Traditionalist Catholicism is a movement encompassing members of the Catholic Church and offshoot groups of the Catholic Church that emphasizes beliefs, practices, customs, traditions, liturgical forms, devotions and presentations of teaching associated with the Catholic Church before the Second Vatican Council (1962–65). Traditionalist Catholics particularly emphasize the Tridentine Mass, the Roman Rite liturgy largely replaced in general use by the post-Second Vatican Council Mass of Paul VI.

Many Traditionalist Catholics disliked the liturgical changes that followed the Second Vatican Council, and prefer to continue to practice pre-Second Vatican Council traditions and forms. Some also see present teachings on ecumenism as blurring the distinction between Catholics and other Christians. Traditional Catholicism is often more conservative in its philosophy and worldview, promoting a modest style of dressing and teaching a complementarian view of gender roles.

Some Traditionalist Catholics reject the current papacy of the Catholic Church, becoming sedevacantists, sedeprivationists, or conclavists. As these groups are no longer in full communion with the Pope and the See of Rome, they are not considered members of the Catholic Church, but instead separate religious groupings. A distinction is often made between these groups (sometimes called Radical Traditionalists) and Catholics who accept the teachings and authority of the Catholic Church while still preferring older traditions and practices as well as the Tridentine Mass in Latin.

History
Toward the end of the Second Vatican Council, Father Gommar DePauw came into conflict with Cardinal Lawrence Shehan, Archbishop of Baltimore, over the interpretation of the council's teachings, particularly on liturgical matters. In January 1965, DePauw incorporated an organization called the Catholic Traditionalist Movement in New York State, purportedly with the support of Cardinal Francis Spellman, Archbishop of New York.

By the late 1960s and early 1970s, conservative Catholics opposed to or uncomfortable with the theological, social and liturgical developments brought about by the Second Vatican Council began to coalesce. In 1973, the Orthodox Roman Catholic Movement (ORCM) was founded by two priests, Francis E. Fenton and Robert McKenna, and set up chapels in many parts of North America to preserve the Tridentine Mass. Priests who participated in this were listed as being on a leave of absence by their bishops, who disapproved of their actions.

In 1970, French Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre founded the Society of Saint Pius X (SSPX), made up of priests who would say only the Traditional Latin Mass and who opposed what he saw as excessive liberal influences in the Church after Vatican II. In 1988, Lefebvre and another bishop consecrated four men as bishops without papal permission, resulting in excommunication latae sententiae for all six men directly involved. Some members of the SSPX, unwilling to participate in what they considered schism, left and founded the Priestly Fraternity of Saint Peter (FSSP), which celebrates the Traditional Latin Mass but in full communion with the Holy See. In 2009, Pope Benedict XVI lifted the excommunications of the four surviving bishops.

The Istituto Mater Boni Consilii (IMBC) was founded in1985. It is a sedeprivationist religious congregation of clergy who were dissatisfied with the SSPX's position on the Pope, i.e., acknowledging John Paul II as pope but disobeying him. Sedeprivationists hold that the current occupant of the papal office is a duly elected pope but lacks the authority and ability to teach or govern unless he recants the changes brought by the Second Vatican Council.

Some Catholics took the position of sedevacantism, which teaches Pope John XXIII and his successors are heretics and therefore cannot be considered popes, and that the Catholic Church's sacraments are not valid. The Society of Saint Pius V (SSPV), sedevacantist, broke off from the SSPX.

Other groups known as Conclavists have elected their own popes in opposition to the post-Vatican II pontiffs. They are not considered serious claimants except by their very few followers.

Different types

Canonically regular with the Holy See
Since the Second Vatican Council, several traditionalist organizations have been started with or have subsequently obtained approval from the Catholic Church. These organizations accept the documents of the Second Vatican Council and regard the changes associated with the Council (such as the revision of the Mass) as legitimate, but celebrate the older forms with the approval of the Holy See.
 Priestly Fraternity of St Peter (FSSP)
 Institute of Christ the King Sovereign Priest (ICRSS, ICKSP)
 Sons of the Most Holy Redeemer (FSSR)
 Institute of the Good Shepherd (IBP)
 Servants of Jesus and Mary (SJM)
 Canons Regular of the New Jerusalem (CRNJ)
 Canons Regular of Saint John Cantius (SJC)
 Canons Regular of the Holy Cross
 Fraternity of Saint Vincent Ferrer
 Personal Apostolic Administration of Saint John Mary Vianney (PAASJV)

There are also multiple monastic communities, including
 Monastery of Our Lady of the Annunciation of Clear Creek
 Monastery of St. Benedict in Norcia
 Monks of the Most Blessed Virgin Mary of Mount Carmel
 Monastery of Our Lady of the Cenacle
 Le Barroux Abbey

See Communities using the Tridentine Mass for a more detailed list.

Society of Saint Pius X
The Society of Saint Pius X (SSPX) was founded in 1970, with the authorization of the bishop of Lausanne, Geneva and Fribourg, by Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre. Lefebvre was declared to have incurred automatic excommunication in 1988, after illicit consecrations. In January 2009 the Prefect of the Congregation for Bishops remitted the excommunications the Congregation had declared to have been incurred by the Society's bishops in 1988.

More recently, the Vatican has granted SSPX priests the authority to hear confessions and has authorized local ordinaries, in certain circumstances, to grant delegation to SSPX priests to act as the qualified witness required for valid celebration of marriage. The Our Lady of Guadalupe Monastery in Silver City, New Mexico, which is affiliated with the SSPX, is seeking Vatican approval through the society.

In 2017, a statement from the Holy See said the SSPX had an irregular canonical status "for the time being".

Sedeprivationists

Sedeprivationists hold that the current occupant of the papal office is a duly elected pope but lacks the authority and ability to teach or govern unless he recants the changes brought by the Second Vatican Council. Sedeprivationists teach that the popes from Pope John XXIII onward fall into this category.

Sedevacantists

Sedevacantists hold that the Vatican II popes have forfeited their position through their acceptance of heretical teachings connected with the Second Vatican Council and consequently there is at present no true pope. They conclude, on the basis of their rejection of the revised Mass rite and of certain aspects of postconciliar Church teaching as false, that the popes involved are also false. This is a minority position among traditionalist Catholics and a highly divisive one, so that many who hold it prefer to say nothing of their view, while other sedevacantists have accepted episcopal ordination from sources such as Archbishop Pierre Martin Ngô Đình Thục.

The terms sedevacantist and sedevacantism derive from the Latin phrase sede vacante ("while the chair/see [of Saint Peter] is vacant").

Conclavists

Conclavism is the belief and practice of some who, claiming that all recent occupants of the papal see are not true popes, elect someone else and propose him as the true pope to whom the allegiance of Catholics is due.

Positions
Pope Benedict XVI contrasted the "hermeneutic of discontinuity and rupture" that some apply to the Council (an interpretation adopted both by certain traditionalists and by certain "progressives") with the "hermeneutic of reform, as it was presented first by Pope John XXIII in his Speech inaugurating the Council on 11 October 1962 and later by Pope Paul VI in his Discourse for the Council's conclusion on 7 December 1965." He made a similar point in a speech to the bishops of Chile in 1988, when he was still Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger:[Archbishop Lefebvre] declared that he has finally understood that the agreement he signed aimed only at integrating his foundation into the "Conciliar Church". The Catholic Church in union with the Pope is, according to him, the 'Conciliar Church' which has broken with its own past. It seems indeed that he is no longer able to see that we are dealing with the Catholic Church in the totality of its Tradition, and that Vatican II belongs to that.Responding to a comment that some consider tradition in a rigid way, Pope Francis remarked in 2016, "there's a traditionalism that is a rigid fundamentalism; this is not good. Fidelity on the other hand implies growth. In transmitting the deposit of faith from one epoch to another, tradition grows and consolidates itself with the passing of time, as St Vincent of Lérins said [...] 'The dogma of the Christian religion too must follow these laws. It progresses, consolidates itself with the years, developing itself with time, deepening itself with age'."

Radical Traditionalists' assessment of Vatican II
Radical Traditionalists' claims that substantive changes have taken place in Catholic teaching and practice since the Council often crystallize around the following specific alleged examples:

 Sedevacantist Donald J. Sanborn rejects an ecclesiology that he claims fails to recognize the Catholic Church as the one true church established by Jesus Christ, and instead holds that the Roman Catholic Church is some subset of the church Christ founded. He sees some of the confusion as stemming from an unclear understanding of the phrase "subsists in" which appears in the Vatican II document Lumen gentium, and which the Church has declared applies uniquely to the Catholic Church and means the "perduring, historical continuity and permanence of all the elements instituted by Christ in the Catholic Church, in which the Church of Christ is concretely found on this earth". He claims that this "new ecclesiology" contradicts Pope Pius XII's Mystici corporis Christi and other papal documents.

 The SSPX denounces a teaching on collegiality that attributes to the bishops of the world a share, with the Pope, of responsibility for the Church's governance in a way that it claims is destructive of papal authority and encourages a "national" church mentality that undermines the primacy of the Holy See. It also claims that national bishops' conferences, whose influence greatly increased following the Council, "diminish the personal responsibility of bishop[s]" within their dioceses.

Criticism of the Radical Traditionalists' positions
Those who in response to these criticisms by certain traditionalists defend the decisions of the Second Vatican Council and the subsequent changes made by the Holy See make the following counterclaims:
 The criticisms are false, exaggerated, or lacking appreciation of the organic character of Tradition, traditionalist criticisms that Dignitatis humanae contradicts the Church's earlier teaching on religious liberty are an example.
 Traditionalists who claim that there has been a break from and discontinuity with the Church's traditional teaching are displaying a Protestant attitude of "private judgment" on matters of doctrine instead of accepting the guidance of the Magisterium of the Church.
 Traditionalists fail to distinguish properly between changeable pastoral practices (such as the liturgy of the Mass) and the unchangeable principles of the Catholic faith (such as the dogmas surrounding the Mass).
 Traditionalists of this kind treat papal authority in much the same way as the dissident, liberal Catholics. While liberals believe that, on sexual matters, "the Pope can teach whatever he wants... but whether or not he should be listened to is very much an open question", the stance of certain traditionalists on the reform of the Mass liturgy and contemporary teachings on ecumenism and religious liberty amounts to the view that, on these issues, "faithful Catholics are always free to resist [the Pope's] folly. [...] As theories of religious dissent go, Catholic liberals couldn't ask for anything more."
 Traditionalists claim that the Second Vatican Council was pastoral (and not infallible), but Paul VI subsequently emphasized the authoritative nature of the Council's teachings.

