A throne room or throne hall is the room, often rather a hall, in the official residence of the crown, either a palace or a fortified castle, where the throne of a senior figure (usually a monarch) is set up with elaborate pomp—usually raised, often with steps, and under a canopy, both of which are part of the original notion of the Greek word thronos.

Function

A throne room is an impressive setting for a monarch to preside 'in majesty' over official ceremonies, to hold council, to grant audiences, to receive homage, to award high honors and offices, and to perform other official functions. Any of these could just as well be transferred, even on a permanent basis, to one or more other rooms, even outside the palace or ambulant. It can also be where the royal court can gather.

A common misconception is that kings and other ruling princes governed their lands seated on a throne for most of the working day. This may have been true in earlier times, for some rulers who actually presided over their council; yet often, another room was used, but only in peacetime.

Many others were almost constantly on the move with an ambulant court. It could even have been that the crown did not have an effective capital, as in England during most of the time before the Norman conquest. Or it could have been that the crown had, rather, a series of alternative residences, as did the Holy Roman Emperors. In their case, these developed into palatinates under the Habsburg dynasty when they also acquired extensive crown lands outside Germany and Austria, and their court often travelled on an almost continental scale.

Other monarchies frequently changed their capital, but then they would have used a mobile throne, possibly in addition to the permanent one used for enthronement and/or coronation. There are cases in Africa and Asia where the very name of the 'capital' is not a fixed place, but was the place wherever a king settled for a few years. In some climates court migrated annually between a summer and a winter capital. It has also common to spend quite some time, without need for practical reason, in secondary residences, not in the least hunting lodges.

Even when their capitals were fixed, English and French Renaissance kings used to travel extensively, and maintained many royal castles, in addition to paying visits to grandees of the realm. Henry VIII's most frequently used residence was, in fact, at Hampton Court, which was then outside London.

Even when in the main or only palace, the monarch often spent much time in other parts of the residence, such as the dining hall, the chapel, private quarters (for rest and family life), possibly a separate presence room, the council chamber, ballroom, gardens, court, theatre, and other recreational facilities.

Nowadays, throne rooms are only used for occasional grand ceremonies. Paperwork is done in an office, and most guests are received in a salon.

Notable examples
The following are notable throne rooms. Others are listed in the article on thrones.

Austria

Hofburg
Once the seat of the Holy Roman Empire and the Austrian Empire for over 600 years, the Hofburg Imperial Palace's throne room now serves as a conference centre, used by the Austrian Congress and for other international events.

Canada
The chamber of the Senate of Canada in Centre Block, which takes many of its design cues from the chamber of the British House of Lords at the Palace of Westminster, contains three thrones at its head. These thrones are used for the annual Speech from the Throne, which can be seen as a form of royal audience for Parliament, and thus the Senate chamber can be seen as a throne room in the royal presence.

China

In the Forbidden City, China's last imperial palace, the principal throne rooms are the three halls of the Outer Palace: the Hall of Supreme Harmony, the Hall of Central Harmony and the Hall of Preserving Harmony, of which the Hall of Supreme Harmony was the most important.

Denmark

Rosenborg

The throne in the throne room at Rosenborg Castle (now a museum) in Copenhagen was commissioned by King Frederik III in about 1663, and used by the absolutist kings of Denmark from 1671 to 1840 for the anointing ceremony. It was probably created by Bendix Grodtschilling. It was inspired by King Solomon's throne which, according to the Bible, was made of ivory and had six steps with lion figures on each. Tooth of Narwhal was chosen as the material, both because it was found in Danish waters and owing to its mythical associations with the unicorn; twelve lions were also commissioned, three of which, in silver, have been preserved in the room.

Christiansborg
The throne room actually used for receiving ambassadors is at Christiansborg.

France

Versailles
The throne was commissioned by King Louis XIV and was in use until 1789. In 1837, the Château de Versailles became a national museum. As part of the greater Versailles museum, the room is open to the public. Compare: Lit de justice.

Fontainebleau Palace
Preferring Fontainebleau over Versailles, Emperor Napoléon I had King Louis XV's bedroom converted into an Imperial throne room, and it was here that Napoléon abdicated. The palace was last used by Napoléon III; it was later declared a national monument in 1871, after the collapse of the French Empire.

Monaco: Prince's Palace,
For over 700 years, the Grimaldi family have ruled Monaco, and it is in this throne room that many historic festivals and ceremonies have taken place since the 16th century. It is also where most civil marriages of the Princely Family occur, before then having a religious ceremony elsewhere.

Germany

Residence of Munich
The Residenz of the Wittelsbach monarchs of Bavaria has one celebration room, which was the former throne-room, but completely destroyed by the bombing of Munich during the Second World War. It is now reconstructed and again visitable; the (smaller) throne room was rebuilt in the classicism style of the 19th century. Once, bronze figures of twelve rulers of the house of Wittelsbach stood there, between corinthic columns on a rostrum. These were the honourable monarchs of Bavaria for centuries.

Neuschwanstein
Note that the throne room of this beautiful, dream-like castle, Neuschwanstein, does not have a throne in it - the reason being that Ludwig II of Bavaria, its commissioner, did not live to see Neuschwanstein's completion, therefore one was never installed.

Hawaii

ʻIolani Palace
The throne room at ʻIolani Palace was used by King David Kalākaua, his wife Queen Kapiʻolani, and his successor Queen Liliuokalani. Kalākaua and his wife actually disliked sitting on the thrones, instead preferring to stand in front of them while receiving guests. King Kalākaua held formal audiences, diplomatic receptions, and state balls, receiving and entertaining guests from all walks of life, from royalty and diplomats to writers, entertainers, and sportsmen. Following her overthrow, the trial of Queen Liliʻuokalani also occurred in this room where she was found guilty and imprisoned within the palace by the Republic of Hawaii. The throne room, like the rest of the palace, is open to the public.

Portugal

Ajuda Palace, Lisbon
The Portuguese Throne room (pt. Sala do Trono) is in the Piano nobile of the Ajuda National Palace (Palácio Nacional da Ajuda) in Lisbon. The present decoration is from the 19th century, with walls covered with crimson velvet, gold gilded French mirrors and a major Tabriz carpet from the 18th century in the precious wood floor. The ceiling is covered with Máximo dos Reis allegorical fresco and a huge crystal chandelier.
The thrones are from Portuguese fabric, second half of the 18th century with the Portuguese coat of arms on the top handled by two angels. This fauteuils ware made to substitute the Juste-Aurèle Meissonnier's throne made to John V of Portugal and destroyed in the 1755 Lisbon earthquake. This throne was in Silver-gilt, with winged dragons, the heraldic symbolf of the House of Braganza, and the arms of Portugal supported by two allegorical statues, Europe and America.
The Throne room is still used for state events of the Portuguese Republic.

Russia

Peterhof
Used by the Tsars of Russia, the dais and throne of the Peterhof Palace dominate the eastern wall with a large picture presenting Catherine II on her horse. The room also holds numerous oil paintings and eleven chandeliers.

Winter Palace
Regarded as the throne of Russia, the throne of St. George's Hall (or large throne room) is set atop the seven-stepped dais with a proscenium arch above and the symbol of the imperial family behind (the two-headed eagle).

Peter I's Room (the smaller throne room) is modest in comparison to the former. The throne was made for Empress Anna Ivanovna in London and the picture behind displays Peter the Great with Minerva.

Spain

Royal Palace of Madrid

The Royal Palace of Madrid was the official residence of the Spanish monarch. The throne room is unique, as it retains the original decor from the days of Charles III. The sumptuous room has gold garnishing with crimson-velvet wall coverings complemented by a Tiepolo ceiling, lit by a rock crystal chandelier. Adorning the room are huge mirrors made in the royal glass factory of La Granja.

The royal family does not reside in the palace, instead choosing a smaller, more modest palace, the Zarzuela Palace, on the outskirts of Madrid. However, the Royal Palace of Madrid remains the official residence of the Spanish monarchy and is used for state occasions.

Sweden

Stockholm Palace

The throne located in the Hall of State at the Stockholm Palace is called the Silver Throne and was commissioned for the coronation of Queen Kristina in 1650. It was last used by the present king, Carl XVI Gustaf, on his accession to the throne in 1973 and at the State Opening of Parliament in 1974.

For the coronation of king Adolf Frederick and Queen Louisa Ulrica in 1750 two coronation thrones were made. Both are placed at the Stockholm palace, and one is on display in the Lovisa Ulrica audience chamber.

United Kingdom
The United Kingdom monarchs almost always had their own personal throne constructed. Until 1900, each throne was usually given or melted down at the end of the monarch's reign for the next throne. The thrones after 1900 were saved. The exact number of thrones in the United Kingdom is unknown, though there are at least more than five.
The United Kingdom differs from other countries as it has instead of one or two thrones, numerous thrones, some of which are 800 years old. The "throne" used for the anointing and crowning of the monarch during the Coronation of the British Monarch is called the Chair of St. Edward, or St. Edward's Chair. The Chair, which is centuries old, is usually on display at Westminster Abbey.

