The 12th Motor Rifle Division was a motorized infantry division of the Soviet Army, formed twice. It was formed in 1957 from the 12th Rifle Division and disbanded in 1958. The division was reformed in 1960 and moved to Baganuur in Mongolia in 1979. It pulled out of Mongolia in 1990 and became a storage base in 1992. The storage base was disbanded in 1993.

History

First formation
The 12th Motor Rifle Division was first formed on 17 May 1957 in Belogorsk, Amur Oblast from the 12th Amur Rifle Division. The division included the 192nd, 214th and 394th Motor Rifle Regiments and the 138th Guards Tank Regiment. Part of the Far Eastern Military District, it was disbanded on 15 October 1958.

Second formation
In June 1960, the division was reformed in Divizionnaya (in Ulan-Ude), Buryat Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. It was part of the Transbaikal Military District and did not inherit the honorifics of the previous division. On 19 February 1962, the 964th Separate Missile Battalion was formed. In June 1967, the army became part of the 44th Army Corps. In 1968, the 1156th Separate Sapper Battalion became a sapper-engineer unit. In May 1970, the division was subordinated to the 29th Army.

On 15 March 1979, the division moved to Baganuur, Mongolia, and became part of the 39th Army due to increased tensions caused by the Sino-Vietnamese War. It was upgraded to 65% strength from its previous 15% manning. In 1980, the motor transport battalion became the 1161st Separate Material Supply Battalion. In April of that year, the 34th Separate Tank Battalion was attached to the division. It was previously part of the 138th Separate Tank Regiment in East Germany. The 523rd Motor Rifle Regiment transferred to the 51st Tank Division in the same year and was replaced by that division's 189th Motor Rifle Regiment. In 1985, the 189th moved back to the 51st and the 523rd became part of the 12th Motor Rifle Division again. The 34th Separate Tank Battalion was disbanded around this time. In 1989, the 189th once again returned to the division and the 523rd transferred back to the 51st Tank Division. In May 1990, after the Mongolian Revolution of 1990, the 598th Motor Rifle Regiment returned to Divizionnaya. The rest of the division soon followed and its headquarters moved to Divizionnaya in June 1992, becoming part of the 57th Army Corps. There, the division became the 5517th Weapons and Equipment Storage Base. The storage base was disbanded in 1993.

Composition
In 1988, the division included the following units.
 523rd Motor Rifle Regiment (Boganur, Mongolia) - equipped with BTR
 592nd Motor Rifle Regiment (Ulan-Bator, Mongolia) - equipped with BTR
 598th Motor Rifle Regiment (Boganur, Mongolia) - equipped with BMP
 365th Tank Regiment (Boganur, Mongolia)
 1282nd Artillery Regiment (Boganur, Mongolia)
 1178th Anti-Aircraft Missile Regiment (Boganur, Mongolia)
 964th Separate Missile Battalion (Boganur, Mongolia)
 Separate Anti-Tank Artillery Battalion (Boganur, Mongolia)
 132nd Separate Reconnaissance Battalion (Boganur, Mongolia)
 1156th Separate Engineer-Sapper Battalion (Boganur, Mongolia)
 1041st Separate Communications Battalion (Boganur, Mongolia)
 Separate Chemical Defence Company (Boganur, Mongolia)
 Separate Equipment Maintenance and Recovery Battalion (Boganur, Mongolia)
 636th Separate Medical Battalion (Boganur, Mongolia)
 1161st Separate Material Supply Battalion (Boganur, Mongolia)

References

Motor rifle divisions of the Soviet Union
Military units and formations established in 1957
Military units and formations disestablished in 1992
Ulan-Ude

12th Motor Rifle Division


Tumanyan (), is a town and urban municipal community in Armenia's northern Lori Province, on the banks of the Debed River and in the middle of the Debed Canyon. It's 149 km north of the capital Yerevan, and 131km from Tbilisi. The nearby villages of Kober kayaran, Shamut, Lorut, Ahnidzor, Atan, Marts and Karinj are also part of the Tumanyan community.

Etymology
At its foundation in 1926, the town was known as Dzaghidzor (). However, it was renamed Tumanyan on July 4, 1951, in honour of the famous Armenian poet Hovhannes Tumanyan.

History
Historically, the area of modern-day Tumanyan was included in the Dzorapor () canton of the historic Gugark province, the 13th province of Greater Armenia. Prior to the foundation of the Republic of Armenia in 1918, the area was part of the Borchali uyezd of Tiflis Governorate, within the Russian Empire. In late 1918, Armenia and Georgia fought a border war over the region of Lori. In January 1919, the Lori neutral zone was established by the British forces. Following Armenia's Sovietization in December 1920, Lori was finally incorporated into Soviet Armenia on 11 February 1921.

In 1926, the village of Dzaghidzor was founded on the right bank of Debed river. In 1930, it was included within the newly founded Tumanyan raion. In 1934, refractory metals mines were found 3.5 km north of Dzaghidzor village. The production of fireproof materials extracted from the mines of Dzaghidzor was launched in 1939.

With the rapid growth of the village, Dzaghidzor was granted the status of an urban-type settlement in 1947 and it was about this time when architect Sos Manukyan designed the modern layout of the central part of Tumanyan, with a town square, parks, school, house of culture and other public spaces. In 1951, the settlement was renamed Tumanyan. During the 1950s, the Kober railway station was opened on the left bank of Debed river, around 1 km northwest of Tumanyan, to serve the Tumanyan fireproof materials factory opened in 1951.

In 1995, the government of independent Armenia reaffirmed the status of Tumanyan as an urban settlement within the Lori Province. Besides the town of Tumanyan, the nearby villages of Atan, Shamut, Karinj, Lorut, Marts, Kober kayaran and Ahnidzor are also under the jurisdiction of the municipality of Tumanyan.

Geography

Tumanyan is situated on a plateau on the right bank of Debed river at a height of 810 meters above sea level. It occupies an area of around 1 km².

Tumanyan is characterized with a subtropical climate. The weather is relatively hot during the summer season and mildly cold during winter.

The annual precipitation level ranges between 500 and 600 mm.

Demographics
The residents of Tumanyan are mainly Armenians, most of whom belong to the Armenian Apostolic Church, as well as mainly Russian artists who moved to Tumanyan after the Russian invasion of Ukraine. The population of Tumanyan reached its peak during the 1960s when the town reached 2,864 in 1964. However, the population has been declining since the 1970s, due to the rapid downfall in the economy of the region. As of the 2011 census, the population of Tumanyan was 1,710. Currently, the town has an approximate population of 1,000 as per the 2016 official estimate.

Here is the population timeline since the foundation of Tumanyan in 1926:

Culture
The 12th-century Armenian Monastery of Kobayr is located at the northern outskirts of Tumanyan. Many kahchkars (cross-stones) are also found in the town, dating back to the 9th, 13th and 14th centuries. A ruined fortress known as Avanakar dating back to the 14th century is found at the southern outskirts of the town. Just south of Tumanyan is the semi-ruined Bardzrakash Monastery, only accessible by foot.

Currently, Tumanyan is served by a cultural palace located above the central square, a public library, the Tumanyan Matchbox Label Museum and an art academy. The statue of poet Hovhannes Tumanyan is found at the northwestern entrance to the town.

The town of is home to 2 public education schools as well as a pre-school kindergarten.

Transportation
Tumanyan is located on the on M-6 Motorway that connects Yerevan with Tbilisi via Vanadzor.

The Kober railway station operating since the 1950s is located on the left bank of Debed river, around 1 km northwest of Tumanyan.

Economy

The growth of the town during the 1950s was mainly based on the establishment of Tumanyan fireproof materials factory in 1951. It was founded on the basis of the nearby refractory metals mines. However, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the production of the plant was significantly dropped.

Currently, the population of the town are mainly involved in tourism. agriculture and cattle-breeding. The town is a jump-off point for river rafting and many hiking trails, hosts the Tumanyan Matchbox Label Museum, and has homestays and a hostel. It is also home to Abastan, an international artists colony in an old factory building. At the end of the summer, Tumanyan is home to the Tumanyan International Storytelling Festival.

In 2015 Tumanyan community welcomed Children of Armenia Fund with its programs: Girls of Armenia Leadership Soccer (GOALS), Student Councils, Debate Clubs, English Language Instruction, Social and Psychological Assistance, Health and Lifestyle Education, School Nutrition & Brushodromes, Women Health Screenings Support for Reproductive Health.

Creativity Lab, Cafeteria and Brushodrome, SMART Room were created and renovated in the community by COAF.

Sport

Football is among the most popular sport in Tumanyan. There is a football training field at the centre of the town.

Other popular sports in Tumanyan include martial arts, wrestling and chess.

See also
 Hovhannes Tumanyan
 Children of Armenia Fund

References

Populated places in Lori Province
Hovhannes Tumanyan

Tumanyan, Armenia


Mahara Okeroa is a New Zealand politeecian, an a member o the kintra's pairlament in Wellington, representin the Labour Pairty.  He is a consteetuency member unner the proportional representation seestem, representin Te Tai Tonga.

1946 births
Livin fowk
New Zealand Labour Pairty MPs
Members o the Cabinet o New Zealand
New Zealand schuilteachers
New Zealand MPs for Māori electorates
Fowk frae Waitara, New Zealand
Fowk eddicatit at Opunake High School
Members o the New Zealand Hoose o Representatives
Unsuccessfu candidates in the New Zealand general election, 2008
21st-century New Zealand politeecians

Mahara Okeroa


Bertha Yerex Whitman (1892–1984) was an American architect who was the first woman to graduate in architecture from the University of Michigan. She had a long career as an architect in Illinois, especially around Evanston and Glencoe.

Early life and education
Bertha Louise Yerex was born in Newaygo, Michigan, in 1892, the middle of three daughters of Charles Napier Yerex and Emma Retta (Giles) Yerex. Her father was the town's train station master and telegrapher. She received a teaching certificate from Eastern Michigan University in 1911 and went on to teach at the local elementary school for two years. Prompted by an aunt who taught her to design quilts, as well as by her own mathematical inclinations, she took a correspondence course in mechanical drafting. This led her to decide on a career in architecture.

She entered the University of Michigan College of Architecture and Design in 1914. She later recalled that the dean had initially told her she would not be welcome in the program, but she enrolled anyway. While at the university, she was a cofounder of the T-Square Society, a student club for women engineers and architects. When America entered World War I and most of her male classmates enlisted in the army, she took a leave from the college to support the war effort and so that she would be able to graduate with her classmates. During her two-year hiatus from school, she worked in Detroit, Michigan, as the Dodge Brothers Company's first woman draughtsperson. After the war, she returned to her studies and in 1920 became the college's first women architecture graduate.

In 1919, she married Lloyd E. Whitman, with whom she went on to have two children, Suzanne and Charles.