Reception
Integrism is traditionalist Catholicism that integrates social and political contexts. Kay Chadwick described Catholic integrism as a holding "anti-Masonic, anti-liberal and anti-Communist" political objectives. She also noted its alignment with the right-wing press and an annual Parisian Joan of Arc procession with participation by both integrists and National Front supporters. A Tridentine Mass was celebrated before the annual National Front party meeting. Lefebvre was fined in France for "racial defamation" and "incitement to racial hatred" for proposing the removal of immigrants – particularly Muslims – from Europe. Lefebvre also supported Latin American dictatorships, Charles Maurras, Philippe Pétain, and the continued occupation of French Algeria.

The Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC) used the term radical traditionalist Catholics to refer to those who "may make up the largest single group of serious anti-Semites in America, subscribe to an ideology that is rejected by the Vatican and some 70 million mainstream American Catholics. Many of their leaders have been condemned and even excommunicated by the official church." The SPLC claims that adherents of radical traditional Catholicism "routinely pillory Jews as 'the perpetual enemy of Christ'", reject the ecumenical efforts of the Vatican, and sometimes assert that all recent Popes are illegitimate. The SPLC says that adherents are "incensed by the liberalizing reforms" of the Second Vatican Council (1962–65) which condemned hatred for Jewish people and "rejected the accusation that Jews are collectively responsible for deicide in the form of the crucifixion of Christ" and that "Radical traditional Catholics" also embrace "extremely conservative social ideals with respect to women."

The SPLC clarifies: "Radical traditionalists are not the same as Catholics who call themselves 'traditionalists'—people who prefer the old Latin Mass to the mass now typically said in vernacular languages—although the radicals, as well, like their liturgy in Latin."

Practices
Traditionalist Catholicism has been described as "a self-conscious revival of the liturgies, practices, and trappings of an earlier time in the Catholic Church" and this manifests in a number of ways.

Rite of Mass

The best-known and most visible sign of Catholic traditionalism is an attachment to the form that the Roman Rite liturgy of the Mass had before the liturgical reform of 1969–1970, in the various editions of the Roman Missal published between 1570 and 1962. This form is generally known as the Tridentine Mass, though traditionalists usually prefer to call it the Traditional Mass. Many refer to it as the Latin Mass, though Latin is the language also of the official text of the post-Vatican II Mass, to which vernacular translations are obliged to conform, and canon law states that "the eucharistic celebration is to be carried out in the Latin language or in another language provided that the liturgical texts have been legitimately approved." In his 2007 motu proprio Summorum Pontificum Pope Benedict XVI relaxed the regulations on use of the 1962 Missal, designating it "an" extraordinary form of the Roman Rite, as opposed to "the" ordinary or normal form, as revised successively by Pope Paul VI and Pope John Paul II.

The Pope ruled that priests of the Latin Church can freely choose between the 1962 Roman Missal and the later edition "in Masses celebrated without the people". Such celebrations may be attended by those who spontaneously ask to be allowed. Priests in charge of churches can permit stable groups of laypeople attached to the earlier form to have Mass celebrated for them in that form, provided that the celebrating priest is "qualified to [celebrate] and not juridically impeded". The Society of Saint Pius X welcomed the document, but referred to "difficulties that still remain", including "disputed doctrinal issues" and the notice of excommunication that still affected its bishops.

In 2021, Pope Francis promulgated Traditionis custodes, amending and abrogating parts of Summorum Pontificum.

Individual and private devotions
Some traditionalist Catholics stress on following customs prevailing immediately before the Second Vatican Council, such as the following:
 Fasting from Midnight until the reception of Holy Communion. The traditional Catholic rule of fasting from midnight until the reception of Holy Communion (this Eucharistic Fast is from both food and liquids), which is required by the 1917 Code of Canon Law, was shortened in 1953 by Pope Pius XII to a 3-hour fast. In 1966,  Pope Paul VI reduced the fast further to one hour, a rule included in the 1983 Code of Canon Law. Some traditional Catholics groups require fasting from midnight until they receive Holy Communion at Mass, while others will keep a Eucharistic fast for at least three hours.
 Kneeling to receive Communion directly upon the tongue, under the Host species alone, and from the hand of a cleric rather than a layperson. The SSPX regards the practice of receiving communion in the hand (though ancient  and authorised by the Holy See) as an abuse.
 Women wearing a headcovering when praying at home and when worshipping inside a church which the 1917 Code of Canon Law required. Many Traditionalist Catholic women wear a veil, a hat, or a headscarf when praying at home and when worshipping inside a church.

Clothing and lifestyle
Traditional Catholics, with respect to male and female gender roles, often adhere to the doctrine of complementarianism.

The standards of clothing among Traditional Catholics, based on instructions given by Pope Pius XI and consequently promoted by the Purity Crusade of Mary Immaculate, is referred to as "Mary-like Modesty", which includes for women, wearing sleeves "extending at least to the elbows" and "skirts reaching below the knees", as well as having a neckline no more than two inches with the rest of the bodice fully covered.

It is commonplace for women who identify as traditionalist Catholics to wear a head covering (veil) while praying at home and attending celebrations of the Mass.

In the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church
Since the Second Vatican Council, various Eastern Catholic Churches have removed some practices and emphases that were derived from those of the Latin Church. Opposition to this has been given relatively high publicity with regard to the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church (UGCC).

Background
Even before the Second Vatican Council the Holy See declared it important to guard and preserve whole and entire forever the customs and distinct forms for administering the sacraments in use in the Eastern Catholic Churches (Pope Leo XIII, encyclical Orientalium Dignitas). Leo's successor Pope Pius X said that the priests of the newly created Russian Catholic Church should offer the Divine Liturgy Nec Plus, Nec Minus, Nec Aliter ("No more, No Less, No Different") than priests of the Russian Orthodox Church and the Old Believers.

In the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church, liturgical de-latinization began with the 1930s corrections of the liturgical books by Metropolitan Andrey Sheptytsky. According to his biographer Cyril Korolevsky, Metropolitan Andrey opposed use of coercion against those who remained attached to Latin liturgical practices, fearing that any attempt to do so would lead to a Greek-Catholic equivalent of the 1666 Schism within the Russian Orthodox Church.

De-latinization in the UGCC gained further momentum with the 1964 decree Orientalium Ecclesiarum of the Second Vatican Council) and several subsequent documents. Latinizations were discarded within the Ukrainian diaspora, while among Byzantine Catholics in Western Ukraine, forced into a clandestine existence following the Soviet ban on the UGCC, the latinizations remained, "an important component of their underground practices". In response, some priests, nuns, and candidates for the priesthood found themselves, "forced towards the periphery of the church since 1989 because of their wish to 'keep the tradition'." In some eparchies, particularly those of Ivano-Frankivsk and Ternopil-Zboriv, the bishops would immediately suspend any priest who, "displayed his inclination toward 'traditionalist' practices".

Vlad Naumescu reports that an article in the February 2003 issue of Patriayarkhat, the official journal of the Ukrainian Greek-Catholic Church, written by a student of the Ukrainian Catholic University, which since its 1994 foundation has been, "the strongest progressive voice within the Church". The article named priests and parishes in every eparchy in Ukraine as being involved in "a well-organized movement" and who described themselves as "traditionalists". According to the article, they constituted "a parallel structure" with connections with the Society of St. Pius X and with a charismatic leader in Fr. Basil Kovpak, the Pastor of St. Peter and Paul's Church in the suburb of Lviv-Riasne.

According to Vlad Naumescu, "Religious life in a traditionalist parish followed the model of the 'underground church.' Devotions were more intense, with each priest promoting his parish as a 'place of pilgrimage' for the neighboring areas, thus drawing larger crowds on Sunday than his local parish could provide. On Sundays and feast days, religious services took place three times a day (in Riasne), and the Sunday liturgy lasted for two and a half to three hours. The main religious celebrations took place outside the church in the middle of the neighborhood, and on every occasion traditionalists organized long processions through the entire locality. The community was strongly united by its common opponent, re-enacting the model of the 'defender of faith' common to times of repression. This model, which presupposes clear-cut attitudes and a firm moral stance, mobilized the community and reproduced the former determination of the 'underground' believers."

Priestly Society of Saint Josaphat
The Priestly Society of Saint Josaphat (SSJK), which operates a seminary, Basilian convent, and numerous parishes, receives priestly orders from the bishops of the SSPX. Its superior, Father Basil Kovpak, has accused the UGCC hierarchy of using intense psychological pressure against priests who are reluctant or unwilling to de-Latinise.

In 2003, Cardinal Liubomyr Huzar, Major Archbishops of Kyiv-Galicia, excommunicated Father Kovpak, but this act was later declared null and void by the Roman Rota due to lack of canonical form.

On 22 November 2006, Bishop Richard Williamson who was then a member of the Society of St. Pius X (SSPX), ordained two priests and seven deacons in Warsaw, Poland, for the SSJK. Fr. John Jenkins, an SSPX priest who was present, later remarked, "We were all very edified by their piety, and I myself was astonished by the resemblance of the atmosphere amongst the seminarians with that which I knew in the seminary – this in spite of the difference of language, nationality and even rite."

Archeparch Ihor Vozniak of Lviv, the Archeparchy in which the PSSJ is most active, denounced the ordinations as a "criminal act", and condemned Fr. Kovpak's participation in the ceremony. He stressed that the two priests whom Bishop Williamson had ordained would not receive faculties within the Archeparchy. Officials of the Lviv archdiocese said that Kovpak could face excommunication, and that "'he deceives the church by declaring that he is a Greek (Byzantine) Catholic priest,' while supporting a group [SSPX] that uses the old Latin liturgy exclusively, eschewing the Byzantine tradition, and does not maintain allegiance to the Holy See."

Father Kovpak's excommunication process was restarted by the hierarchy of the Ukrainian Greek-Catholic Church and was confirmed by the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith on 23 November 2007.

