Virginius Evans Clark (February 27, 1886 – January 30, 1948) was an officer in the United States Army, a military aviation pioneer, and a World War I engineer. Clark designed the 1922 Clark Y airfoil used by many early aircraft.

Biography

He was born on February 27, 1886, to Harry Scott Clark in Uniontown, Pennsylvania. Clark graduated the United States Naval Academy in 1907. He participated in the 1908-1909 round-the-world battleship voyage with the Great White Fleet. Later he was part of the Coast Artillery until 1912. In 1913 Clark joined the Aeronautical Division, U.S. Signal Corps. In 1914, Clark attended Massachusetts Institute of Technology for an aviation engineering course.

In 1917, Clark became a NACA member, and a member on the Joint Army and Navy Board on Rigid Airships. In 1917 Clark became the Commanding officer of McCook Field founding the current Aeronautical Systems Center. While at McCook, Clark and Verville designed the VCP-1, and Engineering Division TP-1 aircraft. Clark was sent to Europe in June 1917 representing the Army on the"Bolling Mission", an aeronautical commission on aviation for the acquisition of airplanes to fight World War I. In 1922 Clark was also the Vice President of the Society of Automotive Engineers. In 1920 he became the chief engineer of the Dayton-Wright Company. In 1923, he became the vice president of Consolidated.  Clark later worked for the Duramold division of Fairchild Aircraft in 1938. Clark designed the Fairchild 100, Fairchild 150, and the 46 Duramold (later the Fairchild 46-A). He became a consultant at Hughes Aircraft Company. Clark's Duramold process would later be used on the Spruce Goose.

He died in Santa Monica on January 30, 1948.

References

1886 births
1948 deaths
United States Navy engineering officers
American aerospace engineers
Aerodynamicists
American aviators

Virginius E. Clark


Wed () (Ancient South Arabian script: 𐩥𐩵) is a pre-Islamic Arabian god. it was the national god of the Minaeans of South Arabia, Yemen, and the snake was associated with it. It is also called Waad and Wadum.

In Arabian tradition, Wed was worshipped by the Banu Kalb tribe and his idol was located in the city of Dumat al-Jandal. The idol was said to be destroyed by Khalid ibn al-Walid. He is also mentioned in the Quran as a false god in Surat Nuh.

Attestations

Pre-Islamic era
Wadd was the national god of Ma'in, or the Minaeans; the magic formula Wd'b or "Wadd is [my?] father" was written on amulets and buildings. These writings were often accompanied with a symbol; a crescent moon with the small disc of Venus.

An altar dedicated to him was erected by Minaeans living on the Greek island of Delos. The altar contains two inscriptions, one of which is in Minaean language and the other in Greek. Minaean inscription on the altar begins with symbols of three Minaean god one of which is of Wadd whose symbol is a snake. The Minaean text on the altar reads, "Hāni' and Zayd'il [of the lineage] of Hab erected the altar of Wadd and of the deities of Ma'in at Delos." The Greek inscription reads, "[Property] of Oaddos, god of the Minaeans. To Oaddos." He was also worshipped by Minaean colonists in Dedan (modern-day Al-'Ula) during the Lihyanite rule. A temple of Wadd evidently existed in Dedan. There is evidence from Minaean inscriptions of the presence of Levites in the temple of Wadd who according to some scholars were either as priests or cult servants who could later be promoted to higher positions.

Wadd was also the national god of the Awsan kingdom. It is known that in the Hellenistic era, a king of Awsan was proclaimed as "son of (god) Wadd", receiving offerings as if he himself were a god.

Islamic era
The theophoric name Abd Wadd is attested in the name of Amr ibn Abd Wadd, a champion of the tribe of Quraish who challenged the Muslims for a duel during the Battle of the Trench. Ali, Muhammad's son-in-law and cousin, accepted the challenge and killed Amr.

According to Hisham ibn al-Kalbi's Book of Idols, the Banu Kalb tribe worshipped Wadd in the form of a man and is said to have represented heaven. His idol and temple stood in Dumat al-Jandal, and Malik ibn Harithah, a former devotee of Wadd, describes his idol:
lt was the statue of a huge man, as big as the largest of human beings, covered with two robes, clothed with the one and cloaked with the other, carrying a sword on his waist and a bow on his shoulder, and holding in [one] hand a spear to which was attached a standard, and [in the other] a quiver full of arrows.

He is mentioned in the Qur'an (71:23) as a deity of the time of the Prophet Noah.

And they say: By no means leave your gods, nor leave Wadd, nor Suwa'; nor Yaghuth, and Ya'uq and Nasr. (Qur'an 71:23)
The temple dedicated to Wadd was demolished on the orders of Muhammad in the expedition of Khalid ibn al-Walid (2nd Dumatul Jandal).

See also
 List of lunar deities

Sources
The Book of Idols (Kitab Al-Asnam) by Hisham Ibn Al-Kalbi

References

Arabian gods
Banu Kalb
Lunar gods
South Arabia
Snake gods
National gods

Wadd


Justin Deas (born March 30, 1948, in Connellsville, Pennsylvania) is an American actor. He is known primarily for his work on daytime soap operas.

Personal life
Deas received his Bachelor of Arts from the College of William & Mary. Deas married actress Margaret Colin (who played his onscreen wife on As the World Turns) in 1988; the couple has two sons. He has a daughter, Yvette Deas, with Jody Catlin.

Career
Deas' first daytime role was as Bucky on Ryan's Hope. He was the tenth actor to play the role of Tom Hughes on As the World Turns. He also played Keith Timmons on Santa Barbara, and Buzz Cooper on Guiding Light. He held the record for most Daytime Emmy Awards in the acting categories, winning six Emmys - (once for As the World Turns, twice for Santa Barbara and three times for Guiding Light) until 2012 when Anthony Geary won a seventh award in the same category.

Filmography
 1975-1978: Ryan's Hope as Dr. Bucky Carter (255 episodes)
 1980s: One Life to Live as Marco Dane (Temporary replacement for Gerald Anthony)
 1981-1984: As the World Turns as Tom Hughes #10  (Role: December 1980 to April 13, 1984)
 1985: Tales from the Darkside as Heat Jones (1 episode) in "False Prophet"
 1986: Dream Lover as Kevin McCann
 1986: Foley Square as N/A (1 episode)
 1986:  Intimate Strangers as Brad Bierston
 1986-1988: Santa Barbara as Keith Timmons (Role: May 30, 1986 to November 17, 1988)
 1987: Cameo by Night as Detective Bellflower
 1987:  A Stranger Waits as Mike Webber
 1987:  U.S. Marshals: Waco & Rhinehart as Milo Rhinehart
 1989: Studio 5-B as Jake Gallagher
 1990: Montana as Clyde
 1990: The Loves of Emma Bardac as Narrator (voice)
 1992: Szuler as Rudolf "Rudy" de Seve
 1993-2009: Guiding Light as Buzz Cooper (Role: February 5, 1993 – September 18, 2009)
 2010: An Affirmative Act as Governor Packer Winstroll

References

1948 births
Living people
20th-century American male actors
21st-century American male actors
American male soap opera actors
Daytime Emmy Award winners
Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series winners
Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series winners
Male actors from Pennsylvania
People from Connellsville, Pennsylvania
College of William & Mary alumni

Justin Deas


The siege of St. John's was a failed attempt by French forces led by Daniel d'Auger de Subercase to take the fort at St. John's, Newfoundland during the winter months of 1705, in Queen Anne's War. Leading a mixed force of regulars, militia, and Indians, Subercase burned much of the town and laid an ineffectual siege against the fort for five weeks between late January and early March 1705.  Subercase lifted the siege after running out of provisions and gunpowder.

The siege was part of a larger-scale expedition that was an attempt to repeat the highly destructive expedition led by Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville in 1696.  Many outlying English communities were destroyed by Subercase's men, leading to reprisal raids by the English.  Fishing activities on both sides suffered for the duration of the war, which ended with the French cession of its claims to Newfoundland.

Background

The island of Newfoundland had been contested territory between France and England for some time before Queen Anne's War broke out in 1702.  French raids during King William's War in the 1690s had completely destroyed almost all of the English settlements, including the principal port of St. John's, located on the east side of the Avalon Peninsula of southeastern Newfoundland. However, an English squadron led by Sir John Gibson and Sir John Morris persuaded the displaced fishermen to return and rebuild along their side of the peninsula. The Treaty of Ryswick signed in September 1697 led to the English receiving Newfoundland and the French retaining Acadia. However, the terms of the treaty became void when the French re-established their capital in Plaisance, on the Avalon Peninsula's west side.

In 1702, English Captain John Leake raided a number of French settlements in Newfoundland, but avoided Plaisance due to the presence of French warships in the harbour. In 1703, Daniel d'Auger de Subercase arrived in Plaisance as the new governor and took command of a 150-man garrison and facilities that were in poor condition.  After raiding Ferryland, he learned of a planned English attack on Plaisance, and prepared for the assault.  It never came, as Admiral John Graydon, in what was widely seen in England as a cowardly move, called off the attack despite having significant advantages. Graydon was subsequently court martialled and dismissed from the service over his conduct in the entire campaign, which also included the failed siege of Guadeloupe.

French preparations
In late 1704, Subercase began planning an attack against the English settlements.  In addition to his garrison, he recruited Canadiens and Abenakis from the mainland and as many settlers as possible to participate in the effort.  In all, his force numbered about 450 when it set out across the peninsula on 8 January 1705. His corps included a company of over 100 men led by Josué Dubois Berthelot de Beaucours that included Jacques Testard de Montigny and the Abenaki war leader Escumbuit, both of whom had participated in Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville's 1696 raid against English settlements.  While most of the company went overland, a brigantine was sent around the peninsula with some heavy guns.

English defences

St. John's was under the command of Lieutenant John Moody, with Lieutenant Robert Latham, a military engineer and mason, as his second in command. The principal defences of St. John's were Fort William, a stone fortification on the north side of the harbour built after the French expedition of 1696, and the South Castle, a stone fort on the south side of The Narrows which commanded the harbour entrance. Moody had put Latham in command of South Castle, while he commanded at Fort William. The combined defense force numbered between 50 and 60 men, with about a dozen under Latham's command.

