 1948 where she was committed for the rest of her career until her retirement in 1991.

Having made her debut at Moscow's Bolshoi Theater as the title role of Rusalka in 1953, she sang at Berlin State Opera House in 1956 and Teatro la Fenice di Venezia in 1958. She sang the part of Milada in Smetana's Dalibor and the title role in Rusalka at Edinburgh Festival in 1964. But she sang mainly at the Prague National Theatre, where she enjoyed exceptional popularity and the affection of her audiences. She married Czech conductor Jan Hus Tichý and sang under his conducting frequently.

Thanks to her all-round abilities she was the leading soprano there for more than 20 years. In 1954 she was awarded the Emmy Destinn and Karel Burian prize at the singing competition of the International Prague Spring Festival at which she performed arias including "Depuis le jour" from Charpentier's Louise.  Her secure technique enabled her to interpret both light coloratura roles as well as dramatic parts. Her vast repertory included more than 80 roles such as Abigaile in Nabucco, both Agathe and Ännchen in Der Freischütz, Cio-Cio-San in Madama Butterfly, Donna Anna in Don Giovanni, Elisabetta in Don Carlos, Elsa in Lohengrin, Fiordiligi in Così fan tutte, Gilda in Rigoletto, Konstanze in Die Entführung aus dem Serail, Lady Macbeth in Macbeth, Leonora in Il trovatore, Lisa in The Queen of Spades, Lyudmila in Ruslan and Lyudmila, Marguerite in Faust, Micaëla in Carmen, both Mimì and Musetta in La bohème, Pamina in The Magic Flute, Santuzza in Cavalleria rusticana, Sieglinde in Die Walküre, Tatyana in Eugene Onegin, Violetta in La traviata, and the title roles in Louise, Tosca, and Turandot. But above all, she excelled in portraying roles from Czech operas by Smetana, Dvořák and Janáček including the title roles of Libuše, Rusalka and Jenůfa, Mařenka in Prodaná nevěsta (The Bartered Bride) and  Emilia Marty in Věc Makropulos (Makropulos Case).

She gave also performances in a number of operettas by Strauss, Lehár, Zeller, and in particular, Offenbach. Her concert repertoire included works from Bach to Britten and Honegger to Orff. She left just a handful recordings for the Czech record label Supraphon, but the complete recording of Rusalka has set a standard because of the glorious conducting by Zdeněk Chalabala and Šubrtová's unequalled interpretation in the title role.

Discography of complete opera recordings

References

External Links

1924 births
2011 deaths
Czech operatic sopranos
People from Plzeň-North District
Czechoslovak women opera singers
Recipients of the Thalia Award

Milada Šubrtová