Buckingham Palace
The Throne Room of Buckingham Palace, the official residence of the British monarch in London, is used for court gatherings and as a second dancing room. It is dominated by a proscenium arch supported by a pair of winged figures of 'victory' holding garlands above the two Chairs of Estate, which were originally made for Queen Elizabeth II's coronation in 1953 and were refurbished for King Charles III and Queen Camilla for their coronation in 2023 and embroidered with the cyphers of the new King and Queen.

It is in the throne room that the sovereign, on special occasions, receives loyal addresses. Another use of the throne room has been for formal wedding photographs. The throne room is usually not used for ambassadors' arrival, which is usually in the ambassadors room of Buckingham Palace.

Apart from the Thrones in the room actually named Throne Room, there is also a pair of Thrones in the Buckingham Palace Ballroom, that is a larger multi-purpose hall within the palace. The ballroom is also used for investiture ceremonies in the UK's honours system.

There are also other thrones in the Throne Room. To the right of the sovereign's throne is Queen Victoria's throne and opposite that on the other side of the room is the throne chairs of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth. There are also two further thrones in the room.

St James's Palace
Although Buckingham Palace has been the primary official residence of the British monarchs since 1837, St James's Palace remains the senior palace of the British monarchy. St James's remains a busy working palace, and also retains an important ceremonial function: it still is the place where the Accession Council customarily meets to proclaim the new sovereign and to receive from them the required oath. This was last seen upon the accession of King Charles III.

St James's Throne Room is used for official occasions. For instance it is in this room that the lord mayor and councillors of the City of Westminster usually present an address of welcome to visiting heads of state on state visits.

While the Throne Room of Buckingham Palace has two thrones for the (except for the others) reigning king or queen and another for the monarch's consort, the Throne Room at St James's Palace contains only one throne, pertaining to the sovereign. As in the case of Buckingham Palace, the reigning monarchs throne is placed under a canopy.

The velvet cloth behind the throne is dominated by the coat of arms of the United Kingdom.

This room was more recently the setting for the announcement of the engagement of Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and Catherine Middleton, and in September 2022, the Accession Council met to proclaim Charles III as King of the United Kingdom.

Palace of Holyroodhouse
The Throne Room of the Palace of Holyroodhouse in Edinburgh, which has been the principal royal residence in Scotland since 1505, was originally the King's Guard Chamber, but has been used as the throne room since the visit of George IV in 1822. The present pair of thrones were made in 1911 for George V and Mary of Teck, and sit upon the dais beneath the Royal Arms of Scotland. Following the death of Elizabeth II at Balmoral Castle in September 2022, her coffin was transported to the palace, where it lay in repose in the Throne Room, before being taken in procession to St Giles' Cathedral.

Palace of Westminster
Although the primary purpose and reputation of the Palace of Westminster is as the seat of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, it is also officially a royal residence. While the palace has no throne room per se, the Lords Chamber contains at its head a throne, used by the monarch for addressing Parliament in the Speech from the Throne, arguably making the Chamber something of a throne room.

Clerks and officers of the House of Lords bow to the throne when crossing the chamber.

The Palace of Westminster also has a second throne under a canopy in the Robing Room, a room of the palace that remains under the authority of the Crown (and not of either House of Parliament), under the direction of the Lord Great Chamberlain, and that is used by the monarch to robe and to unrobe before and after the State Opening of Parliament.

Windsor Castle
Windsor Castle has a throne room known as the Garter Throne Room, where a chapter meeting of the Order of the Garter, including, if necessary, the investiture of any new Knights and Ladies, takes place once a year. The room accommodates two rows of chairs for all Knights and Ladies of the Garter, with the sovereign's Throne at the head. The current throne housed in the Garter Throne room is another personal throne of Queen Elizabeth II although sometimes the Indian Throne, a gift to Queen Victoria, is used.

Colloquial usage
In British English, "throne room" is also used as a euphemism for "lavatory".

Ireland

Dublin Castle

Located in the State Apartments, the Throne Room in Dublin Castle is preserved intact from the period when Ireland was part of the United Kingdom, when both Lords Lieutenant and visiting monarchs from Britain would use the room during important ceremonies held in the Castle. These included the investing of a new Lord Lieutenant every five years, the presentation of débutantes to the Lord Lieutenant during the Castle Season held leading up to St. Patrick's Day, and the presentation of subjects to visiting monarchs on official State visits to Ireland. The throne canopy dates to the late 18th century, while the throne was made for the visit of George IV to Ireland in 1821, and was last used by George V in 1911. The Throne Room no longer has any role in modern-day State ceremonial. However Dublin Castle still plays an important role in this respect, serving as the location for the inauguration of the President of Ireland every seven years. This takes place in the much larger and grander St. Patrick's Hall, the 18th century ballroom of the Viceregal Court, positioned almost adjacent to the Throne Room.

Malaysia
Malaysia's head of state, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong (commonly glossed as "King"), is a position rotated every five years among the nine royal houses of its nine hereditary states. Each has  separate palaces and throne rooms for each of the individual states, while the King resides in the Istana Negara (National Palace) in Kuala Lumpur. This and the old palace both had throne rooms called the Balai Rong Seri (Royal Audience Hall), where several state ceremonies including the King's Installation occur.

References

External links

Royal residences
Castle architecture
Monarchy
Rooms
 Room

Throne room


Kuru or Kurus may be:

Kuru (kingdom), a powerful Indian kingdom during the Vedic period and later a republic during the Mahajanapada period
Kuru Kingdom, a kingdom based on the historic Kuru kingdom in Indian epic literature
Kuru (disease), a type of transmissible spongiform encephalopathy with the cannibalistic funeral practices of the Fore people.
Kuru (archaeology), Indian ethnic group and their kingdom
Kuru (mythology) is part of African mythology
Kuru (Hinduism), imputed ancestral king
Kuru, Finland, municipality
Kuruş, Turkish currency
Kuru, Turkish dried-bean dish kurufasulye
Kuru school, in Kuru, Nigeria
Kuru (band), British punk band during the late 1990s
KURU (movie), an indy movie in development by The Enemy
S/S Kuru, a Finnish lake steamer
kuru, Finnish word for a type of canyon
Interbreeding IX: Kuru, a various artists CD compilation

Related pages
 Kourou, a town in French Guiana

Kuru


Anarchism in Bulgaria first appeared in the 1860s, within the national movement seeking independence from the Ottoman Empire, strongly influenced by the Russian revolutionary movement. Anarchism established itself as a distinct political movement at the end of the 19th century. It developed further in the 20th century, so much so that Bulgaria was one of the few countries in Eastern Europe where the organized anarchist movement enjoyed a real establishment throughout the country, until the seizure of power by the Bulgarian Communist Party. Under the People's Republic of Bulgaria, the anarchist movement survived underground, but was the victim of severe repression. From 1989, anarchism has been freely reconstituted.

History
Anarchism in Bulgaria has its roots in the Bogomils, a Medieval socio-religious movement that resisted the authority of the church and the state. According to Bulgarian historian , for centuries Bulgarians preserved traditions that "contain[ed] elements of libertarian communism."

Early developments
During the late 19th century, prominent figures of the Bulgarian National Revival, including Lyuben Karavelov and Hristo Botev, first came into contact with anarchism. Under the influence of Russian anarchist Mikhail Bakunin, Bulgarians joined the International Workingmen's Association (IWA) and participated in the uprisings of the Paris Commune and Herzegovina. Botev himself was inspired by Bakunin to take anarchist communism back to Bulgaria, where he communicated the philosophy through his poetry. Anarchists also went on to participate in the movement for the liberation of Bulgaria from the Ottoman Empire, with Botev being killed during the April Uprising of 1876. During the uprising, Georgi Benkovski led guerrillas in the capture of Panagyurishte and ran the city as a commune, influenced by the Paris Commune. All cattle were brought under common ownership, food was handed out for free and money was abolished, while non-essential goods were distributed by a system of labour vouchers. But the implementation of a truly self-managed economy was halted after 10 days, when the Ottoman Empire re-captured the city from the Bulgarians. In the wake of the uprising's suppression, a number of Bulgarian anarchists, including Mile Popyordanov, took an active part in popular struggles against Ottoman rule and during the period of the principality of Bulgaria.

In 1879, the Principality of Bulgaria was constituted as an independent state. By this time, Dimitar Blagoev and Spiro Gulabchev had brought socialist ideas back from their studies in Russia, initially influenced by Marxism but later moving towards anarchism. During the 1890s, the Bulgarian anarchist movement began to organise itself in Plovdiv, where the first anarchist journals such as Borba () were published. The beginning of the organized anarchist movement in Bulgaria is generally considered to be Spiro Gulabchev's "siromakhomilstvo" movement, inspired by populism and Russian nihilism.

Many anarchists also became heavily involved in the Macedonian Struggle, believing that national liberation could further their libertarian communist objectives. In 1893, Bulgarian anarchists established the Macedonian Secret Revolutionary Committee (MTRK) which, through its organ Otmastenie (), rejected ethnic nationalism and called for the formation of a Balkan Federation. In 1903, MTRK member Mihail Gerdzhikov led the short-lived Preobrazhenie Uprising against Ottoman rule in East Thrace. During the uprising, he and other anarchists helped establish the Strandzha Commune, the first Bulgarian experiment in libertarian communism. But after a month, the Ottomans repressed the uprising, without any intervention by the Bulgarian state. When Gerdzhikov returned to Bulgaria, he was imprisoned and his magazine banned, due to political repression that had followed a transit workers' strike.