Siege
The progress of the French was quite slow, due to the extreme winter cold and snow.  They first captured Bay Bulls and Ferryland (small coastal communities south of St. John's) without opposition, and then moved on to St. John's, where they arrived near the town on 31 January. Subercase had wanted to surprise the English, but the opportunity was lost when his advance guard approached within sight of the English defences (the remaining force having been delayed by poor conditions), and was driven off by cannon fire. Most of the community then fled to the protection of Fort William, and Subercase had to content himself with occupying the town while waiting for the brigantine to arrive. While he did take prisoners, he released the women and children to the fort in order to increase the burden on the English supplies. The women ended performing valuable assistance in helping with the fort's defence.

After about two weeks' siege, Subercase attempted to use the divisions between Moody and Latham to diminish English morale and possibly achieve a negotiated surrender or gain control of Latham's post. He sent letters to both men, one from himself to Moody, and a second from one of the prisoners, addressed to Latham.  The letter to Latham implied that a deal was in the works with Moody, and Subercase's agents tried to convince Latham to leave his works to meet with Moody.  Latham refused, and Subercase's effort was ineffective.

After 33 days of waiting, in which the brigantine with the heavy guns never appeared, Subercase, running low on munitions and provisions, lifted the siege. He destroyed the town's houses and fishing stages, and returned to Plaisance, taking with him 200 civilian captives. Subercase detached Montigny and 70 men, who continued to raid English settlements through the rest of the winter.

Aftermath
The French expedition took 1,200 prisoners in all, most of which were released due to a lack of provisions, and destroyed forty cannons, 2,000 fishing shallops, and 200 wagons, but failed to eliminate the stronghold. John Moody returned to England in late 1705, and was rewarded with a lieutenant's commission in the Coldstream Guards. He feuded with Latham, charging him with irregularities in his administration of the fortification works and poor command of South Castle, and his complaints led to Latham's recall.

Subercase continued to develop the French colony in 1705, which flourished despite the war. He was rewarded for his efforts with the Order of Saint Louis and the governorship of Acadia.  There he presided over Port Royal's defences, successfully fending off British sieges in 1707, but was then forced to capitulate to overwhelming force in 1710.

Subercase's replacement at Plaisance, Philippe Pastour de Costebelle, negotiated an exchange of prisoners from the siege, and successfully captured St. John's in January 1709. France gave up claims of sovereignty over Newfoundland in the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht and, under Costebelle's supervision, moved the French settlers from Newfoundland to Louisbourg.

The site of Fort William is a National Historic Site of Canada (marked by a plaque), and the South Castle location is part of the Signal Hill National Historic Site.

Notes

References

Further reading
  Contains a report by Costebelle on Subercase's expedition.

Military history of Newfoundland
Conflicts in 1705
Battles of the War of the Spanish Succession
St. John's
Sieges involving France
Siege
New France
1705 in North America
Pre-Confederation Newfoundland
Queen Anne's War
1705 in the British Empire

Siege of St. John's


The National Congress (; ) is a registered political party in Sri Lanka. It was founded in 2004 by A. L. M. Athaullah.

History
Following the death of M. H. M. Ashraff, the leader of the Sri Lanka Muslim Congress (SLMC), in September 2000 there was a power struggle between Ashraff's widow Ferial Ashraff and Rauff Hakeem for control of the party. In June 2001 Hakeem, A. L. M. Athaullah and some other SLMC MPs left the governing People's Alliance (PA). Ferial Ashraff remained in the PA as leader of the National Unity Alliance.

In October 2001 the Hakeem led SLMC joined the United National Party dominated United National Front (UNF). The UNF defeated the PA at the 2001 parliamentary election after which Hakeem was appointed a cabinet minister in the UNF government. Athaullah was only given a non-cabinet ministerial position. This caused jealousy amongst Athaullah and other SLMC members who accused Hakeem of monopolising cabinet ministerial positions for himself. Another leadership battle emerged in the SLMC, this time between Hakeem and Athaullah. In December 2002 Hakeem suspended Athaullah who was chairman of the SLMC. A legal battle ensued after which Athaullah and his supporters were expelled from the SLMC.

Athaullah and his supporters launched the Ashraff Congress political party on 25 February 2003. In February 2004 Athaullah and some others left the Ashraff Congress to form the National Muslim Congress (NMC) which became a constituent member of the newly formed UPFA, the successor to the PA.

The NMC contested the 2004 parliamentary election on the UPFA ticket, winning two seats in Parliament - Athaullah in Ampara District and M. I. Anwer Ismail on the National List. Athaullah was made a cabinet minister in the new UPFA government whilst Ismail became a deputy minister. The NMC changed its name to National Congress (NC) in September 2005. Following the death of Ismail in September 2007 the NC was reduced to a single MP. Athaullah retained his parliamentary seat and cabinet position at the 2010 parliamentary election. The NC won three seats on the Eastern Provincial Council at the 2012 provincial council election. At the 2015 presidential election, whilst other Muslim political parties flocked to support common opposition candidate Maithripala Sirisena, the NC remained loyal to President Mahinda Rajapaksa. Following Sirisena's victory, Athaullah lost his ministerial position.

References

2004 establishments in Sri Lanka
Islamic political parties in Sri Lanka
Political parties established in 2004
Political parties in Sri Lanka
United People's Freedom Alliance

National Congress (Sri Lanka)


The straight man is a stock character in a comedy performance, especially a double act, sketch comedy, or farce. When a comedy partner behaves eccentrically, the straight man is expected to maintain composure. The straight man is a foil, a contrasting character to the funny man. The direct contribution to the comedy a straight man provides typically comes in the form of a deadpan.

A straight man with no direct comedic role has historically been known as a stooge. Typically, he is expected to feed the funny man lines that he can respond to for laughs (and is hence sometimes known as a feed), while seeking no acclamation for himself. If a straight man unintentionally breaks composure and laughs, it is known in British English as corpsing.

History

In vaudeville, effective straight men were much less common than comedians. The straight man's name usually appeared first and he usually received 60% of the take. This helped take the sting out of not being the laugh-getter and helped ensure the straight man's loyalty to the team. Abbott and Costello, one of America's most popular comedy duos of the 1940s and 50s in radio, film and television, began as nightclub performers when the straight-faced Bud Abbott contrasted against the bumbling Lou Costello; Abbott, unusually, allowed Costello a larger paycheck to keep him on the team.

Women
Despite the usual name, women can fulfill an equivalent role, although they are often described as a "comedic foil". Examples of noteworthy female foils include Margaret Dumont, who often performed with the Marx Brothers in their films, Bernardine Flynn up against Art van Harvey on Vic and Sade, Marian Jordan against her husband Jim on Smackout and Fibber McGee and Molly, and Pam Dawber, who performed with Robin Williams on the television series Mork & Mindy. Selena Gomez plays the comedic foil to Steve Martin and Martin Short on the television series Only Murders in the Building.

Popular culture
The role is still found today in sitcoms and several Japanese comedy anime, where they are known as tsukkomi. Prominent sitcom characters illustrating this role include Jim Halpert from The Office, and Ben Wyatt from Parks and Recreation. Some notable tsukkomi characters include Shinpachi Shimura and Toshiro Hijikata from Gintama, Himeko from Sket Dance, Saiki Kusuo from The Disastrous Life of Saiki K., Mio Naganohara from Nichijou, Frylock from Aqua Teen Hunger Force, and Tadakuni from Daily Lives of High School Boys.

See also
 Everyman
 Foil
 Manzai

References

Stock characters
Comedy characters

Straight man


"Antichrist Superstar" is a song by American rock band Marilyn Manson. It was released as the first promotional single from their second studio album of the same name. The song itself is symbolic of the climax of the concept album's story, the point where the abused and wretched victim at the center of the tale takes on the identity of the nihilistic culture war iconoclast Antichrist Superstar, rampaging the world and destroying anything in his path. This image is conveyed by the song's triumphal and ominous tone; the guitar riffs are deliberately reminiscent of horns and trumpets in a totalitarian rally, in which Manson sings, and could be an allusion to how his critics see him as a threat to Christian morality and, therefore, the world.

In concert, Marilyn Manson usually sings the song atop a podium in a stage filled with banners embellished with the album's distinctive "lightning bolt/shock" symbol, much like the Nazi Nuremberg Rallies and sings the song with highly exaggerated body movements and postures meant to mock and parody dictators and televangelists.

Rover's Morning Glory uses this song's intro as the show's intro song and anthem.

Song overview

Music video

The music video for the song, directed by E. Elias Merhige and co-directed by Manson, was filmed sometime during 1996, but remains officially unreleased. It was originally screened at the 1997 San Francisco Film Festival as part of a program titled "Newly Minted Memories". It won a Golden Gate Certificate of Merit in the "Music Video" category.

In 1996, Merhige was contacted by Manson to produce a music video for "Cryptorchid" the day after he saw Merhige's 1991 experimental horror film Begotten. Manson and Merhige met in Los Angeles, California, where they produced the video. Merhige then expressed interest in filming a video for "Antichrist Superstar", but wanted to use a bulk of footage outtake that he had already compiled. He shot excess material featuring Manson, then edited it together with the pre-existing scenes.

Merhige used military footage from different countries and different wars that depicted the fascist aspect of the song. However, Manson was not quite sure that it represented the criticism that the subject matter deserved. Ultimately, release of the video was vetoed by Interscope, who was appalled by the quality of the cinematography. The frontman, for his part, expressed interest in seeing its release someday, quipping: "that's not to say it won't be seen but I'm not sure if [Merhige] ever had a fair chance of finishing it because of the record company."

For over 14 years the film was shelved by Interscope. Despite this, on June 19, 2010, the music video was released in its entirety on YouTube. The leaked video is 5 minutes and 43 seconds in length although, according to the title card, its total run time is 5 minutes and 23 seconds. It was filmed by Merhige in black and white, incorporating footage from Begotten as well as the military warfare footage. Original scenes including Manson were also filmed where he is seen playing a demagogue in a business suit tearing pages out of a bible from the top of a podium similar to his live performance of the song. Henry S. Rosenthal of San Francisco-based film company Complex Corporation mentioned his involvement in the production of the video and he is credited in the film's intertitle. In mid-2011 the music video was put up for streaming on the band's official website.