Sedevacantism and Conclavism in the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church

In March 2008 a group of Basilian priests in Pidhirtsi, Ukraine, announced that four of them had been consecrated as bishops in order to save the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church (UGCC) from heresy and apostasy and in August 2009, they announced the formation of the Ukrainian Orthodox Greek Catholic Church. Having elected Czech Basilian priest Fr. Anthony Elias Dohnal as "Patriarch Elijah", they declared that the Holy See was vacant, establishing the Ukrainian Orthodox Greek Catholic Church (UOGCC).

The group was promptly excommunicated by the UGCC, an act that was later confirmed by the Apostolic Signatura and the Congregation for the Doctrine of Faith.

The UOGCC later "elected" a new Pope, Archbishop Carlo Maria Viganò the former Apostolic Nuncio to the United States, in October 2019. Wheter Viganò accepted this "election" is unclear.

There have been allegations in both The New York Times and  the Lviv-based newspaper Expres that the church leadership is linked to the Russian intelligence services.

Relations with the Holy See
The Holy See recognises as fully legitimate the preference that many Catholics have for the earlier forms of worship. This was stated in Pope John Paul II's 1988 apostolic letter Ecclesia Dei and Pope Benedict XVI's 2007 motu proprio Summorum Pontificum. The Holy See does not extend its approval to those who oppose the present-day Church leadership, which is reiterated in Traditionis Custodes.

Ecclesia Dei Commission
The Pontifical Commission Ecclesia Dei was founded in July 1988 in the wake of John Paul II's apostolic letter Ecclesia Dei. Benedict XVI was a member of the Commission during his tenure as Cardinal Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith. Speaking on 16 May 2007 to the Fifth General Conference of the Bishops of Latin America and the Caribbean, Cardinal Castrillón, the current head of the Commission, said his department had been founded for the care of those "traditionalist Catholics" who, while discontented with the liturgical reform of the Second Vatican Council, had broken with Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre "because they disagreed with his schismatic action in ordaining Bishops without the required papal mandate". He added that at present the Commission's activity is not limited to the service of those Catholics, nor to "the efforts undertaken to end the regrettable schismatic situation and secure the return of those brethren belonging to the Fraternity of Saint Pius X to full communion." It extends also, he said, to "satisfying the just aspirations of people, unrelated to the two aforementioned groups, who, because of their specific sensitiveness, wish to keep alive the earlier Latin liturgy in the celebration of the Eucharist and the other sacraments."

In 2019, Pope Francis suppressed this commission and transferred its responsibilities directly to the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith.

Validity of holy orders

The conferring of holy orders may be valid but illicit. The Catholic Church considers the orders of traditionalist clergy who are in good standing with the Holy See, such as the clergy of the Priestly Fraternity of Saint Peter or the Institute of Christ the King Sovereign Priest, to be both valid and licit. It sees as valid but illicit the orders of the bishops and priests of the Society of Saint Pius X, and accordingly considers them to be forbidden by law to exercise priestly offices, but still technically priests.

The Holy See declared devoid of canonical effect the consecration ceremony conducted by Archbishop Pierre Martin Ngô Đình Thục for the Carmelite Order of the Holy Face group on December 31,1975, while expressly refraining from pronouncing on its validity. It made the same statement with regard also to any later ordinations that those bishops might confer, saying that: as for those who have already thus unlawfully received ordination or any who may yet accept ordination from these, whatever may be the validity of the orders (quidquid sit de ordinum validitate), the Church does not and will not recognise their ordination (ipsorum ordinationem), and will consider them, for all legal effects, as still in the state in which they were before, except that the [...] penalties remain until they repent.

Demographics

In 2005, Catholic World News reported that "the Vatican" estimated the number of those served by the Fraternity of St Peter, the Society of St Pius X and similar groups at "close to 1 million".

List of groups

This is a list of notable traditionalist Catholic groups. Some are in full communion with the Holy See; some have irregular status according to doctrines and disciplines of the Catholic Church.

As of 2023, largest priestly communities described as traditionalist are Society of Saint Pius X (SSPX) with 707 priests, Priestly Fraternity of Saint Peter (FSSP) with 356 priests, Institute of Christ the King Sovereign Priest (ICKSP) with 130 priests and Institute of the Good Shepherd (IBP) with 59 priests.

Canonically regular traditionalist groups
 Canons Regular of Saint John Cantius
 Canons Regular of the New Jerusalem
 Foederatio Internationalis Una Voce
 Fœderatio Internationalis Juventutem
 Fraternity of Saint Vincent Ferrer
 Heralds of the Gospel
 Institute of Christ the King Sovereign Priest
 Institute of the Good Shepherd
 Latin Mass Society of England and Wales
 Militia Templi; The Poor Knights of Christ also called the Order of the Poor Knights of Christ
 Personal Apostolic Administration of Saint John Mary Vianney
 Priestly Fraternity of St. Peter
 Slaves of the Immaculate Heart of Mary (Still River, MA group only)
 Sons of the Most Holy Redeemer

Canonically irregular traditionalist groups
 Society of Saint Pius X
 Fraternite Notre Dame
 Servants of the Holy Family
 Priestly Society of Saint Josaphat

Sedevacantist groups
 Congregation of Mary Immaculate Queen
Most Holy Family Monastery
 Society of Saint Pius V

Sedeprivationist groups
 Istituto Mater Boni Consilii
 Orthodox Roman Catholic Movement

Conclavist groups
 Palmarian Christian Church
 Ukrainian Orthodox Greek Catholic Church

See also

Doctrinal and liturgical issues
 Cafeteria Catholicism
 Extra Ecclesiam nulla salus
 Feeneyism
 Second Vatican Council
 Mass of Paul VI
 Sedevacantism
 Tridentine Mass
 Catholic fundamentalism

Comparable phenomena in other churches
 Old Believers, a comparable phenomenon in the Russian Orthodox Church which dates back to the 17th century
 True Orthodoxy, Old Calendarism and the Catacomb Church—comparable phenomena in the Eastern Orthodox Church that date to the 1920s
 Continuing Anglican movement, a comparable phenomenon in the Anglican Communion
 Confessing Movement, a similar movement in Mainline Protestant denominations

Other
 Old Catholicism, which started in comparable circumstances surrounding papal infallibility and the First Vatican Council
 Independent Catholicism
 Freedom of religion in Germany § Censorship, for a discussion about a traditionalist Catholic news service which was shut down
 The Remnant – an American newspaper dedicated to traditionalist themes
 Cardinal Newman Society, American group focused on traditional education
 Land O'Lakes Statement 1967 manifesto that angered traditionalists

References

Further reading
 Hull, Geoffrey (2010). The Banished Heart: Origins of Heteropraxis in the Catholic Church, 1995, rpt. T&T Clark/Continuum, London.

 Jungmann, Joseph, (1951) The Mass Of The Roman Rite : Its Origins and Development (Missarum Sollemnia) Volume 1 of 2 Allen, TX: Christian Classics Replica edition 1986
 Manning, Christel. (1999) God gave us the right: Conservative Catholic, evangelical Protestant, and Orthodox Jewish women grapple with feminism (Rutgers University Press, 1999).

 Margry, Peter Jan. (2019), "The Global Network of Deviant Revelatory Marian Movements", in: Chris Maunder (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Mary (New York: Oxford University Press, p. 662-683; ISBN 978-0-198792550.

Traditionalist Catholicism


Guglielmo della Scala (; died 1404) was the son of Cangrande II della Scala. He assassinated his father in 1359, but was edged out of power by his uncle Cansignorio.

In 1404, together with his two sons Brunoro and Antonio II, he led a revolt against the Milanese. He was proclaimed Lord of Verona on 17 April, but was expelled from the city by the populace on 28 April. Francesco da Carrara, Lord of Padua, took over the city a few days later.

By his marriage to Onesta Mortone, Guglielmo left the two aforementioned sons, who never regained power in Verona, and three younger sons: Bartolomeo (died 21 March 1453), Fregnano (died 4 December 1443 at Vienna), Nicodemus, and Paul.

Scaliger, Guglielmo
Scaliger, Guglielmo
Guglielmo
Lords of Verona

Guglielmo della Scala


Stanisław Młodożeniec (31 January 1895,Dobrocice – 21 January 1959, Warsaw) was a poet, and a founder of Polish futurism.

He was born to a well-to-do peasant family in 1895  in the village of Dobrocice, near Sandomierz. Captured in 1915 by the retreating Russian army, Mlodozeniec was taken to Moscow where he attended the Polish gymnasium in order to avoid military service. After returning to Poland in 1918, he studied Polish literature at the Jagellonian University. Along with Tytus Czyżewski and Bruno Jasieński he founded the futurist club Katarynka, and participated in futurist activities. Between 1922 and 1939 he worked as a high school teacher and during the 1930s he became politically active in the peasants' party. After the war he lived in London, before returning in 1958 to Poland, where he died in 1959 in Warsaw.

References

1895 births
1959 deaths
People from Sandomierz
20th-century Polish poets

Stanisław Młodożeniec


"Steel-Eyed Death" is the thirteenth episode of the twentieth season of NBC's long-running legal drama Law & Order.

Plot
A family of four is found murdered in their home. One of the killers is a boy experiencing symptoms of a type of post-traumatic stress disorder.

In this episode, Detective Lupo admits he had PTSD and a drinking problem after seeing a horrible crime scene on a past Christmas.

Production
"Steel-Eyed Death" was directed by Michael Pressman and written by Christopher Ambrose, Julie Martin, and Richard Sweren.

Cultural references
Music by Australian horrorcore rap artist KidCrusher is featured in the episode, including the songs "Killin' Shit" and "A Dirty Fuckin' Murder". The artist said he was told the episode was based on a horrorcore festival when he allowed his music to be featured in "Steel-Eyed Death". Upon learning the episode depicted Juggalos, he later claimed to be angry that his music was used. He said, "I am pretty pissed off to hear they based the episode on Juggalos and try to make us all look like criminals and real serial killers, and that we would kill kids."

