Orchestration is the study or practice of writing music for an orchestra (or, more loosely, for any musical ensemble, such as a concert band) or of adapting music composed for another medium for an orchestra. Also called "instrumentation", orchestration is the assignment of different instruments to play the different parts (e.g., melody, bassline, etc.) of a musical work.  For example, a work for solo piano could be adapted and orchestrated so that an orchestra could perform the piece, or a concert band piece could be orchestrated for a symphony orchestra.

In classical music, composers have historically orchestrated their own music.  Only gradually over the course of music history did orchestration come to be regarded as a separate compositional art and profession in itself. In modern classical music, composers almost invariably orchestrate their own work. Two notable exceptions to this are Ravel's orchestration of Mussorgsky's solo piano work Pictures at an Exhibition and Malcolm Arnold's orchestration of William Walton's String Quartet in A minor, producing the latter's Sonata for Strings.

However, in musical theatre, film music and other commercial media, it is customary to use orchestrators and arrangers to one degree or another, since time constraints and/or the level of training of composers may preclude them orchestrating the music themselves.

The precise role of the orchestrator in film music is highly variable, and depends greatly on the needs and skill set of the particular composer.

In musical theatre, the composer typically writes a piano/vocal score and then hires an arranger or orchestrator to create the instrumental score for the pit orchestra to play.

In jazz big bands, the composer or songwriter may write a lead sheet, which contains the melody and the chords, and then one or more orchestrators or arrangers may "flesh out" these basic musical ideas by creating parts for the saxophones, trumpets, trombones, and the rhythm section (bass, piano/jazz guitar/Hammond organ, drums). But, commonly enough, big band composers have done their own arranging, just like their classical counterparts.

As profession
An orchestrator is a trained musical professional who assigns instruments to an orchestra or other musical ensemble from a piece of music written by a composer, or who adapts music composed for another medium for an orchestra. Orchestrators may work for musical theatre productions, film production companies or recording studios. Some orchestrators teach at colleges, conservatories or universities. The training done by orchestrators varies. Most have completed formal postsecondary education in music, such as a Bachelor of Music (B.Mus.), Master of Music (M.Mus.) or an artist's diploma. Orchestrators who teach at universities, colleges and conservatories may be required to hold a master's degree or a Doctorate (the latter may be a Ph.D. or a D.M.A). Orchestrators who work for film companies, musical theatre companies and other organizations may be hired solely based on their orchestration experience, even if they do not hold academic credentials. In the 2010s, as the percentage of faculty holding terminal degrees and/or Doctoral degrees is part of how an institution is rated, this is causing an increasing number of postsecondary institutions to require terminal and/or Doctoral degrees.

In practice
The term orchestration in its specific sense refers to the way instruments are used to portray any musical aspect such as melody, harmony or rhythm. For example, a C major chord is made up of the notes C, E, and G. If the notes are held out the entire duration of a measure, the composer or orchestrator will have to decide what instrument(s) play this chord and in what register. Some instruments, including woodwinds and brass are monophonic and can only play one note of the chord at a time. However, in a full orchestra there are more than one of these instruments, so the composer may choose to outline the chord in its basic form with a group of clarinets or trumpets (with separate instruments each being given one of the three notes of the chord). Other instruments, including the strings, piano, harp, and pitched percussion are polyphonic and may play more than one note at a time. As such, if the orchestrator wishes to have the strings play the C major chord, they could assign the low C to the cellos and basses, the G to the violas, and then a high E to the second violins and an E an octave higher to the first violins. If the orchestrator wishes the chord to be played only by the first and second violins, they could give the second violins a low C and give the first violins a double stop of the notes G (an open string) and E.

Additionally in orchestration, notes may be placed into another register (such as transposed down for the basses), doubled (both in the same and different octaves), and altered with various levels of dynamics.  The choice of instruments, registers, and dynamics affect the overall tone color.  If the C major chord was orchestrated for the trumpets and trombones playing fortissimo in their upper registers, it would sound very bright; but if the same chord was orchestrated for the cellos and double basses playing sul tasto, doubled by the bassoons and bass clarinet, it might sound heavy and dark.

Note that although the above example discussed orchestrating a chord, a melody or even a single note may be orchestrated in this fashion. Also note that in this specific sense of the word, orchestration is not necessarily limited to an orchestra, as a composer may orchestrate this same C major chord for, say, a woodwind quintet, a string quartet or a concert band. Each different ensemble would enable the orchestrator/composer to create different tone "colours" and timbres.

A melody is also orchestrated. The composer or orchestrator may think of a melody in their head, or while playing the piano or organ. Once they have thought of a melody, they have to decide which instrument (or instruments) will play the melody. One widely used approach for a melody is to assign it to the first violins. When the first violins play a melody, the composer can have the second violins double the melody an octave below, or have the second violins play a harmony part (often in thirds and sixths). Sometimes, for a forceful effect, a composer will indicate in the score that all of the strings (violins, violas, cellos, and double basses) will play the melody in unison, at the same time. Typically, even though the instruments are playing the same note names, the violins will play very high-register notes, the violas and cellos will play lower-register notes, and the double basses will play the deepest, lowest pitches.

As well, the woodwinds and brass instruments can effectively carry a melody, depending on the effect the orchestrator desires. The trumpets can perform a melody in a powerful, high register. Alternatively, if the trombones play a melody, the pitch will likely be lower than the trumpet, and the tone will be heavier, which may change the musical effect that is created. While the cellos are often given an accompaniment role in orchestration, there are notable cases where the cellos have been assigned the melody. In even more rare cases, the double bass section (or principal bass) may be given a melody, like, the high-register double bass solo in Prokofiev's Lieutenant Kije Suite.

While assigning a melody to a particular section, such as the string section or the woodwinds will work well, as the stringed instruments and all the woodwinds blend together well, some orchestrators give the melody to one section and then have the melody doubled by a different section or an instrument from a different section. For example, a melody played by the first violins could be doubled by the glockenspiel, which would add a sparkling, chime-like colour to the melody. Alternatively, a melody played by the piccolos could be doubled by the celesta, which would add a bright tone to the sound.

In the 20th and 21st century, contemporary composers began to incorporate electric and electronic instruments into the orchestra, such as the electric guitar played through a guitar amplifier, the electric bass played through a bass amplifier, the Theremin and the synthesizer. The addition of these new instruments gave orchestrators new options for creating tonal colours in their orchestration. For example, in the late 20th century and onwards, an orchestrator could have a melody played by the first violins doubled by a futuristic-sounding synthesizer or a theremin to create an unusual effect.

Orchestral instrumentation is denoted by an abbreviated formulaic convention, as follows: flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon, horn, trumpet, trombone, tuba. More details can be contained in brackets. A dot separates one player from another, a slash indicates doubling. Timpani and percussion are denoted 2Tmp+ number of percussion.

For example, 3[1.2.3/pic] 2[1.Eh] 3[1.2.3/Ebcl/bcl] 3[1.2/cbn.cbn] tmp+2 is interpreted as:

 3 flautists, the 3rd doubling on piccolo ("doubling" means that the performer can play flute and piccolo)
 2 oboists, the 2nd playing English horn throughout
 3 clarinetists, the 3rd doubling also on E-flat clarinet and bass clarinet
 3 bassoonists, the 2nd doubling on contrabassoon, the 3rd playing only contra
 Timpani+ 2 percussion.

As an example, Mahler Symphony 2 is scored: 4[1/pic.2/pic.3/pic.4/pic] 4[1.2.3/Eh.4/Eh] 5[1.2.3/bcl.4/Ebcl2.Ebcl] 4[126.96.36.199/cbn]- 10 8 4 1- 2tmp+4-2 hp- org- str.

Examples from the repertoire

J.S Bach
During the Baroque era, composers showed increasing awareness of the expressive potential of orchestration.  While some early Baroque pieces have no indication of which instruments should play the piece, the choice of instruments being left to the musical group's leader or concertmaster, there are Baroque works which specify certain instruments. The orchestral accompaniment to the aria 'et misericordia' from J. S. Bach's Magnificat, BWV 243 (1723) features muted strings doubled by flutes, a subtle combination of mellow instrumental timbres.

A particularly imaginative example of Bach's use of changing instrumental colour between orchestral groups can be found in his Cantata BWV 67, Halt im Gedächtnis Jesum Christ.  In the dramatic fourth movement, Jesus is depicted as quelling his disciples' anxiety (illustrated by agitated strings) by uttering Friede sei mit euch ("Peace be unto you"). The strings dovetail with sustained chords on woodwind to accompany the solo singer, an effect John Eliot Gardiner likens to "a cinematic dissolve."

The orchestral introduction to the opening chorus of J. S. Bach's epiphany Cantata Sie werden aus Saba alle kommen BWV 65, which John Eliot Gardiner (2013, p. 328) describes as "one of the crowning glories of Bach's first Christmas season" further demonstrates the composer's mastery of his craft.  Within a space of eight bars, we hear recorders, oboes da caccia, horns and strings creating a "glittery sheen" of contrasted timbres, sonorities and textures ranging from just two horns against a string pedal point in the first bar to a "restatement of the octave unison theme, this time by all the voices and instruments spread over five octaves" in bars 7-8:

Igor Stravinsky (1959, p45) marvelled at Bach's skill as an orchestrator: "What incomparable instrumental writing is Bach's. You can smell the resin [(rosin)] in his violin parts, [and] taste the reeds in the oboes."

Rameau
Jean Philippe Rameau was famous for "the eloquence of [his] orchestral writing which was something entirely new... - with a feeling for colour [(i.e., tone colour or timbre)] that is altogether 'modern'." In 'The Entrance of Polymnie' from his opera Les Boréades (1763), the predominant string texture is shot through with descending scale figures on the bassoon, creating an exquisite blend of timbres:In the aria 'Rossignols amoureux' from his opera Hippolyte et Aricie, Rameau evokes the sound of lovelorn nightingales by means of two flutes blending with a solo violin, while the rest of the violins play sustained notes in the background.

Haydn
Joseph Haydn was a pioneer of symphonic form, but he was also a pioneer of orchestration.  In the minuet of Symphony No. 97, "we can see why Rimsky-Korsakov declared Haydn to be the greatest of all masters of orchestration. The oom-pah-pah of a German dance band is rendered with the utmost refinement, amazingly by kettledrums and trumpets pianissimo, and the rustic glissando… is given a finicky elegance by the grace notes in the horns as well as by the doubling of the melody an octave higher with the solo violin.  These details are not intended to blend, but to be set in relief; they are individually exquisite." Another example of Haydn's imagination and ingenuity that shows how well he understood how orchestration can support harmony may be found in the concluding bars of the second movement of his Symphony No. 94 (the "Surprise Symphony.")  Here, the oboes and bassoons take over the theme, while sustained chords in the strings accompany it with "soft, but very dissonant harmony. " Flute, Horns and timpani add to the mix, all contributing to the "air of uncanny poignancy" that characterises this atmospheric conclusion.