References

External links

1996 singles
Marilyn Manson (band) songs
Satirical songs
Song recordings produced by Trent Reznor
1996 songs
Political songs
Songs about music
Songs critical of religion
Songs written by Marilyn Manson
Songs written by Jeordie White
Songs written by Madonna Wayne Gacy
Nothing Records singles

Antichrist Superstar (song)


St Wilfrid's Church is an Anglican church in the village of Ribchester in Lancashire, England that is situated close to the site of a Roman fort. It is an active parish church in the Diocese of Blackburn. It is recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade I listed building.

History

St Wilfrid's dates from the 13th century, built on a site close to that of a Roman fort, Bremetennacum. A chapel and porch were added in the 14th century. A tower was added to the west in the late 15th century. In the 16th century, the roofs were removed in order to increase the height of the chancel walls and new windows were added to the aisle wall. Major repairs to the building took place in 1685–6 and 1711. A west gallery was added in 1736. The church underwent restoration in 1881 that included the rebuilding of the north wall of the chancel.

In November 1966, it was designated a Grade I listed building. The Grade I listing is for buildings "of exceptional interest, sometimes considered to be internationally important". St Wilfrid's is an active Anglican parish church in the Diocese of Blackburn, the Archdeaconry of Lancaster and the Deanery of Preston.

Architecture

Exterior
The church is constructed of sandstone rubble and has roofs of stone slate. Its plan consists of a nave with a south aisle, chancel, south porch, north chapel and west tower. There is a vestry to the north of the chancel. The tower, of three stages, has angled buttresses and battlements. It has three-light belfry louvres.

Interior and fittings
The nave measures  by . and has four bays. The south arcade has pointed arches of two chamfered orders and octagonal piers with moulded caps and bases. The north arcade has two bays; its arches also have two chamfered orders. There is an octagonal buttressed baptismal font of sandstone, possibly dating from the 14th century. It has a flat wooden top that has been painted. The pulpit is octagonal and constructed of oak. Dating from 1636, it is ornate and in the Jacobean style.

The north arcade opens into a chapel called the Dutton Quire. Measuring  by , it contains fragments of a wall painting of Saint Christopher from the 14th or 15th century. The south aisle measures  wide. At its east end, enclosed by an oak screen (probably from the 16th century), is the Hoghton Quire. The nave's west gallery sits on four Tuscan columns of stone.

The chancel measures  by ; the floor is  lower than the nave floor. The north wall has a chamfered squint, which opens to the outside.

Churchyard

St Wilfrid's is surrounded by a churchyard to the north, south and west; its two gates lie to the south-east. To the east of the building is a rectory, built in 1884 of rubble.

There is a sundial in the churchyard, to the south-east of the chancel. Possibly dating from the 17th century, the base is constructed of sandstone. There are six square steps with a turned column. The column has a cyma moulded capital and is topped by an octagonal brass dial. English Heritage has given the sundial a separate Grade II listing.

The oldest dated gravestone in the churchyard is from 1696
and there is a war grave of a Loyal Regiment soldier of World War I.

See also

Grade I listed buildings in Lancashire
Listed buildings in Ribchester

References

Footnotes

Sources

Further reading

External links

Church of England church buildings in Lancashire
Diocese of Blackburn
Grade I listed churches in Lancashire
St Wilfrids

St Wilfrid's Church, Ribchester


Norman Kempton Atkins (June 27, 1934 – September 28, 2010) was a Canadian Senator and a political figure in Canada.

Born in Montclair, New Jersey, Atkins was a graduate of Appleby College in Oakville and of Acadia University in Wolfville, Nova Scotia, where he completed the Bachelor of Arts program in 1957. He subsequently received an Honorary Doctorate in Civil Law in 2000, from Acadia University.

Atkins was a leading figure in advertising and a senior Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario and Progressive Conservative Party of Canada strategist. He was especially associated with the Big Blue Machine, which helped elect the Ontario PC Party under Bill Davis. In the 1980s, he was a strategist for the federal Conservatives, led by Brian Mulroney, who recommended him to Governor General Jeanne Sauvé for appointment to the Senate in 1986.

Atkins opposed the merger of the Progressive Conservative Party with the Canadian Alliance, and refused to join the product of that merger, the Conservative Party of Canada. Instead, he continued to sit in the Senate as a "Progressive Conservative" along with Lowell Murray and Elaine McCoy. He did not initially rule out joining the new Conservative Party caucus in the future, saying in February 2004, "I will be watching with interest, both the Leadership and the policies of the new party, to see whether they address my concerns. It is my hope that they will reflect the values and beliefs Progressive Conservatives hold so strongly". However, he continued to sit as a Progressive Conservative for the duration of his time in the Senate.

On February 27, 2007, Atkins was elected vice-chairman of the Senate's National Security and Defence Committee. He was elected with the support of defiant Liberal senators after moderate Conservative Senator Michael Meighen resigned his position at the direction of the Prime Minister's Office who reportedly wished to install a more ideologically conservative co-chair.

Atkins retired from the Senate upon turning 75 on June 27, 2009. He died in Fredericton on September 28, 2010, at the age of 76.

Archives
There is a Norman Atkins fonds at Library and Archives Canada. Archival reference number is R5376.

See also
 List of Ontario senators

References

External links

1934 births
2010 deaths
Canadian senators from Ontario
Progressive Conservative Party of Canada senators
American emigrants to Canada
Politicians from Montclair, New Jersey
Acadia University alumni
Appleby College alumni
21st-century Canadian politicians

Norman Atkins


John Wesley (; 2 March 1791) was an English cleric, theologian, and evangelist who was a leader of a revival movement within the Church of England known as Methodism. The societies he founded became the dominant form of the independent Methodist movement that continues to this day.

Educated at Charterhouse and Christ Church, Oxford, Wesley was elected a fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford, in 1726 and ordained as an Anglican priest two years later. At Oxford, he led the "Holy Club", a society formed for the purpose of the study and the pursuit of a devout Christian life. After an unsuccessful two year ministry in Savannah, Georgia, he returned to London and joined a religious society led by Moravian Christians. On 24 May 1738, he experienced what has come to be called his evangelical conversion. He subsequently left the Moravians and began his own ministry.

A key step in the development of Wesley's ministry was to travel and preach outdoors, embracing Arminian doctrines. Moving across Great Britain and Ireland, he helped form and organise small Christian groups (societies and classes) that developed intensive and personal accountability, discipleship, and religious instruction. He appointed itinerant, unordained evangelists—both women and men—to care for these groups of people. Under Wesley's direction, Methodists became leaders in many social issues of the day, including the abolition of slavery and support for women preachers.

Although he was not a systematic theologian, Wesley argued for the notion of Christian perfection and against Calvinism. His evangelicalism, firmly grounded in sacramental theology, maintained that means of grace sometimes had a role in sanctification of the believer; however, he taught that it was by faith a believer was transformed into the likeness of Christ. He held that, in this life, Christians could achieve a state where the love of God "reigned supreme in their hearts", giving them not only outward but inward holiness. Wesley's teachings, collectively known as Wesleyan theology, continue to inform the doctrine of Methodist churches.

Throughout his life, Wesley remained within the established Church of England, insisting that the Methodist movement lay well within its tradition. In his early ministry years, Wesley was barred from preaching in many parish churches and the Methodists were persecuted; he later became widely respected, and by the end of his life, was described as "the best-loved man in England".

Early life

John Wesley was born on  in Epworth, 23 miles (37 km) north-west of Lincoln. He was the fifteenth child of Samuel Wesley and his wife Susanna Wesley (née Annesley). Samuel Wesley was a graduate of the University of Oxford and a poet who, from 1696, was rector of Epworth. He married Susanna, the twenty-fifth child of Samuel Annesley, a dissenting minister, in 1689. Ultimately, she bore nineteen children, of which nine lived beyond infancy. She and Samuel Wesley had become members of the Church of England as young adults.

As in many families at the time, Wesley's parents gave their children their early education. Each child, including the girls, was taught to read as soon as they turned five years old. They were expected to become proficient in Latin and Greek and to have learned major portions of the New Testament by heart. Susanna Wesley examined each child before the midday meal and before evening prayers. The children were not allowed to eat between meals and were interviewed singly by their mother one evening each week for the purpose of intensive spiritual instruction. In 1714, at age 11, Wesley was sent to the Charterhouse School in London (under the mastership of John King from 1715), where he lived the studious, methodical and, for a while, religious life in which he had been trained at home.

Apart from his disciplined upbringing, a rectory fire which occurred on 9 February 1709, when Wesley was five years old, left an indelible impression. Some time after 11:00 pm, the rectory roof caught on fire. Sparks falling on the children's beds and cries of "fire" from the street roused the Wesleys who managed to shepherd all their children out of the house except for John who was left stranded on an upper floor. With stairs aflame and the roof about to collapse, Wesley was lifted out of a window by a parishioner standing on another man's shoulders. Wesley later used the phrase, "a brand plucked out of the fire", quoting , to describe the incident. This childhood deliverance subsequently became part of the Wesley legend, attesting to his special destiny and extraordinary work. Wesley was also influenced by the reported haunting of Epworth Rectory between 1716 and 1717. The Wesley family reported frequently hearing noises and occasionally seeing apparitions which they believed were caused by a ghost called 'Old Jeffery'.

Education

In June 1720, Wesley entered Christ Church, Oxford. After graduating in 1724, Wesley stayed on at Christ Church to study for his master's degree.

He was ordained a deacon on 25 September 1725—holy orders being a necessary step toward becoming a fellow and tutor at the university. On 17 March 1726, Wesley was unanimously elected a fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. This carried with it the right to a room at the college and regular salary. While continuing his studies, he taught Greek and philosophy, lectured on the New Testament and moderated daily disputations at the university. However, a call to ministry intruded upon his academic career. In August 1727, after completing his master's degree, Wesley returned to Epworth. His father had requested his assistance in serving the neighbouring cure of Wroot. Ordained a priest on 22 September 1728, Wesley served as a parish curate for two years.