This episode is partially inspired by the Richard Alden Samuel McCroskey III case. McCroskey, an amateur horrorcore rapper who was heavily inspired by horrorcore rap artist Mars and went by the name "Syko Sam", was accused of murdering four people in Farmville, Virginia. The victims were a Presbyterian pastor, his estranged wife, their teenage daughter (who had been dating McCroskey), and one of their daughter's friends.

Reception
"Steel-Eyed Death" drew criticism from Juggalos and fans of horrorcore hip hop music, who felt the episode unfairly equated the music genre and its fans with violent crime and murder.

In its original American broadcast on March 1, 2010, "Steel-Eyed Death" was watched by 7.58 million average households over the hour, and received  1.9/5 aged between 18 and 49, according to Nielsen ratings. The episode had outperformed Life Unexpected on The CW, which drew only 1.88 million households. "Steel-Eyed Death" had 0.98 million viewers less than the episode of 24 that aired on Fox that night which drew 8.56 million viewers.

References

External links

Law & Order episodes
2010 American television episodes
Television episodes about death

Steel-Eyed Death


The Even (Even: эвэн, Russian: эвены) people are a native population of Siberia and the Russian Far East. They are sometimes called Ewens or Lamuts.

Language
Evens are Tungusic people. They speak their own language called Even. The Even language was unwritten until the Russians created a written language for them, using the Cyrillic alphabet. Some Evens also speak Yakut or Sakha, and live in the Sakha Republic. Most Evens live in parts of the Magadan Oblast and Kamchatka Krai. They share many things in common with the Evenki people.

Evens are reindeer herders. They are nomads, which means they move from one place to another.

Contact with Russians
During the 17th century, Russians made contact with the Even people. They introduced diseases to the Evens, such as smallpox and influenza. Russians also made Evens pay the yasak, which meant they had to pay taxes to the Russian government with reindeer furs. Because of the new diseases and the reindeer population decreasing, the population of the Even people went down.

Religion
Evens' religion is a mixture of shamanism and Russian Orthodoxy. Shamanism is a belief that worships animals and nature. There are shamans, people who communicate with spirits. An Even shaman is called a haman. Evens believe in different kinds of spirits. One of them is a fire spirit called togh-muranni, which is very powerful. Ibdiril are spirits that help the haman. They can look like different people and animals.

Culture
Reindeer are very important to the Even people. They were traditionally sacrificed and used in special ceremonies. Reindeer were used for transportation, along with dogs. One group of Evens living on the Pacific coast didn't have as many reindeer, and depended on fish instead.

Evens lived in clans. Even people had a custom called nimat, which meant that all of the fish and animals caught were shared with the whole clan.

There are many kinds of folklore in Even culture. Nemkan are about people and animals. Teleng are long stories that are sung, often about warriors and heroes. Ike are short songs, and nenuken are riddles.

References

Ethnic groups in Russia
Nomadic people

Evens


The Spanish Armada was a Spanish naval fleet (army of ships) that was famously used by King Philip II of Spain against England in 1588.

The ships were on their way to Flanders, across the English Channel, to fetch an army to invade England. However, the Royal Navy, under Queen Elizabeth I, caught up with the ships on the way. English ships sailed from Plymouth to attack the Armada. They were faster and more easily moved than the larger Spanish galleons. The English fired on the Armada and lost no ships as the Spanish sailed eastward off the south coast of England.

That started on 12 July 1588 and ended in August 1588.

The second-in-command of the Royal Navy was Sir Francis Drake. A story is that he was playing a game of bowling with his friends when he heard of the attack, but he boldly insisted that he had time to finish the game and then to defeat the Spanish Armada. The story was first written 100 years after the supposed events, however, and so it may have not have happened.

The Spanish Armada was led by Spanish Duke of Medina Sidonia. He had no naval experience but replaced the original commander, who had died in February.

The following year, an English Armada, sometimes called the "Counter-Armada" attacked the Spanish Navy in Portugal but complety failed also. That makes much less famous than the Spanish Armada.

Reasons for war
The Anglo-Spanish War (1585-1604) had several causes:
 Years of religious differences led up to the conflict between Catholic Spain and Protestant England. Philip II particularly feared the spread of Protestantism in England. He wanted to conquer England to bring it back to Catholicism and so he also had the support of the pope.
 Spain saw England as a competitor in trade and in expansion to the New World (America) That led to many skirmishes (irregular fights) between English pirates and privateers and Spanish vessels. English sailors targeted Spanish shipping around Europe and the Atlantic Ocean.
 The turning point came following the execution of Mary, Queen of Scots, Spain's Catholic ally, which had been ordered by Elizabeth. That was the final straw for Philip II, Mary's husband, after tensions had long existed England and Spain.
 England, as a Protestant nation, continued to interfere in the Netherlands to support those who wanted independence from Spain.
 In April 1587, while the Spanish Armada was being prepared, Drake burned over 20 Spanish ships in the Spanish port of Cadiz.

Defeat
The defeat of the Armada is often attributed to a severe storm that scattered the Spanish vessels before they met the British fleet. The Spanish could not use their advantage of having far more ships. The English had only 55 ships, which were not larger but carried more guns. The Spanish had only short-range cannons, but the English had long-range cannons. Part of the English strategy was to sink or to damage the enemy ships before they got close enough to fire back at them.

The English ships could also move more easily. The Spanish galleons could have their oars broken off completely by a heavy vessel sailing past nearby. The morale and the dedication of the English sailors were high, especially by the famous speech by Elizabeth I and their loyalty to England. They also were led by experienced captains, who had years of naval battles behind them.

The defeated Spanish fled northward through the North Sea, and the English chased them. Many more ships were lost, and thousands of men died during the retreat.

Aftermath
The English sailors had done very well but failed to get paid and were made to stay on their ships and "guard" in case there was another Spanish attack. Lord Howard of Effingham was shocked when he found out that his soldiers were not getting paid. He said, "I would rather have never a penny in the world, than they should lack" (Modern English: I would rather never have money to having my men not have it).

A year later, Elizabeth I sent a similar English Armada of more than 100 ships and 19,000 troops to complete her victory. It was to seize a fleet of Spanish treasure ships and to impose a new king on Portugal. However, that expedition also failed.

A second Spanish Armada in 1596 and a third one in 1597 also failed.

Reasons for Spanish failure

Unrealistic expectations
King Philip II of Spain had a poor understanding of his plan of action. He believed that God was on his side, which was a faulty understanding of reality.

Drake's raid on Cadiz
As the Armada was being prepared, English Admiral Sir Francis Drake launched a daring raid on the Spanish port of Cadiz, which disrupted the Spanish preparations and forced the invasion to be postponed until 1588.

Duke of Medina-Sidonia
The Duke of Medina-Sidonia had been selected for not his skills as an admiral but his noble birth. He was not very confident to lead such a huge armada against the English naval ships.

Lack of experienced gunners
The Spanish lacked experienced gunners on their ships. On the other hand, the English fleet roughly had one man in ten as a gunnery specialist. That meant that that every gun crew was supervised by someone with the relevant skills and experience. As a result, when the battle came, the English fired two or three times faster.

Poorer ammunition
The Spanish carried more ammunition for their cannons than the English, but it was not as good. The iron ore in Spain was inferior in that found in England. The situation was made worse by the rush to produce ammunition for the expedition. To speed production, cannonballs had been cooled in water, which weakened their structure.

Weather
Even before they reached their destination, the Spanish ships had been scattered by storms twice. Some were damaged, others were lost, and there were long delays while they regrouped. That was an omen of what was to come, when storms smashed the Spanish fleet as it fled the English. The Spanish then limped home around the British Isles.

Fire ships
The English used fire ships against the Spanish fleet. They did not sink any enemy ships. However, they forced the Spanish to scatter, and ships were damaged as they collided one another. That gave the English an advantage in the days that followed.

Other websites
 Spanish Armada Citizendium

16th century in Spain
History of the British Isles
Royal Navy
Crusades
1588

Spanish Armada


(, lit. , ), is a 1959 romantic drama film directed by French director Alain Resnais and written by French author Marguerite Duras.

Resnais' first feature-length work, it was a co-production between France and Japan, and documents a series of intensely personal conversations (or one long conversation) over slightly more than a 24-hour period between an unnamed French actress and Japanese architect. The film is notable for Resnais' innovative use of brief flashbacks to suggest flashes of memory, which create a nonlinear storyline.

Along with films such as Breathless (1960) and The 400 Blows (1959),  brought international attention to the new movement in French cinema and is widely considered to be one of the most influential films of the French New Wave. In particular, it was a major catalyst for Left Bank Cinema.

Plot
A series of closeups of the backs and arms of a man and woman embracing, amidst falling ash and then covered in sweat. In voiceover, the woman recounts the aftermath of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima that she has seen on her trip to the city, while newsreel and fictional footage of victims, protests, war memorials, and the streets and buildings of modern Hiroshima are shown. The man calmly says the woman has not seen anything, nor does she know what it is to forget. He is from Hiroshima and his family died in the bombing while he was off fighting in the war, and the woman is a French actress who is in the city to make an anti-war film.

In the morning, the woman watches the man sleep. His twitching hand reminds her of her first love, a soldier whose hand moved similarly as he lay dying. The Japanese man wakes, and it becomes clear he and the woman met the previous night at a café. She learns he is an architect who is involved in politics. They discuss the bombing and the end of the war, and he is enchanted by the word "Nevers", her hometown, to which she never wants to return. The man says he would like to see the woman again, but she says she is flying back to Paris the next day. Neither this nor the revelation that she has children change how he feels, but she, though torn, repeatedly declines to arrange another meeting.

The man visits the woman at the filming location, and she is happy to see him. He takes her back to his house. She asks if he lives alone, and he replies that his wife is out of town for a few days. They both say they are happy in their marriages, though they have had casual affairs before, and make love again. After deciding to spend the woman's remaining time in Hiroshima together, they go to a tea room, where the man asks the woman to tell him more about Nevers and her life there. Intercut with flashbacks, she tells how she and an occupying German soldier fell in love and planned to elope to Bavaria before he was shot while waiting for her on the day Nevers was liberated, how she stayed with him while he died over the next two days, how the villagers shaved her head when they found out about the relationship, and how her parents locked her alternately in her room and the cellar while her hair grew out and she came out of her madness and then sent her away to Paris just before Hiroshima was bombed. She tries to convey the pain she feels about forgetting the German and their love, and indicates she has been trying to keep her distance from the Japanese man because she does not want any more such heartbreak.

