Vernon is a Canadian city in British Columbia, Canada. Vernon is in the south-central region of British Columbia and is the largest city in the North Okanagan region. It is named after Forbes George Vernon, a former member of government in British Columbia. Including the areas around it, Vernon has a population of 58,584 as of the Canada 2011 Census. A person who lives in Vernon is called a "Vernonite".

Vernon was named one of the top six most desirable communities to retire to in North America by Consumer Reports in 2005. Vernon has a BCHL (British Columbia Hockey League) ice hockey team called the Vernon Vipers.

History
The site of the city was discovered by the Okanagan First Nations people, who named the community Nintle Moos Chin, which means "jumping over place where the creek narrows". This name refers to a section of the Swan Lake that passes through Downtown Vernon, the community's central business district. The Okanagan people settled around the city's two lakes, Okanagan Lake and Swan Lake, eating seasonal foods. Later, the land was renamed Priest's Valley because of the priests living in the valley around 1859. A town was created in 1885 and was named Vernon in 1887 in honour of Forbes George Vernon, a settler who became part of the British Columbian government.

Vernon started to develop in 1863, when gold was found in the surrounding lands. Centreville, the community's original business district, was formed in 1885. Vernon became an economic hub in the Okanagan because of its many cattle ranches and fruit orchard areas that attracted British families.

Vernon's growth quickened in 1891 after the Canadian Pacific Railway was opened in the Okanagan and Shuswap regions of British Columbia. Shortly after, the river boat S.S. Aberdeen was launched in 1893 to connect Vernon to other parts of the Okanagan. Fruit trees first grew in Vernon by the early 1890s, while water supplies were supplied to the community by canals by 1906. In 1908, the Okanagan Mounted Rifles military program was created, bringing a number of people to the area during World War I and World War II for lessons.

Vernon was incorporated as a city on December 30, 1892, with a city hall built in 1903 that included a fire hall and a public reading space. The following year, it was declared the largest municipality in the Okanagan and the first to contain a bank and telephone.

Other websites
Town of Vernon's Official website

References

Cities in British Columbia

Vernon, British Columbia


{{DISPLAYTITLE:θ10}}
In representation theory, a branch of mathematics, θ10 is a cuspidal unipotent complex irreducible representation of the symplectic group Sp4 over a finite, local, or global field.

 introduced θ10 for the symplectic group Sp4(Fq) over a finite field Fq of order q, and showed that in this case it is
q(q – 1)2/2-dimensional. The subscript 10 in  θ10 is a historical accident that has stuck: Srinivasan  arbitrarily named  some of the characters of  Sp4(Fq) as  θ1, θ2, ..., θ13, and the tenth one in her list happens to be the cuspidal unipotent character.

θ10 is the only cuspidal unipotent representation of Sp4(Fq). It is the simplest example of a cuspidal unipotent representation of a reductive group, and also the simplest example of a degenerate cuspidal representation (one without a Whittaker model).
General linear groups have no cuspidal unipotent representations and no degenerate cuspidal representations, so θ10 exhibits properties of general reductive groups  that do not occur for general linear groups.

 used the representations  θ10 over local and global fields in their construction of counterexamples to the generalized Ramanujan conjecture for the symplectic group.  described the representation θ10 of the Lie group Sp4(R) over the local field R in detail.

References

.

Representation theory
Automorphic forms

Θ10


The Queen Elizabeth II bridge at Dartford has played crucial role on the M25 motorway by connecting communities in Essex and Kent. It is at the Dartford Crossing, sometimes called the Dartford-Thurrock River Crossing. The significance of this is that the bridge cuts the time for traffic from the North of England to France (and vice versa).

It was built at a cost of £120m and officially opened by Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II in October 1991. it was the first bridge to be built at a new location along the river Thames for more than 50 years. At the time time it was the longest single span bridge in Europe at over 2,872 metres long.

Bridges in England

Queen Elizabeth II Bridge


Nest ferch Cadell was the daughter of Cadell ap Brochfael, an 8th-century King of Powys, the wife of Merfyn Frych, King of Gwynedd.

On the death of her brother Cyngen ap Cadell in 855, authority over the Kingdom of Powys was claimed by Rhodri the Great, who had previously inherited the Kingdom of Gwynedd on the death of his father in 844. Rhodri thus united the Kingdoms of Powys and Gwynedd. Traditionally, Nest was claimed to be Rhodri's mother, hence his claim to Powys would have been matrilineal.

However, it is unclear why the inheritance of Powys would have passed through Nest to her son and not to one of the sons of Cyngen: Elisedd ap Cyngen, Ieuaf ap Cyngen, Aeddan ap Cyngen and Gruffudd ap Cyngen. The texts of Welsh laws which survive until today were written down starting with the 12th century, but they provide no evidence that women were capable of transmitting legal title of kingship or lordship.

Equally, although Rhodri's pedigree in a manuscript in Jesus College Oxford states Nest as his mother, another pedigree in a fourteenth-century manuscript in the National Library of Wales records his mother as Essyllt ferch Cynan. There are no strong grounds to accept either manuscript as reliable, but it is reasonable to believe that the royal house of Gwynedd promoted the view that the Kingdom of Powys had passed to Rhodri the Great through his mother in order to legitimise their control over it. Either way, this possible genealogical manipulation became part of the accepted story of the unification of the two kingdoms.

Most now take Nest ferch Cadell to be the Nest who was married to Gwerstan, son of Gwaithfoed, whose Grandson Bleddyn founded Powys's ruling House of Mathrafal. Rhodri's mother is instead taken to be Essylt daughter of Cynan Dindaethwy, last King of the House of Cunedda; it follows that Essylt was not Merfyn's mother, but his wife. Consequently, those taking this view conclude that Nest's alleged marriage to Merfyn (or Rhodri) was merely a rumour spread and recorded by supporters of Gwynedd to demean the Kings of Powys and to claim lordship over them. The House of Gwynedd's Kingship is recorded being passed jure uxoris through Essylt to her husband Merfyn and thence distaff (i.e. by the female line) to their son Rhodri on Merfyn's death, the same going for Rhodri's wife Angharad, the daughter of Meurig King of Seisyllwg when her brother Gwgon drowned without an heir, allowing Rhodri to rule Seisyllwg jure uxoris and his son Cadell to inherit it matrilineally.

See also
Kings of Wales family trees

References

House of Gwertherion
Monarchs of Gwynedd
Monarchs of Powys
8th-century Welsh monarchs
8th-century Welsh people
8th-century Welsh women

Nest ferch Cadell


Professor Hla Aung was born on 8th August 1923 in a small village in Sedoktaya township, Minbu District, Magwe Division, Myanmar. Hla Aung's ancestors on both sides were of peasant stock; but those on his father's side belonged to a long line of hereditary Ywathughis (Village Headmen). With the coming of British rule, however, in 1886, U (Pron: OO) Kaing Hla Aung's father, broke this family tradition and decided to become a government worker in the Land Records Department.

So after completing a course of Studies at the Government Survey School in Shwe bo in upper Burma, U Kaing was appointed as Revenue Surveyor and posted to Salin township in Minbu District where he met (Miss) Ma Mya Khin, a village beauty, who later became Hla Aung's mother.

A steady and conscientious worker

When the young boy was about six years old, Hla Aung was sent to the village kindergarten, a government - recognized primary school. Being an intelligent and obedient student, Hla Aung finished primary school in four years.

Hla Aung's father, who wanted his son to be educated in English, sent him to the Anglo-Vernacular High School in Salin town, some thirty miles from Tabwinywa where Vernacular Primary School was situated.

The High School authorities placed Hla Aung in the 2nd Grade since he could not recite the English alphabet form A to Z. He however, found himself ahead of other class-mates in subjects other than English. He, therefore, concentrated on English and worked feverishly on improving his knowledge of English with the result that when the half-yearly promotion ex- amination was held in October, Hla Aung's name topped the list of successful students who were moved one Grade up, thus winning "a double promotion." The studious young boy worked hard by keeping the momentum thus accelerating his ascent up the academic ladder. Hla Aung finally passed the Tenth Grade (Matriculation) Examination a year earlier. The accolade Hla Aung received from his school Manager was that he was "a steady and conscientious worker."

Pursuit of higher education

Hla Aung wanted to pursue further studies at the University of Rangoon, But his graduation from Salin High School coincided with his father's retirement from government service and the outbreak of the second world war in 1941. So Hla Aung's parents could not afford to send him to the University. Consequently, Hla Aung had to work full time and study part-time to support his parents and to work for the B.A degree as a private candidate. He got his B.A (Bachelor of Arts) degree in 1950 and the B.L (Bachelor of Laws) degree in 1952. In the list of successful candidates for the B.L degree, Hla Aung stood first in order of merit. But Hla Aung's thirst for higher and further education was almost unquenchable. He applied for and won a Fulbright and Smidth-Mundt Scholarship from the United States Educational Foundation in Rangoon for a year's further study in the U.S.A. The Scholarship was tenable at the University of Minnesota in Minneapolis for a period of one academic year commencing from August, 1952.

Hla Aung arrived in Minnesota late in July 1952 and was duly inducted into a course of studies leading to the degree of Master of Arts in Public Administration (M.A.P.A). He completed the course work before the end of the academic year. But just before the end of the academic year Hla Aung received word from the Embassy of the Union of Burma in Washington D.C that he had been awarded a government State Scholarship tenable for a period of four years. The scholarship was to begin upon expiry of the Fulbright Scholarship. So Hla Aung continued working for the MAPA degree. Meanwhile Hla aung's academic advisor, Prof-George Warp of the Public Administration Program, told him that if he were to study law, the best Institution to go to was Harvard Law School.