In the year of his ordination he read Thomas à Kempis and Jeremy Taylor, showed his interest in mysticism, and began to seek the religious truths which underlay the great revival of the 18th century. The reading of William Law's Christian Perfection and A Serious Call to a Devout and Holy Life gave him, he said, a more sublime view of the law of God; and he resolved to keep it, inwardly and outwardly, as sacredly as possible, believing that in obedience he would find salvation. He pursued a rigidly methodical and abstemious life, studied Scripture, and performed his religious duties diligently, depriving himself so that he would have alms to give. He began to seek after holiness of heart and life.

Wesley returned to Oxford in November 1729 at the request of the Rector of Lincoln College and to maintain his status as junior fellow.

Holy Club

During Wesley's absence, his younger brother Charles (1707–88) matriculated at Christ Church. Along with two fellow students, he formed a small club for the purpose of study and the pursuit of a devout Christian life. On Wesley's return, he became the leader of the group which increased somewhat in number and greatly in commitment. The group met daily from six until nine for prayer, psalms, and reading of the Greek New Testament. They prayed every waking hour for several minutes and each day for a special virtue. While the church's prescribed attendance was only three times a year, they took Communion every Sunday. They fasted on Wednesdays and Fridays until nones (3:00 pm) as was commonly observed in the ancient church. In 1730, the group began the practice of visiting prisoners in gaol. They preached, educated, and relieved gaoled debtors whenever possible, and cared for the sick.

Given the low ebb of spirituality in Oxford at that time, it was not surprising that Wesley's group provoked a negative reaction. They were considered to be religious "enthusiasts", which in the context of the time meant religious fanatics. University wits styled them the "Holy Club", a title of derision. Currents of opposition became a furore following the mental breakdown and death of a group member, William Morgan. In response to the charge that "rigorous fasting" had hastened his death, Wesley noted that Morgan had left off fasting a year and a half since. In the same letter, which was widely circulated, Wesley referred to the name "Methodist" with which "some of our neighbors are pleased to compliment us." That name was used by an anonymous author in a published pamphlet (1732) describing Wesley and his group, "The Oxford Methodists". This ministry, however, was not without controversy. The Holy Club ministered and maintained support for Thomas Blair who in 1732 was found guilty for sodomy. Blair was notorious among the townspeople and his fellow prisoners, and Wesley continued to support him.

For all of his outward piety, Wesley sought to cultivate his inner holiness or at least his sincerity as evidence of being a true Christian. A list of "General Questions" which he developed in 1730 evolved into an elaborate grid by 1734 in which he recorded his daily activities hour-by-hour, resolutions he had broken or kept, and ranked his hourly "temper of devotion" on a scale of 1 to 9. Wesley also regarded the contempt with which he and his group were held to be a mark of a true Christian. As he put it in a letter to his father, "Till he be thus contemned, no man is in a state of salvation."

Journey to Savannah, Georgia

On 14 October 1735, Wesley and his brother Charles sailed on The Simmonds from Gravesend in Kent for Savannah in the Province of Georgia in the American colonies at the request of James Oglethorpe, who had founded the colony in 1733 on behalf of the Trustees for the Establishment of the Colony of Georgia in America. Oglethorpe wanted Wesley to be the minister of the newly formed Savannah parish, a new town laid out in accordance with the famous Oglethorpe Plan.

It was on the voyage to the colonies that the Wesleys first came into contact with Moravian settlers. Wesley was influenced by their deep faith and spirituality rooted in pietism. At one point in the voyage a storm came up and broke the mast off the ship. While the English panicked, the Moravians calmly sang hymns and prayed. This experience led Wesley to believe that the Moravians possessed an inner strength which he lacked. The deeply personal religion that the Moravian pietists practiced heavily influenced Wesley and is reflected in his theology of Methodism.

Wesley arrived in the colony in February 1736, and lived for a year at the parsonage that stood on the site of today's Oliver Sturges House. He approached the Georgia mission as a High churchman, seeing it as an opportunity to revive "primitive Christianity" in a primitive environment. Although his primary goal was to evangelize the Native American people, a shortage of clergy in the colony largely limited his ministry to European settlers in Savannah. While his ministry has often been judged to have been a failure in comparison to his later success as a leader in the Evangelical Revival, Wesley gathered around him a group of devoted Christians, who met in a number of small group religious societies. At the same time, attendance at Communion increased over the course of nearly two years in which he served as Christ Church's parish priest.

Nonetheless, Wesley's High Church ministry was controversial among the colonists and it ended in disappointment after Wesley fell in love with a young woman named Sophia (or Sophy) Hopkey. He hesitated to marry her because he felt that his first priority in Georgia was to be a missionary to the Native Americans, and he was interested in the practice of clerical celibacy within early Christianity. Following her marriage to William Williamson, Wesley believed Sophia's former zeal for practicing the Christian faith declined. In strictly applying the rubrics of the Book of Common Prayer, Wesley denied her Communion after she failed to signify to him in advance her intention of taking it. As a result, legal proceedings against him ensued in which a clear resolution seemed unlikely. On 22 December 1737, Wesley fled the colony and returned to England.

It has been widely recognized that one of the most significant accomplishments of Wesley's Georgia mission was his publication of a Collection of Psalms and Hymns. The Collection was the first Anglican hymnal published in America, and the first of many hymn-books Wesley published. It included five hymns he translated from German.

Wesley's "Aldersgate experience"

As a result of his experience in Georgia, Wesley became depressed. While on his voyage home to England, he had the opportunity to think about his own religious faith. He found that, although he had committed to the life of following Christ, he was dissatisfied with his spiritual soundness and felt inadequate to preach, especially after witnessing the confident way in which the Moravians had preached their faith. Both he and Charles received counsel from Moravian minister Peter Boehler, who was temporarily in England awaiting permission to depart for Georgia himself. Boehler encouraged Wesley to "preach faith until you have it".

Wesley's noted "Aldersgate experience" of 24 May 1738, at a Moravian meeting in Aldersgate Street, London, in which he heard a reading of Martin Luther's preface to the Epistle to the Romans, revolutionised the character and method of his ministry. The previous week he had been highly impressed by the sermon of John Heylyn, whom he was assisting in the service at St Mary le Strand. Earlier that day, he had heard the choir at St Paul's Cathedral singing Psalm 130, where the Psalmist calls to God "Out of the depths."

But it was still a depressed Wesley who attended a service on the evening of 24 May. Wesley recounted his Aldersgate experience in his journal:
"In the evening I went very unwillingly to a society in Aldersgate Street, where one was reading Luther's Preface to the Epistle to the Romans. About a quarter before nine, while he was describing the change which God works in the heart through faith in Christ, I felt my heart strangely warmed. I felt I did trust in Christ, Christ alone for salvation, and an assurance was given me that he had taken away my sins, even mine, and saved me from the law of sin and death."

A few weeks later, Wesley preached a sermon on the doctrine of personal salvation by faith, which was followed by another, on God's grace "free in all, and free for all." Considered a pivotal moment, Daniel L. Burnett writes: "The significance of Wesley's Aldersgate Experience is monumental ... Without it, the names of Wesley and Methodism would likely be nothing more than obscure footnotes in the pages of church history." Burnett describes this event as Wesley's "Evangelical Conversion". May 24 is commemorated in Methodist churches as Aldersgate Day.

After Aldersgate: Working with the Moravians

Wesley allied himself with the Moravian society in Fetter Lane. In August 1738 Wesley travelled to Germany, specifically to see Herrnhut in Saxony, as he wished to study at the Moravian headquarters there. On his return to England, Wesley drew up rules for the "bands" into which the Fetter Lane Society was divided and published a collection of hymns for them. He met frequently with this and other religious societies in London but did not preach often in 1738, because most of the parish churches were closed to him.

Wesley's Oxford friend, the evangelist George Whitefield, was also excluded from the churches of Bristol upon his return from America. When Wesley reached Bristol, the city was booming with new industrial and commercial development. Because of this, there were social uproars with riots and religious troubles. Going to the neighbouring village of Kingswood, in February 1739, Whitefield preached in the open air to a company of miners. Later he preached in Whitefield's Tabernacle. Wesley hesitated to accept Whitefield's call to copy this bold step. Overcoming his scruples, he preached the first time at Whitefield's invitation a sermon in the open air, near Bristol, in April 1739. Wesley wrote,
I could scarce reconcile myself to this strange way of preaching in the fields, of which he [Whitefield] set me an example on Sunday; having been all my life till very lately so tenacious of every point relating to decency and order, that I should have thought the saving of souls almost a sin if it had not been done in a church.

Wesley was unhappy about the idea of field preaching as he believed Anglican liturgy had much to offer in its practice. Earlier in his life he would have thought that such a method of saving souls was "almost a sin." He recognised the open-air services were successful in reaching men and women who would not enter most churches. From then on he took the opportunities to preach wherever an assembly could be brought together, more than once using his father's tombstone at Epworth as a pulpit. Wesley preached to create repentance, prayed for conversion, dealt with hysterical behavior, and preached to upwards of thousands through field preaching. Wesley continued for fifty years—entering churches when he was invited, and taking his stand in the fields, in halls, cottages, and chapels, when the churches would not receive him.

Late in 1739 Wesley broke with the Moravians in London. Wesley had helped them organise the Fetter Lane Society, and those converted by his preaching and that of his brother and Whitefield had become members of their bands. But he believed they fell into heresy by supporting quietism, so he decided to form his own followers into a separate society. "Thus," he wrote, "without any previous plan, began the Methodist Society in England." He soon formed similar societies in Bristol and Kingswood, and Wesley and his friends made converts wherever they went.

Persecutions and lay preaching
From 1739 onward, Wesley and the Methodists were persecuted by clergy and religious magistrates for various reasons. Though Wesley had been ordained an Anglican priest, many other Methodist leaders had not received ordination. And for his own part, Wesley flouted many regulations of the Church of England concerning parish boundaries and who had authority to preach. This was seen as a social threat that disregarded institutions. Clergy attacked them in sermons and in print, and at times mobs attacked them. Wesley and his followers continued to work among the neglected and needy. They were denounced as promulgators of strange doctrines, fomenters of religious disturbances; as blind fanatics, leading people astray, claiming miraculous gifts, attacking the clergy of the Church of England, and trying to re-establish Catholicism.