The man is elated when he learns the woman never told her husband about the German, but when they leave the tea room, she tells him to go away and that they will probably never see each other again. In her hotel room, she feels guilty about telling the man about the German, but decides to stay in Hiroshima. She goes back to the now-closed tea room, and the man finds her and asks her to stay. She weakly says she will, but then tells him again to go away. They walk around the city, together and separately, images of Hiroshima alternating with images of Nevers. The woman goes to a train station, where she lets go of some of her issues surrounding her first love and decides she might like to visit Nevers. She takes a cab to a nightclub, the man following. The place is nearly empty and they sit apart. As the sun rises, a Japanese man sits by the woman and hits on her in English.

Back in the woman's hotel room, the architect knocks at the door. She lets him in and yells that she is already starting to forget him, but abruptly calms and says his name is "Hiroshima". He responds that it is, and her name is "Nevers".

Cast
 Emmanuelle Riva as Elle ("Her")
 Eiji Okada as Lui ("Him")
 Bernard Fresson as l'Allemand ("The German")
 Stella Dassas as la mère ("The Mother")
 Pierre Barbaud as le père ("The Father")

Production
According to James Monaco, Resnais was originally commissioned to make a short documentary about the atomic bomb, but spent several months confused about how to proceed because he did not want to recreate his 1956 Holocaust documentary Night and Fog. He later went to his producer and joked that the film could not be done unless Marguerite Duras was involved in writing the screenplay.

The film was a co-production by companies from both France and Japan. The producers stipulated that one main character must be French and the other Japanese, and also required that the film be shot in both countries employing film crews comprising technicians from each.

Among the film's innovations is the way Resnais intercut very brief flashback sequences into scenes to suggest a brief flash of memory. He later used a similar effect in Last Year at Marienbad (1961) and The War Is Over (1966).

Film references
In his book on Resnais, James Monaco ends his chapter on  by claiming that the film contains a reference to the classic 1942 film Casablanca:

Release
The uncensored version of the film was shown at the Montreal International Film Festival in 1960, but was censored for its Canadian theatrical release.

Reception and legacy
At the 1959 Cannes Film Festival, where the film was excluded from the official selection because of its sensitive subject matter of nuclear bombs and to avoid upsetting the U.S. government, the film won the FIPRESCI International Critics' Prize, and it won the prestigious Grand Prix from the Belgian Film Critics Association in 1960. For her work on the film, screenwriter Marguerite Duras was nominated for the award for Best Original Screenplay at the 33rd Academy Awards. In 2002, the film was voted by the international contributors of the French film magazine  to be one of the top 10 films since 1952, when the magazine was founded.

 has been described as "The Birth of a Nation of the French New Wave" by American critic Leonard Maltin. New Wave filmmaker Jean-Luc Godard described its inventiveness as "Faulkner plus Stravinsky" and celebrated the film's originality, calling it "the first film without any cinematic references". Filmmaker Eric Rohmer said: "I think that in a few years, in ten, twenty, or thirty years, we will know whether  was the most important film since the war, the first modern film of sound cinema".

The film was shown as part of the Cannes Classics section of the 2013 Cannes Film Festival and was screened nine times at the Harvard Film Archive between 28 November and 13 December 2014.

The film holds a rating of 96% from 47 reviews on Rotten Tomatoes with the consensus: "Distinguished by innovative technique and Emmanuelle Riva's arresting performance, Hiroshima Mon Amour is a poignant love story as well as a thoughtful meditation on international trauma."

In popular culture

Film
 In 2001, Japanese film director Nobuhiro Suwa directed H Story, a docufiction about his attempt to remake .
 In 2003, Iranian film director Bahman Pour-Azar released Where Or When. The 85-minute film places Pour-Azar's characters in the same circumstances as Resnais's nearly a half century later. However, the current global tension of today's world is the backdrop instead of post-war Hiroshima. When screening the film, Stuart Alson, who founded the New York International Independent Film and Video Festival, said the piece was "a parallel line of work with the French masterpiece ".

See also
 List of avant-garde films of the 1950s

References

Works cited

External links

 : Time Indefinite – an essay by Kent Jones at The Criterion Collection

1959 films
1959 romantic drama films
1950s avant-garde and experimental films
1950s French films
1950s French-language films
1950s Japanese films
1950s Japanese-language films
Existentialist films
Films about interracial romance
Films about the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
Films directed by Alain Resnais
Films produced by Anatole Dauman
Films scored by Georges Delerue
Films scored by Giovanni Fusco
Films set in Hiroshima
Films shot in France
Films shot in Hiroshima
French avant-garde and experimental films
French black-and-white films
French romantic drama films
Japan in non-Japanese culture
Japanese avant-garde and experimental films
Japanese black-and-white films
Japanese romantic drama films

Hiroshima mon amour


Virginia Edith Wambui Otieno (1936–2011), born Virginia Edith Wambui Waiyaki, who became Wambui Waiyaki Otieno Mbugua after her second marriage, and generally known as Wambui, was born into a prominent Kikuyu family and became a Kenyan activist, politician and writer. Wambui became prominent in 1987 because of a controversial legal fight between her and the clan of her Luo husband Silvano Melea Otieno over the right to bury Otieno. The case involved the tension between customary law and common law in modern-day Kenya in the case of an inter-tribal union.  The various legal hearings this case stretched over more than five months and the final verdict suggested that a Kenyan African was presumed to adhere to the customs of the tribe they were born into unless they clearly and unequivocally broke all contact with it. As Otieno retained some rather tenuous links with his clan, they were awarded the right to bury him, ignoring Wambui's wishes. However, Wambui inherited most of her late husband's estate.

Wambui Otieno died on 30 August 2011 of heart failure.

Ancestry and early life
Much of the commentary about Wambui's ancestors and early life comes directly or indirectly from her autobiography, Mau Mau's Daughter: A Life History. However, its account of her ancestor, Waiyaki wa Hinga, has been criticised for attempting to make him a proto-Nationalist and inflating his importance, and her role as a scout and urban guerrilla may have been overstated.

Wambui was the great granddaughter of Waiyaki wa Hinga, a Kikuyu leader who was arrested in 1892 by officials of the Imperial British East Africa Company and who died in suspicious circumstances soon after the arrest. Wambui claimed in her autobiography that he was murdered by being buried alive for opposing the violent seizure of Kikuyu land. However, Waiyaki wa Hinga had initially cooperated with Frederick Lugard of that company in 1890, and his quarrel with Lugard's successor was over the latter's seizure of some of Waiyaki's cattle without payment rather than Waiyaki's opposition to colonial land expropriation.

In Kikuyu oral tradition and folklore, Waiyaki wa Hinga, is represented as a major chief and fighter against the British invaders, but he had an ambiguous record of working with the Imperial British East Africa Company. His death was probably caused by injuries sustained during, and possibly after, his arrest and he was buried on his way to detention, whether already dead or assumed to be dying is unclear. Wambui disputed the charge that Waiyaki collaborated with the British colonists, by preferring Kikuyu oral traditions to historians' versions that she labelled as Eurocentric, even where the historians are Kenyan, and claimed the family of Waiyaki wa Hinga were the natural leaders of Kenya because of his actions.

Wambui's grandfather, Munyua Waiyaki, donated some land he owned to the local Church of Scotland mission, as a result of which his son, Waiyaki Wantoni, often known as "Tiras" was educated at a Church of Scotland school and, in the 1940s, became Kenya's first African police inspector and later a chief inspector, which Wambui claimed was compensation for the death of Waiyaki wa Hinga. Tiras Waiyaki became involved in nationalist politics in the 1950s and during the Kenyan Emergency he was detained in 1954. Wambui claimed that this impoverished his family and interrupted his children's education, but his detention was only for four months followed by his reinstatement, after which he cooperated with the Kenyan colonial administration. Although Wambui states he also covertly assisted Mau Mau, this was in minor ways which were outweighed by his pro-colonial actions.

Wambui was born in Kiambu District in southern Kikuyuland on 21 June 1936 to a well-off family of landowners. Her father, Tiras Waiyaki Wantoni, was a police inspector and she mentioned three elder brothers who had been educated in Britain. One of her brothers was Kenya's former foreign Minister, Dr Munyua Waiyaki. She received a missionary education, including being a boarder at Mambere Girls School, a secondary school with the highest level of education then available for African girls.

Mau Mau activities
In 1952, when at secondary school, Wambui swore an oath of allegiance to Mau Mau and in 1954 she left home to join the Mau Mau insurgency in Nairobi after the brief detention of her father. Wambui spied on the British and mobilised women and domestic staff to obtain arms. She was also involved in the campaign to eradicate the "colour bar" in Nairobi, which designated separate areas in public spaces for Europeans, Asians and Africans. She was briefly arrested several times for these activities and issued with orders excluding her from Nairobi, which she flouted. Although her activities in Nairobi can be linked to records of her arrests there, Wambui's claims of a more active role in Mau Mau battles are not supported by official records.

In the period up to 1960, Wambui had three children with her fiancé, who she was unable to marry because of family opposition. After Mau Mau forces had been effectively defeated, she became involved in trade union activities and worked closely with Tom Mboya and other trade unionists. She states that her eventual arrest in July 1960 for mobilising women for strikes and riots, and her subsequent detention, resulted from a betrayal by her fiancé. She was detained in a camp in Lamu until January 1961, and records that she was raped and impregnated by a British prison officer while detained there.

Political career
After her release from detention, Wambui joined Tom Mboya's Nairobi People's Convention Party as leader of its Women's wing. This party later became part of the Kenya African National Union (KANU), and in 1963 Wambui was elected head of the women's wing of KANU and was also involved in Kiama Kia Muingi, an organisation that was a successor to Mau Mau. She was one of the first women to run for political office in postcolonial Kenya as a KANU candidate in 1969 and stood again in 1974, although she was unsuccessful both times, and she served as an official in a number of Kenyan and international Women's organisations.