So after completing his Master's Thesis, which was unanimously approved by the Board of Examiners, Hla Aung left for Massachusetts to join the Harvard Law School in September 1953. After a grueling two-year struggle with the case method or Harvard style of teaching law, Hla Aung came out of Harvard with a L.L.M in 1955.

References

[1]https://www.burmalibrary.org/docs19/REDISCOVERING-red.pdf

PACIFIC RIM LAW & POLICY JOURNAL VOL. 23 No. 3 page 548

[1]

Another Burmese lawyer who wrote on this subject (in English),

under the kings and comparisons to the English common law.

30

the Attorney General of Burma (1971–1974).

among other areas of law,

Harvard Law School, he went on to work as an academic at the National University of Singapore, at Rangoon Arts and Science University, and as

31

is Professor Hla Aung. A 1955 graduate of

the negative impact of the transplant of the common law into Burma, and

argued that the "importation of Indian codes and statues into Burma had

shattered the whole fabric of Burmese law."32 In a brief article, he tackles

the ubiquitous task of what is "law" and argues that the Burmese concept

of law has traversed three eras: the "Age of the Dhammathats," British

34

30 For example, Hla Aung has also written short pieces on international and comparative law.

See HLA AUNG, LAW AND JUSTICE IN MYANMAR (2008).

31 Id. at Prefatory Note.

32 Hla Aung, The Effect of Anglo-Indian Legislation on Burmese Customary Law, in FAMILY LAW AND CUSTOMARY LAW IN ASIA: A CONTEMPORARY LEGAL PERSPECTIVE 67, 88 (David C. Buxbaum ed., 1968).

33 Hla Aung, Burmese Concept of Law, 52 J. BURMA RES. SOC'Y 27 (1969).

34 Id. at 31, 33.

[2]

https://www.burmalibrary.org/docs19/REDISCOVERING-red.pdf

Rediscovering-red June 2014 pg 571

[2]

B. The Legal Profession and Education

The themes of legal education and the legal profession are intimately related. On legal education, Hla Aung has published a brief note describing the state of legal education in the late 1950s, in which he diagnosed the need for "radical change in modern Burmese legal education."242

242 Hla Aung, A Brief Note on Legal Education, 1 BURMA L. INST. J. 83 (1958)

[3]

Legal Education in Burma Unpublished… pg 43

[3]

From about 1964 to his appointment by the late General Ne Win as Attorney-General in September 1971 Professor U Hla Aung, BA, BL (Rangoon), LLM (Harvard), MPA (Master of Public Administration, Minnesota) was the Head of the Department of Law at Rangoon Arts and Science University. To the best of the author's knowledge among the full-time academic staff members of the Department of Law since 1964 Professor U Hla Aung was the only person who have academic degrees in law from a United States Law School (Harvard University) and Professors (the late) U Tin Ohn and Professor Dr Daw Than Nwe are the only persons to have academic degrees in law from the United Kingdom (University of London).

[4]

https://chemonics.com/projects/introducing-the-rule-of-law-in-myanmar/

http://www.developmentpi.com/index.php/project/myanmar.html

Access to Justice and Administrative Law in Myanmar pg 34

Promoting the Rule of Law Project | USAID

[4]

U Hla Aung (1961) 'The Law of Preventive Detention in Burma' 3(1) Journal of the International Commission of Jurists 47–67.

[5]

https://www.law.ox.ac.uk/sites/files/oxlaw/myanmar_book_26_may_2015.pdf

[5]

(2) Attorney General Professor U Hla Aung

Sayar Gyi U Hla Aung, Professor of Law, who served as the Attorney General from 25-9-1971 to 4-3-1974.  On 10-7-1973, we, the legal staff level 4 (probationary), met again with Sayar Gyi U Hla Aung in our working life.  As a law student, I was more respected as a Attorney General when I was a law clerk because I was a professor.

"However, we will rule with compassion for the students. "  Hla Aung, a professor of law and attorney general, advises us on a daily basis: "You are not young anymore.  Students must prepare their minds.  Now that you are a law officer, you have to be more and more law-abiding. "  Most of our law enforcement officers paid homage to U Hla Aung, the Attorney General who came from his teaching career.  The role of legal education and the situation in Myanmar;  I am reminded of how the Attorney General, U Hla Aung, taught the legal concept of having a legal staff.

International perspective

Among the teachings of the Attorney General, Professor U Hla Aung, is to consider the law from the perspective of international law.  It is always pointed out (that is not enough from a local point of view).  I especially remember this one.

University law education (for example, 1878 colonial-era university law education, 1920 Rangoon University law department, part-time teaching, B-L (Bachelor of Law) degree, Revolutionary Council education policy;  1964 University education  1965 Full-time Undergraduate Law Courses;  Yangon: The emergence of a separate law department at the University of Arts and Sciences, B.A (Law);  Sayar Gyi U Hla Aung, Professor of Law (Attorney General), talks about the LL.B assignments and systematically teaches how ideas flow through the life of the legal profession.

Goodwill

Because legal thinking is legal, it may not be the same as other ideas. It's just a thought of my goodwill to pay tribute to the gracious teachers who have pondered this concept over and over again.

[6]

https://books.google.com/books/about/Law_and_Justice_in_Myanmar.html?id=ZRMAPwAACAAJ

The author of the book "Hla Aung, LAW AND JUSTICE IN MYANMAR", published by Tun Foundation Bank Literacy Committee

ပါမောက္ခ ဦးလှအောင်


Oliver Twist is a brand name of smokeless tobacco manufactured by House of Oliver Twist of Odense, Denmark.

The product contains natural nicotine in such small portions is classed as a 'weak' form of dip. The tobacco's flavours are well known for its long lasting taste thus being enriched with sugar.

Usage
Unlike its name suggests, Oliver Twist is not chewed. Instead, like dip, the bits are simply inserted between the lip and gum and left to absorb through the mouth. Unlike most dipping tobacco products (especially the American varieties, such as Skoal), Oliver Twist is not loose, but rather formed into a cylindrical plug for easier clean-up and more discreet consumption. The pellets are very small, approximately  and are made from a single leaf.

As the product's description reads on its packaging:
Smokeless tobacco. Keep
between cheek and gum - don't
chew - its long lasting flavor
gives you discreet tobacco
satisfaction without expectorating.
When the taste is gone, the
pellet is easily removed.

History
Oliver Twist has been manufactured in Odense, Denmark, by House of Oliver Twist A/S since 1805. It is imported into the US by RBJ Sales, Inc. of Dresden, Tennessee.

Varieties
Oliver Twist is available in various flavors: Tropical (flavored with anise), Black (flavoured with salmiak liquorice), Royal (flavored with English licorice), Sunberry (blackcurrant-flavored), Eucalyptus, Mint, Citrus, Wintergreen, Arctic, Bergamot and Original (sweet licorice).

Tobacco brands

Oliver Twist Tobacco


Clarence Kirschman Streit (; January 21, 1896 – July 6, 1986) was an American journalist who played a prominent role in the Atlanticist and world federalist movements.

Life and career
Streit was born in California, Missouri, the son of Emma (Kirschman) and Louis Leland Streit. Of Palatine German origin, he moved with his family to Missoula, Montana, in 1911. In Missoula, he founded the Konah, a high school paper that is now one of the oldest in the United States in continuous publication. While a student at Montana State University (now the University of Montana), he volunteered for military service during World War I, serving in an Intelligence unit in France and assisting the American delegation at the Conference of Versailles.  He was a Rhodes scholar at University of Oxford in 1920.  He married Jeanne Defrance in Paris in 1921, after which he became a foreign correspondent for The New York Times.

In 1929, he was assigned to cover the League of Nations in Switzerland, where he witnessed the League's slow disintegration and collapse. That experience, coupled with the rise of totalitarian regimes in Europe, convinced him that mankind's best hope was a federal union of democracies, modeled on American federalism. This led him to write Union Now, a book advocating the political integration of the democracies of Western Europe (including their colonies) and the other English-speaking countries at that time (the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa). The book was published in 1939, on the eve of World War II. It had sold over 300,000 copies by 1972.

In the aftermath of the book's publication, Streit founded Federal Union, Inc. (later renamed the Association to Unite the Democracies) to promote his vision. Seeking what he described as "a man of national stature" to lend credence to his efforts, he was able to secure the support of Supreme Court Justice Owen Roberts, who would be a friend and collaborator in subsequent years. In 1949, Streit joined the board of the Roberts-chaired Atlantic Union Committee, which sought to pressure Congress to pursue a federation of democratic states.

The Streit Council, a successor organization to the Association to Unite the Democracies, was named after him.

Personal life
He was married to Jeanne Defrance of Lille, France, niece of French jurist Fernand Payen, known for defending Marechal Petain in his trial for treason. They met at a bus stop at the Place de l'Opéra in 1920. His daughter, Jeanette Streit (1924-2012), married Felix Rohatyn in 1956; they divorced in 1979.

Publications
 "Where Iron is, there is the Fatherland!" New York: B. W. Huebsch (1920).
"A note on the relation of privilege and monopoly to war."
 Union Now: A Proposal for an Atlantic Federal Union of the Free. England: Butler & Tanner (1939). Full text.
 Freedom Against Itself. New York: Harper (1954).
 Clarence K. Streit's The Unknown Turks: Mustafa Kemal Paşa, Nationalist Ankara and Daily Life in Anatolia, January–March 1921, revised, edited, and annotated by Heath W. Lowry. Istanbul: Bahçeşehir University Press (2011).