Mozart
Mozart "was acutely sensitive to matters of instrumentation and instrumental effect where orchestral writing was concerned", including a "meticulous attitude towards the spacing of chords." H. C. Robbins Landon marvels at the "gorgeous wash of colour displayed in Mozart's scores."   For example, the opening movement of the Symphony No. 39 (K543) contains "a charming dialogue between strings and woodwind" that demonstrates the composer's exquisite aural imagination for the blending and contrast of timbres.  Bars 102-3 feature a widely spaced voicing over a range of four octaves.  The first and second violins weave curly parallel melodic lines, a tenth apart, underpinned by a pedal point in the double basses and a sustained octave in the horns.  Wind instruments respond in bars 104–5, accompanied by a spidery ascending chromatic line in the cellos. A graceful continuation to this features clarinets and bassoons with the lower strings supplying the bass notes.Next, a phrase for strings alone blends pizzicato cellos and basses with bowed violins and violas, playing mostly in thirds:The woodwind repeat these four bars with the violins adding a counter-melody against the cellos and basses playing arco.  The violas add crucial harmonic colouring here with their D flat in bar 115. In 1792, an early listener marvelled at the dazzling orchestration of this movement "ineffably grand and rich in ideas, with striking variety in almost all obbligato parts.""The main feature in [his] orchestration is Mozart's density, which is of course part of his density of thought."

Another important technique of Mozart's orchestration was antiphony, the "call and response" exchange of musical motifs or "ideas" between different groups in the orchestra. In an antiphonal section, the composer may have one group of instruments introduce a melodic idea (e.g., the first violins), and then have the woodwinds "answer" by restating this melodic idea, often with some type of variation. In the trio section of the minuet from his Symphony No. 41 (1788), the flute, bassoons and horn exchange phrases with the strings, with the first violin line doubled at the octave by the first oboe:  Charles Rosen (1971, p. 240) admires Mozart's skill in orchestrating his piano concertos, particularly the Concerto in E flat major, K482, a work that introduced clarinets into the mix.  "This concerto places the greatest musical reliance on tone colour, which is, indeed, almost always ravishing.  One lovely example of its sonorities comes near the beginning."

The orchestral tutti in the first two bars is answered by just horns and bassoon in bars 2–6.  This passage repeats with fresh orchestration: "Here we have the unusual sound on the violins providing the bass for the solo clarinets.  The simplicity of the sequence concentrates all our interest on tone-colour, and what follows – a series of woodwind solos – keeps it there.  The orchestration throughout, in fact, has a greater variety than Mozart had wished or needed before, and fits the brilliance, charm, and grace of the first movement and the finale."

Beethoven
Beethoven's innovative mastery of orchestration and his awareness of the effect of highlighting, contrasting and blending distinct instrumental colours are well exemplified in the Scherzo of his Symphony No. 2. George Grove asks us to note "the sudden contrasts both in amount and quality of sound… we have first the full orchestra, then a single violin, then two horns, then two violins, then the full orchestra again, all within the space of half-a-dozen bars." "The scoring, a bar of this followed by a bar of that, is virtually unique, and one can visualize chaos reigning at the first rehearsal when many a player must have been caught unprepared."

Another demonstration of Beethoven's consummate skill at obtaining the maximum variety out of seemingly unprepossessing and fairly simple material can be found in the first movement of the Piano Concerto No. 5 in E flat ('The Emperor') Opus 73 (1810). The second subject of the sonata form is a deceptively simple tune that, according to Fiske (1970, p. 41) "is limited to notes playable on the horns for which it must have been specially designed." This theme appears in five different orchestrations throughout the movement, with changes of mode (major to minor), dynamics (forte to pianissimo) and a blending of instrumental colour that ranges from boldly stated tutti passages to the most subtle and differentiated episodes, where instrumental sounds are combined often in quite unexpected ways:

The theme first appears in the minor mode during the orchestral introduction, performed using staccato articulation and orchestrated in the most delicate and enchanting colours: This is followed by a more straightforward version in the major key, with horns accompanied by strings.  The theme is now played legato by the horns, accompanied by a sustained pedal point in the bassoons.  The violins simultaneously play an elaborated version of the theme.  (See also heterophony.)  The timpani and pizzicato lower strings add further colour to this variegated palette of sounds. "Considering that the notes are virtually the same the difference in effect is extraordinary": When the solo piano enters, its right hand plays a variant of the minor version of the theme in a triplet rhythm, with the backing of pizzicato (plucked) strings on the off-beats: This is followed by a bold tutti statement of the theme, "with the whole orchestra thumping it out in aggressive semi-staccato. : The minor version of the theme also appears in the cadenza, played staccato by the solo piano: This is followed, finally, by a restatement of the major key version, featuring horns playing legato, accompanied by pizzicato strings and filigree arpeggio figuration in the solo piano: Fiske (1970) says that Beethoven shows "a superb flood of invention" through these varied treatments.  "The variety of moods this theme can convey is without limit."

Berlioz

The most significant orchestral innovator of the early 19th century was Hector Berlioz.  (The composer was also the author of a Treatise on Instrumentation.) "He was drawn to the orchestra as his chosen medium by instinct … and by finding out the exact capabilities and timbres of individual instruments, and it was on this raw material that his imagination worked to produce countless new sonorities, very striking when considered as a totality, crucially instructive for later composers, and nearly all exactly tailored to their dramatic or expressive purpose." Numerous examples of Berlioz's orchestral wizardry and his penchant for conjuring extraordinary sonorities can be found in his Symphonie fantastique.  The opening of the fourth movement, entitled "March to the Scaffold" features what for the time (1830) must have seemed a bizarre mix of sounds.  The timpani and the double basses play thick chords against the snarling muted brass:

"Although he derives from Beethoven, Berlioz uses features that run counter to the rules of composition in general, such as the chords in close position in the low register of the double basses."
Berlioz was also capable of conveying great delicacy in his instrumental writing.  A particularly spectacular instance is the "Queen Mab" scherzo from the Romeo et Juliette symphony, which Hugh Macdonald (1969, p51) describes as "Berlioz's supreme exercise in light orchestral texture, a brilliant, gossamer fabric, prestissimo and pianissimo almost without pause:

Boulez points out that the very fast tempo must have made unprecedented demands on conductors and orchestras of the time (1830), "Because of the rapid and precise rhythms, the staccatos which must be even and regular in all registers, because of the isolated notes that occur right at the end of the bar on the third quaver…all of which must fall into place with absolutely perfect precision."
Macdonald highlights the passage towards the end of the scherzo where "The sounds become more ethereal and fairylike, low clarinet, high harps and the bell-like antique cymbals…The pace and fascination of the movement are irresistible; it is some of the most ethereally brilliant music ever penned."  The New Grove Dictionary says that for Berlioz, orchestration "was intrinsic to composition, not something applied to finished music...in his hands timbre became something that could be used in free combinations, as an artist might use his palette, without bowing to the demands of line, and this leads to the rich orchestral resource of Debussy and Ravel."

Wagner

After Berlioz, Richard Wagner was the major pioneer in the development of orchestration during the 19th century. Pierre Boulez speaks of the "sheer richness of Wagner's orchestration and his irrepressible instinct for innovation." Peter Latham says that Wagner had a "unique appreciation of the possibilities for colour inherent in the instruments at his disposal, and it was this that guided him both in his selection of new recruits for the orchestral family and in his treatment of its established members. The well-known division of that family into strings, woodwind, and brass, with percussion as required, he inherited from the great classical symphonists such changes as he made were in the direction of splitting up these groups still further." Latham gives as an example, the sonority of the opening of the opera Lohengrin, where "the ethereal quality of the music" is due to the violins being "divided up into four, five, or even eight parts instead of the customary two."  "The A major chord with which the Lohengrin Prelude begins, in the high register, using harmonics and held for a long time, lets us take in all its detail. It is undoubtedly an A major chord, but it is also high strings, harmonics, long notes – which gives it all its expressivity, but an expressivity in which the acoustic features play a central role, as we have still heard neither melody nor harmonic progression."

As he matured as a composer, particularly through his experience of composing The Ring Wagner made "increasing use of the contrast between pure and mixed colours, bringing to a fine point the art of transition from one field of sonority to another."  For example, in the evocative "Fire Music" that concludes Die Walküre, "the multiple arpeggiations of the wind chords and the contrary motion in the strings create an oscillation of tone-colours almost literally matching the visual flickering of the flames."Robert Craft found Wagner's final opera Parsifal to be a work where "Wagner's powers are at their pinnacle… The orchestral blends and separations are without precedent."   Craft cites the intricate orchestration of the single line of melody that opens the opera:

"Parsifal makes entirely new uses of orchestral colour… Without the help of the score, even a very sensitive ear cannot distinguish the instruments playing the unison beginning of the Prelude.  The violins are halved, then doubled by the cellos, a clarinet, and a bassoon, as well as, for the peak of the phrase, an alto oboe [cor anglais]. The full novelty of this colour change with the oboe, both as intensity and as timbre, can be appreciated only after the theme is repeated in harmony and in one of the most gorgeous orchestrations of even Wagner's Technicolor imagination."
Later, during the opening scene of the first act of Parsifal, Wagner offsets the bold brass with gentler strings, showing that the same musical material feels very different when passed between contrasting families of instruments:

On the other hand, the prelude to the opera Tristan and Isolde exemplifies the variety that Wagner could extract through combining instruments from different orchestral families with his precise markings of dynamics and articulation.  In the opening phrase, the cellos are supported by wind instruments:

When this idea returns towards the end of the prelude, the instrumental colors are varied subtly, with sounds that were new to the 19th century orchestra, such as the cor anglais and the bass clarinet.  These, together with the ominous rumbling of the timpani effectively convey the brooding atmosphere:

"It's impressive to see how Wagner… produces balance in his works.  He is true genius in this respect, undeniably so, even down to the working out of the exact number of instruments."  Boulez is "fascinated by the precision with which Wagner gauges orchestral balance, [which] … contains a multiplicity of details that he achieved with astonishing precision." According to Roger Scruton, "Seldom since Bach's inspired use of obbligato parts in his cantatas have the instruments of the orchestra been so meticulously and lovingly adapted to their expressive role by Wagner in his later operas."

Mahler
William Austin (1966) says "Mahler expanded the orchestra, going ahead to a historic climax in the direction already marked by Beethoven, Berlioz and Wagner… The purpose of this famous expansion was not a sheer increase in volume, but a greater variety of sound with more nearly continuous gradations… Mahler only occasionally required all his vast orchestra to play together, and his music was as often soft as loud.  Its colours were continually shifting, blending or contrasting with each other." Adorno (1971) similarly describes Mahler's symphonic writing as characterised by "massive tutti effects" contrasted with "chamber-music procedures". The following passage from the first movement of his Symphony No. 4 illustrates this: Only in the first bar of the above is there a full ensemble.  The remaining bars feature highly differentiated small groups of instruments.  Mahler's experienced conductor's ear led him to write detailed performance markings in his scores, including carefully calibrated dynamics.  For example, in bar 2 above, the low harp note is marked forte, the clarinets, mezzo-forte and the horns piano.  Austin (1966) says that "Mahler cared about the finest nuances of loudness and tempo and worked tirelessly to fix these details in his scores."