In 1985, Wambui left KANU because of the party's manipulation of elections and lack of internal democracy and, in the last 30 years of her life, was involved with almost every Kenyan opposition party. In 1991, she joined the Forum for Restoration of Democracy which aimed to promote multiparty politics in Kenya. This party experienced a split in 1997 and Wambui joined the National Development Party of Kenya, unsuccessfully standing for election in the same year. In 2007, she established a new political party the Kenya's People's Conventional Party and unsuccessfully contested a parliamentary seat as its candidate. Wambui never realised her ambition to be elected to Kenya's parliament.

Otieno burial case

Background
Soon after her release from detention, Wambui met Silviano Melea Otieno, a prominent lawyer of Luo heritage based in Nairobi, and the couple married in 1963. Otieno accepted the four of Wambui's children born before their marriage as his own, the couple had five children and also fostered the six orphaned children of a deceased friend of Otieno. All 15 children were well educated; their daughter, Gladwell Otieno, attended universities in the United States and Germany and one of her brothers and a foster brother attended United States universities. Gladwell Otieno worked for Transparency International in Berlin and was Executive Director of Transparency International Kenya and is founder and Executive Director of "AFRICOG", the African Centre of open Governance.

Wambui's husband, Silviano Melea Otieno, died suddenly of a heart attack on 20 December 1986. He was a member of the Umira Kager clan of the Luo people, in contrast to Wambui who was a Kikuyu.  Otieno left no will or written wishes about his burial. According to Wambui, this was because he felt his brother and clan would contest a will and possibly overturn it, whereas an intestacy might offer better protection for her and their children.

Soon after Otieno's death, Wambui announced that he would be buried on 3 January 1987 at a small farm the couple owned on the outskirts of Nairobi, according to what she said was his wish. This was challenged by his brother, Joash Ochieng Ougo, who was his closest adult-male blood relation (as Otieno's sons were juveniles), and Omolo Siranga, the Nairobi representative of the Umira Kager clan.

Legal issues
The determinative legal issue was deciding on the relevant Kenyan law on burial, whether statute, Common law or Customary law, and who was the next of kin responsible for the funeral rites. Under Kenyan law at that time, a deceased person's will or the wishes of their spouse were not sufficient to determine a dispute between opposed parties, and several people gave uncorroborated versions of the verbal wishes Otieno was said to have given at various times about his funeral wishes that conflicted with Wambui's version.

The parties differed in terms of class, gender, ethnicity and their relationship to Otieno. Wambui and Otieno exemplified an emerging Kenyan bourgeoisie, whereas his brother was a railway foreman The Otienos had not married under customary law and were Christian. At home, they spoke English and Swahili, not Luo. All their children were Western educated and their friends were Nairobi professionals. Like other elite Kenyans, Otieno's loyalty was to his nuclear family, and he generally disregarded possible obligations to his extended family and clan, although he remained a member of the clan association. He had little contact with his extended family and did not own a house or land in his home district, which he rarely visited except for family funerals. Wambui had even less contact with his family or clan as, even before Otieno's death, his lineage refused to recognise their marriage as valid under Luo custom, considering it an affront to his family and clan.

Wambui and the Umira Kager clan disputed the place and manner of Otieno's funeral. Wambui claimed his lifestyle made Luo custom inappropriate, and that she was Otieno's next of kin under common law, entitled to deal with his burial as she saw fit. She argued that, as she and Otieno were Christians, a Christian burial was appropriate. She did not believe in Luo ancestral spirits nor accept the custom of burial at Otieno's birthplace, and regarded the marginal role given to Luo widows as demeaning.

Otieno's brother and clan's argument was that, despite his lifestyle, Otieno had not severed his relations with his clan, but respected and adhered to Luo custom and traditions, so Luo customary law was relevant to him. Under these customs, his brother was the adult blood relation charged with organising his burial, which takes the form a rite of passage for the dead person's spirit to join Luo ancestral spirits and which marginalises widows. They also argued that Wambui was not his blood relation and that, not only were his sons were underage, but their Western education and mixed parentage meant that they had not been born and bred in the Luo traditions, so that none of them could contest the brother's right to bury Otieno.

Court hearings
The hearings in this in the Kenyan Courts in Nairobi began on 30 December 1986 and ended on 15 May 1987. The initial High Court action was Wambui's successful request for a declaration that she was entitled to bury Otieno, and an injunction against clan members' attempts to prevent this. The two defendants appeal against this ruling was allowed by the Court of Appeal, which ordering a full hearing of the issues before another High Court judge.

The High Court's judgement was that there was no specific Kenyan statute or common law on burial, and the Kenyan courts were obliged to consider customary law if at least one party to a case was subject to or affected by it. If Otieno was subject to Luo customary law, he should be buried according to Luo customs as outlined by the clan. There was evidence that he belonged to a clan association whose aims were to repatriate the bodies of clan members to their home district and organise their funerals there. The evidence that he had attended traditional funerals and participated in their rites and inherited land according to customary law also contradicted the assertion that he had severed all connection with his clan and tribe. However, the judgement noted that the case was not about the administration of Otieno's estate, which was governed by a statute on succession, not customary law. Wambui inherited mist of her late husband's estate, either because she owned its assets jointly with her late husband or under the law on succession.

The case then returned to the Court of Appeal which gave its decision on 15 May 1987. Very little new arose, although Wambui's lawyers argued that she would have the right to bury her husband under the English common law which applied from the time Kenya became a colony. The court found that there was no such common law and that, had she been appointed administrator of her husband's estate, she would have had the statutory right to bury him. As she had not been so appointed as there was no will, customary law would apply and he would be buried by his brother the late Joash Ochieng Ougo at his family home.

Controversies
Wambui alleged that the real issue behind the court battle was Otieno's considerable estate, which his brother hoped to claim as his next of kin in Luo terms, and she argued that his clan had a history of seeking money relating to deceased members. However, Wambui and Otieno had defeated such a claim by registering as many assets as possible in their joint names. She also claimed in court that the Umira Kager clan wished her to enter into a levirate marriage with either Otieno's brother Joash Ochieng Ougo or some other clan member, as the clan would not allow Wambui to "walk away to her Kikuyu people with Otieno's property". However, she could not show that any compulsion had been involved.

In the 1980s, most Luo considered land as a permanent asset of the lineage, and burying its members on this land symbolises the right of the lineage to retain it. They also considered that extended family members should share the wealth of richer members and, by combining these two concepts, the idea emerged among members of Umira Kager clan that burying Otieno on clan land entitled his patrilineage to share in his estate.

Wambui claimed that the Kenyan President, Daniel arap Moi supported the Luo and provided legal representation and funding to fight the case, as Wambui was both a member of the formerly dominant Kikuyu group and a leader of the movement opposing Moi's autocratic regime. She also questioned the neutrality of the Appeal Court judges However, van Doren, a professor of Law, reports that Wambui counsel could not point to actual prejudice by these judges and considers that they and the High Court judge dealt as best they could with a situation where the relevant statute requires judges to have regard to African customary law.

In the 30 years since the Otieno burial case, the Kenyan jurisprudence on burials has evolved to some degree. In 1996, the courts ruled that the circumstances of the deceased person's life had to be considered as well as customary laws, in 2004 held the wishes of the wife of the deceased and, in 2010 the wishes of the deceased, while not binding, should be taken into account.

Later life
Her 2003 marriage to Peter Mbugua was the subject of a national controversy. Many of their relatives condemned the marriage. There have been allegations that the death of Mbugua's mother, which happened only days after the marriage, was caused by the shock she got upon learning of the marriage.

As of 2008, they were living together with her stonemason husband in Karen, Nairobi.  In February 2011 they held a second wedding ceremony,  now at St. Andrew's Church in Nairobi, while the first wedding had been a civil ceremony.

Wambui had suffered heart failure previously and was relying on a pacemaker, an electronic gadget implanted to function as the heart does.
Wambui Otieno died on August 30, 2011, in a Nairobi hospital.

Before her death, Wambui distributed most of her assets including properties to her children and grandchildren and appointed her two daughters, Gladwell Otieno and Rosalyn Otieno, as her personal representatives in her will to administer what was left. In an echo of the events of 1987, Peter Mbugua commenced legal proceedings in 2013 on the basis that Wambui lacked the mental capacity to make a valid will.

References

Sources
S Adenaken, (2011). Wambui Otieno Mbugua obituary, The Guardian, 18 October 2011.
D M Anderson, (2002), Review of Mau Mau's Daughter by Wambui Waiyaki Otieno and Cora Ann Presley. The Journal of African History, Vol. 43, No. 2
E Cloete, (2006). A Time of Living Dangerously: Flanking Histories to Wambui Waiyaki Otieno's Account of Mau Mau, English in Africa, Vol. 33, No. 1.
D S Cohen and E S Odhiambo, (1992). "Burying SM: The Politics of Knowledge and Sociology of Power in Africa" Portsmouth NH, Heinemann.
E Cotran, (1987). "Casebook on Kenyan Customary Law" Nairobi, Nairobi University Press.
J W van Doren, (1988). "Death African Style: The Case of S. M. Otieno". The American Journal of Comparative Law, Vol. 36, No. 2
Global Initiative, (2018). "Gladwell Otieno profile",
A Gordon, (1995). "Gender, Ethnicity, and Class in Kenya: "Burying Otieno" Revisited" Signs, Vol. 20, No. 4.
J Kadida, (2013) "Wambui Otieno's widower says she was mad when she wrote will", Kenya Star 11 May 2013.
Kenya Law (1987), "Virginia Edith Wambui Otieno versus Joash Ochieng Ougo and Omolo Siranga Civil Case 4873 of 1987".
P Mukaindo, (2011). "Revisiting the S M Otieno Case" Kenyan Law Report Weekly e-Newsletter. .
C A Presley, (2011). Wambui Waiyaki Otieno Mbugua: Gender Politics in Kenya from Mau Mau Rebellion to Pro-Democracy Movement in D D Cordell (editor), The Human Tradition in Modern Africa, Lanham, Rowman & Littlefield. .
A B C Ocholla-Ayayo, (1989). "Death and Burial – an Anthropological Perspective" in J B Ojwang J B and J N K Mugambi (editors) "The SM Otieno Case: Death and Burial in Modern in Kenya" Nairobi, Nairobi University Press.
E S Atieno Odhiambo, (2003). Matunda ya Uhuru, Fruits of Independence in E S Atieno Odhiambo & J Lonsdale (editors) Mau Mau & Nationhood: Arms, Authority & Narration. Athens, Ohio State University Press. .
M D Oketch-Owiti, (1989). "Some Socio-Legal Issues" in J B Ojwang J B and J N K Mugambi (editors) "The SM Otieno Case: Death and Burial in Modern in Kenya" Nairobi, Nairobi University Press.
D Okoth-Okombo, (1989). "Semantic Issues" in J B Ojwang J B and J N K Mugambi (editors) "The SM Otieno Case: Death and Burial in Modern in Kenya" Nairobi, Nairobi University Press.
W Otieno, edited C A Presley, (1998). "Mau Mau's Daughter: A Life History"', Boulder, Lynne Rienner. .
C Pugliese, (2003). Complementary or Contending Nationhoods? in E S Atieno Odhiambo & J Lonsdale (editors) Mau Mau & Nationhood: Arms, Authority & Narration. Athens, Ohio State University Press. .
P Stamp, (1991). "Burying Otieno: The Politics of Gender and Ethnicity in Kenya" Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society Vol.16 No.4 pp 808–845.
N Wamai, (2011). "Tribute to Wambui, a maverick freedom heroine", Daily Nation, 3 September 2011,
.
S C Wanjala, (1989). "Conflicts of Law and Burial" in J B Ojwang J B and J N K Mugambi (editors) "The SM Otieno Case: Death and Burial in Modern in Kenya" Nairobi, Nairobi University Press.