References

External links
 The Streit Council
 Clarence Streit Papers (University of Montana Archives)
 Clarence K. Streit Papers (Library of Congress)

1896 births
1986 deaths
The New York Times writers
Writers from Missoula, Montana
Journalists from Montana
American people of German descent
World federalist activists
People from California, Missouri
20th-century American journalists
American male journalists

Clarence Streit


The Greenville and Columbia Railroad was a  gauge railroad that served South Carolina in the 19th century.

Beginnings
The line traces its history back to 1845, when Greenville, South Carolina-area leaders Benjamin Perry, Waddy Thompson Jr., John T. Coleman and Joel Poinsett called a public meeting, this one presided over by Vardry McBee. The goal was to create enthusiasm and collect subscriptions for a rail line to the northern and southern parts of the state. With a committee of 30 potential subscribers, they agreed to seek a preliminary charter for a Greenville and Columbia Railroad, with the understanding that they raise at least $300,000 in subscriptions within a year.

Unsuccessful, the group renewed their charter the following year. The plan was to build a 109-mile line up the east side of the Saluda River through Newberry, South Carolina, and Laurens, South Carolina, to Greenville. The 30 commissioners sought subscribers from Columbia, South Carolina, and all the surrounding counties. They were successful but when stockholders met in May 1847 in Columbia, those from the capital city and from the Abbeville and Anderson districts, urged by local property owner and famed politician John C. Calhoun, who wanted a different route, voted to build a 147-mile line on the west side of the river with its terminus in Anderson.

Greenville stockholders, and especially McBee, the largest single subscriber, cried foul. They wanted their money back, but the majority stockholders refused. So the Greenville contingent chartered the Greenville Railroad Co. and threatened to build a railroad from "Dr. Brown's place," near modern-day Belton, South Carolina, directly to Greenville, to shift freight and passengers away from Anderson.

McBee also put up $50,000 of his own money to make the subscription possible. The other stockholders reluctantly agreed. McBee's hand-picked candidate, John Belton O'Neall, was elected president of the line.

Construction
McBee played an instrumental role in the development of the line. His son, Pinkney, a civil engineer, surveyed the line. His sawmill provided the timbers and he coaxed iron from distributors. He even quarried stone from his quarry for the foundation of the Greenville freight terminal.

By August 1852, the line had been completed to Greenwood. Despite a flash flood that washed out bridges, embankments and tracks along the Broad River, the line went forward. By late November 1853 the tracks were laid to within three miles of Greenville.

The coming of the Greenville and Columbia Railroad meant that a traveler could go from Greenville to Columbia in less than 11 hours and on to Charleston by the following day. It was a remarkable improvement considering the journey had previously taken two weeks.

Civil War
The railroad was Greenville's lifeline to the rest of the state during the Civil War, but when Sherman's troops invaded Columbia, federal troops burned the carrier's offices and depot there. In addition, 12 miles of track ripped up, five bridges vanished and several locomotives were destroyed. After January 1865, it did not operate. A year later, another flood wiped out 40 more miles of track. The Greenville and Columbia Railroad did not restart operations until September 1866.

Reconstruction
Almost immediately after the line began operations again, the federal government seized it without reimbursing stockholders. Henry Hammett, one of the few solvent Greenvillians after the war, became president in 1868, but then the Greenville and Columbia fell into the hands of the Railroad Ring, politically connected embezzlers who bilked the state out of its lien and mortgage on the rail line. While the carrier did manage to acquire the Union & Spartanburg Railroad around 1870, extending this line from Alston to Spartanburg, in 1872, the railroad declared bankruptcy.

At one point in the 1870s, a quarter of the state's revenues were lost in a single fiscal year after a failed investment in the troubled railroad. As a result of the failed investment, the state adopted a constitutional ban on investing public money in stocks, a ban that stood for more than 120 years.

Reorganization and sale
The line was sold under foreclosure and reorganized under the Columbia and Greenville Railroad name in 1880.

Beginning in 1886, it was leased to the Richmond and Danville Railroad and in 1894 it was incorporated into the Southern Railway.

References

Defunct South Carolina railroads
5 ft gauge railways in the United States
Railway companies established in 1853
Railway companies disestablished in 1894
Predecessors of the Southern Railway (U.S.)

Greenville and Columbia Railroad


Ellen O'Kane Tauscher (November 15, 1951 – April 29, 2019) was an American politician. She was a member of the Democratic Party. She was the U.S. Representative for California's 10th congressional district. She became a congresswoman in 1997 replacing William P. Baker. She resigned in 2009 to work for the State Department. Tauscher was replaced by John Garamendi in the House.

She served as the Under Secretary of State for Arms Control and International Security Affairs from June 2009 until February 2012. She later served as Special Envoy for Strategic Stability and Missile Defense at the State Department until August 31, 2012.

Tauscher was born in Newark, New Jersey. She studied at Seton Hall University. Tauscher had one daughter. She was married to William Tauscher until their divorce in 1999.  She was later married to Jim Cieslak from 2009 to 2011.

Tauscher survived esophageal cancer in 2010. She died of pneumonia on April 29, 2019 in Stanford, California, at the age of 67.

References

Other websites

1951 births
2019 deaths
American diplomats
Deaths from pneumonia
Politicians from Newark, New Jersey
United States representatives from California

Ellen Tauscher


Agricultural productivity is measured as the ratio of agricultural outputs to inputs. While individual products are usually measured by weight, which is known as crop yield, varying products make measuring overall agricultural output difficult. Therefore, agricultural productivity is usually measured as the market value of the final output. This productivity can be compared to many different types of inputs such as labour or land. Such comparisons are called partial measures of productivity.

Agricultural productivity may also be measured by what is termed total factor productivity (TFP). This method of calculating agricultural productivity compares an index of agricultural inputs to an index of outputs. This measure of agricultural productivity was established to remedy the shortcomings of the partial measures of productivity; notably that it is often hard to identify the factors cause them to change. Changes in TFP are usually attributed to technological improvements.

Agricultural productivity is an important component of food security. Increasing agricultural productivity through sustainable practices can be an important way to decrease the amount of land needed for farming and slow environmental degradation and climate change through processes like deforestation.

Sources of agricultural productivity

Productivity is driven by changes in either agricultural technique or improvements in technology. Some sources of changes in agricultural productivity have included:
 Mechanization
 High yield varieties, which were the basis of the Green revolution
 Fertilizers: Primary plant nutrients: nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium and secondary nutrients such as sulfur, zinc, copper, manganese, calcium, magnesium and molybdenum on deficient soil
 Education in management and entrepreneurial techniques to decrease fixed and variable costs and optimise manpower
 Liming of acid soils to raise pH and to provide calcium and magnesium
 Irrigation
 Herbicides
 Genetic engineering
 Pesticides
 Increased plant density
 Animal feed made more digestible by processing
 Keeping animals indoors in cold weather

See: Productivity improving technologies (historical) Section: 2.4.1: Mechanization: Agriculture, Section 2.6: Scientific agriculture.

Impact
The productivity of a region's farms is important for many reasons. Aside from providing more food, increasing the productivity of farms affects the region's prospects for growth and competitiveness on the agricultural market, income distribution and savings, and labour migration. An increase in a region's agricultural productivity implies a more efficient distribution of scarce resources. As farmers adopt new techniques and differences, the more productive farmers benefit from an increase in their welfare while farmers who are not productive enough will exit the market to seek success elsewhere.

As a region's farms become more productive, its comparative advantage in agricultural products increases, which means that it can produce these products at a lower opportunity cost than can other regions. Therefore, the region becomes more competitive on the world market, which means that it can attract more consumers since they are able to buy more of the products offered for the same amount of money. As productivity improvement leads to falling food prices, this automatically leads to increases in real income elsewhere.

Increases in agricultural productivity lead also to agricultural growth and can help to alleviate poverty in poor and developing countries, where agriculture often employs the greatest portion of the population. As farms become more productive, the wages earned by those who work in agriculture increase. At the same time, food prices decrease and food supplies become more stable. Labourers therefore have more money to spend on food as well as other products. This also leads to agricultural growth. People see that there is a greater opportunity to earn their living by farming and are attracted to agriculture either as owners of farms themselves or as labourers.

It is not only the people employed in agriculture who benefit from increases in agricultural productivity. Those employed in other sectors also enjoy lower food prices and a more stable food supply. Their wages may also increase.

Food security

Agricultural productivity is becoming increasingly important as the world population continues to grow. As agricultural productivity grows, food prices decrease, allowing people to spend less on food, and combatting hunger. India, one of the world's most populous countries, has taken steps in the past decades to increase its land productivity. In the 1960s North India produced only wheat, but with the advent of the earlier maturing high-yielding wheats and rices, the wheat could be harvested in time to plant rice. This wheat/rice combination is now widely used throughout the Punjab, Haryana, and parts of Uttar Pradesh. The wheat yield of three tons and rice yield of two tons combine for five tons of grain per hectare, helping to feed India's 1.1 billion people.

Higher global food prices between 2006 and 2008, primarily caused by an increasing amount arable land used for growing biofuels and the growing economies in China and elsewhere causing an increase in demand for meat products (which are less efficient than plants in terms of land use), caused the percentage of incomes used for food to increase throughout the world, forcing families to cut back on various other expenditures such as schooling for girls. In areas of sub-Saharan Africa, a decreased agricultural productivity due to crop failures has caused starvation. On the other hand, higher global prices actually mean farmers with successful yields earn more, and this thus increases their productivity.