Wesley felt that the church failed to call sinners to repentance, that many of the clergy were corrupt, and that people were perishing in their sins. He believed he was commissioned by God to bring about revival in the church, and no opposition, persecution, or obstacles could prevail against the divine urgency and authority of this commission. The prejudices of his High-church training, his strict notions of the methods and proprieties of public worship, his views of the apostolic succession and the prerogatives of the priest, even his most cherished convictions, were not allowed to stand in the way.

Seeing that he and the few clergy co-operating with him could not do the work that needed to be done, Wesley was led, as early as 1739, to approve local preachers. He evaluated and approved men who were not ordained by the Anglican Church to preach and do pastoral work. This expansion of lay preachers was one of the keys of the growth of Methodism.

Chapels and organisations

As his societies needed houses to worship in, Wesley began to provide chapels, first in Bristol at the New Room, then in London (first The Foundery and then Wesley's Chapel) and elsewhere. The Foundery was an early chapel used by Wesley. The location of the Foundery is shown on an 18th-century map, where it rests between Tabernacle Street and Worship Street in the Moorfields area of London. When the Wesleys spotted the building atop Windmill Hill, north of Finsbury Fields, the structure which previously cast brass guns and mortars for the Royal Ordnance had been sitting vacant for 23 years; it had been abandoned because of an explosion on 10 May 1716.

The Bristol chapel (built in 1739) was at first in the hands of trustees. A large debt was contracted, and Wesley's friends urged him to keep it under his own control, so the deed was cancelled and he became sole trustee. Following this precedent, all Methodist chapels were committed in trust to him until by a "deed of declaration", all his interests in them were transferred to a body of preachers called the "Legal Hundred".

When disorder arose among some members of the societies, Wesley adopted giving tickets to members, with their names written by his own hand. These were renewed every three months. Those deemed unworthy did not receive new tickets and dropped out of the society without disturbance. The tickets were regarded as commendatory letters.

When the debt on a chapel became a burden, it was proposed that one in 12 members should collect offerings regularly from the 11 allotted to him. Out of this grew the Methodist class-meeting system in 1742. To keep the disorderly out of the societies, Wesley established a probationary system. He undertook to visit each society regularly in what became the quarterly visitation, or conference. As the number of societies increased, Wesley could not keep personal contact, so in 1743 he drew up a set of "General Rules" for the "United Societies". These were the nucleus of the Methodist Discipline, still the basis of modern Methodism.

Wesley laid the foundations of what now constitutes the organisation of the Methodist Church. Over time, a shifting pattern of societies, circuits, quarterly meetings, annual conferences, classes, bands, and select societies took shape. At the local level, there were numerous societies of different sizes which were grouped into circuits to which travelling preachers were appointed for two-year periods. Circuit officials met quarterly under a senior travelling preacher or "assistant." Conferences with Wesley, travelling preachers and others were convened annually for the purpose of co-ordinating doctrine and discipline for the entire connection. Classes of a dozen or so society members under a leader met weekly for spiritual fellowship and guidance. In early years, there were "bands" of the spiritually gifted who consciously pursued perfection. Those who were regarded to have achieved it were grouped in select societies or bands. In 1744, there were 77 such members. There also was a category of penitents which consisted of backsliders.

As the number of preachers and preaching-houses increased, doctrinal and administrative matters needed to be discussed; so John and Charles Wesley, along with four other clergy and four lay preachers, met for consultation in London in 1744. This was the first Methodist conference; subsequently, the Conference (with Wesley as its president) became the ruling body of the Methodist movement. Two years later, to help preachers work more systematically and societies receive services more regularly, Wesley appointed "helpers" to definitive circuits. Each circuit included at least 30 appointments a month. Believing that the preacher's efficiency was promoted by his being changed from one circuit to another every year or two, Wesley established the "itinerancy" and insisted that his preachers submit to its rules.

John Wesley had strong links with the North West of England, visiting Manchester on at least fifteen occasions between 1733 and 1790. In 1733 and 1738 he preached at St Ann's Church and Salford Chapel, meeting with his friend John Clayton. In 1781 Wesley opened the chapel on Oldham Street—part of the Manchester and Salford Wesleyan Methodist Mission, now the site of Manchester's Methodist Central Hall.

Wesley travelled to Ireland for the first time in 1747 and continued through 1789. He rejected the Catholic Church, so he worked to convert the people of Ireland to Methodism. Overall, the numbers grew to over 15,000 by 1795.

Following an illness in 1748 Wesley was nursed by a classleader and housekeeper, Grace Murray, at an orphan house in Newcastle. Taken with Grace, he invited her to travel with him to Ireland in 1749 where he believed them to be betrothed though they were never married. It has been suggested that his brother Charles Wesley objected to the engagement, though this is disputed. Subsequently, Grace married John Bennett, a preacher.

Ordination of ministers

As the societies multiplied, they adopted the elements of an ecclesiastical system. The divide between Wesley and the Church of England widened. The question of division from the Church of England was urged by some of his preachers and societies, but most strenuously opposed by his brother Charles. Wesley refused to leave the Church of England, believing that Anglicanism was "with all her blemishes, [...] nearer the Scriptural plans than any other in Europe". In 1745 Wesley wrote that he would make any concession which his conscience permitted, to live in peace with the clergy. He could not give up the doctrine of an inward and present salvation by faith itself; he would not stop preaching, nor dissolve the societies, nor end preaching by lay members. In the same year, in correspondence with a friend, he wrote that he believed it wrong to administer sacraments without having been ordained by a bishop.

When, in 1746, Wesley read Lord King's account of the primitive church, he became convinced that apostolic succession could be transmitted through not only bishops, but also presbyters (priests). He wrote that he was "a scriptural episkopos as much as many men in England." Although he believed in apostolic succession, he also once called the idea of uninterrupted succession a "fable".

Edward Stillingfleet's Irenicon led him to decide that ordination (and holy orders) could be valid when performed by a presbyter rather than a bishop. Nevertheless, some believe that Wesley was secretly consecrated a bishop in 1763 by Erasmus of Arcadia, and that Wesley could not openly announce his episcopal consecration without incurring the penalty of the Præmunire Act.

In 1784, he believed he could no longer wait for the Bishop of London to ordain someone for the American Methodists, who were without the sacraments after the American War of Independence. The Church of England had been disestablished in the United States, where it had been the state church in most of the southern colonies. The Church of England had not yet appointed a United States bishop to what would become the Protestant Episcopal Church in America. Wesley ordained Thomas Coke as superintendent of Methodists in the United States by the laying on of hands, although Coke was already a priest in the Church of England. He also ordained Richard Whatcoat and Thomas Vasey as presbyters; Whatcoat and Vasey sailed to America with Coke. Wesley intended that Coke and Francis Asbury (whom Coke ordained as superintendent by direction of Wesley) should ordain others in the newly founded Methodist Episcopal Church in the United States. In 1787, Coke and Asbury persuaded the American Methodists to refer to them as bishops rather than superintendents, overruling Wesley's objections to the change.

His brother, Charles, was alarmed by the ordinations and Wesley's evolving view of the matter. He begged Wesley to stop before he had "quite broken down the bridge" and not embitter his [Charles'] last moments on earth, nor "leave an indelible blot on our memory." Wesley replied that he had not separated from the church, nor did he intend to, but he must and would save as many souls as he could while alive, "without being careful about what may possibly be when I die." Although Wesley rejoiced that the Methodists in America were free, he advised his English followers to remain in the established church.

Doctrines, theology and advocacy

The 20th-century Wesleyan scholar Albert Outler argued in his introduction to the 1964 collection John Wesley that Wesley developed his theology  by using a method that Outler termed the Wesleyan Quadrilateral. In this method, Wesley believed that the living core of Christianity was contained in Scripture (the Bible), and that it was the sole foundational source of theological development. The centrality of Scripture was so important for Wesley that he called himself "a man of one book," although he was well-read for his day. However, he believed that doctrine had to be in keeping with Christian orthodox tradition. So, tradition was considered the second aspect of the Quadrilateral. Wesley contended that a part of the theological method would involve experiential faith. In other words, truth would be vivified in personal experience of Christians (overall, not individually), if it were really truth. And every doctrine must be able to be defended rationally. He did not divorce faith from reason. Tradition, experience and reason, however, were subject always to Scripture, Wesley argued, because only there is the Word of God revealed "so far as it is necessary for our salvation."

The doctrines which Wesley emphasised in his sermons and writings are prevenient grace, present personal salvation by faith, the witness of the Spirit, and entire sanctification. Prevenient grace was the theological underpinning of his belief that all persons were capable of being saved by faith in Christ. Unlike the Calvinists of his day, Wesley did not believe in predestination, that is, that some persons had been elected by God for salvation and others for damnation. He understood that Christian orthodoxy insisted that salvation was only possible by the sovereign grace of God. He expressed his understanding of humanity's relationship to God as utter dependence upon God's grace. God was at work to enable all people to be capable of coming to faith by empowering humans to have actual existential freedom of response to God.

Wesley defined the witness of the Spirit as: "an inward impression on the soul of believers, whereby the Spirit of God directly testifies to their spirit that they are the children of God." He based this doctrine upon certain Biblical passages (see  as an example). This doctrine was closely related to his belief that salvation had to be "personal." In his view, a person must ultimately believe the Good News for himself or herself; no one could be in relation to God for another.

Entire sanctification he described in 1790 as the "grand depositum which God has lodged with the people called 'Methodists'." Wesley taught that entire sanctification was obtainable after justification by faith, between justification and death. Wesley defined it as:"That habitual disposition of soul which, in the sacred writings, is termed holiness; and which directly implies, the being cleansed from sin, 'from all filthiness both of flesh and spirit;' and, by consequence, the being endued with those virtues which were in Christ Jesus; the being so 'renewed in the image of our mind,' as to be 'perfect as our Father in heaven is perfect."The term "sinless perfection" was one which Wesley avoided using "because of its ambiguity," rather, he contended that a Christian could be made "perfect in love". (Wesley studied Eastern Orthodoxy and embraced particularly the doctrine of Theosis). This love would mean, first of all, that a believer's motives, rather than being self-centred, would be guided by the deep desire to please God. One would be able to keep from committing what Wesley called, "sin rightly so-called." By this he meant a conscious or intentional breach of God's will or laws.