By this time, anarchism had been overtaken in popularity by Marxism, as anarchists had only participated in various national liberation movements, but not yet constructed a specifically anarchist movement. In April 1907, an anti-anarchist law was adopted, which resulted in the dissolution of legal anarchist groups, the banning of their written press and the arrest of certain militants.

Growth and consolidation
Anarcho-syndicalism arrived in Bulgaria at the turn of the 20th century, when Varban Kilifarski founded a rural trade union, began publishing the journal Besvlastie and translated anarchist works into Bulgarian. With the outbreak of the Balkan Wars in 1912, he fled to France, where he worked at Sébastien Faure's progressive school and participated in the local class struggle, for which he was often arrested and imprisoned. During World War I, Bulgarian anarchists published a number of new journals, participated in the anti-militarist movement and refused military service, resulting in 40 anarchists being found guilty of anti-war agitation by military tribunals.

Following the end of the war, the Bulgarian anarchist movement experienced a period of growth, carrying out an underground campaign of action against the government. In 1919, anarchists participated in a rail workers' strike, which contributed to the defeat of Pyotr Wrangel's White Army in Ukraine. In June 1919, the Federation of Anarchist-Communists of Bulgaria (FAKB) was established and, after the Bulgarian Agrarian National Union was elected to lead the government, anarchist organisations were legalised for the first time. Now able to act in the open, the FAKB expanded its activities, held public congresses and published a number of magazines. This period was brought to an end by the 1923 Bulgarian coup d'état, during which 26 anarchists were executed without trial.

Underground activities
In reaction to the coup, anarchists participated in the September Uprising, during which many were killed resisting the new fascist government of Aleksandar Tsankov. In 1925, another anti-fascist revolt broke out in the Sredna Gora and Balkan Mountains, but it was suppressed and many anarchists were executed without trial. Despite the rise of fascism, the Bulgarian anarchist movement continued to grow throughout the 1920s and 1930s, with the anarchist tobacco worker Manol Vassev organising a peasants movement. But by the time of the 1934 Bulgarian coup d'état, the anarchist movement had retreated underground and many anarchists were forced into exile, imprisoned or killed. A number of the exiled anarchists joined the Republican faction during the Spanish Civil War and returned to Bulgaria to fight against the fascist regime, which was finally overthrown in 1944.

Bulgarian anarchists initially welcomed the 1944 Bulgarian coup d'état, which overthrew the Kingdom of Bulgaria and established the People's Republic of Bulgaria. In October 1944, the FAKB was re-established and began publication of its paper Rabotniceska Missal. In March 1945, it held a conference to discuss the establishment of formal relations with the Fatherland Front, but before the conference could start, its delegates were all arrested by the militia and confined in internment camps.

International pressure secured their release and the FAKB continued its activities, gaining popularity and falling under further political repression, with the government banning its journal and forcing the anarchist movement underground by 1946. Shortly before the 5th Congress of the Bulgarian Communist Party was opened in December 1948, 600 anarchists were arrested en masse and interned in the Belene labour camp, intending to suppress any libertarian communist sentiments from being expressed during the congress. Anarchism was thus outlawed and anarchists began to flee into exile, but as border controls got stricter, those that attempted to leave were taken to internment camps. After continuing his work underground for 22 years, Manol Vassev was found and executed by the communist regime in 1957. This vast repression led to the destruction of the anarchist movement organized in the country until 1989. According to State Security, the various anarcho-communist, anarcho-syndicalist and other libertarian organizations had 2,917 members at the time of their liquidation.

In 1952, the Our Road journal and publishing house was established in Paris. It went on to play a key role in the resurgence of Bulgarian anarchism, with emigrant anarchist organisations such as the Union of Bulgarian Anarchists in Exile being established.

Contemporary period
In 1989, Todor Zhivkov was removed from power, giving way to democratization and the restoration of civil liberties in Bulgaria. The Federation of Anarchists in Bulgaria (FAB) was established, declaring its aim to be the abolition of the state, the securing of well-being for all and the establishment of free communes. Other anarchist or anarchist-like organizations, such as the informal AnarchoResistance group formed in 2001, have also been established.

See also
 Boatmen of Thessaloniki
 Manol Vassev

References

Bibliography

Further reading

External links
 Анархопортал of the Federation of Anarchists in Bulgaria
 Официален уебсайт of the informal AnarchoResistance Group
 Автономна of the Autonomous Workers' Confederation

Anarchism
Bulgaria

Anarchism in Bulgaria


Czapek & Cie. is a manufacturer of fine Swiss watches founded in 1845 in Geneva.  It is most noted for its bespoke timepieces manufactured for the European nobility in the 19th century.

Company founder
Franciszek Czapek was a Czech-born, Polish master watchmaker who arrived in Geneva, Switzerland in May 1832. Soon after, he gallicised his name, thus becoming François Czapek. In 1834 he created the firm Czapek & Moreau with local Swiss watchmaker Moreau, from Versoix. François Czapek married (October 22, 1836) Marie, the daughter of clock and watchmaker Jonas Pierre François Gevril de Carouge (1777–1854).

Czapek was the author of the first book on watchmaking ever published in the Polish language "Remarks on the watchmaking for the use of the watchmakers and the public" (Słów kilka o Zegarmistrzowstwie ku użytku zegarmistrzów i publiczności). The work was printed in 1850 in Leipzig.

Patek, Czapek & Cie. (1839–1845)
On May 1, 1839, Antoni Patek and François Czapek established a six-year partnership in Geneva under the name of Patek, Czapek & Cie. This partnership produced some exceptional watches which are part of important horological collection (King Farouk Collection, Patek Philippe Museum) or auctions (Antiquorum, Christies, Bonhams, Sotheby's). Czapek was head of watchmaking ("Finisseur") while Patek led the sales and the Company. As of July 1840, the firm came gradually to employ a half-dozen workmen. Several were Poles: Lilpop from Warsaw; Henryk Majewski from Lwów (Ukrainian Lviv); Siedlecki and Friedlein from Kraków. Approximately 200 watches were produced yearly.

After the dissolution, Patek established Patek Philippe & Co. with the new partner Adrien Philippe. Czapek founded Czapek & Cie. also with a new partner, Juliusz Gruzewski.

Czapek & Cie. (1845)

In 1845 Francois Czapek founded Czapek & Cie. with a new partner, Juliusz Gruzewski  (1808–1865), a close friend of French Emperor Napoleon III (1808–1873). Czapek's new company flourished. He became watchmaker to the Court of the Emperor Napoleon III ('Fournisseur de la cour - Purveyors to the Imperial Court") and had an Atelier in Geneva, a shop in Paris, Place Vendome 28 (established 1850), and another in Warsaw (established 1854).

In 1855, Czapek & Cie. started supplying its watches to Emperor Napoleon III. Juliusz Gruzewski, Czapek's partner, was a personal friend of the Emperor a fact which no doubt allowed him to become watchmaker to the Imperial Court, supplying many of the watches that were given by him as diplomatic gifts.
Czapek's clientele has included Khedive Ismail Pasha of Egypt and the House of Golitsyn.

For unknown reasons, the company supposedly changed hands around 1869, possibly due to the illness or death of Czapek. Czapek's date of death is unknown. However a stem-winding pocket calendar watch (illustrated) contains a French inscription on the case inside translating as "Former Establishment Czapek and Company / No. 10630 / A. Chaillet Successor / 84 Rue du 4 Septembre / Paris".  In another area it is inscribed "1876 / Rudzicki".  This indicates that the business continued for some period after Czapek's departure.

Gallery

Czapek & Cie.'s Renaissance (2011–)
In 2011, Xavier de Roquemaurel, a luxury marketing consultant and watch lover, Harry Guhl an art expert, and Sébastien Follonier, a watchmaker, came together to revive Czapek. The company was reestablished on October 21, 2011, by creating a first model, a design study Czapek Chronograph.
The Company was relaunched and its development funded by an unprecedented equity campaign in November 2015, raising over 2 million CHF and bringing together more than 100 watch lovers and entrepreneurs from around the world.

In an effort to remain as faithful as possible to Czapek's spirit and style, they created the first model of the collection based on the design of Czapek pocket watch No 3430 dating back to the 1850s. They adapted the dial design to modern standards and sizes and created a proprietary caliber, SXH1, in collaboration with Swiss movement maker Jean-François Mojon of Chronode, inspired by the original movement of the pocket watch. The architecture of the movement with its double open ratchets and double spring barrels is a modern interpretation of the original movement of the 1850s pocket watch, delivering the same 7-day power reserve.

As a further homage to the history of Czapek & Cie, they named this first collection, 'Quai des Bergues', which was the address on the Rhone banks of his first Atelier in Geneva.