Investing in the agricultural productivity of women in farming communities is of particular importance in boosting economic development and food security in parts of the developing world. Women in some areas of the world, for example in Africa, traditionally have less agency than men, but are often also more invested in farming in terms of time spent. They are furthermore generally more responsible for childcare, thus their productivity is more likely to translate in gains for the family as a whole.

Relation to population growth

Some critics claim that increasing agricultural productivity results in human overpopulation. They are argue that, like other species, human populations grow up to their carrying capacity. When a species reaches its carrying capacity, the number of poor and weak individuals who die from disease or starvation is equal to the number of individuals being added to the population via birth. Because innovation continues to improve agricultural productivity (specifically yields), however, the theoretical carrying capacity continues to increase, allowing the human population to continue to grow. These writers claim that there are too many people on Earth and that therefore growth in agricultural productivity is detrimental to the environment — if the carrying capacity was lower, the human population would reach an equilibrium at a lower number.

However, unlike other animals, in humans greater development and prosperity has led to lower fecundity. Thus as productivity has increased and poverty has been reduced worldwide, population growth is declining. Research suggests we may actually face a declining world population in the future.

Inverse relationship theory

Deolalikar in 1981 investigated the theory first proposed by Sen in 1975 that in traditional, pre-modern farming in India, there is an inverse relationship to size of the farm and productivity, contrary to the economy of scale found in all other types of economic activity. It is debated whether the inverse relationship actually exists. Numerous studies falsify this theory. In Zimbabwe, policies on agrarian land reform under president Robert Mugabe, especially in and following 2000, split large farms into many smaller farms, and this decreased productivity. Marxist agrarian land reform in the Soviet Union, China and Vietnam combined small farms into larger units, this usually failed to increase productivity.

Nonetheless, increasing agricultural productivity amongst smallholder farms is an important way to improve farmer livelihoods in the developing world.

Sustainable increases in productivity
Because agriculture has such large impacts on climate change and other environmental issues, intensification of agriculture, which would increase productivity per amount of land being farmed, is seen by some as an important method for climate change mitigation, because farmers will not require more land, and are thus incentivized not to participate in further land degradation or deforestation. Implementing intensification through sustainable agriculture practices makes farming more sustainable in the long term, maintaining the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs while conserving the environment. International policy, embodied in Sustainable Development Goal 2, focusses on improving these practices at an international level.

Not all effects of climate change will be negative on agricultural productivity. The IPCC  Special Report on Climate Change and Land and the Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C both project mixed changes in the yields of crops as global warming happens with some breadbasket regions becoming less productive, while other crops increase ranges and productivity.

See also
 Agricultural expansion
 Energy efficiency in agriculture
 Food vs. feed
 Green Revolution
 Mechanized agriculture
 Productivity
 Productivity improving technologies (historical) Section 4: Mechanized agriculture, Section 6: Scientific agriculture

References

Citations

Cited sources

External links
 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations – www.fao.org
 OECD Department for Trade and Agriculture: Food, Agriculture and Fisheries
 OECD Agricultural Outlook Database (2006–2015)

Agricultural production
Agricultural revolutions
Sustainable agriculture

Agricultural productivity


Lee Grinner Pace (born March 25, 1979) is an American actor. He was born in Chickasha, Oklahoma and grew up in Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, and United Arab Emirates for his father's oil business. After returning to the United States, he lived in Texas and now lives in Los Angeles.

Actors from Oklahoma
1979 births
Living people
LGBT people from Oklahoma

Lee Pace


Christina Martin (born January 1980) is a British writer and former stand-up comedian.

She came third in the 2006 Funny Women Awards. She was a feature writer for Viz magazine between 2006 and 2009. Her articles appear in the annuals 'Last Turkey in the Shop', 'The Council Gritter', 'The Five Knuckle Shuffle' and 'The Cleveland Steamer' and in their thirty year retrospective book 'Anus Horribilis'. Christina wrote for New Humanist magazine between 2007 and 2009. 'God Trumps', her feature from the Nov/Dec 2008 issue, is the most viewed online article in the website's history gaining 50,000 hits in one day and has been made into a playable card game. A chapter she wrote on the creation of God Trumps featured in The Atheist's Guide to Christmas. She has appeared on the BBC7 show Festival Atmosphere 2006 and the BBC Radio 4 show 28 Acts in 28 Minutes. She was also part of the writing team for the Radio 4 show Recorded for Training Purposes and wrote for one episode of The Now Show. In a Guardian interview, Richard Herring named her as one of the funniest people he knew.

She has featured twice on Radio 4's The Untold, once as the focus of an episode and once in a catch up episode. The former episode was selected as a Radio 4 and The Guardian Guide Pick of The Week and gained interest from a publisher who approached her to write a book. In 2021 she was signed by the Jo Unwin Literary Agency. Her first book was published in March 2023, under the pen name Evie King.

Bibliography

References

External links
 Christina Martin at Chortle
 Christina Martin at Comedy CV
 Christina Martin at New Humanist
 Christina Martin at British Comedy Guide
 Christina Martin at Jo Unwin Literary Agency

Living people
1980 births
British women comedians

Christina Martin


The Korniakt Tower or Kornyak Tower is an architectural monument in Lviv, Ukraine. It is an important monument to the nation. The tower is located on 9 Pidvalna Street in Lviv. It is a part of the Assumption Church.

History
The tower was built during the Renaissance as a bell tower of the Church of the Assumption. It was designed by architect Peter Barbon from 1572 ro 1578. Paul the Roman help with the design. The cost was paid for by Constantine Kornyakt. He was a merchant of Lviv  of Greek origin.

According to Vaclav Urban in the Polish Biographical Dictionary, the tower was built instead of writing off 1,000 zlotys of debt  .

Before the construction was finished, a large bell was hung on the tower. At the time, it was, the largest bell in Galicia. The bell had a  diameter of . It was named "Cyril". There were problems between the Assumption Brotherhood and the Dominicans, who had their own monastery nearby,  over this bell. The Dominicans complained to the magistrate and the king that the bell was larger than all the bells in the Polish state. The monks said that the bell was too loud. This caused them problems with listening to the sermon in the church. Cyril soon began to act as the city's main bell. It was used to announce military danger, fires, natural disasters and the deaths of the most well known people living in Lviv.

In 1616, a fire destroyed a large part of the city. It caused a large amount of damage to the street. The tower was also badly damaged: its tin-lead roof melted.

Architecture
The bell tower is square. It was  built of broken stone and surrounded by hewn stone. Polychrome is used in the decoration. The tower is connected with the northern facade of the Church of the Assumption. The facades are decorated with pilasters of the Tuscan order . They have long red arched niches with small window openings. Each tier of the tower is smaller than the one below it. The total height of the tower without the cross is  .

It is thought that the design for the tower was based on the Tower of S. Spirito in Rome. The tower is also similar tothe towers of the churches of Madonna del Orto and St Stephen in Venice.

Lviv
Buildings and structures in Ukraine

Korniakt Tower


The Rio de Janeiro Metro (, ), commonly referred to as just the Metrô () is a rapid transit network that serves the city of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The Metrô was inaugurated on 5 March 1979, and consisted of five stations operating on a single line. The system currently covers a total of , serving 41 stations, divided into three lines: Line 1 (); Line 2 (), which together travel over a shared stretch of line that covers 10 stations of an approximate distance of ; and Line 4 (). Metrô Rio has the second highest passenger volume of the metro systems in Brazil, after the São Paulo Metro.

Line 1 (orange line) serves downtown Rio, tourist areas in the South Zone, and several neighbourhoods in the North Zone. It is a semicircular line, and is fully underground. It runs from Uruguai Station to Ipanema/General Osório Station. Line 2 (green line) serves working-class residential neighborhoods extending toward the north. It is a northwest-to-southeast line, and almost completely above-ground (mostly at grade and partly elevated).  This line started as a light rail, but due to increasing numbers of commuters, it gradually changed to rapid transit or metro. Because of its origin as light rail, it is at grade except for Estácio Station (the former connection station between lines 1 and 2), which is underground and Cidade Nova Station, which is elevated, and Line 4 (yellow line), connecting Barra da Tijuca/Jardim Oceânico Station in the West Zone to Ipanema/General Osório Station on Line 1.

The Government of the State of Rio de Janeiro remains responsible for the expansion of the metro network through Rio Trilhos. In late December 2007, the lease was renewed until 2038 and Metrô Rio assumed responsibility for the construction of Cidade Nova Station , which serves as a link between Line 2 and Line 1 ending the need to transfer stations, with the purchase of 114 cars, and construction of Uruguai Station, extending Line 1 further north.

The extension works of Line 2, called Line 1A, which ended the need for a transfer at Estácio Station and allowed the direct connection from Pavuna Station to Botafogo were started by Metrô Rio on 13 November 2008, and the tracks were completed in December 2009. With the extension, the 250 thousand passengers that circulate daily on Line 2 do not need to change trains any more in order to get to the South Zone. The interconnection of the two metro lines will reduce, by up to 13 minutes, the journey time from Pavuna station to the city's downtown, the destination of 83% of Line 2's passengers.

History

Rio de Janeiro is the second largest city in Brazil and the most popular tourist attraction in the country. After 1950, the number of motor vehicles on the roads increased dramatically. Rio de Janeiro lies in a hilly region, between the mountains and the Atlantic Ocean. The landscape of the city is extremely uneven, making travelling by car or bus a very time-consuming task through the narrow streets. These conditions are ideal for trams but not for the increasing traffic of motor vehicles. By the early 1960s, traffic jams, pollution, and smog had become a serious problem in the city. To overcome these problems, local transport authorities decided to reduce the tram network and switch over to a metro network.