Career
Whitman moved to the Chicago area in 1921. She initially had difficulty finding work in Chicago architecture offices, even as a draughtsperson. Eventually she joined the firm of Perkins, Fellows, and Hamilton, where her drafting skills were highly valued. She obtained her Illinois architectural license in 1926 and began taking on independent commissions for residences. She settled in Evanston, Illinois, and during a career spanning six decades designed more than 50 residences as well as apartment buildings, schools, and churches. She worked mostly around Evanston, Glencoe, and Chicago, but she also designed buildings in the states of Florida, Georgia, Tennessee, Michigan, and Wisconsin.

The Depression years were difficult for Whitman after her husband's business failed and he left her in 1934. To better support her children, she got a job with the state of Illinois as a social worker, but within a few years had moved over to remodeling offices for government buildings. Whitman simultaneously kept her solo architectural practice going, working closely with Evanston-area builders. One of her designs won a local award as well as being showcased in the women's architecture display at the 1933 World's Fair. Whitman valued house plans that made efficient use of space and were oriented towards the needs of daily domestic life, and she took pride in the fact that they were sturdy and well engineered.

In 1928, Whitman became one of the nine founders of the Women's Architectural Club of Chicago, along with Juliet Peddle. The club was active into the 1940s, when it merged with the American Institute of Architecture.

Whitman liked to travel to study world architectural styles, and over the course of her lifetime visited countries in Europe, Africa, and Asia. In the 1960s she wrote a book about her travels, A Tyro Takes a Trip (1971).

Whitman returned to Michigan later in life and lived in Ann Arbor. She died in Cass City, Michigan, in 1984. Her papers are held by the Bentley Historical Library at the University of Michigan and include photographs of buildings she designed.

References

1892 births
1984 deaths
20th-century American architects
People from Newaygo, Michigan
American women architects
University of Michigan alumni
Architects from Michigan
20th-century American women

Bertha Yerex Whitman


The Pupilos do Exército (Portuguese for "pupils of the Army") is military vocational education school of Portugal. Presently, its complete official name is Instituto dos Pupilos do Exército (IPE, Institute of the Pupils of the Army).

Pupilos do Exército offers Basic (2nd and 3rd cycles) and Secondary Education programmes, in the boarding school (only for young males) and in the day school (for both sexes) systems. Despite operating under the supervision of the Portuguese Army, its Education programmes are considered official for all purposes, by the Portuguese Ministry of Education.

Until 2009, Pupilos do Exército used to have also a higher education section that offered bachelor degree programmes in Mechanical, Electronics and Electrical Engineering and in Accounting, but now this section is extinct.

History
The Pupilos do Exército were created on 25 May 1911 by decree of the War minister, General António Xavier Correia Barreto, as the Instituto Profissional dos Pupilos do Exército de Terra e Mar (Professional Institute of the Pupils of the Army of Land and Sea), usually being referred to just as Instituto Profissional dos Pupilos do Exército.

At that time, it was designed mainly to provide vocational education to children of soldiers of enlisted rank. By contrast, the Colégio Militar (Military College) was reserved for the children of commissioned officers.

In 1959, it was renamed Instituto Técnico Militar dos Pupilos do Exército (Military Technical Institute of the Pupils of the Army). In 1976, it was renamed again, becoming the Instituto Militar dos Pupilos do Exército (Military Institute of the Pupils of the Army). Finally, in 2009, it became the Instituto dos Pupilos do Exército.

References

Education in Lisbon
Educational institutions established in 1911
Military academies of Portugal
Portuguese Army
1911 establishments in Portugal
Military of Portugal

Pupilos do Exército


County Londonderry (Ulster-Scots: Coontie Lunnonderrie), also known as County Derry (), is one of the six counties of Northern Ireland, one of the thirty-two counties of Ireland and one of the nine counties of Ulster. Before the partition of Ireland, it was one of the counties of the Kingdom of Ireland from 1613 onward and then of the United Kingdom after the Acts of Union 1800. Adjoining the north-west shore of Lough Neagh, the county covers an area of  and today has a population of about 252,231.

Since 1972, the counties in Northern Ireland, including Londonderry, have no longer been used by the state as part of the local administration. Following further reforms in 2015, the area is now governed under three different districts: Derry and Strabane, Causeway Coast and Glens and Mid-Ulster. Despite no longer being used for local government and administrative purposes, it is sometimes used in a cultural context in All-Ireland sporting and cultural events (i.e. Derry GAA).

Since 1981, it has become one of four counties in Northern Ireland that has a Catholic majority (55.56% according to the 2001 Census and 61.3% according to the 2021 Census). The county flower is the purple saxifrage.

Name
The place name Derry is an anglicisation of the Old Irish Daire (Modern Irish Doire), meaning "oak-grove" or "oak-wood".

As with the city, its name is subject to the Derry/Londonderry name dispute, with the form "Londonderry" generally preferred by unionists and "Derry" by nationalists. Unlike with the city, however, there has never been a County Derry. County Londonderry was formed mostly from the old County Coleraine (see below). British authorities use the name "Londonderry", while "Derry" is used by the Republic of Ireland.

History

Prehistoric
The county has a significant of megalithic structures from prehistoric times, including Ballygroll Prehistoric Landscape, as well as numerous others. The most significant site however is Mountsandel, located near Coleraine in County Londonderry is "perhaps the oldest recorded settlement within Ireland".

County Coleraine and the Plantation of Ulster
At an early period, what became the county of Coleraine was inhabited by the O'Cahans, who were tributary to the O'Neills. Towards the close of the reign of Elizabeth I their territory was seized by England, with the purpose of checking the power of the O'Neills, and was made the county of Coleraine, named after the regional capital.

A short description of County Coleraine is given in Harris's Hibernica, and also in Captain Pynnar's Survey of the Escheated Counties of Ulster, Anno 1618:

On 2 March 1613, James I granted a charter to The Honourable The Irish Society to undertake the plantation of a new county. This county was named Londonderry, a combination of London (in reference to the Livery Companies of the Irish Society) and Derry (then name of the city). This charter declared that the "City of Londonderry" and everything contained within the new county:

This new county would comprise the then County Coleraine—which consisted of the baronies of Tirkeeran, Coleraine, and Keenaght—and at the behest of The Irish Society the following additional territory was added: all but the south-west corner of the barony of Loughinsholin, then a part of County Tyrone, as it had sufficient wood for construction; the North East Liberties of Coleraine, which was part of County Antrim and the City of Londonderry and its Liberties, which were in County Donegal, so that they could control both banks of the River Foyle and River Bann.

The Irish Society was made up of the twelve main livery companies of London, which themselves were composed of various guilds. Whilst The Irish Society as a whole was given possession of the city of Londonderry and Coleraine, the individual companies were each granted an estimated  throughout the county. These companies and the sites of their headquarters were:
Clothworkers, based at Killowen and Clothworker's Hall (present-day Articlave) in the barony of Coleraine;
Drapers, based at Draper's Hall, later called Drapers Town (present-day Moneymore) in the barony of Loughinsholin;
Fishmongers, based at Artikelly and Fishermonger's Hall (present-day Ballykelly) in the barony of Keenaght;
Goldsmiths, based at Goldsmith's Hall (present-day Newbuildings) in the barony of Tirkeeran;
Grocers, based at Grocer's Hall, alias Muff (present-day Eglinton) in the barony of Tirkeeran;
Haberdashers, based at Habberdasher's Hall (present-day Ballycastle) in the barony of Keenaght;
Ironmongers, based at Ironmonger's Hall (present-day townland of Agivey) in the barony of Coleraine;
Mercers, based at Mercer's Hall (present-day townland of Movanagher) in the barony of Coleraine;
Merchant Taylors, based at Merchant Taylor's Hall (present-day Macosquin) in the barony of Coleraine;
Salters, based at Salter's Hall (present-day Magherafelt) and Salters Town in the barony of Loughinsholin;
Skinners, based at Skinner's Hall (present-day Dungiven) in the barony of Keenaght;
Vintners, based at Vintner's Hall, later called Vintner's Town (present-day Bellaghy) in the barony of Loughinsholin.

19th century
As a result of the Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898, the city was detached from the county for administrative purposes, becoming a separate county borough from 1899.  The county town of County Londonderry, and seat of the Londonderry County Council until its abolition in 1973, was therefore moved to the town of Coleraine.

Geography and places of interest

The highest point in the county is the summit of Sawel Mountain () on the border with County Tyrone. Sawel is part of the Sperrin Mountains, which dominate the southern part of the county. To the east and west, the land falls into the valleys of the Bann and Foyle rivers respectively; in the south-east, the county touches the shore of Lough Neagh, which is the largest lake in Ireland; the north of the county is distinguished by the steep cliffs, dune systems, and remarkable beaches of the Atlantic coast.

The county is home to a number of important buildings and landscapes, including the well-preserved 17th-century city walls of Derry; the National Trust–owned Plantation estate at Springhill; Mussenden Temple on the Atlantic coast; the dikes, artificial coastlines and the bird sanctuaries on the eastern shore of Lough Foyle; and the visitor centre at Bellaghy Bawn, close to the childhood home of Nobel laureate Seamus Heaney. In the centre of the county are the old-growth deciduous forests at Banagher and Ness Wood, where the Burntollet River flows over the highest waterfalls in Northern Ireland.

Subdivisions
 Baronies

 Coleraine
 Keenaght
 North East Liberties of Coleraine
 North West Liberties of Londonderry
 Loughinsholin
 Tirkeeran

 Parishes

 Townlands

Settlements
 Cities
(population of 75,000 or more with a cathedral)
 Derry

 Large towns
(population of 18,000 or more and under 75,000 at 2001 Census)
 Coleraine

 Medium towns
(population of 10,000 or more and under 18,000 at 2001 Census)
 Limavady

 Small towns
(population of 4,500 or more and under 10,000 at 2001 Census)
 Magherafelt
 Portstewart

 Intermediate settlements
(population of 2,250 or more and under 4,500 at 2001 Census)
 Culmore (part of Derry Urban Area)
 Dungiven
 Eglinton
 Maghera
 Newbuildings (part of Derry Urban Area)

 Villages
(population of 1,000 or more and under 2,250 at 2001 Census)

 Ballykelly
 Bellaghy
 Castledawson
 Castlerock
 Claudy
 Draperstown
 Garvagh
 Greysteel
 Kilrea
 Moneymore
 Strathfoyle (part of Derry Urban Area)

 Small villages or hamlets
(population of less than 1,000 at 2001 Census)

 Articlave
 Ballerin
 Ballymaguigan
 Ballyronan
 Clady
 Culnady
 Desertmartin
 Downhill
 Drumsurn
 Feeny
 Glenullin
 Gulladuff
 Lettershendoney
 Macosquin
 Ringsend
 Swatragh
 Tobermore
 Upperlands

Demography

It is one of four counties in Northern Ireland which currently has a majority of the population from a Catholic community background, according to the 2021 census. At the time of the 2021 census there were 252,231 residents of County Londonderry. Of these: 61.3% were from a Catholic background, 32.5% were from a Protestant and Other Christian (including Christian related), 0.9% were from other religions, and 5.3% had no religious background.