Mahler's imagination for sonority is exemplified in the closing bars of the slow movement of the Fourth Symphony, where there occurs what Walter Piston (1969, p. 140) describes as "an instance of inspired orchestration… To be noted are the sudden change of mode in the harmonic progression, the unusual spacing of the chord in measure 5, and the placing of the perfect fourth in the two flutes. The effect is quite unexpected and magical." According to Donald Mitchell, the "rational basis" of Mahler's orchestration was "to enable us to comprehend his music by hearing precisely what was going on."

Debussy

Apart from Mahler and Richard Strauss, the major innovator in orchestration during the closing years of the nineteenth and the first decades of the twentieth century was Claude Debussy.  According to Pierre Boulez (1975, p20) "Debussy's orchestration… when compared with even such brilliant contemporaries as Strauss and Mahler… shows an infinitely fresher imagination."  Boulez said that Debussy's orchestration was "conceived from quite a different point of view; the number of instruments, their balance, the order in which they are used, their use itself, produces a different climate."  Apart from the early impact of Wagner, Debussy was also fascinated by music from Asia that according to Austin "he heard repeatedly and admired intensely at the Paris World exhibition of 1889".

Both influences inform Debussy's first major orchestral work, Prelude a l'après-midi d'un faune (1894).  Wagner's influence can be heard in the strategic use of silence, the sensitively differentiated orchestration and, above all in the striking half-diminished seventh chord spread between oboes and clarinets, reinforced by a glissando on the harp. Austin (1966, p. 16) continues "Only a composer thoroughly familiar with the Tristan chord could have conceived the beginning of the Faune."

Later in the Faune, Debussy builds a complex texture, where, as Austin says, "Polyphony and orchestration overlap...He adds to all the devices of Mozart, Weber, Berlioz and Wagner the possibilities that he learned from the heterophonic music of the Far East.... The first harp varies the flute parts in almost the same way that the smallest bells of a Javanese gamelan vary the slower basic melody."

Debussy's final orchestral work, the enigmatic ballet Jeux (1913) was composed nearly 20 years after the Faune.  The opening bars feature divided strings, spread over a wide range, a harp doubling horns with the addition of the bell-like celesta in the 5th bar and the sultry voicing of the whole tone chords in the woodwind:

Jensen (2014, p. 228) says "Perhaps the greatest marvel of Jeux is its orchestration.  While working on the piano score, Debussy wrote: 'I am thinking of that orchestral colour which seems to be illuminated from behind, and for which there are such marvellous displays in Parsifal'  The idea, then, was to produce timbre without glare, subdued... but to do so with clarity and precision."

As adaptation
In a more general sense, orchestration also refers to the re-adaptation of existing music into another medium, particularly a full or reduced orchestra. There are two general kinds of adaptation: transcription, which closely follows the original piece,  and arrangement, which tends to change significant aspects of the original piece. In terms of adaptation, orchestration applies, strictly speaking, only to writing for orchestra, whereas the term instrumentation applies to instruments used in the texture of the piece. In the study of orchestration – in contradistinction to the practice – the term instrumentation may also refer to consideration of the defining characteristics of individual instruments rather than to the art of combining instruments.

In commercial music, especially musical theatre and film music, independent orchestrators are often used because it is difficult to meet tight deadlines when the same person is required both to compose and to orchestrate. Frequently, when a stage musical is adapted to film, such as Camelot or Fiddler on the Roof, the orchestrations for the film version are notably different from the stage ones. In other cases, such as Evita, they are not, and are simply expanded versions from those used in the stage production.

Most orchestrators often work from a draft (sketch), or short score, that is, a score written on limited number of independent musical staves. Some orchestrators, particularly those writing for the opera or music theatres, prefer to work from a piano vocal score up, since the singers need to start rehearsing a piece long before the whole work is fully completed. That was, for instance, the method of composition of Jules Massenet. In other instances, simple cooperation between various creators is utilized, as when Jonathan Tunick orchestrates Stephen Sondheim's songs, or when orchestration is done from a lead sheet (a simplified music notation for a song which includes just the melody and the chord progression). In the latter case, arranging as well as orchestration will be involved.

Film orchestration
Due to the enormous time constraints of film scoring schedules, most film composers employ orchestrators rather than doing the work themselves, although these orchestrators work under the close supervision of the composer. Some film composers have made the time to orchestrate their own music, including Bernard Herrmann (1911–1975), Georges Delerue (1925–1992), Ennio Morricone (1928–2020), John Williams (born 1932) (his very detailed sketches are 99% orchestrated), Howard Shore (born 1946), James Horner (1953–2015) (on Braveheart), Bruno Coulais (born 1954), Rachel Portman (born 1960), Philippe Rombi (born 1968) and Abel Korzeniowski (born 1972).

Some staff composers at the Walt Disney studios during the 1930's and 1940's (except for Frank Churchill) had orchestrated their own music, such as Paul J. Smith (on Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, Pinocchio, The Three Caballeros, and Fun and Fancy Free.
Leigh Harline (on Snow White and Pinocchio), Oliver Wallace (on Dumbo) and Edward H. Plumb (on Bambi). These composers also developed themes and songs that Churchill had written. Plumb continued to provide numerous film orchestrations at the Disney studios until his death in 1958.

Although there have been hundreds of orchestrators in film over the years, the most prominent film orchestrators for the latter half of the 20th century were Jack Hayes, Herbert W. Spencer, Edward Powell (who worked almost exclusively with Alfred Newman), Arthur Morton, Greig McRitchie, and Alexander Courage.  Some of the most in-demand orchestrators today (and of the past 30 years) include Jeff Atmajian, Pete Anthony, Brad Dechter (James Newton Howard, Christopher Young, Theodore Shapiro, Teddy Castellucci, Danny Elfman, John Powell, Marco Beltrami, John Debney, Marc Shaiman, Michael Giacchino, Ludwig Göransson), Conrad Pope (John Williams, Alexandre Desplat, Jerry Goldsmith, James Newton Howard, Alan Silvestri, James Horner, Mark Isham, John Powell, Michael Convertino, Danny Elfman, Howard Shore), Eddie Karam (John Williams, James Horner), Bruce Fowler (Hans Zimmer, Klaus Badelt, Harry Gregson-Williams, Steve Jablonsky, Mark Mancina, John Powell), John Ashton Thomas (John Powell, John Debney, Alan Silvestri, James Newton Howard, Henry Jackman, Lyle Workman, Theodore Shapiro, John Ottman, John Paesano, Alex Heffes, Christophe Beck, Carter Burwell), Robert Elhai (Elliot Goldenthal, Michael Kamen, Ed Shearmur, Brian Tyler, Klaus Badelt, Ilan Eshkeri) and J.A.C. Redford (James Horner, Thomas Newman).

Conrad Salinger was the most prominent orchestrator of MGM musicals from the 1940s to 1962, orchestrating such famous films as Singin' in the Rain, An American in Paris, and Gigi. In the 1950s, film composer John Williams frequently spent time with Salinger informally learning the craft of orchestration. Robert Russell Bennett (George Gershwin, Rodgers and Hammerstein) was one of America's most prolific orchestrators (particularly of Broadway shows) of the 20th century, sometimes scoring over 80 pages a day.

Process
Most films require 30 to 120 minutes of musical score. Each individual piece of music in a film is called a "cue". There are roughly 20-80 cues per film. A dramatic film may require slow and sparse music while an action film may require 80 cues of highly active music. Each cue can range in length from five seconds to more than ten minutes as needed per scene in the film. After the composer is finished composing the cue, this sketch score is delivered to the orchestrator either as hand written or computer generated. Most composers in Hollywood today compose their music using sequencing software (e.g. Digital Performer, Logic Pro, or Cubase). A sketch score can be generated through the use of a MIDI file which is then imported into a music notation program such as Finale or Sibelius. Thus begins the job of the orchestrator.

Every composer works differently and the orchestrator's job is to understand what is required from one composer to the next. If the music is created with sequencing software then the orchestrator is given a MIDI sketch score and a synthesized recording of the cue. The sketch score only contains the musical notes (e.g. eighth notes, quarter notes, etc.) with no phrasing, articulations, or dynamics. The orchestrator studies this synthesized "mockup" recording listening to dynamics and phrasing (just as the composer has played them in).  They then accurately try to represent these elements in the orchestra. However some voicings on a synthesizer (synthestration) will not work in the same way when orchestrated for the live orchestra.

The sound samples are often doubled up very prominently and thickly with other sounds in order to get the music to "speak" louder. The orchestrator sometimes changes these synth voicings to traditional orchestral voicings in order to make the music flow better. He may move intervals up or down the octave (or omit them entirely), double certain passages with other instruments in the orchestra, add percussion instruments to provide colour, and add Italian performance marks (e.g. Allegro con brio, Adagio, ritardando, dolce, staccato, etc.). If a composer writes a large action cue, and no woodwinds are used, the orchestrator will often add woodwinds by doubling the brass music up an octave. The orchestra size is determined from the music budget of the film.

The orchestrator is told in advance the number of instruments he has to work with and has to abide by what is available. A big-budget film may be able to afford a Romantic music era-orchestra with over 100 musicians. In contrast, a low-budget independent film may only be able to afford a 20 performer chamber orchestra or a jazz quartet. Sometimes a composer will write a three-part chord for three flutes, although only two flutes have been hired. The orchestrator decides where to put the third note. For example, the orchestrator could have the clarinet (a woodwind that blends well with flute) play the third note. After the orchestrated cue is complete it is delivered to the copying house (generally by placing it on a computer server) so that each instrument of the orchestra can be electronically extracted, printed, and delivered to the scoring stage.

The major film composers in Hollywood each have a lead orchestrator. Generally the lead orchestrator attempts to orchestrate as much of the music as possible if time allows. If the schedule is too demanding, a team of orchestrators (ranging from two to eight) will work on a film. The lead orchestrator decides on the assignment of cues to other orchestrators on the team. Most films can be orchestrated in one to two weeks with a team of five orchestrators. New orchestrators trying to obtain work will often approach a film composer asking to be hired. They are generally referred to the lead orchestrator for consideration. At the scoring stage the orchestrator will often assist the composer in the recording booth giving suggestions on how to improve the performance, the music, or the recording. If the composer is conducting, sometimes the orchestrator will remain in the recording booth to assist as a producer. Sometimes the roles are reversed with the orchestrator conducting and the composer producing from the booth.