On 14 December 1968, the Companhia do Metropolitano do Rio de Janeiro (Metro Company of Rio de Janeiro in English) was created through State Law number 1736. In March 1975, with Law–Decree number 25, the company effectively came into existence. On 23 June 1970, construction work started in Jardim da Glória. From 1971 to 1974, owing to a lack of resources, construction work stopped and was only resumed a year later. The Rio de Janeiro Metro began operating in March 1979, during the administration of governor Chagas Freitas. In the beginning, there were only five stations: Praça Onze, Central, Presidente Vargas, Cinelândia Station, and Glória Station, operating from 9:00 AM to 3:00 PM.

In its initial 10 days, the system transported more than half a million people, averaging sixty thousand passengers per day. At that time, the subway worked with only four trains of four cars each, with an average interval of eight minutes. In December of the same year, the operating schedule was extended until 11:00 PM, including Saturdays. In 1980, the metro system began to be expanded with the opening of Uruguaiana Station and Estácio stations. The two new stations caused larger passenger demand, compelling an increase in the number of trains from four to six.

The Carioca station in Downtown Rio de Janeiro, the busiest station with more than eighty thousand passengers a day, was finished in January 1981. By the end of the same year, the stations Catete Station, Morro Azul (now called Flamengo Station), and Botafogo Station were completed. In November 1981, Line 2 (or Linha 2 in Portuguese) started operating with only two stations: São Cristóvão and Maracanã Station (which serves the Maracanã football stadium). In December, completing the southern section of the first Line 1, Largo do Machado Station began service. In 1982, the complementary inaugurations of the northern section of Line 1 started, with the beginning of operations of the Afonso Pena, São Francisco Xavier and Saens Peña stations.

To allow the completion of the second line to Irajá, in 1983, the trains on this line began operating from 6:00 AM to 2:00 PM. After a month, this schedule was extended until 8 PM, and a free bus service was established, integrating the Estácio, São Cristóvão, and Maracanã stations. After the conclusion of the works, the Pre-Metro and Maria da Graça, Del Castilho, Inhaúma Station and Irajá Station stations were opened. In 1984 the commercial operation of the second line began with five trains on workdays with a five-and-a-half-minute interval during the week.

Following the expansion, the Triagem station was inaugurated in July 1988, the year of the creation of the subway/train integration ticket. In 1991, the Engenho da Rainha station was inaugurated. From 1991 to 1996, two stations were opened, Thomaz Coelho and Vicente de Carvalho. In this period, the time interval of the nine stations of the second line was reduced to six minutes. In July 1998, Cardeal Arcoverde Station, in the traditional neighbourhood of Copacabana, was inaugurated. Five more stations became operational in the following two months: Irajá Station, Colégio Station, Coelho Neto, Engenheiro Rubens Paiva, Acari/Fazenda Botafogo and Pavuna Station.

In 1997, the Carnival Operation (Operação de Carnaval in Portuguese) began with continuous service during the Rio Carnival festivity days. In December of that year the system was privatised and the management and operation of the company passed into the hands of the Consortium Opportrans with a concession of 20 years, leaving the responsibility for expansion of the network in the hands of the state government of Rio de Janeiro through the company Rio Trilhos. The Rio Reveillón (New Year's Eve celebrations) is highlighted by the performance of Opportrans that since 1999 has conducted a Special Operation to ensure a party for all. Tickets illustrated scheduled appointments to avoid overcrowding and provide the best service.

In 2003 Siqueira Campos Station in Copacabana was inaugurated. Cantagalo Station beyond Siqueira Campos was due to be completed in March 2006 but owing to financial problems the opening date was postponed to 15 December. This was again postponed and the final opening took place in February 2007. At the same time construction began on the subway extension to General Osório station in Ipanema. This was opened in December 2009.

In late December 2007, Metro Rio renewed the concession, then defined as for another 20 years, to 2038.

Line 1A from Pavuna to Botafogo opened in December 2009 with a connection between São Cristóvão and Central. Passenger traffic at Estácio is reduced and the elimination of the need to transfer between Lines 1 and 2 saves up to 13 minutes of journey time. A new station on the new section, Cidade Nova, was opened in November 2010; the station is on Avenida Presidente Vargas and serves the City Hall.

In June 2010, the construction of Line 4 began, linking Ipanema to Barra da Tijuca, where most events of the 2016 Olympic Games occurred.

System

Rolling stock
The cars are of monoblock construction in stainless steel. Passenger train composition normally use six cars (four on rare occasions), but Line 2 was planned to use eight cars. Older stock driving cars can accommodate a maximum of 351 passengers (40 seated), while non-driving cars accommodate a maximum of 378 passengers (48 seated). Thus, in six-car configurations the maximum number of passengers that can be transported is 2,214.

Line 1 is served by exclusively old types of rolling stock, which are full metro. Since Line 2 was formerly a light rail line, there are some old types of stock that have been converted from light rail to metro stock. New B type stock is full metro stock. This line was initially served by old A type stock, built by La Brugeoise et Nivelles and Cobrasma.

Inside each coach, seat arrangement is both parallel and perpendicular to the windows. When the left side has parallel seats, the right side has perpendicular seats, and vice versa. Each vertical seat has a handle for easier standing. There are vertical stanchions from ceiling to floor for standing passengers, one set in front of the horizontal seats, another set at the middle of the coach. Both A and B type trains are air-conditioned.

Lines 1, 2 and 4 share EMUs built by CRRC Changchun Railway Vehicles Co. Ltd. The 6-car trains were designed in 18 months and all 19 sets are currently operating in passenger service. The trains entered revenue service 23 months after contract award.

Lines
 Line 1 (Orange): Uruguai, Saens Peña, São Francisco Xavier, Afonso Pena, Estácio, Praça Onze, Central, Presidente Vargas, Uruguaiana, Carioca, Cinelândia, Glória, Catete, Largo do Machado, Flamengo, Botafogo, Cardeal Arcoverde, Siqueira Campos, Cantagalo, General Osório.
All stations are underground. Cinelândia and Central stations have island platforms. Carioca, Saens Peña, Botafogo and General Osório stations have both side and island platforms, although Saens Peña consists of two island platforms and three tracks. The northernmost of the three tracks appears to be disused and planned for use after the Line 1 extension. Saens Peña is a very busy station, with train turnarounds made very quickly. All other stations have side platforms, up and down tracks are divided by a low wall at stations with side platforms. Siqueira Campos, Carioca, Central, Uruguaiana are Cardeal Arcoverde have a large mezzanine floor between surface and underground tracks.

Central, which is a major interchange point between the Metro, local and longer-distance bus lines, and the SuperVia train network, is the busiest station on the network. The Cardeal Arcoverde station was dynamited out of the base of São João Mountain and retains a cavelike structure. General Osório has some painting in the hallways to remember prehistoric attempts at communication.

Uruguai Station opened in March 2014, becoming the new terminal station of Line 1 in the North Side of Rio de Janeiro.
 Line 2 (Green): Pavuna, Engenheiro Rubens Paiva, Acari/Fazenda Botafogo Station, Coelho Neto, Colégio, Irajá, Vicente de Carvalho, Thomaz Coelho, Engenho da Rainha, Inhaúma, Nova América/Del Castilho, Maria da Graça, Triagem, Maracanã, São Cristóvão, Cidade Nova, Estácio (closed on working days).
 Line 1A: São Cristóvão, Cidade Nova, Central, Presidente Vargas, Uruguaiana, Carioca, Cinelândia, Glória, Catete, Largo do Machado, Flamengo, Botafogo.
Line 1A is actually an extension of Line 2 to Botafogo station. Line 2 is elevated from Irajá to Colégio. Many of the stations have island platforms, although Pavuna has both side and island platforms. Underground from Central to Botafogo.

Owing to its origin as light rail, it is fully above-ground (except Estácio station, which is underground). Most stations like Irajá and others, have an island platform, whereas some stations like Triagem have side platforms. Maracanã station is directly linked by an overbridge to the Maracanã Stadium across the street.

Connections
 Line 1 is fully underground with Cardeal Arcoverde being the deepest station. This station is under São João mountain. Non-free interchange with the Santa Teresa Tram is possible at Carioca and with the SuperVia trains at Central. Interchange to Line 2 is possible at all stations between Botafogo and Central on weekdays. There is interchange with Line 2 at Estácio on weekends and holidays. Interchange to bus is possible at Cardeal Arcoverde, Botafogo, Largo do Machado, Estácio, São Francisco Xavier and Sáenz Peña.
 Line 2 is fully above-ground, except stations on Line 1A. It is elevated from Irajá to Colégio and the rest is at grade, except Cidade Nova and Triagem, which are elevated. Interchange with the train is possible at Triagem, Pavuna, São Cristóvão and Central. Interchange to line 1 is possible at Line 1A stations on weekdays, and at Estácio on weekends and holidays. Bus interchange is possible at Nova América/Del Castilho, Coelho Neto and Pavuna.