Administration
The county was administered by Londonderry County Council from 1899 until the abolition of county councils in Northern Ireland in 1973. They were replaced by district councils. These councils were: Londonderry City Council (renamed Derry City Council in 1984), Limavady Borough Council, and Magherafelt District Council, most of Coleraine Borough Council, and part of Cookstown District Council. After a reduction in the number of councils in Northern Ireland in 2011, County Londonderry is divided into three cross-county councils: Causeway Coast and Glens, Derry and Strabane, and Mid-Ulster District.

Transport

Translink provides a Northern Ireland Railways service in the county, linking Derry~Londonderry railway station to Coleraine railway station (with a branch to  on the Coleraine–Portrush railway line) and onwards into County Antrim to Belfast Lanyon Place and Belfast Great Victoria Street on the Belfast-Derry railway line.

There is also the Foyle Valley Railway, a museum in Derry with some rolling stock from both the County Donegal Railway and the Londonderry and Lough Swilly Railway, and is located on the site of the former Londonderry Foyle Road railway station. The Londonderry and Lough Swilly Railway continued as a private bus company based in the city but operating predominantly in County Donegal until it closed in 2014. Bus services are now provided by Ulsterbus.

Education
Government-funded education up to secondary school level is administered by the Education Authority (EA), sponsored by the Department of Education. The EA is divided into sub-regions:

 Western region: Derry, Limavady;
 North Eastern region: Coleraine, Magherafelt;
 Southern region: Cookstown.

For Catholic grant-maintained schools administration is by the Derry Diocesan Education Office.

Two major centres of the University of Ulster are in the county, including its headquarters at Coleraine and the Magee Campus in Derry.

Sport

In Gaelic games, the GAA county of Derry is more or less coterminous with the former administrative county of Londonderry, although teams from the neighbouring counties of Tyrone, Donegal and Antrim have occasionally played in Derry competitions, and vice versa. The Derry teams wear the colours red and white. There are many club teams competing in up to five leagues and three championships. The county team has won one All-Ireland Senior Football Championship (in 1993) and five National League titles. Hurling is also widely played but is not as popular as football. However, the county team is generally regarded as one of the top hurling sides in Ulster and in 2006 won the Nicky Rackard Cup – the third tier hurling competition in Ireland.

In association football, the NIFL Premiership, which operates as the top division, has two teams in the county: Coleraine F.C. and Institute F.C., with Limavady United F.C., Moyola Park F.C., Portstewart F.C. and Tobermore United F.C. competing in the NIFL Championship, which operates as levels two and three. Derry City F.C. play in the Premier Division of the League of Ireland after leaving the Northern Ireland structures in 1985, having resigned from the Irish Football League at the height of the Troubles because of not being allowed play their home games at the Brandywell due to security concerns from other clubs.

The Northern Ireland Milk Cup was established in 1983 and is regarded as one of the most prestigious youth football tournaments in Europe and the world. The competition is based at Coleraine and involves several other towns and villages in the county – Limavady, Portstewart and Castlerock – and in neighbouring County Antrim – Ballymoney, Portrush, Ballymena and Broughshane. The event, held in the last week of July, has attracted teams from 56 countries around the world including Europe, the US, Africa, the Far East, South America, the Middle East, Australia, Russia, New Zealand and Canada. Some of the biggest teams in the world have entered including Premiership giants Everton, Liverpool, Manchester United, Chelsea, Tottenham Hotspur as well as top European teams such as Feyenoord, F.C. Porto, FC Barcelona, Benfica, Bayern Munich and Dynamo Kiev.

In rugby union, the county is represented at senior level by Rainey Old Boys Rugby Club, Magherafelt who compete in the Ulster Senior League and All Ireland Division Three. Limavady R.F.C, City of Derry Rugby Club, Londonderry Y.M.C.A and Coleraine Rugby Club all compete in Ulster Qualifying League One.

Cricket is particularly popular in the north-west of Ireland, with 11 of the 20 senior clubs in the North West Cricket Union located in County Londonderry: Limavady, Eglinton, Glendermott, Brigade, Killymallaght, Ardmore, Coleraine, Bonds Glen, Drummond, Creevedonnell and The Nedd.

In rowing, Richard Archibald from Coleraine along with his Irish teammates qualified for the Beijing 2008 Olympics by finishing second in the lightweight fours final in Poznań, thus qualifying for the Beijing 2008 Olympics. Another Coleraine rower Alan Campbell is a World Cup gold medallist in the single sculls in 2006.

Media
The county currently has four main radio stations:

 BBC Radio Foyle;
 Q102.9;
 Q97.2;
 Six FM (in the south of the county).

See also
 Abbeys and priories in Northern Ireland (County Londonderry)
 List of places in County Londonderry
 List of townlands in County Londonderry
 List of civil parishes of County Londonderry
 Lord Lieutenant of County Londonderry
 High Sheriff of County Londonderry

References

External links

County Londonderry on the interactive map of the counties of Great Britain and Ireland – Wikishire

Counties of Northern Ireland
Londonderry
1613 establishments in Ireland

County Londonderry


Eugeniusz Molski (born in 1942 in Bagienice, Zichenau) is a Polish contemporary artist, painter and sculptor. Attended a State Fine Arts College in Nałęczów and a State Academy of Fine Arts in Wrocław where he obtained his diploma in 1969. He specializes in architectural painting and ceramics. Since 1969 he has been employed at the Fine Arts College in Nowy Wiśnicz. He does mural and easel painting as well as ceramics and sculpture.

Collective exhibitions abroad
 Stockholm /Sweden/, Düsseldorf, Frechen /Germany/ - 1978
 Nuremberg – ceramics, 1981,83,84
 Bratislava – painting 1983
 Kiev – painting 1983
 Faenza (Italy) – international ceramics biennial 1984, 87
 Kecskemét (Hungary) – enamel 1985
 Hradec Králové – ceramics 1988
 Frechen – ceramics 1994–98, 2000–2007
 Erkrath – 1988, 99, 2001 International Art Fair.

Major individual exhibitions
 Wrocław "Pałacyk" Gallery (twice), Gallery of the "Kalambur" Theatre (twice)
 Tarnów: Regional Museum, DK Azoty, PSP Gallery (three times), BWA Gallery "Sztylet", KIK Gallery "Pod Aniołem", WBP, MBP, Tarnów Theatre
 Kraków: "Forum" Gallery, City Cultural Center, PSP Gallery, "Cepelia" Gallery
 Słupsk: BWA Gallery
 Dębica: MOK Gallery
 Mielec: DK Gallery
 Toruń: BWA
 Biała Podlaska: BWA Gallery
 Miechów: BWA Gallery
 Bochnia: Public Library, S. Fischer Museum
 Zakopane; Gorlice: Karwacjanow Manor
 Kuopio (Finland): Public Library; Joensu, Kajani (Finland): Gallery of the Lutheran Diocese "Dialog"
 Budapest: Polish Culture and Information Center
 Prague (Czech Republic)
 Bratislava; Trencin (Slovakia)
 Myślenice: Museum.

Works in museum collections
 Toruń: Regional Museum
 Bolesławiec: Ceramics Museum
 Tarnów: Regional Museum
 Bochnia: City Museum
 Wałbrzych-Książ: ceramics collection
 Kecskemet (Hungary): Cifra Palota Museum.

Awards and prizes
 1973 – Toruń, Regional Museum: "Hymn" to Museum collection
 1977 – Bolesławiec, BOK: award of the Polish Artists' Association
 1978 – Kraków, BWA Gallery, Sculpture of the Year for Southern Poland Award; Tarnów, BWA Gallery, Award of the City Mayor; Regional Museum: sculpture "Fazy" /Phases/ to the collection
 1980-1981- Debrzno – award of the plein-air hosts "Ceramics for Architecture", awards of the Gdynia Construction Ceramics Company, among others, first prize in a competition for a ceramic wall; Łódź: PAX Gallery, III prize at the exhibition "Sacrum in Contemporary Art"
 1984 – Rzeszów, KMPiK, distinction in a competition "Rzeszów Old Town"; Książ, Polish Ceramics Biennial, III prize
 1987 – Kraków BWA Gallery, award at an exhibition of "Craft '87"
 1988 – Kraków, KDK "Pod Baranami" award at a mask competition
 1989 – Kraków BWA, Grand Prix in a "Primum non nocere" competition; Katowice, BWA, III prize at an exhibition of industrial forms
 1998 – Kraków, Archdiocese Museum
 2001 – Bochnia, Fischer Museum (purchase)
 2003 – Bochnia, Fischer Museum.

External links
home website of Eugeniusz Molski

1942 births
Living people
People from Chorzele
Polish sculptors
Polish male sculptors
20th-century Polish painters
20th-century Polish male artists
21st-century Polish painters
21st-century male artists
Polish contemporary artists
20th-century sculptors
Polish male painters

Eugeniusz Molski


Philip Raymond Judd (born 20 March 1953) is a New Zealand singer-songwriter known for being one of the founders of the bands Split Enz and The Swingers.

Split Enz
In 1972, Judd and Tim Finn founded the arty folk band Split Enz. In its early days the band was known for its eccentric behaviour, wacky clothes, makeup and crazy hairstyles. In the early days the band members all adopted their middle names, with the exception of Phil Judd, the only member from that era to use his first name.

While the other members of the Enz had hairstyles that were out of the ordinary, Judd chose to shave his head after the release of the first album Mental Notes. After the second album Second Thoughts was released, tension arose between Judd and Tim Finn. Judd left the band in 1977 shortly after the release of the single Another Great Divide, to be replaced by Finn's younger brother Neil Finn.

After leaving the Enz, Judd wrote songs and recorded demos until later that year he was approached by Tim Finn to rejoin the band. The Enz toured in 1978 with two lead guitarists in Judd and Neil Finn, who got along rather well. During this time the band played some new songs by Judd that won favour with the audience, including a self-confessed favourite of keyboardist Eddie Rayner, "Play It Strange".

Later that year, Judd once again left the group. It was after this time that Split Enz went on to their greatest international success.

After Split Enz
After leaving Split Enz, Judd became involved with Auckland punk band The Suburban Reptiles. He produced their second single, "Saturday Night Stay at Home", and performed live with them. He was also briefly a member of Chris Knox's band The Enemy. Out of the remnants of The Suburban Reptiles he formed The Swingers with future Midnight Oil band member Bones Hillman and Buster Stiggs. The band went through a couple of lineup changes, but managed to release a No. 1 song in New Zealand and Australia, "Counting The Beat". The song was used in the 1990s on commercials for DEKA chain of general merchandise stores, and was also used for the New Zealand TV3 Slogan "There aint no place I'd rather be" in 2011. The Swingers also wrote lyrics and composed music for Gillian Armstrong's 1982 New Wave musical Starstruck.

After The Swingers broke up in 1982, Judd recorded the Private Lives solo album, released by Mushroom Records in 1983. It would be 24 years before he released his next solo album. In the US, selections from Private Lives were released as a five-track EP called The Swinger.

In 1986 Tim Finn contacted Judd to write some songs for his new album Big Canoe. It would have been the first time they were to write together since Split Enz. According to Finn, instead of writing, the two spent most of the time drinking and catching up on old times and wrote no material. Instead, Judd played guitar on the album.