Texts
Michael Praetorius (1619): Syntagma Musicum volume two, De Organographia.
Valentin Roeser (1764): Essai de l'instruction à l'usage de ceux, qui composent pour la clarinet et le cor.
Hector Berlioz (1844), revised in 1905 by Richard Strauss: Grand traité d'instrumentation et d'orchestration modernes (Treatise on Instrumentation).
François-Auguste Gevaert (1863): Traité general d'instrumentation.
Charles-Marie Widor (1904) : Technique de l'orchestre moderne (Manual of Practical Instrumentation).
Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov (1912): Основы оркестровки (Principles of Orchestration).
Cecil Forsyth (1914; 1935): Orchestration.  This remains a classic work although the ranges and keys of some brass instruments are obsolete
Alfredo Casella: (1950) La Tecnica dell'Orchestra Contemporanea.
Charles Koechlin (1954–9): Traité de l'Orchestration (4 vols).
Walter Piston (1955): Orchestration.
Henry Mancini (1962): Sounds and Scores: A Practical Guide to Professional Orchestration.
Stephen Douglas Burton (1982): Orchestration.
Samuel Adler (1982, 1989, 2002, 2016): The Study of Orchestration.
Kent Kennan & Donald Grantham: (1st ed. 1983) The Technique of Orchestration.  A 6th edition (2002) is available.
Nelson Riddle (1985):  Arranged by Nelson Riddle

Alfred Blatter (1997) : Instrumentation and Orchestration (Second edition).

See also
Musical notation
Elastic scoring
Klangfarbenmelodie
Orchestral enhancement
Arrangement
Instrumentation

References

External links

 – full, searchable text with music images, mp3 files, and MusicXML files
Rimsky-Korsakov's Principles of Orchestration (full text with "interactive scores")
The Orchestra: A User's Manual by Andrew Hugill with The Philharmonia Orchestra. In depth information on orchestration including examples and video interviews with instrumentalists of each instrument.
Books about Music: Orchestration An overview of books on the theory and practice of orchestration.

Musical terminology
Musical notation
Orchestral music
Occupations in music

Orchestration


Indian Mujahideen is a terrorist group, which has carried out several attacks in India. The group may be related to Students Islamic Movement of India. The Student Islamic Movement of India may be involved in several terrorist organisations, and is therefore banned. Indian Mujahideen said they carried out the Jaipur bombings of 2008. The leader is Abdul Subhan Qureshi.

Islamic terrorism
Religion in India
Organizations based in India

Indian Mujahideen


The Expulsion of Heliodorus from the Temple is a fresco of the Italian renaissance painter Raphael. It was painted between 1511 and 1512 as part of Raphael's commission to decorate with frescoes the rooms that are now known as the Stanze di Raffaello, in the Apostolic Palace in the Vatican. It is located in the room that takes its name from it, the Stanza di Eliodoro.

The Expulsion of Heliodorus from the Temple illustrates the biblical episode from 2 Maccabees (3:21-28). Heliodorus is ordered by Seleucus IV Philopator, the king of Syria, to seize the treasure preserved in the Temple in Jerusalem. Answering the prayers of the high priest Onias III, God sends a horseman assisted by two youths to drive Heliodorus out.

At the left, Raphael's patron Julius II witnesses the scene from his litter. The money had been reserved for widows and orphans and a priest had seen and prayed and God sent down a horseman to drive him from the temple. The composition is divided into two halves, in the centre is the priest praying and the priest looks much like Julius II. On the right is the horseman fighting Heliodorus. The menorah by the priest in the centre shows that this event, from the Old Testament, occurs in a synagogue. On the left are widows and orphans grouped together and Julius II is being carried on a throne, witnessing this event. While one message of the event is God will not allow you to "steal from the church", the painting is located in the same stanza as The Mass at Bolsena. Together the events seem to underscore the Counter-Reformation efforts to underscore the sacredness of the services, including sacraments, occurring inside church buildings. The architecture begs comparison with Raphael's earlier fresco masterwork  The School of Athens (1509-1511), although the Domes in "The Expulsion of Heliodorus from the Temple" are much richer and are gilded and highly decorated.

The work contains a self-portrait by Raphael, near the far left.

In 1725 the baroque Italian painter Francesco Solimena and 1850 the French romantic artist Eugène Delacroix each created a work based on the same story.

Gallery

See also
List of paintings by Raphael

References

External links

Raphael rooms
1512 paintings
Paintings depicting people in the deuterocanonical books
Horses in art
Nude art


Lubbock Avalanche-Journal is a newspaper based in Lubbock, Texas, United States. It is owned by Gannett.

History
The Lubbock Avalanche was founded in 1900 by John James Dillard and Thad Tubbs.  According to Dillard, the name "Avalanche" was chosen due to his desire that the newspaper surprise the citizens of Lubbock. The newspaper was sold to James Lorenzo Dow in 1908. In 1922, the Avalanche became a daily newspaper (except for Mondays) and a year later added a morning edition.

In 1926, the owners of the rival Lubbock Daily Journal, editor Charles A. Guy and partner Dorrance Roderick, bought The Avalanche to form The Lubbock Avalanche-Journal. The pair partnered with Houston Harte and Bernard Hanks, later of Harte Hanks, as well as J. Lindsay Nunn of The Amarillo Daily News and Post. In 1928, Guy, Roderick, and Nunn bought control of the Avalanche-Journal from Harte and Hanks. Guy was named editor and publisher in 1931 of The Avalanche-Journal, a position he held until 1972.  Other journalists to serve as editor were Jay Harris, Burle Pettit, Randy Sanders, Terry Greenberg, James Bennett, Jill Nevels-Haun and Adam Young.

The Amarillo Globe-News Publishing Company, headed by Eugene A. Howe and Wilbur C. Hawk, would later own the majority of The Avalanche-Journal. In 1951, the Whittenburg family in Amarillo acquired the Avalanche-Journal, after their Panhandle Publishing Company was merged with Globe-News company. In 1972, both The Avalanche-Journal and The Amarillo Globe-News were acquired by Morris Communications of Augusta, Georgia.

On Tuesday, May 12, 1970, the day after a massive F5 tornado had devastated much of downtown Lubbock—including the Avalanche-Journal building at 8th Street and Avenue J—the newspaper managed to publish an eight-page edition by dictating reports to its sister paper, the Globe-News, in Amarillo, Texas. That morning a print run of 60,000 copies bearing the page-one headline "Twister Smashes Lubbock, 20 Dead, Hundreds Injured," the first printed news of the storm, went out from Amarillo, 100 miles north of Lubbock. The May 13 edition, listing names of the known dead, was published in the same manner, and by May 14 The Avalanche-Journal was again printed locally.

During strikes over crop support prices in 1977, an editorial published in the Lubbock Avalanche-Journal infuriated farmers, who blockaded the newspaper's delivery docks with their tractors. The unsigned editorial accused farmers of using the "anti-social tactics of union goons." Farmers demanded an apology and formed a tractor blockade, preventing trucks from delivering newspapers. Editor Jay Harris spoke with the farmers and indicated the editorial was not intended to imply that the farmers were goons.

In 2008, The Avalanche-Journal led an investigation into the 1985 rape conviction of Tim Cole, a Texas Tech University student who had died in prison in 1999 at the age of thirty-nine. The A-J's three-part series on Cole's exoneration in light of DNA evidence, "Hope Deferred," helped prompt a legislative ruling in Texas permitting posthumous pardons, and on March 1, 2010, Governor Rick Perry granted the state's first posthumous pardon to Cole.

The Avalanche-Journal launched a full-color lifestyle publication, Lubbock Magazine, in April 2008. The magazine is published eight times a year.

In February 2011, The Avalanche-Journal became the first media company on the South Plains to launch an application for the iPad.

In 2017, Morris Communications sold its newspapers to GateHouse Media.

Journalists
Journalists who got their start at the Lubbock Avalanche-Journal include CBS Evening News anchor Scott Pelley.

References

Further reading

External links

Gannett publications
Daily newspapers published in Texas
Newspapers published in Lubbock, Texas
Newspapers established in 1900
1900 establishments in Texas

Lubbock Avalanche-Journal


پیتر بنیامین گلدن  استاد بازنشسته تاریخ در زمینه مطالعات خاورمیانه و ترک‌شناس در دانشگاه روتگرز است. او نویسنده کتاب‌ها و مقالات پرشمار در زمینه مطالعات آسیای مرکزی و به خصوی ترک‌شناسی است.

او مدیر پروژه مطالعات خاورمیانه (۲۰۰۸–۲۰۱۱) بود و در سال ۲۰۱۲ بازنشسته شد. مدرک لیسانس را از کالج CUNY Queens در ۱۹۶۳ گرفت و مدرک فوق لیسانس و دکترای تاریخ از دانشگاه کلمبیا را به ترتیب در سال ۱۹۶۸ و ۱۹۷۰ دریافت کرد. گلدن همچنین در آنکار بین سال‌های ۱۹۶۷ تا ۱۹۶۸ در Dil ve Tarih-Coğrafya Fakültesi مشغول مطالعه بود.