Fare structure

 Single Journey (Unitário in Portuguese): This is the most popular option. When a commuter buys a ticket from the counter, they then can travel by metro from any station to any station of any line. Once the commuter leaves the station, they need another ticket for another trip. There is a flat single fare (Unitário) R$ 4.60 as of March 2020 regardless of distance.
 Single Journey with bus extension (Metrô na Superfície in Portuguese): Metro Rio operates a bus service from some of its stations, which acts as an extension of the metro service. No additional fee is charged for this service; however, when buying the ticket the traveller must ask for a Metrô na Superfície card. Cards can be bought directly on the Metrô na Superfície bus.
 Single Journey with express bus service: not to be confused with the bus extension, this fare allows a passenger to travel on the subway and on select bus services (Cosme Velho and Urca are served by express buses), also run by the metro company. The fare costs R$4.35 as of April 2014, and the ticket can be purchased on the subway or when boarding select buses.
 Prepaid Card (Cartão Pré-pago): a prepaid card, valid on the metro and on the buses run by the metro company (not valid on regular city buses) can be bought at any metro station. The card is free of charge, however a minimum prepayment of R$10 is required. Tickets (a disposable contactless card) are purchased from a cashier in a booth. Prepaid tickets can be topped up at the vending booths, or at automated ticket recharging machines at select stations. Cards cannot be bought at the machines, and no change is given. Cash is the only accepted means of payment on any of the sales channels.

The Barra Expresso included a single ticket pass and the fare for a bus trip to Barra da Tijuca, a neighborhood located in the West Side of Rio. This integration ended when Line 4 was opened to the public.

Modernization

The investment of R$1.15 billion included also the purchase of 19 additional compositions; 114 new cars with a technology that allows the passengers to circulate inside the train. The first of the new compositions was scheduled to arrive in December 2010 and the others to start operating gradually before December 2011. These cars were intended for use on Line 2 and have a dimensioned air conditioning system to bear the sun and heat's direct incidence, as most part of the line is in the surface. With the increase of 63% of the fleet, the concessionaire also planned to standardize the compositions of Lines 1 and 2: all 49 trains will have six cars.

The control, signalization, ventilation and energy systems will be also expanded and modernized. The energy supply for the metro's operation will be reinforced with two new proper sub-stations, at Uruguaiana and Largo do Machado Stations, and with the remodeling of São Cristóvão and Central sub-stations. On the other hand, the signalization will be automated in the two lines. Metrô Rio will enhance the ventilation at the stations and will modernize all equipment of the Control and Operations Center, from where the complete daily operation is monitored. These actions, combined with the extension of Line 2, will allow Metrô Rio to transport more than 1.1 million passengers/day.

Expansion

Line 4 (yellow line) was completed on 30 July 2016, connecting Barra da Tijuca neighbourhood in the West Zone, passing under São Conrado and Rocinha, to Ipanema/General Osório Station. All stations are underground, but when arriving in Barra da Tijuca, trains exit a tunnel, pass briefly by an elevated bridge and go underground again.

Line 3 is proposed to connect Rio de Janeiro to Niterói via a  tunnel underneath the Guanabara Bay.

Network map

See also
 List of Rio de Janeiro metro stations
 SuperVia
 Rio de Janeiro Light Rail
 Santa Teresa Tram
 List of Latin American rail transit systems by ridership
 List of metro systems
 Rapid transit in Brazil

References

External links

Rio de Janeiro Metro at NYCSubway.org
Cantagalo Station information
Rio Trilhos
Rio de Janeiro metro map

5 ft 3 in gauge railways in Brazil
Electric railways in Brazil

Rio de Janeiro Metro


Lt. Colonel (retired) Paul Edor Obi was  Administrator of Bayelsa State, Nigeria from July 1998 to May 1999 during the transitional regime of General Abdulsalami Abubakar.

Early career

Paul Obi graduated from the U.S. Army Aviation School in Fort Rucker, Alabama, and earned a Higher Diploma in Aviation Technology. He also graduated from the Armed Forces Command and Staff College, Jaji.
He served in the military for over 23 years.
He was a Platoon Commander under the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon.

Bayelsa State Administrator

Obi was appointed Military Administrator of Bayelsa State in July 1998.
On 11 December 1998, demonstrators marched towards Government House in Yenagoa to convey their grievances.
Troops opened fire, killing some and injuring many others.
Following continued civil disturbances, on 30 December 1998 he declared a state of emergency, suspending all civil liberties and imposing a dusk-to-dawn curfew.
The Niger Delta Volunteer Force (NDVF) leaders described this as an "outright declaration of war on the Ijaws".
The curfew was lifted on 4 January 1999 after the government "deployed warships and more troops in Niger Delta areas to quell violent protests by restive Ijaw youths".

Obi was a member of the Niger Delta Development Option Committee, which prepared the initial blueprint for development of the Niger Delta region.
In April 1999 he met with selected Ijaw leaders at state house in Yenagoa. He said the Federal Government wanted to help develop  the state, and urged the people to "embrace the path of peace and dialogue at all times".
He handed over to the elected civilian governor Diepreye Alamieyeseigha at the start of the Nigerian Fourth Republic on 29 May 1999.

Later career

After retiring Obi became a security consultant, and became Chairman/Chief Executive Officer of Pauliza Limited. He was appointed to the board of directors of several companies including United Mortgage, Standard Alliance Insurance, Concert Alliance, Next Generation Wireless, Rode & Roke and Lagos Business School Alumni.

He was arraigned over alleged fraud in March 2022.

References

Living people
Governors of Bayelsa State
Pan-Atlantic University people
Year of birth missing (living people)

Paul Obi


Gaius Julius Quadratus Bassus (Greek: Γάϊος Ίούλιος Κουαδράτος Βάσσος; 70 – 117) was a Roman senator and general. He rose from provincial aristocratic origins to occupy the highest offices of Rome. He served as a legionary commander and as imperial governor of Judea, Cappadoccia, Galatia, Syria and Dacia. He is known to have been active under Trajan in the Dacian and Parthian Wars. Bassus was suffect consul in the nundinium of May to August 105 with Gnaeus Afranius Dexter as his colleague.

Family
Gaius Julius Quadratus Bassus was born in Pergamon to a family related to the Attalid dynasty and the Galatian tetrarchs. His father was Gaius Julius Bassus, who was Proconsul of Bithynia in 100 to 101. He is known to have had at least one son, Gaius Julius Bassus, who was suffect consul in 139.

Career

His career began as military tribune in Legio XIII Gemina around 87 to 89. This was followed by membership in the tresviri monetalis, one of the magistracies that comprised the vigintiviri, a preliminary and required first step toward gaining entry to the Roman Senate. This order is unusual: normally membership in the vigintiviri came before serving as military tribune in a legion. Dabrowa notes that this reversed order was not unusual for men who were born to the equestrian order but intended to enter the Senate. However, Bassus was made one of the tresviri monetalis: this magistracy was reserved either for patricians or men favored by the emperor. Dabrowa suggests that Bassus gained entry to this coveted board through the intervention of his relative Gaius Antius Aulus Julius Quadratus, three-time consul and "a man of high political and social standing".

After the vigintiviri Bassus was a quaestor, a junior position administering the public treasury, in the province of Crete and Cyrenaica around the year 92. This office gained him formal entry into the senate. He advanced to the traditional Roman magistracy of aedile, then around 98 he won election as a praetor. This last magistracy qualified Bassus to either govern provinces or serve as a legatus legionis or commander of a legion. Bassus sought a military career.

First he was legatus of Legio XI Claudia from 99 to 101. This was followed by command of a vexillation drawn from several legionsincluding the IV Scythica and XII Fulminatain the First Dacian War for the years 101 and 102. Then Bassus served as commander of Legio X Fretensis, a posting that was combined with the governorship as the 8th legate of Judaea from 102 to 104. During the summer of 105 he spent four months as consul; becoming a consul was considered the highest honour of the Roman state and the Emperor would have chosen candidates to fill it carefully. After his term as consul Bassus was admitted to the College of Pontiffs, the highest-ranking priests of the state religion; a significant social achievement for a man born as an equestrian. This was followed by a posting as governor of Cappadocia and Galatia in 114 to 115, and later Syria. During this time he was made commander of a second vexillation of soldiers drawn from a number of legionsincluding III Gallica and XIII Geminathat fought in the Parthian War.

Bassus was serving as legatus Augusti pro praetore, or imperial governor, in the province of Dacia when he died in the Dacian revolt of 117.

See also
 The Administration of Judaea (AD 6–135)

References

2nd-century Roman governors of Syria
Roman legates
Roman governors of Judaea
Suffect consuls of Imperial Rome
Roman governors of Cappadocia
Roman governors of Dacia
Roman governors of Galatia
Roman governors of Syria
1st-century Romans
2nd-century Romans
2nd-century Roman governors of Judaea
70 births
117 deaths
Bassus, Gaius Quadratus

Gaius Julius Quadratus Bassus


Leon Joseph Hart (November 2, 1928 – September 24, 2002) was an American professional football player who was an end for eight seasons, from 1950 to 1957, for the Detroit Lions of the National Football League (NFL). He won the Heisman Trophy and the Maxwell Award playing college football for the Notre Dame Fighting Irish in 1949.

Hart is the only lineman to win three college football national championships and three NFL championships. He is the most recent of only two lineman ever to win the Heisman Trophy. Also, he is one of four players, along with Angelo Bertelli, Cam Newton, and Joe Burrow to win the Heisman Trophy, a national championship, and be the first overall pick in the NFL Draft all in the same one-year span.

Early years
Hart was born in Pittsburgh in 1928 raised in nearby Turtle Creek, Pennsylvania, and attended Turtle Creek High School. He won varsity letters in football, basketball and baseball while in high school.