Schnell Fenster
In the late 1980s, Judd went on to be part of Schnell Fenster and was involved in recording movie soundtracks, most notably The Big Steal, winning the AFI award for his first score Death in Brunswick. Schnell Fenster was composed of former Split Enz members Nigel Griggs, Noel Crombie and Eddie Rayner, along with guitarist Michael den Elzen. Rayner left the project soon after its birth.

The debut album The Sound of Trees was a moderate success, but due to Noel Crombie developing tinnitus, the band was unable to tour extensively to support the album. A second album, OK Alright A Huh Oh Yeah, was released in Australia and New Zealand in 1991. The band then broke up.

Judd has worked in movies, including Rikky and Pete, Amy, and Mr Reliable, and on television programs such as Good Guys Bad Guys, Stingers and Sky Trackers.

Split Enz reunite without Judd
Judd has been reported as feeling bitter about not being invited to join Split Enz on their 2006 reunion tour. In an interview on community radio program Living in the Land of Oz, Judd said that Neil Finn wanted him to "get up and do two or three songs or at least be involved somehow" but this did not happen at either of the Melbourne concerts. On stage with the Enz in 2006, Tim Finn claimed that his relationship with Judd is "complicated".

Around the time of the Enz tour, Judd and Tim Finn had decided to get together with former Enz violinist Miles Golding for a few recording sessions dubbed 3 of a Kind. With the success of the Finn Brothers' latest album and the resurgence of interest in Split Enz, Tim Finn was offered a chance to release another solo album through EMI and took it. This left no time for any side projects and the project has not come to fruition.

Mr Phudd
Judd sells copies of Mr Phudd and His Novelty Act through his website. Some fans have likened it to his work from his days with Split Enz. Judd is also a visual artist and his surrealistic portrayal of Split Enz for the band's 1975 Mental Notes album won a music industry award for best cover design. He has continued to paint over the years and has work in the National Gallery of Victoria.

In 2006, Phil worked with Australian band Pinky Tuscadero, producing their EP Look Your Best.

His album Love is a Moron was released in December 2008.

Personal life
In 1992, Judd was diagnosed with bipolar disorder. He suffered a stroke in 2004 which damaged his spleen.

Judd was convicted in March 2009 of stalking three sisters in his Melbourne neighbourhood. He received a 12-month suspended sentence. On 1 January 2010, Judd was jailed for two weeks for violating a restraining order brought against him by his ex-wife during a dispute over custody of their young son.

Discography

Albums

Films
Starstruck (1982) – music, actor (one of the Swingers)
Rikky and Pete (1988) – songs, actor
The Big Steal (1990) – music
Death in Brunswick (1991) – music
Eight Ball (1992) – music
Hercules Returns (1992) – music
"Environmental" (1994) (short) – music
Mr. Reliable (1996) – music
Amy (1998) – music

TV
Sky Trackers (1994) – music (with others)
Good Guys Bad Guys (1997) – music, including theme
Stingers (1998) – music, including theme

Music for several Melbourne Theatre Company plays 1989–1993 including Miss Bosnia, Cosi and Summer of the Aliens, directed by Nadia Tass.

Lyricist for The Lion The Witch & The wardrobe songs, A touring musical production 2001–2003.

Awards and nominations

ARIA Music Awards
The ARIA Music Awards is an annual awards ceremony that recognises excellence, innovation, and achievement across all genres of Australian music. They commenced in 1987.

!
|-
| 1992
| Death in Brunswick
| Best Original Soundtrack, Cast or Show Album
|
|
|-

References

 Chunn, Mike, Stranger Than Fiction: The Life and Times of Split Enz, GP Publications, 1992.
 Chunn, Mike, Stranger Than Fiction: The Life and Times of Split Enz, (revised, ebook edition), Hurricane Press, 2013.
 Dix, John, Stranded in Paradise: New Zealand Rock and Roll, 1955 to the Modern Era, Penguin Books, 2005,

External links
Official site

1953 births
APRA Award winners
Living people
New Zealand rock musicians
New Zealand new wave musicians
Split Enz members
Ukulele players
Mandolinists
People educated at Hastings Boys' High School
New Zealand expatriates in Australia
New Zealand expatriates in England
New Zealand male guitarists
New Zealand male singer-songwriters
New Zealand singer-songwriters
People with bipolar disorder
People convicted of stalking
20th-century New Zealand male singers
20th-century New Zealand painters
20th-century New Zealand male artists
21st-century New Zealand male singers
21st-century New Zealand painters
21st-century New Zealand male artists
Lead guitarists

Phil Judd


The Faculty of Architecture (, abbr: Af) is one of the faculties of the University of Zagreb. It is one of the biggest, and most esteemed schools of architecture in Southeastern Europe, as well as one of the biggest research-and-development institution in the fields of architecture and urban design in Croatia.  The faculty aims to prepare experts to approach complex issues of architecture and urban design. The faculty building, which is located in Kačić-Miošić street in Lower Town in Zagreb, is shared with Facultiy of Civil Engineering and Faculty of Geodesy.

Organisation

The Faculty comprises 4 departments:

Architectural design
Urban planning, physical planning, and landscape architecture
Architectural structures and building construction
Theory and history of architecture

History
Early beginnings of faculty go back to 1919 with foundation of the Royal Technical College in Zagreb with goal of educating professional experts, who previously went to study in Vienna or Prague, both in engineering and scientific fields. Among the six proposed departments was the Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering. In 1926., previously independent college, becomes a part of the University of Zagreb, as a Faculty of Technology. At that time, another school of architecture, led by Drago Ibler was established at the Academy of fine arts. These two institutions are considered to be predecessors of the modern-day Faculty of Architecture.
The Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Geodesy was formed on 1 July 1956 when the College of Technology of the University of Zagreb was divided into four new faculties. The faculty existed under this name until 1962 when it was divided in current layout.
In 1989. the School of design was formed. It is an interdisciplinary programme held  in collaboration with faculties of Forestry,  Economics and Business, Humanities and Social Sciences, Mechanical Engineering and Naval Architecture and the Academy of Fine Arts

Study programmes

Architecture and urban design
The study of architecture and urban design is a five-year-long programme divided into two cycles.
The Bachelor of Architecture (B.Arch.)(, abbr: univ. bacc. ing. arch.) is an undergraduate academic degree awarded to a student after three years of studying. The study ends after two years of graduate programme, when a student becomes Master of Architecture (M.Arch.) (, abbr: Mag. ing. arch.).
The study programme is comparable to those by eminent European faculties, especially ETH Zurich, RWTH Aachen, TU Delft and TU Wien.

Interdiciplinary study programme of design
The study programme includes a three-year-long programme of undergraduate study (Bachelor) and a two-year-long programme of graduate study (Master of Design) in the fields of industrial design and visual communications design

Admission into the undergraduate study programme
Entry requirements:
finished four-year high school
passed state exam (Državna Matura), extended levels in all compulsory subjects are required
passed classification procedure (three tests, covering visual and graphic abilities, spatial perception and general knowledge)

Notable professors
Viktor Kovačić
Drago Ibler (at the Academy of Fine Arts, School of Architecture)
Velimir Neidhardt

Notable alumni
Vjenceslav Richter
Alfred Albini
Radimir Čačić (former vice president of the Government of Croatia)
Marina Matulović-Dropulić (former mayor of Zagreb)
Aleksandar Ljahnicky
3LHD

External links
  Homepage

Universities and colleges established in 1919
Architecture
Engineering universities and colleges in Croatia
1919 establishments in Yugoslavia
Architecture schools

Faculty of Architecture, University of Zagreb


Claros (; , Klaros; ) was an ancient Greek sanctuary on the coast of Ionia. It contained a temple and oracle of Apollo, honored here as Apollo Clarius. It was located in the territory of Colophon, which lay twelve kilometers to the north, one of the twelve cities of the Ionian League. The coastal city Notion lay two kilometers to the south. The ruins of the sanctuary are now found north of the modern town Ahmetbeyli in the Menderes district of Izmir Province, Turkey.

The Temple of Apollo at Claros was a very important center of prophecy, as in Delphi and Didyma. The oldest literary information about this sacred site goes back to the sixth and seventh centuries BC, through the Homeric Hymns, though Proto-Geometric pottery at the site betokens 9th century occupation. A sacred cave near the Temple of Apollo, which was an important place both in the Hellenistic and Roman eras, points to the existence of a Cybele cult in early periods here. Games called the Claria were held at Claros every fifth year in honor of Apollo.

History

It is unknown when the sanctuary was founded exactly and its origins are shrouded in mythology. Archaeological excavations revealed structures dating back to the 10th century BC. The high point for the fame of the sanctuary seems to have been the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD and it had many visitors until the 4th century AD.

Materials and source
In the late Hellenistic period, a cargo ship carrying marble sank on its way to Claros off the southwest coast of modern-day Turkey near Kizilburun. The ship was discovered in 1993, and has been under excavation since 2005. On this ship, an estimated fifty tons of marble columns were recovered that matched the description of the columns found at Claros, the temple of Apollo. Isotopic and meteorological data indicate Proconnesos in the Sea of Marmara as the source of the marble. The marble being imported from the island to be used at the site was a special type with distinctive blue and white bands known as Proconnesian marble. The marble did not complete its 350 kilometer journey.

Foundation
The founding myth of Claros connects the city with the myth of the Epigoni who conquered Thebes. The two seers Teiresias and his daughter Manto became their captives along with other Thebans. The Epigoni sent them to Delphi to honor Apollo, but Teiresias died on the journey. At Delphi, Manto was commanded by Apollo to sail to Ionia with the remaining Thebans to found a colony there. When they arrived at the site where Claros would be founded later, they were seized by armed Cretans under Rhacius, the Cretan settler of Caria. After learning from Manto who they were and why they had come, Rhacius married her and allowed the Thebans to found Claros. Their heir was the seer Mopsus.

Thus the origin of the oracle at Clarus was remembered by Greeks of the Classical period as Minoan-Mycenean in origin. Archaeological investigations lend support to the myth. Intensely settled Mycenaean sites have been identified at Ephesus to the south and numerous other nearby sites. Miletus had a historical Minoan settlement, discovered in 1995/96 by the German school. In Claros itself, deep exploratory trenches dug between the altar and the temple façade, revealed Protogeometric pottery of the 10th century BC, attesting to the presence hinted at in myth.

At Colophon, a Mycenaean-era tomb has been found, but the presence of Mycenaean pottery is uncertain.

According to mythology the Greek seer Calchas, a participant in the Trojan War, died at Claros. He challenged Mopsus to see who had the greatest skill in divination, but lost and died of grief.

Hellenistic period
According to legend the oracle at Claros advised the citizens of Smyrna to move from Old Smyrna to the new Smyrna on Mount Pagos (modern Kadifekale), which was refounded there by Alexander the Great. The Smyrnaeans decided to follow up on the advice. Old Smyrna had lost its importance at the time, but after its second foundation it would become one of the most prosperous cities of Asia.