آثار

 (2014) "Qıpčaq" Turcology and Linguistics, Festschrift Éva Ágnes Csató, ed. Nurettin Demir, Birsel Karakoç and Astrid Menz Beygu (Ankara: Hacettepe Üniversitesi Yayınları), pp. 183–202.
 (2013) "Some Notes on the Avars and Rouran" in F. Courta and B.-P. Maleon eds. The Steppe Lands and the World Beyond Them. Studies in Honor of Victor Spinei on his 70th Birthday (Editura Universitǎţii "Alexandru Ioan Cuza" Iaşi). pp. 43–66.
 (2013) "Courts and Court Culture in the Proto-urban and Urban Developments among the Pre-Činggisid Turkic Peoples" in D. Durand-Guedy (eds.), Turko-Mongol Rulers, Cities and City-Life (Leiden: Brill), pp. 21–73.
 (2012)"Oq and Oğur~Oğuz" Turkic Languages 16, pp. 155–199
 (2012) "Zentralasien im 6.– 11. Jahrhundert" (Book Chapter in "Steppenkrieger. Reiternomaden des 7.–14. Jahrhunderts aus der Mongolei" Bonn: LVR-Landesmuseum)
 (2011) "Studies on the Peoples and Cultures of the Eurasian Steppes" Bucharest–Brăila: Editura Academiei Române – Muzeul Brăilei Editura Istros
 (2011) "Central Asia in World History," Oxford-New York: Oxford University Press.
 (2010) "Turks and Khazars: Origins, Institutions, and Interactions in Pre-Mongol Eurasia" Aldershot, UK: Ashgate.
 (2010) "Khazarskii Iudaizm v svete pis'mennykh istochnikov" (Book Chapter in "Istoriia evreev v Rossii")
 (2009) "The Cambridge History of Inner Asia: The Chinggisid Age," co-edited with N. Di Cosmo, A.J. Frank, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
 (2008/2009) "Ethnogenesis in the Tribal Zone: The Shaping of the Türks" (Journal Article in "Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi")
 (2007) "Cumanica V: Basmils and Qipchaqs" (Journal Article in "Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi")
 (2007) "The Conversion of the Khazars to Judaism" (Book Chapter in "The World of the Khazars")
 (2007) "The World of the Khazars: New Perspectives,"co-edited with H. Ben-Shammai and A. Róna-Tas. Leiden: Brill, 2007.
 (2007) "The Khazar Sacral Kingship-Revisited" (Journal Article in "Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae")
 (2006) "The Türk Imperial Tradition in the Pre-Chinggisid Era" (Book Chapter in "Imperial Statecraft: Political Forms and Techniques of Governance in Inner Asia 6th-20th Century")
 (2006) "Turks and Iranians: An Historical Sketch" (Book Chapter in "Turkic-Iranian Contact Areas. Historical and Linguistic Aspects.")
 (2006) "Some Thoughts on the Origins of the Turks and the Shaping of the Turkic Peoples" (Book Chapter in Contact and Exchange in the Ancient World)
 (2006) "Khazarica: Notes on Some Khazar Terms" (Journal Article in Turkic Languages)
 (2005) "The Khazars and the Kazakhs: New Perspectives" (Book Review in Archivum Eurasiae medii aevi)
 (2005) "The Turks: A Historical Overview" (Book Chapter in Turks: A Journey of a Thousand Years 600-1600)
 (2005) "Review of 'The Indian Diaspora in Central Asia and its Trade, 1550-1900' by Scott C. Levi" (Book Review in Central Eurasian Studies Review)
 (2005) "The Shaping of the Cuman-Qıpčaqs and Their World: Origins, Migrations, Political and Cultural Interaction" (Conference Paper in Il Codice Cumanico e il suo Mondo)
 (2004) "Khazar Turkic Ghulâms in Caliphal Service" (Journal Article in Journal asiatique)
 (2004) "Ascent by Scales; The System of Succession in Kievan Rus' in a Eurasian Context" (Book Chapter in States, Societies, Cultures. East and West. Essays in Honor of Jaroslaw Pelenski, ed. J. Duzinkiewicz, National Academy of Ukraine, European Research Institute and W.K. Lypynsky East European Research Institute, New York, 2004)
 (2003) "Khazar Turkic Ghulâms in Caliphal Service: Onomastic Notes" (Journal Article in Archivum Eurasiae medii aevi)
 (2003) Review of "Orientalische Berichte über die Völker Osteuropas und Zentralasiens im Mittelalter: die Gayhani-Tradition" by Hansgerd Göckenjan and István Zimonyi (Book Review in Archivum Eurasiae medii aevi )
 (2003) "Formirovanie kumano-kypchakov" (Journal Article in Materialy po arkheologii, istorii i etnografii Tavrii )
 (2003) Nomads and their Neighbours in the Russian Steppe. Turks, Khazars and Qipchaqs Aldershot, UK: Ashgate.
 (2002) "War and Warfare in the Pre-Činggisid Western Steppes of Eurasia" (Book Chapter in Inner Asian Warfare 500-1800)
 (2002) "Tuši: The Turkic Name of Joči" (Journal Article in Acta orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae)
 (2002) "Notes on the قبچاق‌ها Tribes: Kimeks and Yemeks (Book Chapter in The Turks Volume 1 Early Ages)
 (2002) Türk Halkları Tarihine Giriş. Ankara, Turkey: KaraM Publishing House (KaraM Yayıncılık)
 (2001) "Some Notes on the Comitatus in Medieval Eurasia with Special Reference to the Khazars" (Journal Article in Russian history: Histoire russe)
 (2001) "Khazars" (Book Chapter in Turkish-Jewish Encounters: Studies on Turkish-Jewish Relations through the Ages)
 (2001) "Nomads in the Sedentary World: The Case of the Pre-Chinggisid Rus' and Georgia" (Book Chapter in Nomads in the Sedentary World)
 (2001) Review of "A History of Inner Asia" by Svat Soucek (Book Review in Central Asia Monitor)
 (2001) "The Terminology of Slavery and Servitude in Medieval Turkic" (Book Chapter in Studies on Central Asian History in Honor of Yuri Bregel)
 (2000) "The Nomads of the Western Eurasian Steppes: Oghurs, Onoghurs and Khazars" (Book Chapter in History of the Turkic Peoples in the Pre Islamic Period)
 (2000) "I Will Give the People Unto Thee: The Chinggisid Conquests and Their Aftermath in the Turkic World" (Journal Article in Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland)
 (2000) Review of "The Mongol Empire and Its Legacy", ed. Reuven Amitai-Preiss and David O. Morgan (Book Review in The International history review)
 (2000) The King's Dictionary. The Rasulid Hexaglot: Fourteenth Century Vocabularies in Arabic, Persian, Turkic, Greek, Armenian and Mongol Leiden: Brill. (Book, Edited, Vol. 4 in the series Handbuch der Orientalistik, 8. Abteilung Zentralasien )
 (1999) "The Nomadic Linguistic Impact on Pre-Chinggisid Rus' and Georgia" (Journal Article in Archivum Eurasiae medii aevi)
 (1998) Religion among the Qipchaqs of Medieval Eurasia (Journal Article in Central Asiatic journal)
 (1998) Nomads and sedentary societies in medieval Eurasia Washington, D. C.: American Historical Association.
 (1997) "Cumanica IV: The Qipchaq Tribes" (Journal Article in Archivum Eurasiae medii aevi)
 (1997) "Wolves, Dogs and Qipchaq Religion" (Journal Article in Acta orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae)
 (1996) "The Chernii Klobouc" (Book Chapter in Symbolae Turkologicae)
 (1995) "The Days of the Week in Turkic: Notes on the Cuman-Qipchaq Pattern" (Journal Article in Acta orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae)
 (1994) "Chopsticks and Pasta in Medieval Turkic Cuisine" (Journal Article in Rocznik Orientalistyczny)
 (1993) "Gosudarstvo i gosudarstvennost' u Xazar: vlast' Xazarskix kaganov" (Book Chapter in Fenomen vostochnogo despotizma: Struktura upravleniya i vlasti)
 (1992) An introduction to the history of the Turkic peoples: Ethnogenesis and state-formation in medieval and early modern Eurasia and the Middle East Wiesbaden: O. Harrassowitz.
 (1992) "Codex Comanicus" (Book Chapter in Central Asian Monuments)
 (1991) "Nomads and Their Sedentary Neighbors in pre-Chinggisid Western Eurasia" (Journal Article in Archivum Eurasiae medii aevi)
 (1991) "The Qipchaqs of Medieval Eurasia: An Example of Stateless Adaptation on the Steppe" (Book Chapter in Rulers from the steppe: State formation on the Eurasian periphery)
 (1991) "Aspects of the Nomadic Factor in the Economic Development of Kievan Rus'" (Conference Paper in Proceedings : Ukrainian economic history: Interpretive essays)
 (1991) "The Dogs of the Medieval Qipchaqs" (Book Chapter in Varia Eurasiatica Festschrift für Professor András Róna Tas)
 (1991) "Vyxod" (Journal Article in Archivum Eurasiae medii aevi)
 (1990) "Cumanica III: The Urusoba" (Conference Paper in Proceedings : Aspects of Altaic civilization III: Proceedings of the thirtieth meeting of the Permanent International Altaistic Conference, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, June 19–25, 1987)
 (1987) Review of "Avars and Ancient Hungarians" by Pal Liptak (Book Review in The American historical review)
 (1986) "Cumanica II, The Ölberli (Ölperli): The Fortunes and Misfortunes of an Inner Asian Nomadic Clan" (Journal Article in Archivum Eurasiae medii aevi)
 (1985) The Byzantine Greek Elements in the Rasûlid Hexaglot (Journal Article in Archivum Eurasiae medii aevi)
 (1984) "Cumanica I: The Qipchaqs in Georgia" (Journal Article in Archivum Eurasiae medii aevi)
 (1984) "A New Discovery: Khazarian Hebrew Documents of the Tenth Century" (Book Review in Harvard Ukrainian studies)
 (1983) Khazaria and Judaism (Journal Article in Archivum Eurasiae medii aevi)
 (1983) "The Turkic Peoples and Caucasia" (Conference Paper in Proceedings : Transcaucasia: Nationalism and social change : essays in the history of Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia)
 (1982) "Imperial Ideology and the Sources of Political Unity Amongst the Pre-Chinggisid Nomads of Western Eurasia" (Journal Article in Archivum Eurasiae medii aevi)
 (1982) "The Question of the Rus' Qaghanate" (Journal Article in Archivum Eurasiae medii aevi)
 (1980) "The Polovci Dikii" (Journal Article in Harvard Ukrainian Studies)
 (1980) Khazar studies: An historico-philological inquiry into the origins of the Khazars Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó.
 (1980) "Review of 'Les Coumans au Bas-Danube aux XIe et XIIe siècles' by Petre Diaconu" (Book Review in The American Historical Review)
 (1979) "The Oghuz Turkic (Ottoman/Safavid) Elements in Georgian: Background and Patterns" (Book Chapter in The mutual effects of the Islamic and Judeo-Christian worlds: The East European pattern)
 (1979) "Review of 'Tataro-mongoly v Azii i Europe: Sbornik statei' by S. L. Tikhvinskii" (Book Review in The American Historical Review)
 (1975) "The Q'azaro-Hungarian Title/Personal Name Yilik ~ Yelegh" (Journal Article in Archivum Eurasiae medii aevi)
 (1975) "The People nwkrdä" (Journal Article in Archivum Eurasiae medii aevi)
 (1972) "The Migrations of the Oghuz" (Journal Article in Archivum Ottomanicum)
 (1971) Hazar Dili (Journal Article in Türk Dili Arastirmalari Yilligi Belleten)

منابع

 Wikipedia contributors, "Peter Benjamin Golden," Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peter_Benjamin_Golden&oldid=660473116 (accessed December 4, 2015).

افراد زنده
تاریخ‌نگاران آسیای مرکزی
تاریخ‌نگاران اهل ایالات متحده آمریکا
تاریخ‌نگاران سده ۲۱ (میلادی) اهل ایالات متحده آمریکا
ترک‌شناسان اهل ایالات متحده آمریکا
دانش‌آموختگان دانشگاه شهری نیویورک
زادگان ۱۹۴۱ (میلادی)
نویسندگان مرد سده ۲۱ (میلادی) اهل ایالات متحده آمریکا
نویسندگان مرد غیر داستانی اهل ایالات متحده آمریکا

پیتر بنیامین گلدن


John Peck a.k.a. The Mad Peck (born c. 1942 in New York City) is an American underground cartoonist, rock poster artist, and disc jockey.  His most famous poster is a 1978 comic book-style poster that starts with the line, "Providence, Rhode Island, where it rains two days out of three except during the rainy season when it snows like a bitch."  The poster has been reprinted many times and is widely available for purchase throughout Rhode Island.