1936 births
2011 deaths
National Development Party (Kenya) politicians
20th-century Kenyan women politicians
20th-century Kenyan politicians
21st-century Kenyan women politicians
21st-century Kenyan politicians

Wambui Otieno


Region growing is a simple region-based image segmentation method. It is also classified as a pixel-based image segmentation method since it involves the selection of initial seed points.

This approach to segmentation examines neighboring pixels of initial seed points and determines whether the pixel neighbors should be added to the region. The process is iterated on, in the same manner as general data clustering algorithms. A general discussion of the region growing algorithm is described below.

Region-based segmentation
The main goal of segmentation is to partition an image into regions. Some segmentation methods such as thresholding achieve this goal by looking for the boundaries between regions based on discontinuities in grayscale or color properties. Region-based segmentation is a technique for determining the region directly. The basic formulation is:

  is a logical predicate defined over the points in set  and  is the null set.
(a) means that the segmentation must be complete; that is, every pixel must be in a region.

(b) requires that points in a region must be connected in some predefined sense.

(c) indicates that the regions must be disjoint.

(d) deals with the properties that must be satisfied by the pixels in a segmented region. For example,  if all pixels in  have the same grayscale.

(e) indicates that region  and  are different in the sense of predicate .

Basic concept of seed points

The first step in region growing is to select a set of seed points. Seed point selection is based on some user criterion (for example, pixels in a certain grayscale range, pixels evenly spaced on a grid, etc.). The initial region begins as the exact location of these seeds.

The regions are then grown from these seed points to adjacent points depending on a region membership criterion. The criterion could be, for example, pixel intensity, grayscale texture, or colour.

Since the regions are grown on the basis of the criterion, the image information itself is important. For example, if the criterion were a pixel intensity threshold value, knowledge of the histogram of the image would be of use, as one could use it to determine a suitable threshold value for the region membership criterion.

One can use 4-connected neighborhood to grow from the seed points. An alternative for pixels adjacent relationship is the 8-connected neighborhood. Pixels adjacent to the seed points are examined and classified into the seed points if they have the same intensity value. It is an iterated process until there are no change in two successive iterative stages. Other criteria can be chosen; the main goal is to classify the similarity of the image into regions.

Important issues

Suitable selection of seed points

The selection of seed points is depending on the users. For example, in a grayscale lightning image, we may want to segment the lightning from the background. Then probably, we can examine the histogram and choose the seed points from the highest range of it.

More information of the image is better

Obviously, the connectivity or pixel adjacent information is helpful for us to determine the threshold and seed points.

Minimum area threshold

No region in region growing method result will be smaller than this threshold in the segmented image.

Similarity threshold value

If the difference of pixel-value or the difference value of average grayscale of a set of pixels less than "Similarity threshold value", the regions will be considered as a same region.

The criteria of similarities or so called homogeneity we choose are also important. It usually depends on the original image and the segmentation result we want.

Some criteria often used are grayscale (average intensity or variance), color, and texture or shape.

Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages
 Can correctly separate the regions that have the same properties we define.
 Can provide the original images which have clear edges with good segmentation results.
 Simple concept: only need a small number of seed points to represent the property we want, then grow the region.
 Can determine the seed points and the criteria we want to make.
 Can choose the multiple criteria at the same time.
 Theoretical very efficient due to visiting each pixel by a limited bound of times.

Disadvantages
 Unless image has had a threshold function applied, a continuous path of points related to color may exist, which connects any two points in the image.
 Practically random memory access slows down the algorithm, so adaption might be needed

See also
 k-means clustering
 Watershed (image processing)

Notes

References
  Jian-Jiun Ding, The class of "Time-Frequency Analysis and Wavelet Transform", the Department of Electrical Engineering, National Taiwan University (NTU), Taipei, Taiwan, 2007.
  Jian-Jiun Ding, The class of "Advanced Digital Signal Processing", the Department of Electrical Engineering, National Taiwan University (NTU), Taipei, Taiwan, 2008.
  W. K. Pratt, Digital Image Processing 4th Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Los Altos, California, 2007
  M. Petrou and P. Bosdogianni, Image Processing the Fundamentals, Wiley, UK, 2004.
  R. C. Gonzalez and R.E. Woods, Digital Image Processing 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 2002.

Image segmentation

Region growing


Buck Rogers in the 25th Century is a 1979 American science fiction adventure film directed by Daniel Haller. Starring Gil Gerard in the title role and Erin Gray as Colonel Wilma Deering, it was produced by Glen A. Larson who co-wrote the screenplay with Leslie Stevens, based on the character Buck Rogers which was created by Philip Francis Nowlan in 1928. It was originally made as a television pilot, but Universal Pictures opted to release the movie theatrically several months before the subsequent television series aired.

Plot
In 1987, NASA astronaut Captain William "Buck" Rogers is piloting the space shuttle Ranger 3 when he flies into an unexpected space phenomenon and is frozen for 504 years. In the year 2491, his shuttle is found drifting in space by the alien flagship Draconia, which is headed to Earth for a trade conference, under the command of Princess Ardala and her aide-de-camp, Kane, a former native of Earth. Rogers is revived from his cryogenic sleep and is questioned by the princess and Kane. Princess Ardala is visibly attracted to Buck, though Kane arranges for Buck to be placed back on his shuttle and returned towards Earth.

It turns out though the Draconians are actually planning to conquer the Earth through staged pirate attacks on Earth's shipping fleet, forcing Earth to seek a treaty with the Draconians and unwittingly opening up their defenses to the invaders. They plant a homing beacon aboard Buck's shuttle to track a way through Earth's planet-wide defense shield. Buck is escorted through the defense shield by Colonel Wilma Deering of Earth's military forces. He lands in the futuristic city of New Chicago where he is interrogated and learns that Earth has been rebuilt in the centuries during his absence following a nuclear holocaust, and now much of the Earth outside of the city is a desolate, radioactive wasteland. During his time in the city, Buck meets Dr. Elias Huer, the leader of Earth's Defense Directorate, the AI computer Dr. Theopolis, and the robot drone Twiki, most of whom attempt to help him adjust to his current surroundings.

While recounting his encounter with the Draconians, Buck notices several discrepancies and suspects that the Draconians must be armed, contrary to the terms of the trade meeting. Against advice, Buck ventures outside the city to the ruins of old Chicago in an attempt to see that what he has been told is real, eventually finding his own parents' grave and having to be rescued by Wilma and her troops from the violent mutants inhabiting the ruins. Following Buck's return to the Inner City, the Draconian tracking device is found aboard his ship, and the authorities accuse Buck of espionage and sentence him to death. Buck claims the Draconians simply used him, and Wilma persuades Dr. Huer to test Buck's claims by requesting a meeting with Princess Ardala and Kane aboard the Draconia. During the meeting, the pirate ships (actually Draconian marauders) attack their flagship as a diversion, but Buck manages to destroy them single-handedly, thus earning Wilma's respect.

At the official diplomatic reception on Earth, Ardala, who is still attracted to Buck, invites him back to the Draconia later that night. Buck uses the invitation to go aboard and find out the truth behind the Draconians' scheme. On the ship, Ardala informs Buck she needs a man such as him to rule by her side and offers him the position. After drugging Ardala, Buck explores the ship and discovers their marauders and imminent plans to attack Earth. Dr. Theopolis and Twiki, who have followed Buck aboard, eventually meet up with him and alert Earth to the Draconian invasion. Wilma immediately scrambles Earth's starfighters and attacks the Draconia, while Buck sabotages the Draconian marauder fleet prepared to attack Earth and fights off Ardala's bodyguard, Tigerman. During the battle, the Draconia is critically damaged, but Buck, Theopolis and Twiki are rescued by Wilma before the ship explodes. Ardala and Kane also escape the Draconias destruction in an escape shuttle, with Kane vowing to return to take his revenge on Buck.

Cast
 Gil Gerard as Captain William "Buck" Rogers
 Erin Gray as Colonel Wilma Deering
 Tim O'Connor as Dr. Elias Huer
 Pamela Hensley as Princess Ardala
 Henry Silva as Kane
 Howard F. Flynn as Voice of Dr. Theopolis
 Felix Silla as Twiki
 Mel Blanc as Voice of Twiki
 Duke Butler as Tigerman
 Joseph Wiseman as Emperor Draco

Production
Inspired by the massive success of Star Wars the previous year, Universal began developing Buck Rogers for television, spearheaded by Glen A. Larson, who had a production deal with the studio. Initially, Larson and Universal had planned on making a series of Buck Rogers television movies for NBC. Production began in 1978, however, the pilot for Larson's other sci-fi series, Battlestar Galactica (1978), had been released theatrically in some countries and in key locations in North America, and had done well at the box office. Universal then opted to release the first Buck Rogers television movie theatrically on March 30, 1979. The movie grossed over $21 million in North America and was later released internationally, which led NBC to commission a weekly series, which began on September 20, 1979 with a slightly modified version of the theatrical release that deleted some scenes, added others intended to link to the ongoing series, revised the fate of one character killed off in the original so that he survived (Tigerman, who, in the movie was incinerated off camera by an exploding bomb), and replaced the suggestive opening credit sequence with a more generic version.