Roman period
Many monuments were erected in the Roman period (Pompey, Lucullus, Quintus Tullius Cicero); several took place above Hellenistic foundations. Pliny the Elder remarks that "At Colophon, in the cave of the Clarian Apollo, there is a pool, by the drinking of which a power is acquired of uttering wonderful oracles; but the lives of those who drink of it are shortened". Iamblichus said that the oracle, during the ecstasy "... is not in control of himself and does not follow what he is saying, or where he is..." Germanicus famously visited the oracle in 18 AD (a year before his death) and "It was said that he prophesied to Germanicus, in dark hints, as oracles usually do, an early doom".

Excavations
Claros had been entirely buried in the alluvial silt deposited by the small river at the site, a widespread phenomenon along this coastline during the 1st century BC, as the hinterland was deforested. T. Macridy uncovered the monumental entrance to the sanctuary in 1905 and returned for further explorations with the French archaeologist Charles Picard in 1913. Excavations recommenced between 1950 and 1961 under Louis Robert, and a series of important Roman dedicated monuments came to light, as well as the famous Doric Temple of Apollo, seat of the oracle, in its final grand though uncompleted Hellenistic phase, 3rd century BC. The Sacred Way was excavated in 1988 under J. de La Genière. Since then much alluvial spoil has been carted off-site and Claros was prepared to receive visitors.

The excavations conducted since 1988 have demonstrated that there was a religious area there around a spring of fresh water from the 9th century BC. The first known construction is a round altar of the second half of the 7th century. It was covered over around the middle of the 6th century by a large rectangular altar (14.85 × 6.05 m); at the same time a marble temple was built for Apollo around the spring while Apollo's sister, Artemis, had her own precinct and a smaller altar (3.50 × 150 m): next to it were found the bases of two korai, one of which is preserved (the head is missing). There were at least four statues of kouroi dedicated to Apollo; three of them, incomplete, have been found.

Very few changes occurred in the sanctuary between the 6th and the end of the 4th century. At that time a new layout of the sacred area was conceived, with monuments on a larger scale; most probably, the plans were put into execution  only after the terrible events of the beginning of the 3rd century BC. Later in the 3rd century construction began on the new altar and the new Temple of Apollo. It had a dark crypt-like adyton from where the oracle delivered his prophecies. Today it is well preserved and its narrow, dark and vaulted labyrinthine corridors remain.

Above the ground, remains can be seen of the base and fragments of the colossal sculptures of a seated Apollo with his lyre, accompanied by Leto and Artemis, facing to the east. The group, whose fragments are partially reassembled at the site, seems to have measured more than seven meters in height. In the sanctuary, rows of names of the countless grateful ancient visitors may still be seen, votive and memorial inscriptions on columns, on steps and walls and even on a curving marble bench: in their entirety the inscription of Clarus form the largest assembly of surviving Greek inscriptions. An elegant marble chair in the sanctuary has serpent arms, a reminder of the chthonic nature of all genuine oracles among the Hellenes, and which likely reflects Apollo's conquering of Python and subsequent establishment of the temple at Delphi.

After the beginning of the Roman Province of Asia (end of the 2nd century BC), prominent citizens of Colophon helped to increase the authority of the sanctuary, the importance of the religious competitions and the fame of the oracle. To celebrate the major sacrifices before crowds consisting of Greeks and non-Greeks, four rows of iron rings attached to  heavy blocks allowed a hundred victims to be killed simultaneously. Claros is the only sanctuary in the Greek world which offers a clear picture of the way priests could perform the hecatomb.

References

External links

Website of the excavations at Claros
Inscriptions found in Claros
Information about Claros on the website of the Turkish Ministry of Culture and Tourism

Temples in ancient Ionia
Classical oracles
Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Turkey
10th-century BC religious buildings and structures
Temples of Apollo

Claros


Ayesha Jhulka (born 28 July 1972) is an Indian actress who primarily appears in Hindi films, in addition to Bengali, Kannada and Telugu films. In a career spanning over three decades, she has worked in over 60 films.

Jhulka is best known for her portrayals in successful films such as, Kurbaan (1991), Jo Jeeta Wohi Sikandar (1992), Khiladi (1992), Meherbaan (1993), Dalaal (1993), Balmaa (1993), Waqt Hamara Hai (1993), Rang (1993), Sangram (1993), Jai Kishen (1994), Masoom (1996) and Hote Hote Pyar Ho Gaya (1999). For Khiladi and Jo Jeeta Wohi Sikandar, Jhulka received a Filmfare Award for Best Female Debut nomination.

After a hiatus, she went onto work in films like - Socha Na Tha (2005), Umrao Jaan (2006), Ada... A Way of Life (2010) and Genius (2018). Jhulka made her web debut with Hush Hush (2022) and has since appeared in Happy Family: Conditions Apply (2023).

Early life
Jhulka was born on 28 July 1972 in Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir. Her father Wing Commander Inder Kumar Jhulka, is a retired Air Force officer. Her mother Sneh Jhulka, is a costume designer who has worked in films such as Dalaal and Vishwavidhata. Jhulka worked as a child artist in the 1983 film Kaise Kaise Log.

Career

Breakthrough and success (1990-1993)
After making her acting debut with the telugu film Neti Siddhartha in 1990, Jhulka made her Hindi film debut opposite Salman Khan with the 1991 film Kurbaan, a box office success. The same year, she appeared in Meet Mere Man Ke, Hai Meri Jaan and the Bengali film Katha Dilam.

Jhulka had four films released in 1992. She first appeared in Mashooq opposite Ayub Khan. Jhulka's portrayal of a college prankster in Khiladi opposite Akshay Kumar, marked a turning point in her career. Further success came with Jo Jeeta Wohi Sikandar opposite Aamir Khan, where she portrayed a college student. For both of these films, she received a nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Female Debut. Anaam was her last release of the year.

Jhulka established herself and went onto work in ten films in 1993. She appeared in fipms like Kohra, Kaise Kaise Rishte, Balmaa, Meherbaan and Aulad Ke Dushman. She received praise for portraying a village belle in Sangram opposite Ajay Devgn, and for her portrayals in Waqt Hamara Hai and Dil Ki Baazi opposite Akshay Kumar. Jhulka appeared in Dalaal, one of the year's highest grossers opposite Mithun Chakraborty. She also won praise for Rang alongside Divya Bharti and Kamal Sadanah.

Further work and setback (1994-2000)

In 1994, Jhulka appeared in Brahma and Ekka Raja Rani opposite Govinda, in Jai Kishen opposite Kumar and in Maha Shaktishaali. She then played the lead in the 1995 film Aashique Mastaane. In 1996, she appeared in Masoom and Muqaddar opposite Mithun Chakraborty.

Jhulka had four releases in 1997, including Suraj and Ghoonghat. The same year, she received praise for her portrayal in Chachi 420 opposite Kamal Haasan. Her final film of the year was Vishwavidhaata opposite Jackie Shroff. Her films in 1998 include - Dand Nayak, Kannada film Kanasalu Neene Manasalu Neene and Himmatwala opposite Chakraborty.

Personal life
Jhulka met construction tycoon Sameer Vashi through her mother. Jhulka married Vashi in 2003. The couple decided not to have any children.

Filmography

Films

Television

Web series

Accloades

See also

List of Indian film actresses

References

External links

1972 births
Living people
Indian film actresses
20th-century Indian actresses
21st-century Indian actresses
Actors from Srinagar
Actresses in Hindi cinema
Actresses in Bengali cinema
Actresses in Kannada cinema
Actresses in Telugu cinema
Actresses in Odia cinema
Actresses from Jammu and Kashmir

Ayesha Jhulka


Order to Kill (, ) is a 1974 Spanish-Italian crime-action film written and directed by José Gutiérrez Maesso. In the movie the police inspector (José Ferrer) offers passports to a hit man (Helmut Berger) and his girlfriend (Sydne Rome) if the hit man kills a mob boss.

Cast
 Helmut Berger – Clyde Hart
 Sydne Rome – Anne
 Kevin McCarthy – Ed McLean
 José Ferrer – Detective Reed
 José María Caffarel – Richard
 Howard Ross – Richard
 Manuel Zarzo – Hugo
 Juan Luis Galiardo
 Álvaro de Luna – Daniel

Production
Eugenio Martín minimized his contributions to the script in the film, stating that it was "It was Maesso's project, and Moncada and I were to write it. However, there was no way we could come up with a good plot, so we soon called ourselves out. Maesso did not give up, though, and he called and Italian screenwriter to do the job" When the film was finished, Maesso credited both Moncada and Martin for their work on the film, but Martin stated that he probably did not use much of it.

Release
Order to Kill was released in Italy on August 31, 1974. In Italy, the film grossed a total of 360,601,000 lire.

Reception
In his book Italian Crime Filmography 1968–1980, Roberto Curti referred to the film as a "tiresome variation on the classic theme of a lonely man's vengeance, notable mainly for a script that in the second part predates Enzo G Castellari's powerful The Big Racket" and that actor Helmut Berger "is given little to do with the clichéd character".

Notes

References

External links

Order to Kill at Variety Distribution

Poliziotteschi films
Italian crime action films
Spanish crime action films
1970s crime action films
1970s Italian films

Order to Kill


Harry Quilter (24 January 1851 in London – 10 July 1907 in London), was an English art critic, writer and artist.

Life
He was the youngest of five children of William Quilter (1808–1888), first president of the Institute of Accountants, and a collector of watercolours, and younger brother of William Cuthbert Quilter the politician. His mother, his father's first wife, was Elizabeth Harriet, daughter of Thomas Cuthbert. Born at Lower Norwood, south London, on 24 January 1851, Harry Quilter was educated privately, and entered Trinity College, Cambridge, at Michaelmas 1870; he graduated B.A. in 1874 and proceeded M.A. in 1877. At Cambridge he played billiards and racquets, and read metaphysics, graduating the Moral Sciences Tripos of 1873 in the third class.

Quilter was intended for a business career, but on leaving university travelled abroad, and studied in Italy. A student of the Inner Temple from 3 May 1872, on returning to England he spent six months in studying for the bar, mainly with John Fletcher Moulton; he also attended the Slade School of Art at University College and the Middlesex Hospital. He was called to the bar on 18 November 1878. An attack of confluent smallpox damaged his health.

Quilter subsequently did not settle into a career, but undertook numerous projects. Between 1879 and 1887 he lectured on art and literature in London and the provinces. In 1885 he studied landscape painting at Van Hove's studio at Bruges, and in 1886 was an unsuccessful candidate for the Slade professorship at Cambridge in succession to Sidney Colvin. From 1894 to 1896 he ran boarding schools at Mitcham and Liverpool on a system which he had himself formulated, and on which he wrote an article, "In the Days of her Youth", in the Nineteenth Century (June 1895).