Biography
Raised in New York City, Peck attended Brown University beginning in 1960. Graduating from Brown in 1967, in the intervening years he also attended New York University and the Rhode Island School of Design.

The Mad Peck created silkscreen concert posters for Rhode Island concerts from 1966 to 1971, for acts including Jimi Hendrix, Janis Joplin, The Band, and Cream. His "Final Appearance" Cream poster has been widely bootlegged.

His comix work first appeared in 1969 in underground newspapers like the East Village Other and the Chicago Seed. Consisting mostly of manipulated clip art from old advertisements, his strips advertised items like "GIANT INHALER" and "FREE CIGARETTE PAPERS". Hippies and yippies would send five cents for one of his minicomic catalogs. This led to the weekly comic Burn of the Week, which was distributed by the Underground Press Syndicate and offered phoney endorsements of Wayne Newton albums next to bong-building tips.

In the late 1960s/early 1970s Peck fell in with other Providence countercultural types, including writer Les Daniels and comedian Martin Mull. 1971, Peck illustrated Daniel's Comix: A History of Comic Books in America (Dutton), one of the first academic histories of the medium.

By the mid 1970s, The Mad Peck was creating a regular comic which ran monthly in Creem, and also plugged products in a bizarre pop culture mish-mash similar to some of Bill Griffith's Zippy the Pinhead work.

Averse to publicity or being photographed, the Mad Peck has also been known to DJ under the name "Dr. Oldie." He is based in Providence, Rhode Island.

Books
 Mad Peck Studios: A 20 Year Retrospective (Doubleday, 1987)

References

External links

Underground cartoonists
Living people
1942 births
Artists from Providence, Rhode Island

The Mad Peck


Ralph Knott  (3 May 1878 – 25 January 1929) was a British architect. He was responsible for building the massive 6-storey "Edwardian Baroque" style County Hall building for the London County Council.

Knott was a native of Chelsea and was the youngest son of Samuel Knott, a tailor, and his wife, Elizabeth (née White), from Dorset. After attending the City of London School he was articled to Wood and Ainslie, architects. He was taught etching by Frank Brangwyn at the Architectural Association and when his articles were finished, joined Sir Aston Webb. Webb was a keen participant in architectural competitions and Knott's etching skill was valued in winning them. He drew the etchings which enabled Webb to win the competition for the Queen Victoria memorial outside Buckingham Palace, also working on the designs of Admiralty Arch and the Victoria and Albert Museum.

In 1908 Knott set up his own practice together with E. Stone Collins. The first substantial commission they applied for was for offices for the London County Council. Despite many very well known names entering, Knott won at the age of 29. Designs for the construction were brought to life by the architect and perspectivist Alick Horsnell. His design was altered significantly before construction began, including the familiar semicircular terrace being moved from the land to the river-side of the building. Construction was held up by the First World War, during which Knott worked on designs for Royal Air Force bases, and partially completed in 1922 (except for the northern third). In June 1921 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Institute of British Architects.

After the opening of County Hall, Knott built some notable buildings, including two departmental office blocks at Stormont near Belfast. In 1925 he designed the pavilion at the City of London School's new athletics grounds in Grove Park. The building was a memorial to the alumni of the school who had perished in the First World War, and he donated his services free of charge. He had begun the work on the last part of County Hall in 1928 but it remained uncompleted at his death.

In 1919 Knott married Ada (née Brown), widow of Sidney James Longden. They had no children. He died suddenly at his Mortlake home in January 1929, aged 50. A bronze plaque to his memory at County Hall was unveiled by the Chairman of the London County Council in June 1932.

References

External links

1878 births
1929 deaths
20th-century English architects
Fellows of the Royal Institute of British Architects
People from Chelsea, London
People educated at the City of London School
Architects from London

Ralph Knott


David Alexander Balon (August 2, 1938 – May 29, 2007) was a Canadian professional ice hockey player and coach. Balon played 14 seasons in the National Hockey League between 1959 and 1973 before multiple sclerosis led to his retirement.

Playing career
Balon played his junior hockey for the Prince Albert Mintos of the SJHL before turning pro in 1958 and joining the New York Rangers farm system. He would make his NHL debut in the 1959–60 season with a three-game callup to the Rangers. Over the next two years, he would be a frequent callup, seeing 43 more games of NHL action and recording 5 goals and 18 points. In 1962–63, he finally established himself as a full-time member of the Rangers, appearing in all 70 games and recording 11 goals and 24 points.

For the 1963–64 season, Balon was dealt to the Montreal Canadiens in 7-player trade involving Hall of Fame goalies Jacques Plante and Gump Worsley. He would have an outstanding season in Montreal, finishing with 24 goals, good for 3rd on the team, and 42 points. He would have another solid season in 1964–65, posting 41 points and then helping Montreal to the Stanley Cup Championship. Balon won his second Stanley Cup in 1966 and assisted in Henri Richard's Cup winning goal in overtime.

In 1967, Balon was exposed by Montreal in the Expansion Draft and selected by the Minnesota North Stars. He would return to form with the North Stars, posting career highs in assists (32) and points (47), and was selected to play in the NHL All-Star Game (he played in two previous All-Star games for Montreal in a format where the league champion played a team of All-Stars, but this was his first 'true' selection). He had an especially strong playoffs, scoring 13 points in 14 games and leading the NHL in playoff assists with 9.

Following the season, Balon would be dealt back to his first NHL team, the New York Rangers, in exchange for three players. Balon's first year back in New York was sub-par by his standards, as he finished with 10 goals and 31 points. However, he would establish himself as an elite player in 1969–70, as he finished 7th in the league in goals with 33 and 10th in overall scoring with 70 points. He followed that up with another stellar season in 1970–71, as he bettered his career high with 36 goals (again top-10 in the league), and was voted the 'Most Popular Ranger' on a team with 5 future Hall-of-Famers. His offensive accomplishments were even more impressive in that he was also one of the team's top defensive forwards often assigned to check opposition stars.

After a so-so start to the 1971–72 season, Balon was dealt to the Vancouver Canucks. He would finish the season with respectable totals of 23 goals and 47 points, but wasn't the player he was in New York. As it turned out, he was in the early stages of multiple sclerosis, an illness that wouldn't be diagnosed until after his playing career.

In 1972–73, Balon had a shocking loss of form as the illness took its toll on his play. A top-10 offensive player in the league just two seasons prior, Balon slumped to just 3 goals and 5 points in 57 games. Sadly, Balon would be treated harshly by media and fans in Vancouver, who didn't realize the nature of his condition and attributed his suddenly sluggish play to a lack of effort or just his being 'washed-up'.

Balon would have one more go at pro hockey in the 1973–74 season, suiting up for the Quebec Nordiques of the WHA, but was forced to retire after 7 games.

Post-hockey career
Balon finished his NHL career with 192 goals and 222 assists for 414 points in 776 career games, along with 607 penalty minutes. He played in four All-Star games and won two Stanley Cups.

After his retirement, Balon received a proper diagnosis of his condition. He turned to coaching, and spent several seasons as head coach of the Humboldt Broncos of the SJHL.

Balon fell on hard times during the 1980s and 1990s. As his condition worsened, he was left unable to work and forced to live off his relatively small NHL pension. Ultimately, he received assistance from the NHLPA and various alumni organizations thereafter  until his death from multiple sclerosis, a diagnosis he had for more than 30 years.

Awards and achievements
1965 NHL All Star  (Montreal)
1967 NHL All Star  (Montreal)
1968 NHL All Star  (Minnesota)
1971 NHL All Star  (NYR)
NHL leader in playoff assists (9, 1968)
Led New York Rangers in goals (1969–70, 1970–71)

Career statistics

Regular season and playoffs

References

External links

1938 births
2007 deaths
Binghamton Dusters players
Broome Dusters players
Canadian ice hockey left wingers
Neurological disease deaths in Saskatchewan
Deaths from multiple sclerosis
People with multiple sclerosis
Houston Apollos players
Ice hockey people from Saskatchewan
Kitchener Beavers (EPHL) players
Minnesota North Stars players
Montreal Canadiens players
New York Rangers players
People from Wakaw, Saskatchewan
Prince Albert Mintos players
Quebec Nordiques (WHA) players
Saskatoon Quakers players
Stanley Cup champions
Trois-Rivières Lions (EPHL) players
Vancouver Canucks players

Dave Balon


Robert Maxwell Young (September 26, 1935 – July 5, 2019) was an American-born historian of science specialising in the 19th century and particularly Darwinian thought, a philosopher of the biological and human sciences, and a Kleinian psychotherapist.

Career
Young was born in Highland Park, a suburb of Dallas, Texas. His initial education was in the United States, at Yale University and the University of Rochester Medical School, but in 1960 he moved to the University of Cambridge for his PhD on the history of ideas of mind and brain. The resulting monograph, Mind, Brain and Adaptation, has been called 'a modern classic' by Peter Gay.  From 1964 to 1976 he was a Fellow and Graduate Tutor of King's College, Cambridge and became the first Director of the Wellcome Unit for the History of Medicine set up within the Department of History and Philosophy of Science, University of Cambridge.  From 1976 to 1983 he was a full-time writer. In this period much of his political activities and writing involved radical critiques of science, technology and medicine. His contribution in this area has been compared by historian Gary Werskey with that of J. D. Bernal (While this is Werskey's opinion, it was not, according to Francis Aprahamian, Bernal's research assistant for "Science in History", a view shared by J.D. Bernal himself (personal communication F.A.) Instead Bernal saw Steven Rose a natural scientist, outspokenly left wing and active in the Anti-Vietnam War movement as a younger version of himself.) In any case, Young, while deeply respectful, strived to go beyond Bernal's agenda.

Thought
In various books and papers he argued that science, technology and medicine—far from being value-neutral—are the embodiment of values in theories, things and therapies, in facts and artefacts, in procedures and programs. Succinctly put, all facts are theory-laden, all theories are value-laden, and all values occur within an ideology or world view. Scientists and technologists pursue agendas; they have philosophies of nature, world views, usually tacitly held. In studies extending across a broad spectrum of disciplines he has argued that our culture is disastrously riven. It is characterised by sharp dichotomies, each and every one of which is a false (or, at least, overdrawn) dichotomy, but our beliefs in them preclude unified deliberations about the scientific and the moral:

                        humanities - science
                           society - science
                           culture - nature
                       qualitative - quantitative
                             value - fact
                           purpose - mechanism
                           subject - object
                          internal - external
                          secondary- primary (qualities)
                           thought - extension
                              mind - body
                         character - behaviour

In order to foster such unified deliberations he set up the publishing house Free Association Books which (while he directed it) published in the areas of cultural theory, critiques of expertise, and psychoanalysis, broadly conceived. The press has been called, inter alia, 'the most important influence on the culture of psychoanalysis since the war' (by Andrew Samuels). He also trained as a Kleinian psychoanalytic psychotherapist and began writing on psychoanalysis, but he continued writing and editing in the areas of social theory, the philosophy of science and Darwinian thought and its impact on culture. He then became the first professor of Psychoanalytic Studies and of Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy, posts he held at the Centre for Psychotherapeutic Studies at the University of Sheffield Medical School until his retirement, after which he worked in private practice in London. He was a registrant of the British Psychoanalytic Council.