Secondly, to be made perfect in love meant, for Wesley, that a Christian could live with a primary guiding regard for others and their welfare. He based this on Christ's quote that the second great command is "to love your neighbour as you love yourself." In Wesley's view, this orientation would cause a person to avoid any number of sins against his neighbour. This love, plus the love for God that could be the central focus of a person's faith, would be what Wesley referred to as "a fulfilment of the law of Christ." He maintained that individuals could have assurance of perfection, akin to a second conversion or instantaneous sanctifying experience, through the testimony of the Spirit. Wesley collected and published such testimonies.

John Wesley's statements against the Islamic faith are well known. Wesley assumed the superiority of Christianity vis-a-vis to Islam, based on his commitment to the biblical revelation as "the book of God". His theologic interpretation of Christianity was seeking its imperative rather than considering other Abrahamic and Eastern religions to be equal. He often regarded the lifestyles of Muslims as an "ox goad" to prick the collective Christian conscience.

Advocacy of Arminianism

Wesley entered controversies as he tried to enlarge church practice. The most notable of his controversies was that on Calvinism. His father was of the Arminian school in the church. Wesley came to his own conclusions while in college and expressed himself strongly against the doctrines of Calvinistic election and reprobation. His system of thought has become known as Wesleyan Arminianism, the foundations of which were laid by Wesley and his fellow preacher John William Fletcher. Although Wesley knew very little about the beliefs of Jacob Arminius and arrived at his religious views independently of Arminius, Wesley acknowledged late in life, with the 1778 publication of The Arminian Magazine, that he and Arminius were in general agreement. Theology Professor W. Stephen Gunther concludes he was "a faithful representative" of Arminius' beliefs. Wesley was perhaps the clearest English proponent of Arminianism.

By contrast, Whitefield inclined to Calvinism; in his first tour in America, he embraced the views of the New England School of Calvinism. Whitefield opposed Wesley's advocacy of Arminianism, though the two maintained a strained friendship. When in 1739 Wesley preached a sermon on Freedom of Grace, attacking the Calvinistic understanding of predestination as blasphemous, as it represented "God as worse than the devil," Whitefield asked him not to repeat or publish the discourse, as he did not want a dispute. Wesley published his sermon anyway. Whitefield was one of many who responded. The two men separated their practice in 1741. Wesley wrote that those who held to unlimited atonement did not desire separation, but "those who held 'particular redemption' would not hear of any accommodation."

Whitefield, Howell Harris (leader of the Welsh Methodist revival), John Cennick, and others, became the founders of Calvinistic Methodism. Whitefield and Wesley, however, were soon back on friendly terms, and their friendship remained unbroken although they travelled different paths. When someone asked Whitefield if he thought he would see Wesley in heaven, Whitefield replied, "I fear not, for he will be so near the eternal throne and we at such a distance, we shall hardly get sight of him."

In 1770, the controversy broke out anew with violence and bitterness, as people's view of God related to their views of men and their possibilities. Augustus Toplady, Daniel Rowland, Sir Richard Hill and others were engaged on one side, while Wesley and Fletcher stood on the other. Toplady was editor of The Gospel Magazine, which had articles covering the controversy.

In 1778, Wesley began the publication of The Arminian Magazine, not, he said, to convince Calvinists, but to preserve Methodists. He wanted to teach the truth that "God willeth all men to be saved." A "lasting peace" could be secured in no other way.

Some have suggested that later in life Wesley may have embraced the doctrine of universal salvation, although this is disputed. The claim is supported by a letter Wesley wrote in 1787 in which he endorsed as "one of the most sensible tracts I have ever read" a work by Charles Bonnet in which the author's conclusion was, "There will therefore be a perpetual advance of all the individuals of humanity towards greater perfection or greater happiness."

Support for abolitionism

Later in his ministry, Wesley was a keen abolitionist, speaking out and writing against the slave trade. Wesley denounced slavery as "the sum of all villainies" and detailed its abuses. He addressed the slave trade in a polemical tract, titled Thoughts Upon Slavery, in 1774. He wrote, "Liberty is the right of every human creature, as soon as he breathes the vital air; and no human law can deprive him of that right which he derives from the law of nature". Wesley influenced George Whitefield to journey to the colonies, spurring the transatlantic debate on slavery. Wesley was a mentor to William Wilberforce, who was also influential in the abolition of slavery in the British Empire.

It is thanks to Wesley's abolitionist message that a young African American, Richard Allen, converted to Christianity in 1777 and later founded, in 1816, the African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME), in the Methodist tradition.

Support for women preachers
Women had an active role in Wesley's Methodism, and were encouraged to lead classes. In 1761, he informally allowed Sarah Crosby, one of his converts and a class leader, to preach. On an occasion where over 200 people attended a class she was meant to teach, Crosby felt as though she could not fulfill her duties as a class leader given the large crowd, and decided to preach instead. She wrote to Wesley to seek his advice and forgiveness. He let Crosby to continue her preaching so long as she refrained from as many of the mannerisms of preaching as she could. Between 1761 and 1771, Wesley wrote detailed instructions to Crosby and others, with specifics on what styles of preaching they could use. For instance, in 1769, Wesley allowed Crosby to give exhortations.

In the summer of 1771, Mary Bosanquet wrote to John Wesley to defend hers and Sarah Crosby's work preaching and leading classes at her orphanage, Cross Hall. Bosanquet's letter is considered to be the first full and true defense of women's preaching in Methodism. Her argument was that women should be able to preach when they experienced an 'extraordinary call,' or when given permission from God. Wesley accepted Bosanquet's argument, and formally began to allow women to preach in Methodism in 1771. Methodist women, including preachers, continued to observe the ancient practice of Christian head covering.

Personality and activities

Wesley travelled widely, generally on horseback, preaching two or three times each day. Stephen Tomkins writes that "[Wesley] rode 250,000 miles, gave away 30,000 pounds, ... and preached more than 40,000 sermons... " He formed societies, opened chapels, examined and commissioned preachers, administered aid charities, prescribed for the sick, helped to pioneer the use of electric shock for the treatment of illness, and superintended orphanages and schools (including Kingswood School).

Wesley practised a vegetarian diet and in later life abstained from wine for health reasons. He wrote, "thanks be to God, since the time I gave up flesh meals and wine I have been delivered from all physical ills." Wesley warned against the dangers of alcohol abuse in his famous sermon, The Use of Money, and in his letter to an alcoholic. In his sermon, On Public Diversions, Wesley says: "You see the wine when it sparkles in the cup, and are going to drink of it. I tell you there is poison in it! and, therefore, beg you to throw it away". These statements against alcohol use largely concerned "hard liquors and spirits" rather than the low-alcohol beer, which was often safer to drink than the contaminated water of that time. Methodist churches became pioneers in the teetotal temperance movement of the 19th and 20th centuries, and later it became de rigueur in British Methodism.

He attended music concerts, and was especially an admirer of Charles Avison. After attending a performance in Bristol Cathedral in 1758, Wesley recorded in his journal: "I went to the cathedral to hear Mr. Handel's Messiah. I doubt if that congregation was ever so serious at a sermon as they were during this performance. In many places, especially several of the choruses, it exceeded my expectation."

He is described as "rather under the medium height, well proportioned, strong, with a bright eye, a clear complexion, and a saintly, intellectual face". Though Wesley favoured celibacy rather than marital bond, he married very unhappily in 1751, at the age of 48, to a widow, Mary Vazeille, described as "a well-to-do widow and mother of four children." The couple had no children. John Singleton writes: "By 1758 she had left him—unable to cope, it is said, with the competition for his time and devotion presented by the ever-burgeoning Methodist movement. Molly, as she was known, was to return and leave him again on several occasions before their final separation." Wesley wryly reported in his journal, "I did not forsake her, I did not dismiss her, I will not recall her."

In 1770, at the death of George Whitefield, Wesley wrote a memorial sermon which praised Whitefield's admirable qualities and acknowledged the two men's differences: "There are many doctrines of a less essential nature ... In these we may think and let think; we may 'agree to disagree.' But, meantime, let us hold fast the essentials..." Wesley may have been the first to use "agree to disagree" in print—in the modern sense of tolerating differences—though he himself attributed the saying to Whitefield, and it had appeared in other senses previously.

Wesley was gravely ill during a visit to Lisburn in Ireland in June 1775. He stayed at the home of a leading Methodist, Henrietta Gayer, where it was thought he would die. Prayers were said "for another fifteen years" and he recovered.

Death

Wesley's health declined sharply towards the end of his life and he ceased preaching. On 28 June 1790, less than a year before his death, he wrote:

This day I enter into my eighty-eighth year. For above eighty-six years, I found none of the infirmities of old age: my eyes did not wax dim, neither was my natural strength abated. But last August, I found almost a sudden change. My eyes were so dim that no glasses would help me. My strength likewise now quite forsook me and probably will not return in this world.

Wesley was cared for during his last months by Elizabeth Ritchie and his physician John Whitehead. He died on 2 March 1791, at the age of 87. As he lay dying, his friends gathered around him, Wesley grasped their hands and said repeatedly, "Farewell, farewell." At the end, he said, "The best of all is, God is with us", lifted his arms and raised his feeble voice again, repeating the words, "The best of all is, God is with us." He was entombed at his chapel on City Road, London. Ritchie wrote an account of his death which was quoted from by Whitehead at  his funeral.

Because of his charitable nature he died poor, leaving as the result of his life's work 135,000 members and 541 itinerant preachers under the name "Methodist". It has been said that "when John Wesley was carried to his grave, he left behind him a good library of books, a well-worn clergyman's gown" and the Methodist Church.

Literary work

Wesley wrote, edited or abridged some 400 publications. As well as theology he wrote about music, marriage, medicine, abolitionism and politics. Wesley was a logical thinker and expressed himself clearly, concisely and forcefully in writing. Between 1746 and 1760, Wesley compiled several volumes of written sermons, published as Sermons on Several Occasions; the first four volumes comprise forty-four sermons which are doctrinal in content. His Forty-Four Sermons and the Explanatory Notes Upon the New Testament (1755) are Methodist doctrinal standards. Wesley was a fluent, powerful and effective preacher; he usually preached spontaneously and briefly, though occasionally at great length.