Feud with Whistler
As a critic Quilter roused the anger of J. M. Whistler by his frank criticism of the artist's Venetian etchings. He further angered Whistler by his "vandalism" in re-decorating Whistler's White House, Chelsea, which he purchased on 18 September 1879 and occupied till 1888. Whistler had had to sell the house after winning his libel case against John Ruskin but being awarded only a farthing in damages: his legal costs bankrupted him; Quilter refused then to sell it back. Whistler's antipathy to critics was concentrated upon Quilter, to whom he always referred as "Arry" and whom he lashed unsparingly at his death.

Last years
Until the end of his life Quilter occupied himself with periodical writing, travelling, and collecting works of art. He died at 42 Queen's Gate Gardens, London in 1907, and was buried at Norwood. Most of his collections were sold at Christie's in April 1906, and fetched over £14,000.

Works
From 1876 to 1887 Quilter was an art critic and journalist, writing chiefly for The Spectator. In 1880–81 he was also for a time art critic for The Times in succession to Tom Taylor.

In January 1888 Quilter started an ambitious periodical, the Universal Review. The first number was published on 16 May 1888; it was illustrated, and contained articles by leading British and French writers. George Meredith contributed in 1889 his Jump to Glory Jane. After initial success there were money troubles, and the Review ended with the issue for December 1890.

In 1902 Quilter published What's What, a miscellany; of the 1182 pages he wrote about a third, containing 350,000 words. His other publications included:

 A volume of light verse, Idle Hours, by "Shingawn" (a name taken from a sensational story in the London Journal of the time), 1872.
 Giotto, 1880; new edit. 1881.
 The Academy: Notice of Pictures exhibited at the R.A. 1872-82, 1883.
 Sententiæ Artis: First Principles of Art, 1886.
 Preferences in Art, Life, and Literature, 1892.
 Opinions on Men, Women and Things, 1909 (a collection of periodical essays made by his widow).

He edited an edition of Meredith's Jump to Glory Jane (1892).

Besides writing, Quilter was a collector and a practising artist. His work was regularly hung at the Institute of Painters in Oil Colours from 1884 to 1893. Quilter exhibited his paintings at the Dudley Gallery in January 1894, and a collection of his works in oils, sketches in wax, watercolours on vellum, chiefly of Cornish scenes, was shown at the New Dudley Gallery in February 1908. He illustrated Robert Browning's Pied Piper of Hamelin (1898).

Family
Quilter married in 1890 Mary Constance Hall, who survived him with two sons and four daughters. Their daughter Gwendolen Harriet married A. P. Herbert.

Notes

Attribution

External links

1851 births
1907 deaths
English male journalists
English art critics
19th-century English painters
English male painters
20th-century English painters
20th-century English male artists
19th-century English male artists

Harry Quilter


Radha is a Hindu goddess and the chief consort of Krishna. She is worshiped as the goddess of love, compassion, tenderness and devotion. Radha is the avatar of goddess Lakshmi and is also considered as the Hladini shakti or  feminine counterpart of Krishna. Every year, Radha's birth anniversary is celebrated as Radhashtami.

In many Vaishnavism traditions including - Gaudiya Vaishnavism, Pushtimarg, Nimbark sampradaya, Vaishnav Sahijya, Swaminarayan sampradaya, Radha-vallabh sampradaya, Manipuri Vaishnavism and Mahanam sampradaya, Radha is revered as the supreme goddess and is worshiped along with Krishna.

Radha is the prominent Hindu deity and has significant influence on the Indian culture, paintings, performance arts and literary works. Gita Govinda is the popular literary work based on Radha and Krishna which has further inspired other literary works, paintings and dance forms including classical Manipuri dance.

Hinduism

Radha


Marriage in Pakistan () pertains to wedding traditions established and adhered by Pakistani men and women. Despite their local and regional variations, marriages in Pakistan generally follow Islamic marital jurisprudence. Marriages are not only seen as a union between a husband and a wife, but also an alliance between their respective families. These traditions extend to other countries around in the world where Overseas Pakistani communities exist.

Before the wedding

Search
Searching for a potential groom or bride () is the first step of traditional Pakistani marriages. Beyond age 20, both men and women are considered potential grooms and brides. Most marriages in Pakistan are traditional arranged marriages, semi-arranged marriages or love marriages.
Arranged marriage occurs when a member of the family, a close friend or a third person party helps bring two supposedly compatible people together in matrimony. The groom and bride have usually never met before, and any interaction between them is akin to small talk with a stranger. This form of marriage is considered traditional, but is losing popularity among the newer generations.
Semi-arranged marriage is a growing trend where both men and women interact with one another before marriage (a form of dating). Both the man and woman have usually had several "meet and greet" opportunities, thereby allowing both to gain a sense of familiarity. This process can occur over a span of a few months to a few years and may or may not culminate in marriage. However, if both agree upon marriage, the potential groom will approach his family to send a proposal to the family of the potential bride.
Love marriages (also known as court marriages) are rare, since the concept of "family consent" has been eliminated. Such "free-will" challenges traditional mindsets as it "dishonours" the powerful institution in Pakistani society - the family. Without family consent, marriages are usually frowned upon.

Proposals
Once a decision has been made by either the man or woman or both, one or more representatives of the potential groom's family pay a visit to the potential bride's family. In arranged marriages, the first visit is purely for the parties to become acquainted with one another and does not include a formal proposal. Following the first visit, both the man and woman have their say in whether or not they would like a follow-up to this visit. Once both parties are in agreement, a proposal party () is held at the bride's home, where the groom's parents and family elders formally ask the bride's parents for her hand in marriage. In semi-arranged marriages, the first or second visit may include a formal proposal, since both the man and woman have already agreed to marriage prior - the proposal is more or less a formality. In love marriages, the man directly proposes to the woman. Once the wedding proposal is accepted, beverages and refreshments are served. Depending on individual family traditions, the bride-to-be may also be presented with gifts such as jewelry and a variety of gifts. Some religious families may also recite Surah Al-Fatihah.

Engagement
An engagement (called nisbat , mangni  or habar bandi ) is a formal ceremony to mark the engagement of the couple. It is usually a small ceremony that takes place in the presence of a few close members of the would-be bride's and groom's families. Rings and other items of jewelry among affluent families are exchanged between the would-be bride and groom. In traditional engagement ceremonies, the bride and the groom are not seated together, and the rings are placed on the bride's finger by the groom's mother or sister, and vice versa. However, segregated engagement ceremonies have become a rarity among the newer generations and rings are usually exchanged between the couple. A prayer (Dua) and blessings are then recited for the couple, and the wedding date is decided.

Wedding
A typical Pakistani wedding, or Shaadi () consists of two main events - the Nikkah and Walima. Arranged and semi-arranged marriages in Pakistan often take long periods of time to finalize and up to a year or more can elapse from the day of engagement until the wedding ceremony. Wedding customs and celebrations vary upon ethnicity and religion.

Nikah

The Nikah () is the formal marriage ceremony where a marriage contract, or Nikahnama (), is signed by both the bride and the groom in presence of close family members. The Nikah is typically performed by a religious scholar at a mosque, such as an Imam, Mufti, Sheikh or Mullah, who in Pakistan will be licensed by the government to perform the ceremony. The bride and groom must both have two witnesses present to ensure that the marriage is consensual.

Walima

The Walima () is the formal reception hosted by the husband and wife and officially makes the marriage public. It is typically a huge celebration with many relatives and as well as invited guests of both families in attendance. Traditionally, the Walima was hosted at home but nowadays are increasingly being held at marriage halls, restaurants or hotels.

Regional variations
There are considerable regional variations for weddings in Pakistan.

Baloch weddings
Baloch weddings are known to be lavish and short. In Balochi language, the groom is referred to as the Saloonk, while the bride is referred to as the Banoor. Baloch marriages often takes only one or two days to complete.

Zamati
Zamati is referred to as the marriage proposal in Balochi language. Under Baloch cultural norms, elders of the potential groom's family visit the home of the potential bride's family and make an official request for their willingness for the two to be married. In the past, the decision to accept a proposal would be made by the family elders of the potential bride. Nowadays, the potential bride is asked if she would be interested in accepting the proposal. Once accepted, the would-be bride is presented with a decorated red scarf and gifts.

Habar Bandi
Habar Bandi is referred to as the engagement in Balochi language. Habar translates into decision, while bandi translates into union. This period is very important part of Baloch wedding, as legal obligations are fixed.

Bijjar
Bijjar (  ) is referred to as cooperation in Balochi language. In actuality, this is the receiving of contributions, whereby the groom (saloonk) or his family members receive financial help from community members (mainly relatives and friends) to smoothly perform the wedding and initial months of the newly weds. Bijjar usually came in the form of cattle or crops but nowadays is mainly money, which is repaid back at weddings of relatives and friends at a later time.

Lotokhi
Lotokhi is referred to as invitation in Balochi language. Women from both families are given this task to write up a list of all those invited. Later, this list is used to note down the gifts that were given by each invitee. Later, the debt is repaid at future weddings or events.

Jol Bandi
Jol Bandi () is a Baloch wedding ceremony which marks the beginning of the wedding ceremony. It is normally held at the bride's home, and is similar in concept to Rasm-e-Heena. "Jol" translates into large well decorated cloth, while "bandi" in this case means to tie together. During this ceremony, the bride is covered with the decorated cloth, usually sown by the groom's family.

Dozokhi & Henna Bandi
Dozokhi and Heena Bandi is a Baloch wedding ceremony whereby heena is applied onto the bride's hands. It is often the most energetic part of the wedding, whereby friends and family members put money in a plate above the head of the bride, called Leth. As evening approaches, the mahfil and khorag occurs.

Mahfil & Khorag
Mahfil is referred to as gathering in Baloch language, while Khorag is referred to as food. During the gathering, the traditional Baloch dance called Chaap is performed by the men.

Jannh
Jannh is a Baloch wedding ceremony hosted by the family of the groom.

Nikah
Same traditions as noted above.

Mobaraki
Mobaraki () is a post-wedding banquet common in Baloch wedding and is hosted by the family of the bride. The entire groom's family, friends and relatives are invited along with relatives and friends of the bride's family.

Walima
Same traditions as noted above.

Pashtun weddings
Pashtun weddings adhere to the customs and values of Pashtunwali. In the past, marriages were based mainly on tribal affiliations.

Wadah
''Wadah'' is a Pashto term which literally refers to "promise", but is also could mean "marriage".

Attan
Attan (  ) is a Pashtun dance usually performed at the end of the marriage ceremonies. Traditionally however, the dance was performed twice - once at the beginning of the wedding and once at the end.

Laman Shlawal

Neewaka

Kwezhdan

Walwar

Pakha Azada

Janj

Naksha Wishtal

Nikah

Naindra

Punjabi weddings

Dholki
Dholki (  ) is a ceremony that takes its name from the percussion instrument Dholki and is featured heavily during wedding celebrations in Punjab. Traditionally, many days or even weeks before the actual wedding day, women will gather in the house of the bride at night to sing and dance while accompanied by other percussion instruments. Today, this ceremony has also been reduced to a single night of singing and is often combined with the Rasm-e-Heena ceremony.