Notre Dame
Hart attended the University of Notre Dame where he played college football at the end position, both offense and defense, for Frank Leahy's Fighting Irish football teams from 1946 to 1949. He received first-team All-American honors three times, from the Football Writers Association of America (FWAA) in 1947 and as a consensus first-team selection in 1948 and 1949. During his four years at Notre Dame, Hart caught 49 passes for 701 yards and 15 touchdowns, at that time a collegiate record. The Fighting Irish compiled a 46–0–2 record and won three national championships while Hart was a player.

Hart began playing for Notre Dame as a 17-year-old freshman in 1946.

Hart was the captain of the 1949 Notre Dame team that compiled a perfect 10–0 record, outscored their opponents 360–86, and was recognized in the final AP Poll as the 1949 national champion. At the end of the 1949 season, Hart won both the Heisman Trophy and the Maxwell Award. He was also voted as the Associated Press Athlete of the Year award with 104 points, edging professional baseball player Jackie Robinson (55 points).

Hart graduated from Notre Dame in 1950 with a degree in mechanical engineering.

Detroit Lions
Hart was selected by the Detroit Lions with the first overall pick in the 1950 NFL Draft. He signed a three-year contract with the Lions in February 1950 for a salary reported to be close to $20,000. He played for the Lions from 1950 to 1957, appeared in 92 games, and was a member of NFL championship teams in 1952, 1953, and 1957. During his eight-year NFL career, Hart gained 3,111 yards from scrimmage, caught 174 passes for 2,499 yards, and scored 32 touchdowns and 192 points.

Family and later years
In February 1950, Hart married Lois Newyahr, his high school girlfriend, at St. Colman's Roman Catholic Church in Turtle Creek. After retiring from football, he lived in Birmingham, Michigan. He operated a business that manufactured equipment to balance tires.

Hart was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1973. He died in 2002 at St. Joseph Medical Center in South Bend, Indiana, at age 73. He was buried in the Cedar Grove Cemetery in Notre Dame, Indiana.

References

External links

1928 births
2002 deaths
All-American college football players
American football ends
American people of Polish descent
College Football Hall of Fame inductees
Detroit Lions players
Heisman Trophy winners
Maxwell Award winners
National Football League first-overall draft picks
Notre Dame Fighting Irish football players
Players of American football from Pittsburgh
Western Conference Pro Bowl players

Leon Hart


The River Road–Cross Street Historic District is a rural agricultural historic district in Topsfield, Massachusetts.  It is representative of Topsfield's development first as an agricultural community, and later as place for rural retreats.  The district, which was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2005, is roughly bounded by River Road, Rowley Bridge Road, Cross Street, Hill Street, and Salem Road, and also includes properties facing Prospect Street and Bradstreet Lane.  Much of the district was consolidated under the ownership of William Appleton Coolidge in the 20th century, and bequeathed to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology with restrictions to preserve its rural character.  MIT sold the donated properties in 2000.

The district includes nineteen properties distributed across  in a rural landscape that includes open farmlands, historic farmsteads, 19th and 20th century estate houses, and scenic views of the Ipswich River, which runs through the center of the district.  Some of these lands have been worked since the early colonial days of Topsfield's history.  The oldest houses in the district, the Zaccheus Gould House and the Stanley Lake House, date to the late 17th century, and are separately listed on the National Register.  There are also several houses dating to the middle and late 18th century, notably two that were built by John Balch on Hill Street.

The area began a gradual transformation from a strictly agricultural use to that of a rural retreat area as early as 1807, when the Perkins-Pingree House was built at 49 Salem Road.  This high Federal style house is one of the finest of its type in Topsfield.  Two important large-scale estates in the area are the Meredith Farm (29 and 41 Cross Street) and the Cummings Estate (82 River Road).  The Meredith Farm was developed as a rural retreat by Boston developer J. Morris Meredith, who built an Arts and Crafts style estate house on the property, while preserving the historic Daniel Bixby farmstead (built c. 1800).  The Cummings Estate was the work of Margaret Cummings, who purchased land that had long been in the hands of the Lake family, early Topsfield settlers, in the early 20th century.  Her brother, architect Charles K. Cummings, designed a collection of Tudor Revival buildings for the estate, and it was landscaped to designs by Arthur Shurcliff, who had studied landscape design with the Olmsted Brothers.

See also
National Register of Historic Places listings in Essex County, Massachusetts

References

Historic districts in Essex County, Massachusetts
Topsfield, Massachusetts
National Register of Historic Places in Essex County, Massachusetts
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Massachusetts


Benson Koech (born November 10, 1974) is a Kenyan middle-distance runner best known for his achievements as a young athlete. He won the gold medal at the 1992 World Junior Championships over 800m in a time of 1:44.77 min. He also won a silver medal over 800m at the 1995 IAAF World Indoor Championships. Koech set his personal best at 1:43.17 min (ranked No.1 in the world 1994) in Rieti. He retired after the 2001 season.

His younger brother, Jackson Koech, is also a prominent runner.

External links

Kenyan male middle-distance runners
1974 births
Living people

Benson Koech


Sola fide means "faith only" in Latin. It is used by Protestants, who believe that people must trust Jesus to bring them back into relationship with God. Sin creates a gap between people and God, but Jesus, who was perfect, died by taking the punishment for sin for the people and so bridged the gap. That is called salvation because Jesus "saves" people from being without God. The idea is that trust in Jesus is the only way to be saved and to get to heaven after people die.

That belief was a principle of the Protestant Reformation, which was started by Martin Luther, and is a principle of Protestants today (see five solas). It contrasts with Catholics and the Eastern Orthodox, who believe that Jesus died to bridge the gap between God and people, but they must also behave to be saved.

Protestants agree that people need to do what is right, but they believe that  salvation depends on faith alone, not on acts.

Related pages
Sola scriptura

Protestant theology

Sola fide


Baron Louis de Cartier de Marchienne (Turnhout, 26 September 1921 – 21 May 2013) was a Belgian businessman. He was managing director of the company Eternit in the 1960s, and in 1971 he became chairman of the Board of the printing company Brepols and led the company through a period of change. His son Jean-Louis de Cartier de Marchienne is a member of the board of Carta Mundi.

Family
Louis Alphonse de Cartier was the third of five children of colonel-pilot Raoul de Cartier (1884-1941), and Josa Versteylen (1896-1983).

His brother Raoul de Cartier (1924-1944) was member of the Belgian Resistance. Captured by the Germans, he was executed. His other brother Baron Paul-Ernest de Cartier (1920-1977) tried to reach England during the war. Unsuccessful, he joined the Belgian army after the Liberation.

Louis also tried to escape to England, but he was captured while attempting it and was sent to the concentration camp Sachsenhausen. He was doing hard labour in Poland, but escaped and joined the Red Army, where he became a lieutenant. After the war he returned to Belgium.

There, his distant relative, ambassador Emile de Cartier de Marchienne awaited his return to adopt him (sentence tribunal Charleroi 14 March 1946). He changed his name from de Cartier into de Cartier de Marchienne. In 1968 he was made a hereditary baron.

In 1950 Louis de Cartier married Viviane Emsens (°1929) from the industrial family of that name. They have three sons and a daughter, who have a numerous offspring.

This marriage was at the origin of his professional activities within the multinational Eternit, of which the Emsens family is a major shareholder. From 1966 until 1978 he was CEO en from 1978 until 1986 president of the board.

He was also active within the publishers and printers company Brepols in Turnhout and its subsidiary Carta Mundi. During the first decade of the 21st century these firms endured financial problems and parts of it suffered bankruptcy.

Asbestos

During the nineteen seventies protests became growing regarding the use of asbestos. Legislation was voted in most industrial countries forbidding further use of asbestos and ordering the removal of it where it had been used. The multinational Eternit was a particular target, being an important producer of products containing asbestos.

It also became clear that asbestos was carcinogenic. Many victims claimed compensations. The most important trial was held in Italy. On 13 February 2012 Louis de Cartier and Stephan Schmidheiny were both condemned to 16 years imprisonment by the Court of Turin in the Eternit case. They were found guilty of environmental disaster and culpable disaster. Appeal will end on 3 June 2013.

In Belgium several lawsuits have been initiated against the Eternit Group.

De Cartier died on 21 May 2013 at the age of 91, few days shy from the appeal sentence of the Turin trial.

Literature
 Marie-Pierre D'UDEKEM D'ACOZ, Pour le Roi et la Patrie. La noblesse belge et la Résistance, Brussels, 2002.
 Oscar COOMANS DE BRACHÈNE, État présent de la noblesse belge, Annuaire 2004, Brussels, 2004.
 Philippe DE BOECK, Des blasons ternis par l'amiante, in: Le Soir, Brussels, 18 February 2012.

See also
 Jean-Louis de Cartier de Marchienne
 Emile de Cartier de Marchienne

External links
 Cartier Castle
 Condemnation Tribunal Turin
 Brepols History of Brepols

References

Barons of Cartier de Marchienne
Belgian businesspeople
1921 births
2013 deaths

Louis de Cartier de Marchienne


Charles Lee Young (born October 13, 1952) is a former American football running back in the National Football League (NFL) for the Dallas Cowboys. He was drafted in the first round (22nd overall) of the 1974 NFL Draft. He played college football at North Carolina State University.

Early years
Following a standout high school sports career at William G. Enloe High School, in 1970, Young and Willie Burden became the first African-Americans recruited to the North Carolina State University football team. He also was a part of the track team.

As a sophomore in 1971, he was second on the team behind Burden with 85 carries for 385 yards (4.5-yard avg.) and 2 rushing touchdowns.