The unifying thread in his research, political activities, writing and clinical practice was the understanding of human nature and the alleviation of suffering and inequality. His work was typically  interdisciplinary, seeking to promote unity in how we think about nature, human nature and culture.

In addition to his books, listed below, he wrote numerous scholarly and popular articles, as well as making a number of television documentaries in the series Crucible: Science in Society. He also founded (usually with others) Free Association Books, Process Press, Radical Science Journal, Science as Culture, Free Associations and Kleinian Studies, as well as a number of email forums and egroups in his areas of interest and the websites.

Personal life
Young's partner at the time of his death was Susan Tilley. He had married and was divorced from Barbara Smith, with whom he had a son, and Sheila Ernst, with whom he had two daughters. He had a long relationship with Margot Waddell, with whom he had a son and a daughter, and with Em Farrell, with whom he  had  a daughter.

Bibliography
 Mind, Brain and Adaptation. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970; reprinted in History of Neuroscience Series N.Y.: Oxford, 1990.
 Changing Perspectives in the History of Science. London: Heinemann, 1973 (co-editor with M. Teich and contributor).
 Darwin's Metaphor: Nature's Place in Victorian Culture. Cambridge University Press, 1985; reprinted 1988, 1994.
 Science, Technology and the Labour Process, 2 vols. Free Association Books, 1981, 1985 (co-editor with L. Levidow and contributor).
 Mental Space. Process Press, 1994.
 Oedipus Complex. Icon Books, 2001.

 Published on-line
 The Culture of British Psychoanalysis and Related Essays on Character and Morality and on The Psychodynamics of Psychoanalytic Organization, 1996.
 Whatever Happened to Human Nature?, 1996.
 Group Relations: An Introduction (co-author with David Armstrong and Gordon Lawrence), 1997.

See also
 Naturalization of value systems

References

External links

 Robert M. Young website
 Email forums in his areas of interest
 Most of his writings
 Assessments of his work and influence

1935 births
2019 deaths
Academics of the University of Sheffield
Alumni of the University of Cambridge
21st-century American historians
21st-century American male writers
American medical historians
American psychotherapists
Charles Darwin biographers
Fellows of King's College, Cambridge
Historians of science
University of Rochester alumni
Yale University alumni
American male non-fiction writers

Robert M. Young (academic)


The First Battle of Kernstown was fought on March 23, 1862, in Frederick County and Winchester, Virginia during the American Civil War. Confederate General Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson's Shenandoah Valley Campaign of 1862 was generally a success. However, the First Battle of Kernstown was one his few defeats.

Background
At the beginning of 1862, President Abraham Lincoln wanted his generals to attack in force against the Confederacy. McClellan was massing his army for his Peninsula Campaign with the goal of capturing the Confederate capital of Richmond and ending the war. To do this McClellan had to weaken his forces protecting Washington, D.C.. This left only two Union forces to protect Washington. Besides Banks in the Shenandoah Valley, General Irwin McDowell had forces in Northern Virginia. Banks was to clear the Shenandoah Valley of Confederate forces then move up towards Washington so McDowell's force of 30,000 to move against Richmond from the north. Banks left General James Shields with a force of about 9,000 in the Valley while he would move east to Manassas, Virginia, to be closer to Washington, D.C.

Stonewall Jackson was given the task of keeping the Federal Army busy in the Valley so they could not join McClellan. Jackson's cavalry commander, Colonel Turner Ashby, learned that part of the Union forces were leaving the valley and only a small force remained.

Skirmish, March 22
Jackson gave Ashby permission to attack while he moved the remainder of his forces up to join Ashby. Unfortunately, Ashley's information was bad. While the Confederates thought they were attacking only four regiments (totalling about 3,000 men), there were actually about three times that number of Union soldiers. The remaining Union troops remained out of sight during the skirmish. General Shields was wounded in the fighting and turned command of the Union division over to Colonel Nathan Kimball.

Battle, March 23
At about nine o'clock on the morning of March 23, Ashby's cavalry attacked. Kimball was not certain if this was another skirmish or the start of a battle. But just in case, he placed his forces in a strong defensive position on Pritchard Hill. He placed his artillery there as well. On seeing this, Jackson concentrated his artillery on Sandy Ridge, west of Prichard Hill. At about three-thirty, Jackson could see from Sandy Ridge that what he thought was a small Union force was actually much bigger. Jackson told one of his officers "We are in for it."

Kimball, believing he was up against a much larger Confederate force, decided to silence the Confederate guns on Sandy Ridge. His attack was met with strong resistance from the Confederates and the battle soon became a stalemate. Jackson kept sending in more Confederate troops, but he could not drive the Union line back. Kimball still had fresh reserves he could send into the battle. By six o'clock the Confederates were running low on ammunition and were nearly exhausted. When one of his brigades ran out of ammunition completely, they had to withdraw from the battle. The Union army attacked through the gap they left and Jackson's entire force had to quickly retreat.

Notes

References

Other websites
 First Battle of Kernstown

American Civil War battles
1862 in Virginia
March 1862 events

First Battle of Kernstown


The Grazebrook Engine is an 1817 beam engine that was used for blowing air over the hot coals of a blast furnace to increase the heat. It is now found as sentinel sculpture on the Dartmouth Circus roundabout at the entrance of the A38(M) in Birmingham, England. It is believed to be the largest steam engine used in Birmingham.

It was built in 1817 to the designs of Watt, who had a foundry in Soho, Birmingham, by Grazebrook & Whitehouse for their Dudley foundry in Dudley, Worcestershire. It provided air for two blast furnaces. In 1912, it was retired, remaining on site as a standby engine. It was dismantled in 1964, and is now displayed on the Dartmouth Circus roundabout at the entrance of the A38(M) (Aston Expressway) and the A4540 (Dartmouth Middleway).

Technical details
This is a typical example of an early nineteenth century engine, it comprises a vertical double acting steam cylinder coupled via an  rocking beam to a double acting air cylinder.

The beam is made of cast iron; it is  long and weighs . The steam cylinder is  in diameter and has a stroke of . It was designed to run at between 12 and 16 strokes per minute. Steam was provided by a bank of six Lancashire boilers. A pressure regulator vessel was fitted to smooth out the air flow. It provided air at  to two blast furnaces.

The engine house was specially built using lime mortar so that the structure could 'flex' with the movement of the engine.

M. & W. Grazebrook
Grazebrook had a works in Peartree Lane, Netherton, possibly during 1952/53.

M. & W. Grazebrook's history can be traced to 1641, when Michael Grazebrook went into business in Stourbridge. The company had a glassworks in Stourbridge, a forge at Halesowen in the 1700s and their own colliery in Coseley. It then focused on iron production and fabrications moving to Netherton in 1800. It was served by the Grazebrook arm of the Dudley Canal.

References
Notes

Bibliography

External links
 Perspective Sketch – Dudley Archives
 Photograph of the engine at Netherton, June 1964

1817 establishments in England
Preserved beam engines
History of Worcestershire
History of Birmingham, West Midlands
Industrial Revolution
Tourist attractions in Birmingham, West Midlands

Grazebrook beam engine


The Boston Sports Megaplex was a sports megaplex that was proposed in the mid-1990s to replace Fenway Park, Foxboro Stadium, and create a new convention center.

History
The proposed sites for this hybrid convention center-stadium were Summer Street in South Boston or at the so-called Crosstown site along Melnea Cass Boulevard in Roxbury, adjacent to Boston's South End. Ultimately, the administration of Massachusetts Governor William Weld pushed for construction of a full "Megaplex" at the crosstown site, with Boston Mayor Thomas Menino favoring construction of a new, stand-alone convention center in South Boston. Ultimately, the residents of neither of these neighborhoods wanted a stadium, thus Menino backed out fearing it would affect his chance at re-election. The Fenway Park plan was cancelled after many "Save Fenway Park!" groups popped up to save the historic ballpark.

Ultimately, Fenway replacement plans were cancelled, the New England Patriots constructed a replacement stadium right next to Foxboro Stadium, and the Boston Convention and Exhibition Center was built near the waterfront. Many theories abound as to why the plan failed, but many factors have been deemed as being responsible.

References

South Boston
Boston Red Sox
New England Patriots
Roxbury, Boston
Unbuilt stadiums in the United States

Boston Sports Megaplex


DNA-binding proteins are proteins that have DNA-binding domains and thus have a specific or general affinity for single- or double-stranded DNA. Sequence-specific DNA-binding proteins generally interact with the major groove of B-DNA, because it exposes more functional groups that identify a base pair.

Examples
DNA-binding proteins include transcription factors which modulate the process of transcription, various polymerases, nucleases which cleave DNA molecules, and histones which are involved in chromosome packaging and transcription in the cell nucleus. DNA-binding proteins can incorporate such domains as the zinc finger, the helix-turn-helix, and the leucine zipper (among many others) that facilitate binding to nucleic acid. There are also more unusual examples such as transcription activator like effectors.

Non-specific DNA-protein interactions
Structural proteins that bind DNA are well-understood examples of non-specific DNA-protein interactions. Within chromosomes, DNA is held in complexes with structural proteins. These proteins organize the DNA into a compact structure called chromatin. In eukaryotes, this structure involves DNA binding to a complex of small basic proteins called histones. In prokaryotes, multiple types of proteins are involved. The histones form a disk-shaped complex called a nucleosome, which contains two complete turns of double-stranded DNA wrapped around its surface. These non-specific interactions are formed through basic residues in the histones making ionic bonds to the acidic sugar-phosphate backbone of the DNA, and are therefore largely independent of the base sequence. Chemical modifications of these basic amino acid residues include methylation, phosphorylation and acetylation. These chemical changes alter the strength of the interaction between the DNA and the histones, making the DNA more or less accessible to transcription factors and changing the rate of transcription. Other non-specific DNA-binding proteins in chromatin include the high-mobility group (HMG) proteins, which bind to bent or distorted DNA. Biophysical studies show that these architectural HMG proteins bind, bend and loop DNA to perform its biological functions. These proteins are important in bending arrays of nucleosomes and arranging them into the larger structures that form chromosomes. Recently FK506 binding protein 25 (FBP25) was also shown to non-specifically bind to DNA which helps in DNA repair.

Proteins that specifically bind single-stranded DNA

A distinct group of DNA-binding proteins are the DNA-binding proteins that specifically bind single-stranded DNA. In humans, replication protein A is the best-understood member of this family and is used in processes where the double helix is separated, including DNA replication, recombination and DNA repair. These binding proteins seem to stabilize single-stranded DNA and protect it from forming stem-loops or being degraded by nucleases.