Maklava/Bad Phera
Maklava is a predominantly a Punjabi custom. Traditionally, the marriages were arranged and often contracted between people from different cities and villages. This often meant that the bride was unfamiliar with her new family. To ease her into the new life and surroundings, she was brought back to her parents' house a few days after the wedding. She then spent some time at her parents' house before heading back to her new husband's home. This practice is still prevalent in most rural areas of the Punjab. In Northern Punjab and Kashmir, it is called Bad Phera (Exchange cycle).

Goda Pharai/Guthna Pakrai
A Punjabi custom in which the younger brother of the bridegroom holds the knee of the bride and doesn't let go until some acceptable monetary gift is given to him.

Sammi
Sammi is a folk dance mostly performed in Potohar region of upper Punjab and Hazara region of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa during weddings.

Rasm-e-Mehndi/Henna
Rasm-e-mehndi/henna () or mehndi () is a ceremony that is named after henna, a dye prepared from the Lawsonia inermis plant which is mixed into a paste form to apply onto the hands of the bride and groom. This event is held a few days before the main wedding ceremony and was traditionally held separately for the bride and the groom. However the ceremony is often now combined and held at a marriage hall. The groom will typically wear a casual black or white shalwar qameez, sherwani or western suit while the bride will typically wear an embroidered brightly colored shalwar kameez, sari or lehnga. The dress may or may not be accompanied by jewelry, depending upon region and ethnic background. In some ceremonies, a certain number of married women who are closely related to the bride may apply henna to her hands, and feed her sweets. This ritual is supposed to bring good luck and longevity to the bride's married life. Sometimes elaborate musical and acting performances are part of the Rasm-e-Heena celebrations, as well as competitions between the bride and groom's families are also quite common these days. Traditionally this was considered a "woman's event" as men did not participate in it. However this has changed substantially in recent generations with males featuring prominently. In some regions, Rasm-e-Heena is not celebrated while in other regions two Rasm-e-Heena celebrations are hosted, one by the groom's family and another by the bride's family.

Vaag Pakrai
Vaag Pakrai or Vaag Pakrayi (}) is the traditions in which the groom gives money or jewelry as a gift to his sister(s). If there more than one sister, then it depends upon their mutual understanding that whether all the sisters take gift or one, depending upon the number of brothers.

Rasta Rukayi
Rasta Rukayi or Rasta Rukai (رستہ رکائی) In baraat or mehndi, when the groom along with his family, and near and dears arrives at bride's home (it may be hall or marquee instead), the sister(s), cousins and friends of bride blocks the main entrance for groom. They let him go inside in exchange of some money demanded by them.

Joota Chhupayi
In the Joota Chuppayi or Joota Chhupayi or Joota Chuppai (جوتا چھپائی) the sisters, cousins and friends of bride somehow steal and hide the footwear of groom during event of baraat, just frw minutes before departure. The footwear of him is returned for few thousands/lacs of money.

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Pakistani Muhajir weddings

Rasm-e-Mehndi/Henna
Rasm-e-mehndi/henna () or mehndi () is a ceremony that is named after henna, a dye prepared from the Lawsonia inermis plant which is mixed into a paste form to apply onto the hands of the bride and groom. This event is held a few days before the main wedding ceremony and was traditionally held separately for the bride and the groom. However the ceremony is often now combined and held at a marriage hall. The groom will typically wear a casual black or white shalwar qameez, sherwani or western suit while the bride will typically wear an embroidered brightly colored shalwar kameez, sari or lehnga. The dress may or may not be accompanied by jewelry, depending upon region and ethnic background. In some ceremonies, a certain number of married women who are closely related to the bride may apply henna to her hands, and feed her sweets. This ritual is supposed to bring good luck and longevity to the bride's married life. Sometimes elaborate musical and acting performances are part of the Rasm-e-Heena celebrations, as well as competitions between the bride and groom's families are also quite common these days. Traditionally this was considered a "woman's event" as men did not participate in it. However this has changed substantially in recent generations with males featuring prominently. In some regions, Rasm-e-Heena is not celebrated while in other regions two Rasm-e-Heena celebrations are hosted, one by the groom's family and another by the bride's family.

Rukhsati
Rukhsati () - "sending off" (sometimes called Doli () - "palanquin") takes place when the groom and bride leave the shaadi venue together with the elders of the Family. Before this point the bride and groom will have already been married in the eyes of God by the imam in the nikkah. This is a Bride's farewell by her family. The games and pranks are juxtaposed with the dour occasion for the bride's parents, as the doli marks the departure of their daughter from the family unit, to establish a new home for herself. In order to bless and protect the couple, the Qur'an is held over the bride's head as she leaves, and even though there is no basis in Islam or Muslim tradition for the Rukhsati. In recent times, withholding or delaying the rukhsati has been used to exert control over the couple by the family of the bride or to extract dowry from the groom. Intentionally delaying or not hosting the Shaadi or Rukhsati May be used to disavow the relationship. However, in Islam as it is considered haram (impermissible) for any person to restrain a married woman from going with her husband, after the Nikkah has been performed

Sehra Bandi
Garlands dressing

Seraiki weddings

Dastar Bandi
Dastar Bandi (  ) is a ceremony where a turban is placed on the head of the groom and marks the start of manhood. Elders of the groom's family place a turban on his head and formally includes him in the 'circle of men'. This ceremony is commonly performed in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Punjab and northern Balochistan.

Sindhi weddings

Pre-Wedding rituals:

First the family of groom finds the suitable bride for their son, in sindh mostly the marriages are arranged and done among relatives, or in same castes, but today love marriages are also common, the boy's family first visits the girl's home, they ask girl's parents for getting their daughter married to their son. Or if the boy and girl love each other they talk to their parents, and then the boy's family visits the girl's house, where they ask for their daughter. When the parents of girl with girl's approval accept the proposal then sweets and milk are served, and everyone give prayers to the new couple to be, this meeting is called "Gaalh Paki"

Manghni/Manghno/Pothi: once the "Gaalh paki" is done then the maghno or maghni is performed means betrothal in sindhi. Manghni is performed a month or even more before the wedding, it is a pre-wedding ritual, it is performed on the lucky day best being any Monday, Wednesday, Thursday or Friday in the months of Ramazan, Rabi el Akhar, Rajab and Shaaban.

On the day of Manghno the groom's family arrives at bride's house with a long veil (pothi), cholo (bodice), suthan (pantaloons), sometimes also lengha is given, and some ornamentals such as "haar" necklace, a "Var" and "Khirol" different kinds of gold rings. The bride's house is decorated already before guests arrival, and the house usually divided into the two parties the males sit chatting with the men, and the females, accompanied by a Hajaman (barber's wife). The future bride is then dressed in the clothes and ornaments, seated in a conspicuous part of room, The bridegroom's mother first put a big embroidered veil "Pothi" on to bride, and put engagement ring into her finger, then the 7 "suhaganio" married women one by one apply oil on her hair and make braids, also apply henna on her hands, while making her eat sweets, while other ladies sing sehra/lada/geech (traditional folk songs), the bride's mother sends the barber's wife to the men's assembly with a large pot of milk directed to the father of the bridegroom. The Hajaman presents to the males, and compels them to drink with many compliments and congratulations, then sweets, dried dates and "patasa" are served both male and female sides, those who are wealthy would serve sweet rice (Zardo), and sindhi pulao/biryani with other items. Men then dance with joy on the sound of dhol, sharnai and on other instruments. After much joy the males then raise their hands and recite the Fatihah: after this the girl's father is asked to appoint some time for the marriage. He does so naming the month and day, upon which all parties rise up and leave the house. When arrived at this part of the proceeding, it is considered improper to break off the match.

Between the periods of betrothal and marriage, the bridegroom's parents and relatives on all great occasions like eid, take or send presents to the bride, a little money and sweetmeats, together with a dress or two.

Wanahu/Wanhwa Wiharanu: About a month before the marriage day, the ceremony called "Wanah Wiharanu" is performed. Today it happens only for 7 or 5 days. The family of the Ghot/Lado/Wanro (bridegroom) comes to the house of the Kunwar/Ladi/Wanri (bride) with items called "Pirro" some sweetmeats, clarified butter, fruits, dry fruits, perfumed oil, henna, and an "Akhiyo", a small piece of embroidered cloth used as a veil. The bride is made to sit in a corner of a room with "akhiyo" on her face, till the day/night of marriage, some rituals like applying oil in hairs by "suhaganio" married women is also done called "Wanah ja sath" with ladies singing sehras/ladas/geech, once these rituals are done and everyone leaves then the bride is made to stay in one room, no one, not even a female, being permitted to see the girl's face at this particular period. But bride is not supposed be to left alone, there must be any female sitting with her all the time, as it is believed that during these times, evil spirits can harm the bride or bridegroom. She has nothing else to do during this period, she only has to pray 5 times, recite holy "Quran", worship Allah, and pray for herself and for her better married life. She is fed with a kind of special bread called "Busri" and "Churo/Khorak", made up with the dry fruits, sweetmeats and the clarified butter sent by the bridegroom till the day of marriage, bride is only allowed to eat healthy food, made with homemade butter and oil, also fruits. The effect is supposed to increase delicacy of skin and complexion. During wanah the bride's nose is pierced, the girl's are only allowed to pierce their nose when they are supposed to get married, otherwise it is considered very bad for unmarried girls to pierce their nose. But today it has changed.

The barber's wife attends every day to bathe and wash the bride with Pithi (a succedaneum for soap, composed of sweet oil and flour of wheat or Mash, the Phaseolus radiatus), and the hair of the body are removed. All the different arts of the cosmetics, such as staining the hands, feet, and hair with henna, dyeing the lips with Musag (walnut bark), the cheeks with Surkhi (a preparation of lac, corresponding with rouge), and the eyes with Kajjal, or lamp-black, are also tried. The locks, parted in front, and allowed to hang down behind in one or two plaits, are perfumed with oils," and carefully braided to see that the back hair is all of the same length; the front part is trained to lie flat upon the forehead by applications of gum and water,' and the Namak, or brilliancy of the complexion, is heightened by powdered silver-leaf or talc, applied with a pledget of cotton to the cheeks and the parts about the eyes. At times sandalwood and rose water were rubbed upon the head and body, after the former has been thoroughly combed and washed with the clay called "Metu" and lime juice. The young beginner is instructed in the science of handling a bit of musk enclosed in embroidered cloth, and Tira, or moles, are drawn upon her face and lips with needles dipped in antimony and other coloring matters. The Missi, or copper powder, the idea that it strengthens the teeth and relieves their whiteness is seldom applied in Sindh by modest women. These experiments and preparation continue for many days; and during the whole period, visitors flock to the house and are feasted by the father of the bride. The ladies all sing sehra/lada/geech called "Sanjhri" daily at evening from wanahu till the wihan (marriage). Many of these things are not done anymore due to modernization, the bride simply goes to parlour or beauty salon for her cosmetics and grooming.