In his Christian Library (1750), he writes about mystics such as Macarius of Egypt, Ephrem the Syrian, Madame Guyon, François Fénelon, Ignatius of Loyola, John of Ávila, Francis de Sales, Blaise Pascal, and Antoinette Bourignon. The work reflects the influence of Christian mysticism in Wesley's ministry from the beginning to the end, although he ever rejected it after the failure in Georgia mission.

Wesley's prose, Works, were first collected by himself (32 vols., Bristol, 1771–74, frequently reprinted in editions varying greatly in the number of volumes). His chief prose works are a standard publication in seven octavo volumes of the Methodist Book Concern, New York. The Poetical Works of John and Charles, ed. G. Osborn, appeared in 13 vols., London, 1868–72.

In addition to his Sermons and Notes are his Journals (originally published in 20 parts, London, 1740–89; new ed. by N. Curnock containing notes from unpublished diaries, 6 vols., vols. i–ii, London and New York, 1909–11); The Doctrine of Original Sin (Bristol, 1757; in reply to John Taylor of Norwich); An Earnest Appeal to Men of Reason and Religion (originally published in three parts; 2nd ed., Bristol, 1743), an elaborate defence of Methodism, describing the evils of the times in society and the church; and a Plain Account of Christian Perfection (1766).

Wesley's Sunday Service was an adaptation of the Book of Common Prayer for use by American Methodists. In his Watchnight service, he made use of a pietist prayer now generally known as the Wesley Covenant Prayer, perhaps his most famous contribution to Christian liturgy. He was a noted hymn-writer, translator and compiler of a hymnal.

Wesley also wrote on physics and medicine, such as in The Desideratum, subtitled Electricity made Plain and Useful by a Lover of Mankind and of Common Sense (1759). and Primitive Physic, Or, An Easy and Natural Method of Curing Most Diseases.

In spite of the proliferation of his literary output, Wesley was challenged for plagiarism, for borrowing heavily from an essay by Samuel Johnson, published in March 1775. Initially denying the charge, Wesley later apologised officially.

Commemoration and legacy
Wesley continues to be the primary theological influence on Methodists and Methodist-heritage groups the world over; the Methodist movement numbers 75 million adherents in more than 130 countries. Wesleyan teachings also serve as a basis for the Holiness movement, which includes denominations like Free Methodist Church, the Church of the Nazarene, the Salvation Army, and several smaller groups, and from which Pentecostalism and parts of the Charismatic movement are offshoots. Wesley's call to personal and social holiness continues to challenge Christians who attempt to discern what it means to participate in the Kingdom of God.

He is commemorated in the Calendar of Saints of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America on 2 March with his brother Charles. The Wesley brothers are honoured with a Lesser Feast on 3 March in the Calendar of Saints of the Episcopal Church, and on 24 May (Aldersgate Day, with a Lesser Festival) in the Church of England's Calendar.

In 2002, Wesley was listed at number 50 on the BBC's list of the 100 Greatest Britons, drawn from a poll of the British public.

Wesley's house and chapel, which he built in 1778 on City Road in London, are still intact today and the chapel has a thriving congregation with regular services as well as the Museum of Methodism in the crypt.

Numerous schools, colleges, hospitals and other institutions are named after Wesley; additionally, many are named after Methodism. In 1831, Wesleyan University in Middletown, Connecticut, was the first institution of higher education in the United States to be named after Wesley. The now secular institution was founded as an all-male Methodist college.

A replica of the rectory where Wesley lived as a boy was built in the 1990s at Lake Junaluska, North Carolina. This was an addition to a group of buildings built starting in the 1950s for the World Methodist Council, including a museum which housed letters written by Wesley and a pulpit Wesley used. The museum was already having difficulty staying open, and the COVID-19 pandemic finally made closing the museum necessary. Its contents went to Bridwell Library of Perkins School of Theology, Southern Methodist University in Dallas, Texas.

In film
In 1954, the Radio and Film Commission of the British Methodist Church, in co-operation with J. Arthur Rank, produced the film John Wesley. This was a live-action re-telling of the story of the life of Wesley, with Leonard Sachs in the title role.

In 2009, a more ambitious feature film, Wesley, was released by Foundery Pictures, starring Burgess Jenkins as Wesley. The film was directed by the award-winning filmmaker John Jackman.

In musical theatre
In 1976 the musical Ride! Ride!, composed by Penelope Thwaites AM and written by Alan Thornhill, premiered at the Westminster Theatre in London's West End. The piece is based on the true story of eighteen-year-old Martha Thompson's incarceration in Bedlam, an incident in Wesley's life. The premier ran for 76 performances. Since then it has had more than 40 productions, both amateur and professional, including a 1999 concert version, issued on the Somm record label, with Keith Michell as Wesley.

See also
 John Wesley bibliography
 Sermons of John Wesley
 List of Methodist theologians
 History of Christianity in Britain
 Wesley College, for educational institutions named after Wesley

Notes and references

Citations

Sources

Books

  Online link is to the 1871 edition.

Articles

Further reading

Historiography

External links

 John Wesley at the Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive (ECPA)

 Selected text from the Journal of John Wesley on A Vision of Britain through Time, with links to the places named.
 John Wesley papers, 1735–1791 at Pitts Theology Library, Candler School of Theology
 John Wesley historical marker in Savannah, Georgia
 A Man Named Wesley Passed This Way historical marker at St. Simons Island, Georgia
 Reverends John & Charles Wesley historical marker
 The World Is My Parish historical marker

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John Wesley


Major Harold William Tilman, CBE, DSO, MC and Bar, (14 February 1898 – November 1977) was an English mountaineer and explorer, renowned for his Himalayan climbs and sailing voyages.

Early years and Africa
Bill Tilman was born on 14 February 1898 in Wallasey, Cheshire, the son of a wealthy sugar merchant John Hinkes Tilman and his wife Adeline Schwabe (née Rees). He was educated at Berkhamsted Boys school. During the First World War he entered the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich and, on 28 July 1915, he graduated from Woolwich where he was commissioned as a second lieutenant into the Royal Field Artillery of the British Army. Tilman fought at the Battle of the Somme, and was twice awarded the Military Cross for bravery. His climbing career, however, began with his acquaintance with Eric Shipton in Kenya, East Africa, where they were both coffee growers. Beginning with their joint traverse of Mount Kenya in 1929 and their ascents of Kilimanjaro and the fabled "Mountains of the Moon" Ruwenzori, Shipton and Tilman formed one of the most famed partnerships in mountaineering history. When it came time to leave Africa, Tilman was not content with merely flying home but rode a bicycle across the continent to the West Coast where he embarked for England.

World War II
He volunteered for service in the Second World War; he first saw action during the Battle of France helping to cover the retreat in Flanders before getting to the beaches at Dunkirk. Tilman then served in North Africa, Iraq and Iran before being called on for special duty in 1943. He then was dropped by parachute into Albania behind enemy lines to fight with Albanian and Italian partisans. For his actions there he was awarded the Distinguished Service Order for his efforts, and was given the keys to the city of Belluno which he helped save from occupation and destruction.

Mount Everest & Nanda Devi

Tilman was involved in two of the 1930s Mount Everest expeditions - participating in the 1935 Reconnaissance Expedition, and reaching 27,200 feet without oxygen as the expedition leader in 1938. He penetrated the Nanda Devi sanctuary with Eric Shipton in 1934, and in 1936 he went on to lead an Anglo-American expedition to Nanda Devi. With the support of a team which included Peter Lloyd and H. Adams Carter, Tilman and Noel Odell succeeded in making the first ascent of the  mountain, which remained the highest summit climbed by man until 1950. Tilman later described their arrival on the summit:
Odell had brought a thermometer, and no doubt sighed for the hypsometer. From it we found that the air temperature was  but in the absence of the wind we could bask gratefully in the friendly rays of our late enemy the sun. It was difficult to realise that we were actually standing on top of the same peak which we had viewed two months ago from Ranikhet, and which had then appeared incredibly remote and inaccessible, and it gave us a curious feeling of exaltation to know that we were above every peak within a hundred miles on either hand. Dhaulagiri, 1,000ft higher, and 200 miles away in Nepal, was our nearest rival. I believe we so far forgot ourselves as to shake hands on it.

In 1939, Tilman was the first man to attempt climbing in the remote and unexplored Assam Himalaya, exploring the Southern approaches of Gori Chen, 6538 metres, before his team succumbed to malaria. In 1947 he attempted Rakaposhi, then made his way to Kashgar to join up with Eric Shipton in a lightweight attempt on Muztagh Ata, 7546 metres, which nearly succeeded. On his way back to India, he detoured through Afghanistan's Wakhan Corridor to see the source of the river Oxus. During his extensive exploration of the areas of Langtang, Ganesh and Manang in Nepal in 1949, Tilman was the first to ascend Paldor, 5896 metres, and found the pass named after him beyond Gangchempo.

He was awarded in 1952 the Royal Geographical Society's Founder's Medal for his achievements.

Sailing / mountain exploration
Following his military career behind enemy lines in the Second World War, Tilman took up deep sea sailing. Sailing in deep seas on the Bristol Channel Pilot Cutter Mischief, which he purchased in 1954, and subsequently on his other pilot cutters Sea Breeze and Baroque, Tilman voyaged to Arctic and Antarctic waters in search of new and uncharted mountains to climb. On his last voyage in 1977, in his eightieth year, Tilman was invited to ship as crew in En Avant with mountaineers sailing to the South Atlantic to climb Smith Island. The expedition was led, and the boat skippered, by the youthful Simon Richardson. He and his crew aboard the old, converted steel tug made it successfully and without incident to Rio de Janeiro. Thereafter, en route to the Falkland Islands, they disappeared without trace - it was presumed the ship had foundered with all hands.