References

 Tellier, Arnaud, & Didier Chaponnière, Mélanie, Timepieces for Royalty, 1850–1910, by Patek Philippe, Geneva, Patek Philippe Museum, 2005 (192 pp.), pp. 14–15.
 Kathleen H. Pritchard, "Swiss Timepiece Makers 1775-1975", published by National Association of Watch and Clock Collectors, Inc., 1997 (C-107 - C108 pp.)
 Les Archives d'Etat de Genève (AEG), Czapek & Cie initial registration. 23 March 1847. AEG, Jur. civ, ccm 6, 91 pp.
 Zefix, SOGC, Heading Swiss Commercial Register
 Antiquorum, Czapek Lot descriptions
 Martin Huber & Alan Banbery, Montres de Poche Patek Philippe (second edition), 2005, 292 pp., pp 11–13 and 66.
 Philip Poniz, "Patek Philippe: The Forgotten Beginnings", VOX Magazine, 2003, http://catalog.antiquorum.com/catalog.html?action=load&lotid=342&auctionid=40"

External links
Czapek & Cie, Official Website
History of Patek Czapek & Cie

Swiss watch brands
Watch manufacturing companies of Switzerland
Manufacturing companies established in 1845
Swiss companies established in 1845

Czapek & Cie


The Record-Courier is an American daily newspaper in Portage County, Ohio, based in  Kent.  It is published by Gannett of Tysons Corner, Virginia, after having previously been owned by Dix Communications of Kent and Wooster, Ohio, until 2017.

History
The historical origins of the modern Record-Courier begin with the Ohio Star, which was first printed in 1830. In 1854 it merged with the Home Companion and Whig to become the Portage County Democrat, which supported the Free Soil Party and the Know Nothings. As those views became tied to the Republican Party, the paper supported the Union in the American Civil War and changed its name to the Portage Co. Republican Democrat after the war in 1868. In 1882, the paper bought the Portage County Republican and merged the two to create the Ravenna Republican. It would continue under this name until 1928, when it began a series of name changes until it settled on the Record-Courier in 1961.

In March 2019, an investigation by Snopes found that the name "Ohio Star" was used by Republican consultants as one of many  propaganda websites disguised as local news sites that would promote the politicians who hired them. Many of the writers on these sites, which often share content, have worked for political action committee supporting the politicians they cover, or directly on those politicians' campaigns.

Current staff members
Since Gannett purchased Gatehouse Media, there has been some minor staff changes. Bill Albrecht is the Regional Publisher, Heather Condley Rainone is the Managing Editor, Michael Shearer is the Regional Editor, Gary Hurst is the Circulation Director, Jim Williams is the General Manager & Advertising Director and Nancy Whitehead is the Classified Director.

More information
The Record-Courier is published daily except New Years Day, MLK Day, Presidents Day, Memorial Day, Independence Day, Labor Day, Columbus Day, Thanksgiving and Christmas.

References

Gannett publications
Kent, Ohio
Newspapers published in Ohio
Portage County, Ohio
Newspapers established in 1830
1830 establishments in Ohio

Record-Courier (Ohio)


The Yo-Yos are a British rock and roll band, formed in 1998 by ex-The Wildhearts bassist, Danny McCormack and Tom Spencer (ex- Sugarsnatch / The Lurkers), after the two met at a Toy Dolls recording session. The Yo-Yo's recruited Andy Selway (Bladz) (ex- Sugarsnatch) on drums and guitarist Neil Phillips (B-Movie Heroes) to the band.

The Yo-Yo's recorded their first single, "Out Of My Mind", and then joined The Backyard Babies for a UK tour. Another single was then recorded, "Rumble(d)". The Yo-Yo's continued to tour the UK and were then signed by the US record label, Sub Pop.

On the Sub Pop label, the Yo-Yo's released their debut album, Uppers & Downers on CD and LP in 2000. Despite gaining a cult following as well a favourable coverage from the rock and indie press, they split up due to infighting among members.

Neil Phillips went on to play for Danny Frye & The Devildolls, and also return his concentration to his own B-Movie Heroes whilst Andy Selway went on to KMFDM. Neil Phillips released his debut solo album in July 2012 under the name Jackrabbit Parole. The album, It's a Long Way Back to the  Drawing Board, was available on Front Room Records.

In 2005, the group reformed with a new line-up, that included McCormack and Spencer, along with Rich Jones on guitar.  The band recorded a new EP, Given Up Giving Up and toured the UK supporting 3 Colours Red. The EP was initially due for release on Mighty Atom Records, but was put out on Undergroove records at the last minute.

Ex-Wildhearts drummer Stidi originally took up drumming duties for the band, but was later replaced with a thumb. The band finally walked out on McCormack halfway through a tour with AntiProduct.  However, McCormack completed the tour in defiance, with support band Any Given Day providing a backing band.

Tom Spencer is currently fronting the London-based The Loyalties, which includes Rich Jones, Lee Jones. Rich Jones also plays with Bassknives.  McCormack is working on his first solo album in South Shields.  Neil Phillips continues to play with B-Movie Heroes.

On 17 February 2012, the Yo-Yo's reformed for "one night only" for a show at Camden Barfly to celebrate Danny McCormack's 40th birthday. Initially only one show was scheduled but due to demand, a second later show was also booked for later in the evening. At the end of each set the band was joined on stage by Chris McCormack, Andy Cairns, Ritch Battersby (first set) and Stidi (second set). In addition Ray McVeigh and Carl Barât appeared for a selection of punk rock songs. The band also performed on the third stage at Download Festival on 9 June 2012.

The band made a further appearance on 1 June 2013 at Camden Rocks Festival, curated by Chris McCormack at The Barfly. Chris McCormack was originally planned to take Rich Jones's place who was in the United States with the Ginger Wildheart Band, but Nick Hughes ended up taking second guitar duties, while Si Maxwell performed again with the band on drums.

The Yoyos were confirmed for two dates in July 2013 at Camden Barfly, warming up to playing the satellite stage at Sonisphere Festival.

Discography
LPs
 Uppers and Downers (Sub Pop 2000)
EPs
 Given Up Giving Up (Undergroove 2005)

References

External links

British rock music groups

The Yo-Yos


The polka dot jersey is the special cycling jersey given to the "King of the Mountains" in the Tour de France. The jersey is white with red spots, called polka dots. There is also space for the logo of the cycling team the winner belongs to.

The King of the Mountains is the rider who has collected the most points in the hill-climbing sections of each stage. Points are given to the first riders to reach the top. More points are given for difficult climbs. Difficulty is judged by the length of the climb and the average steepness of the climb.

The King of the Mountains competition at the Tour de France was started in 1933. The polka dot jersey for the winner was introduced in 1975.

Richard Virenque has won the jersey seven times, more than any other cyclist. In 2014 the winner was Rafał Majka. In 2015 an Eritrean rider, Daniel Teklehaimanot, became the first African who won a Polka dot jersey.

References

Tour de France

Polka dot jersey


Sir Francis Kynaston or Kinaston (1587–1642) was an English lawyer, courtier, poet and politician  who sat in the House of Commons from 1621 to 1622. He is noted for his translation of Geoffrey Chaucer's Troilus and Criseyde into Latin verse (as rime royal, Amorum Troili et Creseidae Libri Quinque, 1639). He also made a Latin translation of Henryson's The Testament of Cresseid.

Life

Kynaston was born at Oteley Park, near Ellesmere, Shropshire, the eldest son of Sir Edward Kynaston and his wife Isabel Bagenall, daughter of Sir Nicholas Bagenall. His father was High Sheriff of Shropshire in 1599. On 11 December 1601 Kynaston matriculated at Oriel College, Oxford. He graduated B.A. from St Mary Hall on 14 June 1604 and M.A. at Oxford on 11 November 1611. He was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1611.  He was knighted by James I at Theobalds on 21 December 1618.

In 1621 Kynaston was elected Member of Parliament for Shropshire. He became esquire of the body to Charles I on the King's accession in 1625.

At court Kynaston was the centre of a literary coterie. In 1635 he founded an academy of learning, called the Musæum Minervæ, for which he obtained a licence under the great seal, a grant of arms, and a common seal; Charles also contributed from the treasury. On 27 February 1636 Prince Charles, the Duke of York, and others visited the museum, and a masque by Kynaston, entitled Corona Minervæ, was performed in their presence. In July of the same year Sir George Peckham bequeathed money to the institution. At this time, Kynaston was living at Covent Garden in London.

Shortly after this, Kynaston was preoccupied with a certain 'hanging furnace,' recommended by him to the lords of the admiralty for ships of war.

Kynaston died in 1642, and was buried at Oteley. The museum appears to have perished with the death of its founder. Its site was marked by Kynaston's Alley, Bedfordbury.

Kynaston married Margaret Lee, daughter of Sir Humphry Lee, 1st Baronet of Langley, in 1613. They had one son, Edward (c. 1613 – 1656), and four daughters - Frances (b. 1612), Rachel, Ann (d. 1642) and Barbara (d. 1619).

Works

Kynaston published a translation of Chaucer's 'Troilus and Cressida,' with a commentary, prefaced by fifteen short poems by Oxford writers, including William Strode and Dudley Digges (Oxford, 1635). Kynaston also contributed to the Musæ Aulicæ by Arthur Johnston, a rendering in English verse of Johnston's Latin poems, London, 1635, and was author of an heroic romance in verse, Leoline and Sydanis, containing some of the legendary history of Wales and Anglesey, published with Cynthiades: Sonnets to his Mistresse (technically not precisely of the sonnet form) addressed by Kynaston to his mistress under the name of Cynthia (London, 1642).