The bridegroom has not much to go through; He is given a dagger and tasbeh in his hands, (just like bride it is believed that during this period evil spirits can harm the bridegroom, so the dagger and tasbeh work as an amulet, also back in time enemies would take revenge by harming the groom so he was given the sword for his protection, also it shows and symbolize the bridegroom to be a warrior, strong, masculinity, and as a guardian/protector for his family to be) and a "ghano" wristband is tied on his hand, with him a "Arhyar/Arhar" is appointed who would be with him all the time till wedding. He is also fed healthy homemade busri, churo/khorak, "desi geh" and "makhan" made food, fruit, dry fruits and milk. Three days are considered sufficient to clean him with Pithi, dress him in rich clothes mostly white in color, with ajrak, patko, garlands of money and flowers, he is also supposed to perform nimaz 5 times a day, and recite "Quran" and pray for himself and for his married life, bridegroom is shown to the public at Maulud (commemorations of the Prophet's nativity), feasts given to the relations and friends of the family. Dance is also done.

Bukki: this ceremony is done after wanahu in which thread is tied to a big earthen pot called "ukhri", and the dried dates are crushed into it while ladies sing sehra, lada or geech. Then the bridegroom's uncle tie the "mor" a traditional headdress onto his face, then the ghot is laid down on a "khat" traditional decorated wooden bed, and his sisters, mother and other relatives apply henna on his hands and feet. Then the ghot's family comes to bride's house and performs bukki rituals called "bukki ja sath". They also give the bride's wedding dress which she will wear at wedding, jewelry, ornaments as well and other items for her cosmetics.

Parr diyanu: Parr diyanu is ritual in which bridegroom's family goes to a village's dargah or peer (a saint's grave) and offer a "chaddar" sheet of cloth with quranic verses written on it, this sheet is called (parr), they also offer fresh rose petals on the grave of Saint, also some "niyaz" distribution of sweets, dried dates or biscuits or anything else they want to give, it is distributed among the people present at the dargah.

Marriage Rituals:

The Wihan or Shadi (marriage ceremony) is usually performed at night. Early in the evening the barber appears to the Ghot's house, makes him get ready, dresses him in new white Salwar khamis (shirt and trousers) clothes, a turban, waistband, shawl (Ajrak Lungi/Maleer/Doshalo), also other extra red/pink embroidered veil on his head, "mor" and a pair of slippers everything sent by the bride's relations. At the same time, the Kunwar is decked out by the barber's wife in a suit of clothes, together with various kinds of jewels," procured for her by her future spouse's family. After the cosmetics the expiatory ceremony called "Ghor" is performed, by waving or throwing money over the heads of both parties. The cast-off clothes are the perquisites of the Hajam (barber) and his wife. Later the bride is made ready for the wedding, she wear wedding dress usually red colored Cholo, lengho and one or two veils, with a lot of jewelries and ornaments, the most important being the Nath (nose jewel) as it symbolizes the marital status in sindhi Muslim society, she wears Nath for few days even after her marriage, later Nath is replaced by "bullo/bulli/phuli/Kiro", other important jewelry is the chura/chooriyon but it has less importance nowadays. As great attention is paid to the dressing, it is seldom concluded before midnight.

Jjanjja: when the "ghot" bridegroom is all ready he leaves his house for going to get married at bride's house, wedding procession to the bride's house with his family, relatives and friends, he sits on horseback or in some part of Sindh on camelback, but nowadays in a decorated car. With music of dhol, sharnai etc., females singing sehras/ladas/geech, the friends of Ghot dance during whole journey. Once reached at bride's house, fireworks, dance, music is performed.

Nikah: when groom reaches at bride's house all the men are welcomed in separate men section or in a "Chhano/Shamiano" a large ceremonial tent made specially for weddings and other events, where the wedding grand feast is also served, and the women into women section, where they are greeted, they sing sehra, lada or geech there, in men section where the bridegroom is seated he finds a large gathering of relatives, a Mullan (priest), and other persons necessary for the performance of Nikkah. The priest, seated between the bridegroom and the bride's father performs nikkah rites, the witnesses or "wakils" are sent to bride's room for her approval mostly her father and brothers, the "haq-mahr" (settlements) given by bridegroom is made according to Islamic laws, once the nikkah is performed everyone raise their hands and pray, the priest recite quranic verses, then the nikkah is completed, everyone congratulate the bridegroom and his father, by hugging them, and giving "ghor" and putting the money garlands on them. Now both bride and bridegroom are officially married according to Islamic laws.

Peculiar sindhi traditions and rituals of marriage:

After nikkah, the Ghot enters the bride's house with his mother, sisters and other female relatives, he is then conducted in by the sisters, friends and female cousins of bride, who take the opportunity to perform a number of puerile ceremonies.

The first ceremonies/rituals are done at the entrance of the house from the groom enters.

Dhakkun Bhanjan and Kandi Katanu: A small earthen dhakkanu (pot-cover) is placed upside down on ground in front of bridegroom, then he is desired to stamp upon it. If he succeeds in breaking it at once, everyone augur well of his manliness.

Kandi Katanu: In other places of sindh, they fix a Kandi (thorn branch) firmly in the ground, and placing a sword in the bridegroom's hand, desire him to cut throngh it with a single blow.

Daawan/Dhagho Torar: bride's sister puts a long thread in the space of groom's finger, while his hand is raised high, from finger to the foot the thread is tied, the groom is supposed to break/tear the thread by pulling it in opposite direction.

Pani ji rasm and Surmo application: in some part of Sindh the ritual of drops of water sprinkled at groom is performed, while in other the surmo (kohl) is applied in the eyes of groom.

The bride's sister do these rituals and ask for money in return.

Once these rituals at door is done, the groom is then let entered in house and made seated on "saij" or "Khat" a special space made for bride and groom to sit and perform some rituals. The bridegroom is seated with his face towards the west, the bride's sisters and cousins get the bride from a room and make her sit in opposite direction of groom, between the couple a large bolster is placed. The rituals are performed there.

Laau/Lawan Diyan: The groom's uncles and their wives come one by one and compelling the bride and groom's to touch foreheads seven times in succession. Everyone gives "ghor"money after giving "laau" While other ladies sing sehra, lada, geech.

Phula/Gula Chundanu: When the "laau" is over, then "Phula Chundanu" ritual is performed. The Sohagans throws at the bride about a dozen cotton flowers dyed with saffron or turmeric; these then the groom takes up and puts aside.

Tira Maanu: is done as follows: A quantity of white and dry "Tira" (Sesamum) is brought in upon a large Thali, or metal platter, and placed before the bride. She joins her palms together, fills them with the grain, and pours it six or seven times into the Ghot's hands. The Sohagan, in the meantime sing sehra dedicated to this ritual.

Chanwara Maanu: this interesting ceremony succeeds after "tira maanu". The Sohagan places before the bridegroom a platter filled with salt and white rice in equal proportions. The Ghot now takes the initiative and pours six or seven palmsful of the grain into his bride's hands.

(The object of this proceeding is probably to inculcate obedience in the wife. Also to symbolize the "rizq" food that whatever the bridegroom will give wife, she will accepts it).

Kheer Mundri: a bowl of milk is placed in between the bride and bridegroom, a ring is dropped in the bowl of milk, and bride and groom are supposed to find it, however finds it first wins, and everyone cheers with joy, it repeats 3 times.

Winjri ji Sath: a local handfan is given to groom, and covered in the groom's shawl and made him put the end stick of handfan touch on the shoulders and head of bride, then bride repeats the same ritual on bridegroom.

Muth Kholanu: A dry date is then placed in the bride's right hand; she is told to hold it firmly and the bridegroom is desired to take it from her. As he must use only one hand. If he take it then all cheer and clap, if he fails it excites a general laugh.

Tik ji Rasam: also called "munh dekharanu" A big mirror is placed in between the couple and then the veil of bride is slightly opened and groom's "mor" are also put aside, both bride and bridegroom see each other in the mirror. The groom gives a gift for seeing the face of bride.

Gandh kholaru: the corners of bride's veil and groom's shawl are tied in a knot and the groom is supposed to untie it with his thumb and little finger only.

Kheer Piyarni: a bowl or glass of milk is made to drink to first bride and then to groom.

Pallav badhanu: lastly the corners of bride and groom's veils are tied tightly together, and the newly wedded couple leaves the bride's house.

Jutto Likai: the sisters of bride hide the shoes of bridegroom, and as in end when groom leaves he is asked for money in return of shoes.

Rukhsati: After all the wedding rituals performed, the bride see off her mother, father, brother, sisters and other relatives, getting emotional.

Chawar ji rasam: the last ritual in some part of sindh is performed, when the bride leaves her house, she takes rice in her hands and throw them to her behind.

In the end when she leaves the house holy book "quran" is carried above her head to the bridegroom's house.

Post wedding rituals
Walimo: is the post wedding ceremony where the family members, relatives, friends, neighbors of both bride and groom are invited a grand feast is served.

Satawro: The newly wedded bride with her husband visits her house.

Honeymoon
The honeymoon, or Shab-i-Zifaf (), refers to the couple's first night together and it occurs after the bride has left for the groom's house. On the day of the wedding, the couple's bedroom is decorated with flowers. It is customary for roses or rose petals to be laid across the couple's bed and sometimes for garlands or strings of roses to be used as bed curtains. The groom's female relatives lead the bride to the bedroom and she is left for some time to await the groom's arrival. At this point it is common for the groom to stay with his relatives for a while. After the relatives have left, the groom enters the bedroom where the bride is waiting. Traditionally the bride's veil or head covering (dupatta or chador) is draped over so that it covers her face (). It is customary for the husband to brush the bride's veil aside to reveal her face as one of the first things on that night. It is also customary in some families for the husband to present his newly-wed wife with a small token of affection. This is generally a ring or a family heirloom.

Gifts
It is customary for a bride and groom to receive wedding presents. Traditionally, an envelope with cash or gifts are given to the bride or groom when wedding guests come to visit them during the shaadi reception. It is also customary for friends and family of the couple to invite guests over for dinner and lunch after the shaadi to formally accept them as a couple. This can often result in the first few weeks of married life for the newly weds being spent hosting further dinner parties with the shaadi guests.

Photography

Wedding Cards

Religious customs

Mehr
Mehr () is a mandatory payment, in the form of money or possessions that will be paid by the groom to the bride and stipulated in the nikkah contract. While the mehr is often money, it can also be anything agreed upon by the bride such as jewelry, home goods, furniture, a dwelling or some land. Mehr is typically specified in the marriage contract signed during an Islamic marriage. The amount of mehr is decided by the family of the bride and the time of the payment is negotiable.

See also
 Arranged marriage
 Baad (practice)
 Culture of Pakistan
 Divorce in Pakistan
 Hindu marriage laws in Pakistan
 Islamic marital jurisprudence
 Polygamy in Pakistan

References

Bibliography
 Rasool, I.G., Zahoor, M.Y., Ahmed, I. et al. Description of novel variants in consanguineous Pakistani families affected with intellectual disability.  Genes Genom  (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13258-022-01219-y

Pakistani culture
Pakistan
Pakistan

Marriage in Pakistan