Chronological summary of expeditions
 1929: Tilman is introduced to rock climbing in the Lake District of England.
 1930: He ascends Mawenzi and almost ascends Kibo on Kilimanjaro, with Eric Shipton.
 1930: He makes first ascent of West Ridge of Batian, and traverses to Nelion, with Shipton.
 1932: Tilman ascends Mounts Speke, Baker, and Stanley in the Ruwenzori Range, with Shipton.
 1932: In April, he is involved in an accident in the Lake District which leads to the death of J. S. Brogdon.
 1932: Later that year, he makes various climbs in the Alps.
 1933: Tilman ascends Kilimanjaro (to summit) alone.
 1934: Tilman and Shipton, with three others, make the first recorded entrance into the Nanda Devi Sanctuary. They also explore the nearby Badrinath Range.
 1935: Tilman unable to acclimatise on the Mount Everest reconnaissance expedition led by Eric Shipton, but climbs various 20,000 ft. peaks in the Everest region.
 1936: Tilman attempts various peaks and passes, including the Zemu Gap, in Sikkim, near Kangchenjunga. Later, he leads the first ascent of Nanda Devi.
 1937: Shipton and Tilman make a major reconnaissance and surveying expedition in the Karakoram.
 1938: Tilman leads another Mount Everest expedition; he and three others reach above 27,300 ft (8,320 m) but fail to reach the summit.
 1938: He traverses the Zemu Gap.
 1939: He leads an expedition in the remote Assam Himalaya, which ends in disaster. They attempt Gori Chen, but reach only the lower slopes. The party was ravaged by Malaria, causing the death of one member.
 1941: Tilman climbs various peaks in Kurdistan.
 1942: He makes a night ascent of Zaghouan, in Tunisia.
 1947: Tilman leads an attempt on Rakaposhi which explores five different routes, none of which get near the summit. The expedition then explored the Kukuay Glacier on the southwest side of the Batura Muztagh.
 1947: He attempts Muztagh Ata, with Shipton and Gyalgen Sherpa.
 1948: Tilman attempts Bogda Feng, in northern Xinjiang, with Shipton and two others, but they only reach outlying summits.
 1948: He attempts Chakragil, in western Xinjiang.
 1948: He travels in the Chitral area of the Hindu Kush.
 1949: Tilman leads a four-month exploratory and scientific expedition to the Langtang, Ganesh, and Jugal Himals in Nepal, in the early stages of that country's re-opening to outsiders. He climbs Paldor in the Ganesh Himal.
 1950: He leads the British Annapurna Expedition, which gets close to the summit of Annapurna IV, and attempts other nearby peaks.
 1950: Tilman and Charles Houston view Mount Everest from the lower slopes of Pumori, on the recently opened Nepalese side of the peak.
 1955 – 12 months, 20,000 miles: First voyage in Mischief. Together with Jorge Quinteros he performs the first longitudinal crossing of the Southern Patagonian Ice Field.
 1957 – 12 months, 21,000 miles, circumnavigation of the African continent
 1959 – 12 months, 20,000 miles, South Atlantic, Iles Crozet
 1961 – 4 months, 7,500 miles, West Greenland - Upernavik region
 1962 – 4 months, 6,500	miles, West Greenland and Baffin Island
 1963 – 4 months, 7,000	miles, Bylot Island, Baffin Bay
 1964 – 4 months, 3,700 miles, East Greenland
 1964 – 5 months, 10,000 miles, skippering the schooner Patanela to Heard Island in the Southern Ocean
 1965 – 4 months, 4,000 miles, East Greenland - Return visit
 1966 – 12 months, 20,400 miles, Islands of the Southern Ocean
 1968 – 3 months, 2,500 miles, East Greenland, Jan Mayen, Loss of Mischief
 1969 – 4 months, 3,400 miles, first voyage in Sea Breeze - East Greenland
 1970 – 4 months, 5,000 miles, South West Greenland - Faeringehavn, Julianhaab, Nanortalik, Torsukatak
 1971 – 4 months, 5,000 miles, Faroe Islands, Iceland, East Greenland - Angmassalik
 1972 – 3 months, 3,000 miles,	East Greenland, Loss of Sea Breeze
 1973 – 4 months, 5,000 miles, First voyage in Baroque, to West Greenland.
 1974 – 4 months, 7,000 miles, circumnavigation of Spitzbergen
 1975 – 4 months, 5,000 miles, West Greenland
 1976 – 4 months, East Greenland - Angmagssalik - Reykjavik
 1977 - 1 month, Reykjavik-Lymington
 1977 – 4 months (?), Carried as crew/navigator on Simon Richardson's En Avant from Southampton to Las Palmas then Rio de Janeiro. Vessel presumed lost at sea en route to the Falkland Islands with loss of all hands.

Sources:

H.W.Tilman, the seven Mountain Travel Books

H.W.Tilman, the eight Sailing / Mountain exploration Books

Resources

Books
 H. W. Tilman: The Collected Edition (Vertebrate Publishing and Lodestar Books, 2016–17), comprising:
 Snow on the Equator (1937)
 The Ascent of Nanda Devi (1937)
 When Men and Mountains Meet (1946)
 Mount Everest 1938 (1948)
 Two Mountains and a River (1949)
 China to Chitral (1951)
 Nepal Himalaya (1952)
 Mischief in Patagonia (1957)
 Mischief among the Penguins (1961)
 Mischief in Greenland (1964)
 Mostly Mischief (1966)
 Mischief Goes South (1968)
 In Mischief's Wake (1971)
 Ice With Everything (1974)
 Triumph and Tribulation (1977)
 Eric Shipton, The Six Mountain-Travel Books (Mountaineers Books, 1997), .
 H. W. Tilman, Mount Everest 1938 (Pilgrims Publishing)  (contains the Appendix B on the Yeti)
 H. W. Tilman, Nepal Himalaya (Pilgrims Publishing)
 H. W. Tilman, The Seven Mountain-Travel Books (Mountaineers' Books) , comprising:
 Snow on the Equator (1937)
 The Ascent of Nanda Devi (1937)
 When Men and Mountains Meet (1946)
 Everest 1938 (1948)
 Two Mountains and a River (1949)
 China to Chitral (1951)
 Nepal Himalaya (1952)
 H. W. Tilman, Eight Sailing/Mountain-Exploration Books (Diadem Books) , comprising:
 Mischief in Patagonia (1957)
 Mischief among the Penguins (1961)
 Mischief in Greenland (1964)
 Mostly Mischief (1966)
 Mischief Goes South (1968)
 In Mischief's Wake (1971)
 Ice With Everything (1974)
 Triumph and Tribulation (1977)

See also
List of people who disappeared mysteriously at sea

References

Further reading
 Anderson, John Richard Lane, High Mountains and Cold Seas: Life of H. W. Tilman (Gollancz Books)
 Madge, Tim, The Last Hero - Bill Tilman: A Biography of the Explorer (The Mountaineers' Books)
 Richardson, Dorothy, The Quest of Simon Richardson (Gollancz Books, 1986)
 Astill, Tony, Mount Everest : The Reconnaissance 1935 (published by the author, 2006)
 Perrin, Jim, Shipton and Tilman : The Great Decade of Himalayan Exploration ( Hutchinson, London, 2013)

External links
Chris Bonington, 'Tilman, Harold William (1898–1977x9)', rev., Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004
Travels with Tilman, 1956-1977
Aboard Mischief with Tilman 1957-1958
Sherborne School Archives – holds the 1938 Everest Expedition diary kept by Lieutenant-Colonel Peter Roderick Oliver, together with the ice axe he used on the expedition
New Collected Edition of Tilman's 15 mountaineering and travel books and the Anderson biography, jointly published by Vertebrate Publishing and Lodestar Books.

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Bill Tilman


In mathematics, a well-posed problem is one for which the following properties hold:
 The problem has a solution
 The solution is unique
 The solution's behavior changes continuously with the initial conditions

This definition of a well-posed problem comes from the work of Jacques Hadamard on mathematical modeling of physical phenomena.

Examples of archetypal well-posed problems include the Dirichlet problem for Laplace's equation, and the heat equation with specified initial conditions. These might be regarded as 'natural' problems in that there are physical processes modelled by these problems.

Problems that are not well-posed in the sense of Hadamard are termed ill-posed. Inverse problems are often ill-posed. For example, the inverse heat equation, deducing a previous distribution of temperature from final data, is not well-posed in that the solution is highly sensitive to changes in the final data.

Continuum models must often be discretized in order to obtain a numerical solution. While solutions may be continuous with respect to the initial conditions, they may suffer from numerical instability when solved with finite precision, or with errors in the data. Even if a problem is well-posed, it may still be ill-conditioned, meaning that a small error in the initial data can result in much larger errors in the answers. Problems in nonlinear complex systems (so-called chaotic systems) provide well-known examples of instability. An ill-conditioned problem is indicated by a large condition number.

If the problem is well-posed, then it stands a good chance of solution on a computer using a stable algorithm. If it is not well-posed, it needs to be re-formulated for numerical treatment. Typically this involves including additional assumptions, such as smoothness of solution. This process is known as regularization. Tikhonov regularization is one of the most commonly used for regularization of linear ill-posed problems.

Energy method

A method to determine the well-posedness of a problem is the energy method. The method is based upon deriving an energy estimate for a given problem.

Example:
Consider the linear advection equation with homogeneous Dirichlet boundary conditions and suitable initial data .

Then carrying out the energy method for this problem, one would multiply the equation by  and integrate in space over the given interval.

Then one would integrate in time and one would obtain the energy estimate

 (p-norm)

From this energy estimate one can conclude that the problem is well-posed.

See also
Total absorption spectroscopy – an example of an inverse problem or ill-posed problem in a real-life situation that is solved by means of the expectation–maximization algorithm

References

Numerical analysis
Partial differential equations

Well-posed problem


Ravin V. Caldwell, Jr.  (born August 4, 1963) is a former American football linebacker in the National Football League (NFL) for the Washington Redskins from 1987 to 1992, playing on the teams that won the Super Bowl following the 1987 and 1991 seasons.  He played college football at the University of Arkansas and was drafted in the fifth round of the 1986 NFL Draft.

Caldwell is married to DeAnna Parson Caldwell (June 25, 2000). Together they have two children, a son Ashton Caldwell, born December 4, 1989 and a daughter, Ravyn Caldwell, born August 24, 2001. He also has a daughter from his relationship with former actress Teal Marchande, Talia Caldwell, who played college basketball at the University of California, Berkeley. Caldwell resides in Ashburn, Virginia.

References

1963 births
Living people
American football linebackers
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Ravin Caldwell