The movie was originally slated for release for September 1978. There were several start dates for filming, but it was repeatedly delayed due to casting problems. The movie was eventually released in March 1979.

Several shots in the movie were filmed at the Westin Bonaventure Hotel in Los Angeles, California. Several other stock shots portraying futuristic buildings on Earth are that of remaining pavilions on the site of Expo 67, including the British and French national pavilion (now open as the Montreal Casino). These shots were also included in the Battlestar Galactica episode "Greetings from Earth" (1979), in which they were said to be a city on the planet Paradeen (though in production around the same time, the episode aired a month before the release of the Buck Rogers film). Buck's NASA shuttle, Ranger 3, was itself a prop that had been seen in this same episode where it was used as Michael's Lunar-7 shuttle though painted a different color.

Princess Ardala's father, Emperor Draco (played by Joseph Wiseman), originally had several scenes in the movie but most of these were deleted. His only remaining scene was as a holographic image reprimanding Kane at the movie's ending. Despite this brief appearance, images of Draco appeared prominently in various Buck Rogers merchandise, and 12" and 3¾" Draco action figures were produced by the toy company Mego. Wiseman would later appear in the weekly television series, playing the character Carl Morphus in the episode "Vegas in Space" (1979).

Soundtrack
The movie's opening credits featured a song, "Suspension", sung by Kipp Lennon and co-written by Glen A. Larson. An instrumental version of the song was used as the main theme for the television series that followed, though the vocal version of the song was used again for the ending credits of the season one finale "Flight of the War Witch" (1980).

Reception
The movie received a mixed reception from critics. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a score of 25% based on 12 reviews with an average rating of 4.3/10. On Metacritic, the film holds a weighted average score of 45 out of 100 based on eight critics, indicating "mixed to average reviews".

The movie opened in the United States and Canada in 935 theaters and grossed $4,579,500 in its opening weekend. It expanded the following weekend to 1,405 theaters, grossing $10,576,452 in its first 10 days.

Home media
The movie has been released on video several times since the 1980s, and was released on DVD in the Buck Rogers in the 25th Century series boxed set released on November 16, 2004. This was in lieu of the television broadcast version (entitled "Awakening") which contained some different scenes. When the first season was issued again on DVD on January 24, 2012, the boxed set still contained the theatrical version of the movie. However, the television version of the movie was finally released on DVD as a bonus feature in a reissued boxed set of Season Two on January 8, 2013. Kino Lorber released a single-disc Blu-ray of the theatrical cut on November 24, 2020, featuring a new 2K master and finally preserving the movie's original 1.85:1 aspect ratio.

References

External links
  (1979 film)

1979 films
1970s American films
1970s English-language films
1970s science fiction adventure films
American dystopian films
American post-apocalyptic films
American science fiction adventure films
American space adventure films
American space opera films
Buck Rogers
Films based on comic strips
Films directed by Daniel Haller
Films scored by Stu Phillips
Films set in 1987
Films set in the 25th century
Films set in Chicago
Films set in the future
Films shot in Los Angeles
Television films as pilots
Universal Pictures films

Buck Rogers in the 25th Century (film)


Svend Wiig Hansen (20 December 1922 – 15 March 1997) was a Danish sculptor and painter.

Biography
Wiig Hansen was born in Møgeltønder. He was initially undecided about his career, working as a circus clown and a singer until a job requiring his help in the completion of climbing angels convinced him he should become a sculptor. After studying at the Danish Academy under Johannes Bjerg and Einar Utzon-Frank (1946–1950), his early sculptures included his monumental burnt clay Torso (1951) inspired by Aristide Maillol and his cement Moder Jord (Mother Earth, 1953) influenced in part by precolumbian sculpture. The gigantic group sculpture of Mennesket ved havet (Men at Sea, (1994) near Esbjerg is inspired by Cycladic art and the figures on Easter Island. Slægt løfter slægt (1997), which was installed for a period on Gammel Strand in Copenhagen, depicts a naked couple bearing a naked woman.

His recognition as a painter began in 1955 with De søgende. His expression is characterized by stark colouring in his depiction of the human body, often set in a desolate landscape. Among his most important works are Menneskeridt (1959), the series Mennesker i forvandling (People in Transformation, 1963) and Jorden græder (The Earth Weeps, 1981). His work as a decorator can be seen in Kastrup Church (1978), the central hospital in Herning and in Copenhagen's Royal Theatre with his aluminium Himmelrejsen (Heavenly Journey, 1989). He died in Helsingør, aged 74.

Awards
Wiig Hansen received the Swedish Prince Eugen Medal in 1976 and was awarded both the Eckersberg Medal and the Thorvaldsen Medal but chose not to receive them.

References

Bibliography
Wiig Hansen, Svend: Wiig Hansen: skulptur, maleri, tegninger, 1985, Copenhagen, Ny Carlsberg glyptotek. .

Danish sculptors
Danish male artists
20th-century Danish painters
1922 births
1997 deaths
People from Tønder Municipality
Recipients of the Eckersberg Medal
Recipients of the Prince Eugen Medal
20th-century sculptors
Male sculptors
20th-century Danish male artists

Svend Wiig Hansen


Creole mustard is a condiment found most commonly in the Southeastern region of the United States, specifically Louisiana. A staple in New Orleans-style cuisine, Creole mustard is a blend of Spanish, French, African, and German influences.

The mustard is traditionally made with brown mustard seeds which have been marinated in vinegar, often white wine vinegar, horseradish and assorted spices before being packed or ground. It owes its grainy appearance to the use of coarse-ground mustard seeds.

Creole mustard is a versatile condiment featured on po' boy sandwiches and used in sauces, dressings and dips for everything from vegetables to salads to pretzels and chips. It can be used to create a marinade for meats, and can be incorporated into seafood dishes, such as crab cakes, battered seafood or served as a glaze or dipping sauce, as well. It is also the key ingredient found in New Orleans-style or Creole-style remoulade sauce.

References

Louisiana cuisine
Mustard (condiment)

Creole mustard


Charlottenburg Gate () with Charlottenburg Bridge (Charlottenburger Brücke) is a Neo-Baroque structure in the Charlottenburg district of Berlin. Erected in 1907 at the behest of the then independent City of Charlottenburg, it was meant as a counterpart to Berlin's Brandenburg Gate.

Location
The Gates flank the western approach to the main thoroughfare Straße des 17. Juni (former Charlottenburger Chaussee) through the Großer Tiergarten park, which passes either sided of the Berlin Victory Column in the centre, on through Brandenburg Gate to the central Mitte district, where it continues as the Unter Den Linden boulevard.

They are close to the eastern border of the Charlottenburg locality, immediately to the west of the Tiergarten district. The Gate porticoes stand either side of the Strasse des 17. Juni to the east of the Charlottenburg Bridge, which spans the Landwehr Canal. To the west of the Bridge are two lavish street lights known as Candelabra in an Egyptian Revival style (German: Kandelaber).

History

A first wooden bridge on the road from Berlin to Charlottenburg was erected in the course of the building of the Landwehr Canal according to plans designed by Peter Joseph Lenné from 1845 to 1850. It was not one of the original gates from the Berlin Customs Wall that existed between 1737 and 1860, and the earlier Berlin Fortress that existed between 1650 and 1740. To collect tolls and octrois, the Prussian treasury had two symmetric custom houses built on each side of the road in 1856, designed by Friedrich August Stüler in a Neoclassical style with Doric porticoes and sandstone columns. After the road tolls had been abolished in the late 19th century, the houses were rented, but began to block the increasing road traffic.
In 1900, the bridge was purchased by the affluent City of Charlottenburg in order to rebuild it as a prestigious eastern entrance. The city council initiated an architectural design competition, though with no satisfactory result. The winner, Friedrich Pützer from Darmstadt, designed a stately gate house, which has never been built. The present-day gate complex was finally erected according to plans designed by Charlottenburg's building authority itself together with the commissioned architect Bernhard Schaede, for a price of 1,572,000 German gold marks.

Construction of the new bridge across the Landwehr Canal with a width of  started in 1904. After the demolition of the custom houses, the tuff porticoes and the  candelabra were erected in 1907. The two inner pylons left a  gap for the traffic, flanked with larger-than-life bronze statues of King Frederick I of Prussia, the founder of Charlottenburg, and his consort Sophia Charlotte of Hanover.

In the course of the Nazi Welthauptstadt Germania plans, Adolf Hitler's chief architect Albert Speer in 1937 ordered the Charlottenburger Chaussee road widened to an "East-West-Axis". To enable a continuous view on street level, the bridge was flattened and broadened, while the candelabra and the porticoes were dismantled and moved further apart to a distance of . Charlottenburg Gate and its surrounds were heavily damaged during World War II and the final Battle of Berlin, when in April 1945 forces of the Polish 1st Infantry Division, pushing eastwards to the Berlin city centre, fought against retiring Wehrmacht troops.

Restoration
By 1970, Charlottenburg Gate and its surrounds had been restored in their 1930s position, except for the candelabra in front, which were razed to their foundations shortly after the war. A second complete renovation was begun in 2004, co-financed by a private cultural heritage foundation and a disputed giant advertisement poster. Finally, the two candelabra were rebuilt in 2009.

The public debate continues, whether it is adequate to restore the gate ensemble in its original Wilhelmine condition while the general impression remains affected by the 1930s relocation with respect to modern traffic. A friends' society has established a small exhibition on the gate's history in a former facility room beneath the northern portico, which can be visited on Saturday afternoons.

See also
Charlottenburg Town Hall
Charlottenburg Palace

References

External links

Bridges in Berlin
Bridges completed in 1907
Buildings and structures in Charlottenburg-Wilmersdorf
Charlottenburg
Former toll bridges in Germany
Gates in Germany
Relocated buildings and structures

Charlottenburg Gate