Notes

References
Attribution

Further reading
 G. H. Turnbull, Samuel Hartlib's connection with Sir Francis Kynaston's 'Musaeum Minervae' . Notes and Queries, 197 (1952), 33-7. Publisher: Oxford University Press. .
 Cesare Cuttica, Sir Francis Kynaston: The importance of the 'Nation' for a 17th-century English royalist, History of European Ideas, Volume 32, Issue 2, June 2006, Pages 139-161.

External links
Amorum Troili et Creseidae Libri Quinque
Testamentum Creseidae (1639)
Survey of London vol. 36

1587 births
1642 deaths
16th-century English poets
Alumni of Oriel College, Oxford
English MPs 1621–1622
17th-century English writers
17th-century English male writers
English male poets
People from Ellesmere, Shropshire
English lawyers

Francis Kynaston


Colton Scott Brown-Underwood (born January 26, 1992) is an American reality television personality and former professional football player. He played defensive end at Illinois State and was signed by the San Diego Chargers as an undrafted free agent in 2014, and was on the practice squads of the Oakland Raiders and Philadelphia Eagles. After being released by the Raiders, Underwood became a contestant on the 14th season of The Bachelorette, and was then announced as the lead of the 23rd season of The Bachelor. He is the first lead in Bachelor franchise history to come out as gay.

Early life and education
Underwood was born in Indianapolis, Indiana, to Scott and Donna Underwood.  Both of his parents were star athletes at Illinois State University: Scott played college football for the Illinois State Redbirds and Donna played volleyball.  Scott and Colton both attended Washington Community High School; Colton graduated in 2010.  Colton has a younger brother named Connor. He was raised as Catholic.

Colton Underwood graduated from Illinois State University, where he followed his father's footsteps to play college football for the Redbirds.

Career

Football
On May 10, 2014, Underwood was signed as an undrafted free agent by the San Diego Chargers. On August 30, 2014, he was waived. On September 3, 2014, Underwood was signed to the Philadelphia Eagles' practice squad. On September 9, 2014, he was released from practice squad.

On September 23, 2014, Underwood returned to the Chargers and was signed to their practice squad. On December 29, 2014, he signed a future contract. On September 5, 2015, he was waived. On September 6, 2015, he was placed on injured reserve. On September 10, 2015, he was waived from injured reserve.

On December 1, 2015, Underwood was signed to the Oakland Raiders' practice squad. On August 29, 2016, he was released by the Raiders.

Reality television
Underwood was a contestant on the 14th season of The Bachelorette, starring Becca Kufrin.

After getting eliminated in week 8 after hometown dates, Underwood was cast in season 5 of Bachelor in Paradise. After being linked to fellow contestant Tia Booth, Underwood broke up with her, and both left Paradise separately in the fourth week.

On September 4, 2018, ABC announced that Underwood would star in the 23rd season of The Bachelor. The announcement received mixed reactions on social media. On September 21, 2018, ABC announced that Colton had started filming The Bachelor and had already met three of his contestants on The Ellen DeGeneres Show.

On April 14, 2021, Variety reported that Underwood was in production for his own unscripted series at Netflix. The six-episode series produced by Jeff Jenkins, Coming Out Colton, premiered on Netflix on December 3, 2021. In the series, he meets with other openly gay public figures, including Gus Kenworthy, Michael Sam, and CMT host Cody Alan. The series premiered to major criticism with Esquire describing the series as "calculated" and Variety's Daniel D'Addario saying "'Coming Out Colton' is a distasteful extension of a brand that doesn't mean much to begin with."

Philanthropy
In January 2016, Underwood founded the Colton Underwood Legacy Foundation to raise money for cystic fibrosis research and medical equipment.  Underwood started the foundation after his cousin Harper was diagnosed with the disease.  In January 2018, the foundation began the Legacy Project, with the goal of delivering AffloVests, chest wall oscillation devices which clear excess mucus from lung airways as part of the daily treatment for cystic fibrosis, to children in 50 US states.

Personal life
From 2016 to 2017, Underwood dated gymnast Aly Raisman after he asked her out in a video.

Underwood has spoken publicly about his choice to remain a virgin, and how appearing on The Bachelorette helped him discuss the topic. He began dating speech pathology student Cassie Randolph after meeting her on season 23 of The Bachelor. When Randolph initially ended their relationship during the final three, Underwood broke up with the other two women and asked Randolph for a second chance without the pressure of an engagement. Underwood and Randolph were in a relationship from November 2018 until May 2020.

In March 2020, Underwood tested positive for COVID-19, though he recovered in April.

In September 2020, Randolph filed a restraining order against Underwood, alleging that he stalked her outside her Los Angeles apartment and her parents' Huntington Beach house, sent harassing text messages using an anonymous number, and installed a tracking device underneath her car. Randolph was granted a temporary restraining order against Underwood ahead of the October hearing. Randolph dropped the restraining order in November, and Underwood stated "I do not believe Cassie did anything wrong in filing for the restraining orders and also believe she acted in good faith." He identifies himself as a Christian.

Coming out
On April 14, 2021, Underwood publicly came out as gay in an interview with Robin Roberts on Good Morning America, making him the first lead in the Bachelor franchise to come out as gay.

In an interview with Variety, Underwood stated that he was blackmailed into coming out. An anonymous man, claiming to be a fan, took a picture of Underwood nude at a gay sauna in Los Angeles in 2019. The man sent Underwood an email threatening to out him to the press. Underwood forwarded the email to his publicist, and this caused him to come out publicly. During the interview, Underwood also stated that he experimented with men before appearing on The Bachelor franchise, stating he used the dating app Grindr under an alias from 2016 to 2017.

On September 1, 2021, Underwood was reported to be dating Democratic strategist Jordan C. Brown after the two were spotted vacationing together in Hawaii, which he confirmed in December 2021 in a birthday post for Brown. In February 2022, Underwood confirmed that he and Brown had gotten engaged shortly after his 30th birthday the previous month. On May 13, 2023, Brown and Underwood were married.

Filmography

Television

Music video

Awards and nominations

Books
The First Time: Finding Myself and Looking for Love on Reality TV (Gallery Books, 2020). .

See also
Homosexuality in American football

References

External links

 Archive of Colton Underwood at San Diego Chargers official website.

1992 births
Living people
21st-century American LGBT people
American football linebackers
Bachelor Nation contestants
Gay sportsmen
Illinois State Redbirds football players
LGBT people from Indiana
LGBT players of American football
American LGBT sportspeople
LGBT Christians
Oakland Raiders players
Philadelphia Eagles players
Players of American football from Indianapolis
San Diego Chargers players
Participants in American reality television series

Colton Underwood


Thatta  (, IPA: [ʈɦəʈːoː]; , IPA: [ʈɦəʈːɑː]) is a city in the Pakistani province of Sindh. Thatta was the medieval capital of Sindh, and served as the seat of power for three successive dynasties. Thatta's historic significance has yielded several monuments in and around the city. Thatta's Makli Necropolis, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is site of one of the world's largest cemeteries and has numerous monumental tombs built between the 14th and 18th centuries designed in a syncretic funerary style characteristic of lower Sindh. The city's 17th century Shah Jahan Mosque is richly embellished with decorative tiles, and is considered to have the most elaborate display of tile work in the South Asia.

Etymology
Thatta refers to riverside settlements. Villagers in the rural areas of lower Sindh often refer to the city as Thatta Nagar, or simply Nagar.

History

Early
Thatta may be the site of ancient Patala, the main port on the Indus in the time of Alexander the Great, though the site of Patala has been subject to much debate. Muhammad bin Qasim captured the region in 711 CE after the defeating the local Raja in a battle north of Thatta. Thatta is reported by some historians to have been the ancient seaport of Debal that was mentioned by the Arab conquerors, though others place the seaport at the site of modern Karachi. At the time of the Umayyad conquests, small semi-nomadic tribes were living in the Sindh region. The Umayyad conquest introduced the religion of Islam into the hitherto mostly Hindu and Buddhist region.

Medieval

Following Mahmud of Ghazni's invasion of Sindh in the early 11th century, the Ghaznavids installed Abdul Razzaq as Governor of Thatta in 1026. Under the rule of the Ghaznavids the local chieftain Ibn Sumar, then ruler of Multan, seized power in Sindh and founded the Sumra dynasty, which ruled from Thatta from 1051 for the next 300 years. Under Sumra rule, Thatta's Ismaili Shia population was granted special protection. The Sumra dynasty began to decline in power by the 13th century, though Thatta and the Indus Delta remained their last bastions of power until the mid 14th century.

In 1351, the Samma Dynasty, of Rajput descent from Sehwan, seized the city and made it their capital as well. It was during this time that the Makli Necropolis rose to prominence as a funerary site. Muhammad bin Tughluq died in 1351 during a campaign to capture Thatta. Firuz Shah Tughlaq unsuccessfully attempted to subjugate Thatta twice; once in 1361 and again in 1365.