Binding to specific DNA sequences

In contrast, other proteins have evolved to bind to specific DNA sequences. The most intensively studied of these are the various transcription factors, which are proteins that regulate transcription. Each transcription factor binds to one specific set of DNA sequences and activates or inhibits the transcription of genes that have these sequences near their promoters. The transcription factors do this in two ways. Firstly, they can bind the RNA polymerase responsible for transcription, either directly or through other mediator proteins; this locates the polymerase at the promoter and allows it to begin transcription. Alternatively, transcription factors can bind enzymes that modify the histones at the promoter. This alters the accessibility of the DNA template to the polymerase.

These DNA targets can occur throughout an organism's genome. Thus, changes in the activity of one type of transcription factor can affect thousands of genes. Thus, these proteins are often the targets of the signal transduction processes that control responses to environmental changes or cellular differentiation and development. The specificity of these transcription factors' interactions with DNA come from the proteins making multiple contacts to the edges of the DNA bases, allowing them to read the DNA sequence. Most of these base-interactions are made in the major groove, where the bases are most accessible. Mathematical descriptions of protein-DNA binding taking into account sequence-specificity, and competitive and cooperative binding of proteins of different types are usually performed with the help of the lattice models. Computational methods to identify the DNA binding sequence specificity have been proposed to make a good use of the abundant sequence data in the post-genomic era.

Protein–DNA interactions
Protein–DNA interactions occur when a protein binds a molecule of DNA, often to regulate the biological function of DNA, usually the expression of a gene. Among the proteins that bind to DNA are transcription factors that activate or repress gene expression by binding to DNA motifs and histones that form part of the structure of DNA and bind to it less specifically. Also proteins that repair DNA such as uracil-DNA glycosylase interact closely with it.

In general, proteins bind to DNA in the major groove; however, there are exceptions. Protein–DNA interaction are of mainly two types, either specific interaction, or non-specific interaction. Recent single-molecule experiments showed that DNA binding proteins undergo of rapid rebinding in order to bind in correct orientation for recognizing the target site.

Design
Designing DNA-binding proteins that have a specified DNA-binding site has been an important goal for biotechnology. Zinc finger proteins have been designed to bind to specific DNA sequences and this is the basis of zinc finger nucleases. Recently transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs) have been created which are based on natural proteins secreted by Xanthomonas bacteria via their type III secretion system when they infect various plant species.

Detection methods
There are many in vitro and in vivo techniques which are useful in detecting DNA-Protein Interactions. The following lists some methods currently in use: Electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA) is a widespread qualitative technique to study protein–DNA interactions of known DNA binding proteins. DNA-Protein-Interaction - Enzyme-Linked ImmunoSorbant Assay (DPI-ELISA) allows the qualitative and quantitative analysis of DNA-binding preferences of known proteins in vitro. This technique allows the analysis of protein complexes that bind to DNA (DPI-Recruitment-ELISA) or is suited for automated screening of several nucleotide probes due to its standard ELISA plate formate .DNase footprinting assay can be used to identify the specific sites of binding of a protein to DNA at basepair resolution. Chromatin immunoprecipitation is used to identify the in vivo DNA target regions of a known transcription factor. This technique when combined with high throughput sequencing is known as ChIP-Seq and when combined with microarrays it is known as ChIP-chip. Yeast one-hybrid System (Y1H) is used to identify which protein binds to a particular DNA fragment. Bacterial one-hybrid system (B1H) is used to identify which protein binds to a particular DNA fragment. Structure determination using X-ray crystallography has been used to give a highly detailed atomic view of protein–DNA interactions.
Besides these methods, other techniques such as SELEX, PBM (protein binding microarrays), DNA microarray screens, DamID, FAIRE or more recently DAP-seq are used in the laboratory to investigate DNA-protein interaction in vivo and in vitro.

Manipulating the interactions
The protein–DNA interactions can be modulated using stimuli like ionic strength of the buffer, macromolecular crowding, temperature, pH and electric field. This can lead to reversible dissociation/association of the protein–DNA complex.

See also
 bZIP domain
 ChIP-exo
 Comparison of nucleic acid simulation software
 DNA-binding domain
 Helix-loop-helix
 Helix-turn-helix
 HMG-box
 Leucine zipper
 Lexitropsin (a semi-synthetic DNA-binding ligand)
 Deoxyribonucleoprotein
 Protein–DNA interaction site prediction software
 RNA-binding protein
 Single-strand binding protein
 Zinc finger

References

External links
 Protein-DNA binding: data, tools & models (annotated list, constantly updated)
 Abalone tool for modeling DNA-ligand interactions.
 DBD database of predicted transcription factors Uses a curated set of DNA-binding domains to predict transcription factors in all completely sequenced genomes

DNA-binding proteins
Molecular genetics
DNA replication
Transcription factors
Biophysics

DNA-binding protein


The Legitimation of Power by David Beetham is a famous political theory text. The book examines the legitimation of power as an essential issue for social scientists to take into account, looking at both relationships between legitimacy and the variety of contemporary political systems.

Notability
It has been praised by David Held in the Times Higher Education Supplement as an "admirable text", "far reaching in its scope" and "extraordinary in the clarity with which it covers a wide range of material".  "One can have nothing but the highest regard for this volume." It has also been praised by Zygmunt Bauman in the journal Sociology who argues that it is "a study bound to revolutionize sociological thinking and teaching", that it is "seminal and profoundly original" and that it "should become the obligitory reading for every teacher and practitioner of social science."

Structure of the book
The book is in two parts. The first looks at the criteria for legitimacy, outlining the social-scientific concept of legitimacy, power and its need of legitimation, the intellectual structure of legitimacy generally and the social science and the social construction of legitimacy in particular. The second part of the work examines the legitimacy of the contemporary states, outlining the dimensions of state legitimacy, the tendencies of political systems to have crisis and various modes of non-legitimate power. This part concludes with a look at legitimacy in both political science and political philosophy.

A problem with "legitimacy" that this work, according to Steffek, clearly emphasises is that the term is used both prescriptively and descriptively. From the prescriptive point of view social scientists should be able to suggest when governance deserves to be described as legitimate. From the descriptive point of view social scientists should be able to suggest why those subjected to governance agree  to  accept and support, or reject, it. As for the first project, there is a well-established strand of normative research that discusses a prescriptive version of legitimacy.

The book's details
David Beetham (1991) The Legitimation of Power, Palgrave Macmillan 9780333375396

References

1991 non-fiction books
Sociology books
Political books
Books in political philosophy

The Legitimation of Power


In late 1944 and early 1945 rapes were committed against women by the Soviet Red Army soldiers during their advance to Berlin through Serbia during the Second World War.

Soviets during liberation of Belgrade

Milovan Đilas spoke about these events at the end of World War II in his memoirs. The Germans began to retreat, and mass rapes by members of the Red Army began. There was also a case where a mother-in-law was killed because she did not want to free the bed for the rape of her daughter-in-law. Soviet soldiers were repeatedly breaking into apartments and houses in Belgrade and the surrounding area, and they were making decisions on which soldier would rape the daughter and which would rape the mother. In order to avoid rape, women and girls hid in attics, sewers, holes in the ground, sheds and basements.

The situation was so bad that Tito requested a personal audience with Stalin through Đilas, asking him to stop the wave of rapes of Yugoslav women. Stalin, the head of the Kremlin at the time, told him: "Young guys are young guys, they've been through the war and they need a little rest." Jovanka Broz testifies to this with a testimony written down by Senad Pećanin. Tito presented the problem to the head of the Soviet military mission, General Nikolai Korneyev, "in a very polite and relaxed way", in addition to the rape, he also complained about the banditry and arrogant behavior of the soldiers. However, Korneyev immediately began to protest about the "slander against the Soviet army". Stalin was also offended by the "slandering" of the Red Army by the Yugoslav allies and the conflict with Tito only deepened later. The same crimes took place in other liberated territories, and rapes of German, Polish, Lithuanian, Estonian, Latvian women are well known. It is estimated that the Soviets raped over 2 million women across Europe.

Serbian journalist Vuk Perišić said about the rapes: "The rapes were extremely brutal, under the influence of alcohol and usually by a group of soldiers. The Soviet soldiers did not pay attention to the fact that Serbia was their ally, and there is no doubt that the Soviet high command tacitly approved the rape."

According to Russian historian Nikita Bondarev, it was all propaganda and there were no mass rapes. About the crime, he says that it was not only the Soviets who raped, but also the Germans, the British and the Americans, and that there is no war without looting, banditry and abuse. He also states that the crimes of Soviet soldiers were greater in Germany and Austria than in the Balkans, because the Russian soldiers "were already tired and wanted to get revenge", so the percentage of rapes increased significantly.

Statistics
The number of rapes, in a period of several months, taking into account that the Soviets passed only through the northeastern regions of Serbia, speaks of the mass of these crimes. By the end of 1944 there were 1,219 rapes, 359 attempted rapes, 111 rapes with murder, and 248 rapes with attempted murder in Serbia. On the territory of Belgrade until 1945, over 2,000 rapes were reported. While the total number is estimated at over 5,000 thousand women and girls who have suffered sexual violence and abuse.

Research on sexual crimes on the territory of Serbia
Estimating cases of sexual violence is extremely difficult, and various researchers have used different methods to arrive at widely differing estimates. Official estimates by Yugoslav authorities indicate that between 2,420 and 24,380 women were abused by Red Army soldiers.

Evidence shows that Serbs and Yugoslavs were much less afraid of the Red Army than Austrians, Poles, Germans, Hungarians and Romanians. Soviet soldiers and officers reported that Bulgarians would call them "brothers". This can be most contrasted with the behavior of the Soviet troops in Romania, where they raped an estimated 355,200 women. Also, the number of raped women in Hungary varies from 50,000 to 500,000 according to different sources. In Austria, between 70,000 and 110,000 women were raped in Vienna alone.

Susan Brownsmiller noted that the liberation armies treated women in Serbia better than those in enemy countries.

Soviet propaganda about Serbia and Yugoslavia
The pan-Slavic theme in the propaganda was intended to encourage Soviet soldiers to view Serbs as a brotherly people. Soviet propaganda also drew the soldiers' attention to German crimes against Yugoslav and Serbian civilians with the aim of inciting hatred towards the Germans.

Tito asked Korneyev to immediately take measures to at least reduce incidents of robbery, rape and violence. Milovan Đilas stated that the complaints bore fruit and that the Soviet officers reacted more violently to the transgressions of their soldiers after the meeting with Korneyev and Stalin's participation.

References

Further reading

External links

Serbia in World War II
Soviet World War II crimes
War crimes in Serbia
Crimes against women
Women in World War II
Wartime sexual violence in World War II
Aftermath of World War II
Rape in Serbia
Violence against women in Serbia

Rape during the liberation of Serbia