Portuguese
In 1520, the Samma ruler Jam Feroz was defeated by Shah Beg of the Arghun-Tarkhun dynasty, which in turn had been displaced from Afghanistan by the expanding Timurid Empire in Central Asia. The Tarkhuns fell into disarray in the mid-1500s, prompting Muhammad Isa Tarkhun (Mirza Isa Khan I) to seek aid from the Portuguese in 1555. 700 Portuguese soldiers arrived in 28 ships to determine, at the time of their arrival, that Isa Tarkhun had already emerged victorious from the conflict. After the Tarkhuns refused to pay the Portuguese soldiers, the Portuguese plundered the town, robbing its enormous gold treasury, and killing many inhabitants. Despite the 1555 sack of Thatta, the 16th century Portuguese historian Diogo do Couto described Thatta as one of the richest cities of the Orient.

Nevertheless, some Portuguese presence was early in the 16th century with the conquest of Hormuz by Afonso de Albuquerque in 1507, which started the relationship with Sindi. Later in the first decade of the 16th century, traders created a factory (), and in the end of the 16th century a religious Order (Carmelitas Descalços) founded a convent.

Mughal

The city was destroyed by Mirza Jani Beg in the 16th century. Beginning in 1592 during the reign of Emperor Akbar, Thatta was governed by the Mughal Empire based in Agra, which lead to a decline in the city's prosperity as some trade was shifted towards other Mughal ports.

Shah Jahan, while still a prince, sought refuge in the city from his father Emperor Jahangir. In his reign, Thatta Subah was carved out of Subah of Multan, with provincial capital in Thatta. It consisted of modern Sindh. In 1626, Shah Jahan's 13th son, Lutfallah, was born in Thatta. The city was almost destroyed by a devastating storm in 1637. As a token of gratitude for the hospitality he had received in the city while still a prince, Shah Jahan bestowed the Shah Jahan Mosque to the city in 1647 as part of the city's rebuilding efforts, although it was not completed until 1659 under the reign of his son Aurangzeb. Emperor Aurangzeb himself had also lived in Thatta for some time as governor of the lower Sindh.

Thatta regained some of its prosperity with the arrival of European merchants. Between 1652 and 1660, the Dutch East India Company had a small tradingpost (comptoir or factory) in Thatta. This competed with the English one, which was established in 1635 and closed in 1662. Thatta in the 1650s was noted to have 2,000 looms that produced cloth that was exported abroad to Asia and Portugal. Thatta was also home to a thriving silk weaving industry, as well as leather products that were exported throughout South Asia. The city was considered by visiting Augustinian friars in the 1650s to be a wealthy city, though the presence of transgender hijras were taken as a sign of the city's supposed moral depravity.

Thatta'a revival was short lived as the Indus River silted in the second half of the 1600s, shifting its course further east and leading to the abandonment of the city as a seaport. Despite the abandonment of the city's port functions, its Hindu merchants continued to play an important role in trade, and began using their own ships rather than relying on European ships for trade. Traders were particularly active in the region around Masqat, in modern Oman, and members of Thatta's Bhatia caste established Masqat's first Hindu temple during this period. Sindh remained an important economic centre during this period as well, and Thatta remained Sindh's largest economic centre, and its largest centre for textile production.

Kalhora
The Kalhora dynasty began to gain influence as a dynasty of feudal lords in upper Sindh, where they ruled since the middle 16th century. They eventually brought Thatta under their control in 1736, after which they moved their capital to Thatta before eventually moving it to Hyderabad in 1789. A British factory was established there in 1758, but only lasted a few years. Thatta continued to decline in the mid 18th century in importance as a trading centre throughout the 18th century, as much of the city's trading classes shifted to Shikarpur in northern Sindh, or to Gujarat.

Talpur
In 1739, however, following the Battle of Karnal, the Mughal province of Sindh was fully ceded to Nadir Shah of the Persian Empire, after which Thatta fell into neglect, as the Indus river also began to silt. The city then came under the rule of the Talpur dynasty, who seized Thatta from the Kalhoras.  A second British comptoir was established during the Kalhora period in 1758, which operated until 1775. In the early 19th century Thatta had declined to a population of about 20,000, from a high of 200,000 a century before.

British
Talpur rule ended in 1843 on the battlefield of Miani when General Charles James Napier captured the Sindh for the British Empire, and moved the capital of the Sindh from Hyderabad to Karachi. In 1847, Thatta was administered as part of the Bombay Presidency. In 1920, the estimated population of the city was 10,800.

Modern

After the independence of Pakistan most of the city's Hindu population, though like much of Sindh, migrated to India, Thatta did not experience the widespread rioting that occurred in Punjab and Bengal. In all, less than 500 Hindu were killed in
all of Sindh between 1947 and 1948 as Sindhi Muslims largely resisted calls to turn against their Hindu neighbours. Hindus did not flee Thatta en masse until riots erupted in Karachi on 6 January 1948, which sowed fear in Sindh's Hindus.

In the 1970s under the rule of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, Thatta's monuments were restored and some industry was relocated to Thatta.

Administration
The city serves as capital of Thatta District. In 1948 Thatta bifurcate from Karachi as a separate district but in 1956 city established a capital of Thatta District. On 23 April 2014, the government announced the formation of Sindh's sixth division, Banbhore Division, with Thatta as capital. These sources reveal that this formation is made to improve governance in Thatta.

Geography
Thatta's geology is characterized by volcanic and sedimentary rocks that are similar to those in the Indus plain, and Thar Desert. Soil types in the region are silty, with some clay as well. Much of the soil is exposed to salinization from the Arabian Sea.

Vegetation in Thatta is characterized by mangrove forests in the coastal region, with tropical-thorny shrubs elsewhere.

Hindu temples
Thatta is believed to be birthplace of Ishta dev of Sindhi Hindus "Jhulelal".

 Baba Srichand Darbar
 Hanuman Mandir at Cinema road
 Jhule Lal Mandir Behrani at Goth
 Jhule Lal Mandir at Main Shahi Bazar
 Jhule Lal Mandir in a house at Sonara Bazar
 Mata Singh Bhawani Mandir at Makli
 Nath Marhi Mandir
 Seetla Mata Mandir in a house at Sonara Bazar
 Shiv Mandir at Maheshwari Mohala

Climate

Thatta has a hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification BWh), bordering on a hot semi-arid climate.
The average annual rainfall is , The average annual temperature in Thatta is .

Last 10 years monsoon rains in Thatta were recorded as:

2009: 300+mm
2010: 300+mm
2011: 245mm
2012: 206mm
2013: 176mm
2014:  227mm
2015:  199.6mm
2016:  132mm
2017:   227mm
2018:   315mm

Sports
An association football club, Jeay Laal is established in 2020.

Notable people
Hashim Thattvi (1692–1761), Islamic scholar, the first to translate the Quran into Sindhi
Mir Ahmed Nasrallah Thattvi (–1588), Islamic scholar at the court of Mughal emperor Akbar
Mir Ali Sher Qaune Thattvi (1728–1788), Islamic historian and writer
Muhammad Saleh Thattvi (–1663/64), Mughal metallurgist and craftsman
Tahir Muhammad Thattvi, poet and a historian

See also
 Thatta District
 Sindh
 Indus Valley civilization
 History of Pakistan
 Zulfiqarabad
List of cities founded by Alexander the Great

References

External links

Populated places in Sindh
Thatta District
Buddhism in Pakistan

Cities founded by Alexander the Great

Thatta


Philip Elsmore (born 16 November 1937, in Stourport-on-Severn, Worcestershire) is a British actor and former broadcaster, best known for his role as senior continuity announcer for Thames Television between the station's launch in 1968 and its closure in 1992, having made both the first and last announcements for the station.

After National Service with the RAF in West Germany, he trained as an actor, playing minor roles and understudying at the Old Vic, followed by repertory and tours.

In 1963, he started work as a freelance continuity announcer and over several decades became one of Britain's most familiar voices lending his avuncular tones to a number of ITV franchisees including Border and Tyne Tees.

He was also a continuity announcer for ABC Weekend TV, which was the main influence and majority shareholder for what became Thames, and also announced for Southern Television at weekends while London Weekend Television was on the air in London. Since 1992, he has concentrated on reviving his original career as an actor, although he also freelanced as an announcer for Westcountry Television in Plymouth during the mid-late 1990s.

As an actor, Elsmore has played parts in various films and television series including The Bill, Lovejoy, The Governor, Casualty and Doctors.

While working for Thames, he also made cameo and guest appearances in networked productions such as Rainbow, Pauline's Quirkes, The Kenny Everett Video Cassette and Eric & Ernie's Christmas Show, often parodying his role as a continuity announcer. In the case of the latter, he holds the distinction of appearing in Morecambe and Wise's last TV sketch.

References

1937 births
Living people
Male actors from Worcestershire
People from Stourport-on-Severn
British television presenters
Radio and television announcers

Philip Elsmore


Wudang tai chi () is the name of a system of tai chi that was developed by a Hong Kong-based tai chin master Cheng Tin Hung. While Cheng never claimed to be teaching any particular school of tai chi, his uncle was a disciple of the Wu-style tai chi, which may or may not have had some influence on his own approach to the art.

The Wudang tai chi system is now being taught in Europe by two of Cheng Tin Hung's disciples, Dan Docherty and Ian Cameron, both based in the United Kingdom. The system also continues to be taught in Hong Kong, and the current head of that school is Cheng Tin Hung's son Cheng Kam Yan (鄭鑑恩), whose school is called the Hong Kong Tai Chi Association.

Zhang Sanfeng, a highly mythologised figure said to be the founder of tai chi, lived in the Wudang Mountains and the name "Wudang" used for this tai chi system was used in order to acknowledge Zhang Sanfeng's status as the founder of tai chi. There are other schools of tai chi that also use this name.

The Wudang tai chi system is also known as "practical tai chi". This name comes from that given to Cheng Tin Hung's style by various Chinese martial arts journalists in Hong Kong during Cheng's heyday, and from the school's assertion that its tai chi is eminently useful as a form of self-defense.

The Wudang tai chi system teachers publish that they have links to famous tai chi masters (see lineage diagram), including Yang Banhou, Wu Quanyou, Wu Jianquan, Cheng Wing Kwong, Chen Gengyun (陳耕雲) and Wang Lanting (王蘭亭).

Qi Minxuan

It is thought that Qi Minxuan (齊敏軒) came from Wen County, Hebei Dao in Henan Province. His father, Qi Gechen (齊閣臣), was a disciple of the famed tai chi master Wu Quanyou. After losing his family during the Japanese Occupation and Second World War, Qi became an itinerant martial arts instructor teaching tai chi and neigong to those that would give him board and lodgings Qi Minxuan also learnt from a Buddhist monk known as Jing Yi (静一, Tranquil One), who learnt tai chi from Wang Lanting. Qi Minxuan's Buddhist name was Zhi Meng (智孟, Sagacious Elder) and was an enthusiastic student of Chan Buddhism. The fate of Qi Minxuan is unknown.

Cheng Tin Hung

As a young boy, Cheng Tin Hung studied Southern Boxing (南拳) from his father Cheng Minchueng (鄭綿彰), which was a family style, learnt from his father Cheng Lin (鄭麟) who was a professional martial artist. As Cheng Tin Hungg grew older his uncle Cheng Wingkwong (鄭榮光) took an interest in teaching him Wu-style tai chi. Cheng Wingkwong was a formal disciple of Wu Jianquan, who eventually held the rank of Sifu in the Wu family's Hong Kong school. At that ranking he had their encouragement to take on disciples of his own and open his own school. Cheng Wingkwong knew of an itinerant martial artist known as Qi Minxuan whose father was a disciple of the founder of the Wu-style, Wu Quanyou. Cheng Wingkwong arranged for his nephew to train with Master Qi from the summer of 1946 to the winter of 1948. Qi Minxuan advised his new disciple Cheng Tin Hung, that in order to gain a good reputation as a master of tai chi he must be both sound in mind and body and also be able to defend himself, thus being able to represent the art in its true form. Cheng Tin Hung later took the nickname of the "Tai Chi Bodyguard" for his enthusiastic defence of tai chi as a martial art. Cheng liked to drink, eat, and fight as well as train and teach. His predilections may have contributed to the ill health that plagued him in his later years.

Dan Docherty

Dan Docherty was born in Glasgow, Scotland, in 1954. He graduated with an LLB in 1974 and soon after moved to Hong Kong where he served as an inspector in the Royal Hong Kong Police Force until 1984. Soon after he arrived in Hong Kong in 1975 he started training tai chi under Cheng Tin Hung and within a few years was elected to represent Hong Kong in Full-contact Fighting competitions. In 1980 he won the Open Weight Division at the 5th South East Asian Chinese Pugilistic Championships in Malaysia.

In 1985 he was awarded a Postgraduate Diploma in Chinese from Ealing College, London.

He was based in London and travelled extensively teaching and writing about tai chi. Docherty was known for his strong views on the history of tai chi and was seen as a polarizing figure within the world of tai chi. In articles and interviews he spoke of confrontations with other tai chi teachers, including an infamous meeting with one Shen Hong-xun, a master who claimed to have and to teach "empty force", or the ability to move a person without physical contact. The meeting ended up with Docherty pouring water over the head of Shen Hong-Xun, not to prove that empty force does not exist but to suggest that Master Shen was unable to summon and use it at that time.

Later in life he suffered from Parkinsons disease. He died on December 9th, 2021.

Ian Cameron

Ian Cameron was born in Edinburgh (Scotland, UK) in 1944. A student of Judo and Karate from a young age, he was also a keen boxer as a teenager. He trained in tai chi with Chen Tin Hung in Hong Kong from 1971 to 1974 whilst serving in the armed forces in Hong Kong. On his return to Edinburgh he set up his class which was to evolve into the Five Winds School of tai chi. He subsequently returned to Hong Kong in 1980 for a month, with the purpose of intensively training with Cheng. Cheng Tin Hung was then Cameron's guest in Scotland the following year, and again in 1985 and 86, teaching seminars throughout the UK. Ian Cameron appeared in Hong Kong newspaper articles with Cheng during the early 70s, and was described in the acknowledgements of Cheng's best known book in the UK (Wutan Tai Chi Chuan) as the "elder brother in TCC" of Dan Docherty, current president of the Tai Chi Union for Great Britain. Cameron was a founder member of the Tai Chi Union for Great Britain, and sits as Technical Director of that body. He remains a leading practitioner and teacher of tai chi in the UK and continues to fervently defend the traditional approach to Cheng's system of training.

Wudang tai chi Lineage

References

Docherty, D. Complete Tai Chi Chuan, The Crowood Press, 1997.
Cheng, Tin Hung & Docherty, D. Wutan Tai Chi Chuan, Published Hong Kong, 1983.
Cheng, Tin Hung. Tai Chi Transcendent Art, The Hong Kong Tai Chi Association Press Hong Kong, 1976. (only available in Chinese)
"The Practice of Wudang Tai Chi Chuan " by Ian Cameron, published by Bell & Bain 1997
'The Practice of Wudang Tai Chi Chuan -Tai Chi Weapons Forms" published Reid Williamson, 2000

External links
 Wudang Mountain International Kung Fu Academy
 The Hong Kong Tai Chi Association
 Practical Tai Chi Chuan International's official website
 Wudang Global Federation

Tai chi styles
Neijia

Wudang tai chi


The Office of the Prime Minister (commonly called the prime minister's office or PMO (; ) comprises the staff that supports the prime minister of Canada and is located in the Office of the Prime Minister and Privy Council Building in Ottawa, Ontario. The PMO provides policy advice, information gathering, communications, planning, and strategizing. It should not be confused with the Privy Council Office (PCO), which is the higher office that controls the Public Service of Canada and is expressly non-partisan; the PMO is concerned with making policy, whereas the PCO is concerned with executing the policy decisions made by the government.

Katie Telford manages the PMO, serving as chief of staff to Prime Minister Justin Trudeau since November 4, 2015. The position of principal secretary has been vacant since February 18, 2019.

Nomenclature
Officially titled the Office of the Prime Minister, the organization is widely referred to as the prime minister's office and, although the latter rendering of the name is completely unofficial, the office's English abbreviation is always given as PMO, as opposed to OPM. (In French, the PMO is known as the  and abbreviated as , or often literally translated as , abbreviated as .)

Unlike similar executive offices, such as 10 Downing Street, the White House, and Rideau Hall, the Canadian prime minister's official residence of 24 Sussex Drive is not widely used as a metonym for the prime minister's office. This is because, unlike those examples, the Canadian prime minister's official residence is not the site of any bureaucratic functions. Langevin Block—the former name of the Office of the Prime Minister and Privy Council Building—was occasionally used this way in media, as it is the seat of the PMO. But, since the building has been renamed, media usually simply speak of staff "in the prime minister's office".

Function
The PMO includes speech writers, strategists, and communications staffers who shape the prime minister's and Cabinet's message, as well as keeping the prime minister informed on events that take place in government and across the country. The office also acts as a link between the political party organization and the government.

One of the most important roles of the PMO is related to government appointments, which are made by the monarch or governor general on the advice of the prime minister, the PMO working with the Privy Council Office to find suitable candidates for positions such as the governor general, provincial lieutenant governors, senators, Supreme Court justices, chairpersons of ministerial boards, heads of Crown corporations, and more.

History
After Jean Chrétien became prime minister, the PMO continued to be the central organ of the government. Chrétien greatly depended upon the PMO, especially his chief of staff, Jean Pelletier, who ran the office from 1993 to 2001; Percy Downe, who served as his director of appointments from 1998 to 2001 and chief of staff from 2001 to 2003; and his senior advisor, Eddie Goldenberg, who had spent his entire career working with Chrétien in various ministries. Chrétien's successor, Paul Martin, changed the structure of the PMO to more match that of the Executive Office of the President of the United States. For example, he introduced deputy chiefs of staff, who were responsible for areas such as communications and policy; re-established the position of director in the offices of the other ministers of the Crown, positions that were previously known as special assistants; and re-established the position of principal secretary, which had originally been created by Trudeau. Martin further, and significantly, increased the salary of the PMO's staff.

This model was largely retained by Martin's successor, Stephen Harper, despite the recommendations of John Gomery following his investigation into the sponsorship scandal, in which he concluded the power of the PMO should be reduced, stating, "the most troubling facts were that this aberration originated in the prime minister's office in the first place and was allowed to continue for so long, despite internal audit reports, investigations, warnings, and complaints by public servants involved in the actual contracts in question."

References

 J.E. Hodgetts "Prime Minister's Office The Canadian Encyclopedia.
 McMenemy, John. "Prime Minister's Office." The Language of Canadian Politics.
 Eddie Goldenberg, The Way It Works'' pages 40 to 45.

External links
 Office of the Prime Minister
 Office of the Prime Minister YouTube channel

Government of Canada

Canada

Office of the Prime Minister (Canada)


Thomas Cheeseman (1846–1923) was a New Zealand botanist.

Thomas Cheeseman may also refer to:

Thomas Cheseman (ca. 1488–1536 or later), English politician
Thomas Cheesman (cricketer) (1816–1874), English cricketer
Tom Cheesman (born 1961), academic
Tom Cheeseman (born 1986), Welsh rugby union footballer
Thomas Cheesman (clergyman), see Aston Tirrold
Thomas Cheesman (engraver) (1760–1834), British engraver

Thomas Cheeseman (disambiguation)


Westminster Mall is an enclosed, two-level shopping mall in Westminster, California, United States. Opened in August 1974, the mall features anchor stores JCPenney, Macy's, and Target, with one vacant anchor space last occupied by Sears. It is owned and managed by Washington Prime Group.

Westminster Mall is situated on the corner of Goldenwest Street and Bolsa Avenue in Westminster, California.

History

In the 1920s, the world's largest goldfish farm was relocated to the area where the mall stands today. Construction of the mall began in the 1970s.
Westminster Mall opened for business on August 7, 1974, with May Company, Sears and Buffum's, with J. W. Robinson's being added in 1975 as the mall's fourth anchor store.

Three of the mall's anchors changed names in the 1990s. Buffum's closed in May 1991 due to the chain being liquidated.  By January 1993, Robinson's and May Company merged to form Robinsons-May. As a result, the May Company store was rebranded Robinsons-May, and the J. W. Robinson's was closed as one of the 12 Robinson's and May Company stores closing as part of the merger. The closed Buffum's store became a Robinson's-May Home Store in March 1993 and in November of that same year, the closed Robinson's store became a JCPenney, which had relocated from Huntington Center Mall (now Bella Terra). In 2002, the Robinsons-May Home Store building was torn down for a new Macy's. When Federated Department Stores (now Macy's, Inc.) purchased Robinsons-May and other May Co. names in September 2006, Macy's moved to the Robinsons-May building, and the former Macy's location soon became a Target. Old Navy was added as well. In 2008, the mall underwent a renovation, relocating the carousel and constructing a play area in its place. The Grand Re-opening was on November 15, 2008. In 2015, the Todai Seafood and Sushi buffet closed and Luxe Buffet replaced it.

In 2015, Sears Holdings spun off 235 of its properties, including the Sears at Westminster Mall, into Seritage Growth Properties.

Gymboree and Crazy 8 closed on August 12, 2017, as part of a plan to close 300 stores nationwide.

On January 4, 2018, it was announced that Sears would be closing as part of a plan to close 103 stores nationwide. The store closed in April 2018, making it the last original anchor store to close.
As of January 2021, the space is still vacant.

As of 2023, Spencer Gifts is the last long-term tenant remaining from the opening era of the mall in their original location on the upper level.  They were temporarily moved downstairs during the COVID-19 pandemic. John's Incredible Pizza shuttered its doors this year due to the mall management to repurposing the space, only leaving Buena Park and Carson locations.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, the Westminster Mall saw a dramatic decline in sales, due to many of its business laying off employees, and their closures. In addition to the financial struggles at the Mall, the rise in online shopping also took a toll on the Mall's revenue. Because of this, in April of 2023, the City of Westminster approved a redevelopment plan to utilize the mall's main building, for mixed-use housing, lodging and retail. This will result in the destruction of parts of the mall's side wings. The plans will start sometime between early to mid 2025.

Transit Access
OCTA Routes 25 & 64

References

External links

Website

Washington Prime Group
Shopping malls in Orange County, California
Shopping malls established in 1974
Westminster, California
1974 establishments in California

Westminster Mall (California)


Meinhardt Schomberg, 3rd Duke of Schomberg, 1st Duke of Leinster, KG (30 June 1641 – ), was a general in the service of Willem, Prince of Orange and Stadtholder of Holland, later King William III of England. He fought in the Franco-Dutch War, then played a crucial role at the Battle of the Boyne in July 1690 during the Williamite War in Ireland and finally commanded the British troops deployed to Portugal during the War of the Spanish Succession.

Military career
Born the son of Frederick Schomberg, 1st Duke of Schomberg (who was of Huguenot descent), and Johanna Elizabeth de Schomberg (née von Schönberg), Meinhardt Schomberg joined his father in the service of the English Expeditionary brigade to Portugal and served as a lieutenant-colonel and then as a colonel. He then settled in La Rochelle with his father and became a French subject. He attained the rank of brigadier and, afterwards, maréchal de camp (major general), during the Franco-Dutch War in 1678. He fought under Marshal François de Créquy at the Battle of Kochersburg in October 1677, the Battle of Freiburg im Breisgau on 14 November 1677, at the Battle of Rheinfelden in July 1678 and at the Battle of Kinzing later that month, before serving under Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg as a general of cavalry.

He travelled to England in Spring 1689 and was made colonel of Lord Cavendish's Regiment of Horse on 10 April 1690 and commissioned a general of the horse on 19 April 1690.

He served under his father during the Williamite War in Ireland, fighting against the Jacobite Irish Army. Frederick Schomberg was second in command of William's army at the Battle of the Boyne in July 1690. Meanwhile, Meinhardt Schomberg commanded the right wing of William's army during the battle and led the crucial crossing of the River Boyne at Roughgrange near Rosnaree on the Jacobites' flank, the turning point in the confrontation, despite a gallant defence by Sir Neil O'Neill, a Jacobite general. Schomberg then engaged in a pursuit of the retreating troops towards Duleek: there were no casualties amongst his regiment's soldiers. Schomberg's father died during the latter stages of the Battle which resulted in a decisive Williamite victory.

Meinhardt Schomberg was created Duke of Leinster for his part in the Battle on 30 June 1690 and, after taking part in the abortive Siege of Limerick in August 1690, he became a British subject through naturalization by Act of Parliament on 25 April 1691. From May 1691 he was also made Commander-in-Chief of the Forces during the King's travels in Flanders. In Spring 1693 Schomberg was placed in command of the abortive descent on Saint-Malo and in October 1693 he inherited the title of Duke of Schomberg following the death of his younger brother Charles Schomberg at the Battle of Marsaglia. In 1698 he moved into Schomberg House, a new mansion specially commissioned for him on the south side of Pall Mall, London.

In 1703, he was created Knight of the Garter and Queen Anne appointed him Commander-in-Chief of the British forces sent to Portugal for the War of the Spanish Succession. Once in Portugal Schomberg was ineffective, simply allowing the Spanish General Tserclaes de Tilly to pass by unchallenged. Moreover, Schomberg had a dreadful temper which attracted universal disgust: neither Peter II, King of Portugal, nor Charles, claimant to the throne of Spain, were prepared to accept his turbulent behaviour and he was sent home in disgrace.

Meinhardt Schomberg had an interest in naval matters and registered a patent concerning inspecting the fishing for wrecks. He commissioned the construction of Hillingdon House in 1717 as his hunting lodge and died there on . He had no surviving male issue so all of his titles (Duke of Schomberg, Duke of Leinster, Marquess of Harwich, Earl of Brentford, Earl of Bangor, Baron Teyes and Count of Mértola) except Count of Mértola died with him.

The town of Schomberg, Ontario was renamed to commemorate the 3rd Duke of Schomberg in 1862.

Family

On 3 August 1667 Schomberg married Piedmontese Barbara Luisa Rizzi in La Rochelle. The couple did not have any children, although some sources suggest that shortly after the marriage he abandoned his wife when she was seven months pregnant after she refused to divorce.

On 4 January 1682 Schomberg married for the second time, to Raugravine Caroline Elisabeth (a daughter of Charles I Louis, Elector Palatine) and together they had four children:
 Charles Louis Schomberg, Marquess of Harwich (15 December 1683 – 14 October 1713), died from tuberculosis.
 Lady Caroline Schomberg (1686 – 18 June 1710)
 Lady Frederica Schomberg (c. 1688–1751) married (1) Robert Darcy, 3rd Earl of Holderness, and (2) Benjamin Mildmay, 1st Earl FitzWalter
 Lady Mary Schomberg (bap. 16 March 1692 – 29 April 1762) married Christoph Martin von Degenfeld-Schonburg

References

Sources

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1641 births
1719 deaths
English generals
British Army generals
Counts of Mértola
English people of German descent
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Peers of Ireland created by William III
Garter Knights appointed by Anne
Williamite military personnel of the Williamite War in Ireland
Dutch generals