In 1972, when Lou Holtz arrived as the new head coach at North Carolina State University, he implemented split-back veer offense to take advantage of the talent at running back, that included Young, Burden, Stan Fritts and Roland Hooks. At the time, this was arguably the best group of running backs in the nation, they were known as "The Four Stallions" and everyone of them went on to play in a professional football league. He was second on the team behind Fritts with 118 carries for 611 yards (5.2-yard avg.) and 7 rushing touchdowns.

In 1973, he was part of the Atlantic Coast Conference championship team as the starting fullback. He was third on the team behind Burden and Fritts, with 114 carries for 661 yards (5.8-yard avg.) and 7 rushing touchdowns.

Young finished his college career with 317 carries for 1,657 rushing yards, 17 touchdowns and averaged 5.2 yards per carry. He played in the 1973 East–West Shrine Game.

Professional career
In the 1974 NFL Draft, the Dallas Cowboys had two first round draft choices. With the first one they selected Ed "Too Tall" Jones. The team was targeting Lynn Swann with their second first-round pick, but selected Young instead, after Swann was taken by the Pittsburgh Steelers. He was considered a prospect at both fullback and halfback, because of his 4.6 speed. As a rookie he saw most of his playing time at fullback, running for 205 yards on 33 carries, with a 6.2-yard average and a 53-yard run against the Houston Oilers, which was the team's longest of the year.

In 1975, he competed with Doug Dennison for the starting halfback job left vacated by Calvin Hill. He ended up in a reserve role, moving from halfback to fullback during the first half of the season. He experienced foot problems, but was able to focus on the halfback position at the end of the year. He registered 225 rushing yards and 2 touchdowns.

In 1976, he earned the starting halfback job during the pre-season, but after registering a total of 57 rushing yards in the first 2 games, he gave way in the lineup to Dennison. He posted 208 rushing yards rushing (4.3-yard average), 12 receptions for 134 yards and his only touchdown.

Young suffered a torn medial collateral ligament in his left knee during the 1977 training camp and was placed on the injured reserve list on August 11. He returned in 1978 and was released on August 24.

References

1952 births
Living people
Track and field athletes from Raleigh, North Carolina
Players of American football from Raleigh, North Carolina
American football running backs
William G. Enloe High School alumni
NC State Wolfpack football players
NC State Wolfpack men's track and field athletes
Dallas Cowboys players

Charley Young


The Moses Code is a 2008 esoteric documentary. It was produced by Drew Heriot, who already worked as a director on The Secret, the predecessor of The Moses Code.

The world premiere took place on 5. April 2008, as part of a private cinema screening, in the presence of director James Twyman, producer Drew Heriot and James Van Praagh, one of the speakers shown in the movie.

Plot
In contrast to The Secret, The Moses Code is not limited to the fulfillment of the mostly spiritually value-free needs of an unsatisfied ego who is fixated on money and power, but rather deals with the possibilities of how this "knowledge" can be used for the benefit of people. The basis for understanding this law, which should lie in the field effects known from quantum physics, are explained using examples.

It is believed that Moses received a "code of creation" from God to work all the miracles spoken of in the Bible. This code is also called the "Law of Attraction" or " law of attraction called".

The main speakers
So-called "spiritual teachers" accompany James Twyman in his movie:

 Debbie Ford (bestselling author, teacher)
 Neale Donald Walsch (bestselling author, teacher, radio presenter)
 Michael Beckwith (Founder and Managing Director, Agape Spiritual Center)
 Iyanla Van Zant (author, speaker, teacher)
 Cheryl Richardson (bestselling author, speaker, radio / TV host)
 James Van Praagh (medium, writer, executive producer on Ghost Whisperer )
 Harville Hendrix (hospital chaplain, counselor, author, speaker)
 Mary Morrissey (writer) (teacher, writer, counselor)
 Gregg Braden (bestselling author, scientist)
 Joe Dispenza, DC (Writer, Editor)
 Diana Cooper (seminar leader, author)
 John Holland (medium, spiritual teacher)
 Sonia Choquette (Spiritual Teacher, Medium, Best-Selling Author)
 Robert Ohotto (intuitive astrologer)
 Les Brown (speaker, entrepreneur, bestselling author)
 Anakha Coman (Sacred Heart mystic, medium, motivated speaker)
 Vivian Glyck (author, founder and managing director of the Just Like My Child Foundation )
 Mikki Willis (filmmaker, visionary)

Among them are a few who have already appeared in the movies The Secret and What the Bleep Do We Know.

Director
James Twyman is both the writer of the book and the director of the movie.

Leading roles
Debbie Ford, Neale Donald Walsch, Joe Dispenza, James Van Praagh, Mary Manin Morrissey and others.

Movie theater
With a few exceptions, the movie will not be shown in cinemas. The German-language DVD has been around since March 6. The license holder of the performance rights is HORIZON FILM Distribution GmbH.

American documentary movies
2008 movies

The Moses Code


Fagan v Metropolitan Police Commissioner is a leading case that confirms the need for concurrence (or coincidence) of actus reus (Latin for "guilty act") and mens rea (Latin for "guilty mind") in most offences of the criminal law of England and Wales.  It also advises realisation that a battery is ongoing will render the omission to act to remove that battery being inflicted a conscious battery, being sufficient concurrence.

Facts
The defendant, Mr. Fagan, was in his car when a police officer approached him and told him to move his car. In accordance with the directions, Fagan backed his car up, accidentally rolling it onto the foot of the officer. When the officer yelled at him to move his car off his foot, he cursed back at him, told him to wait, and refused to move, which was an act of defiance.

At trial, Fagan was convicted of "Assaulting a constable in execution of his duties". Fagan appealed on the grounds that there can be no offence in omitting to act and that the act of driving onto the constable's foot was done completely by accident so there was no mens rea.

Judgment
The Divisional Court agreed that assault cannot be committed by an omission. However, in this case, the crime was not an omission to move the car; rather, it constituted a continual act of battery. The offence was not complete until the moment Fagan realised that he had driven onto the foot of the officer and, in deciding not to cease this continuous act, formed an intent amounting to the mens rea for common assault. Since both mens rea and actus reus were present, an assault had been committed, and Fagan's conviction was upheld.

See also
English criminal law
Concurrence

References

1968 in United Kingdom case law
English criminal case law
History of the Metropolitan Police


Mustafa Şentop (born on 6 August 1968) is a Turkish politician. He was a member of the Justice and Development Party (AK Party). He was the Member of Parliament for İstanbul in the Turkish Parliament since 2011.

On 24 February 2019, he was elected as the 29th Speaker of the Grand National Assembly. He served as the Speaker of the Grand National Assembly until June 2023

Other websites
MP profile at the Grand National Assembly website
Collection of all relevant news items at Haberler.com

Living people
1968 births
Speakers of the Parliament of Turkey

Mustafa Şentop


An amphitheatre (British English) or amphitheater (American English; both ) is an open-air venue used for entertainment, performances, and sports. The term derives from the ancient Greek  (), from  (), meaning "on both sides" or "around" and  (), meaning "place for viewing".

Ancient Roman amphitheatres were oval or circular in plan, with seating tiers that surrounded the central performance area, like a modern open-air stadium. In contrast, both ancient Greek and ancient Roman theatres were built in a semicircle, with tiered seating rising on one side of the performance area.

Modern parlance uses "amphitheatre" for any structure with sloping seating, including theatre-style stages with spectator seating on only one side, theatres in the round, and stadia. They can be indoor or outdoor.

Natural landforms and rock formations of similar shape are sometimes known as natural amphitheatres.

Roman amphitheatres

About 230 Roman amphitheatres have been found across the area of the Roman Empire. Their typical shape, functions and name distinguish them from Roman theatres, which are more or less semicircular in shape; from the circuses (similar to hippodromes) whose much longer circuits were designed mainly for horse or chariot racing events; and from the smaller stadia, which were primarily designed for athletics and footraces.

Roman amphitheatres were circular or oval in plan, with a central arena surrounded by perimeter seating tiers. The seating tiers were pierced by entrance-ways controlling access to the arena floor, and isolating it from the audience. Temporary wooden structures functioning as amphitheaters would have been erected for the funeral games held in honour of deceased Roman magnates by their heirs, featuring fights to the death by gladiators, usually armed prisoners of war, at the funeral pyre or tomb of the deceased. These games are described in Roman histories as , gifts, entertainments or duties to honour deceased individuals, Romes' gods and the Roman community.

Some Roman writers interpret the earliest attempts to provide permanent amphitheaters and seating for the lower classes as populist political graft, rightly blocked by the Senate as morally objectionable; too-frequent, excessively "luxurious"  would corrode traditional Roman morals. The provision of permanent seating was thought a particularly objectionable luxury.

The earliest permanent, stone and timber Roman amphitheatre with perimeter seating was built in the  in 29 BCE. Most were built under Imperial rule, from the Augustan period (27 BCE–14 CE) onwards. Imperial amphitheatres were built throughout the Roman Empire, especial in provincial capitals and major colonies, as an essential aspect of Romanitas. There was no standard size; the largest could accommodate 40,000–60,000 spectators. The most elaborate featured multi-storeyed, arcaded façades and were decorated with marble, stucco and statuary. The best-known and largest Roman amphitheatre is the Colosseum in Rome, also known as the Flavian Amphitheatre (), after the Flavian dynasty who had it built. After the ending of gladiatorial games in the 5th century and of staged animal hunts in the 6th, most amphitheatres fell into disrepair. Their materials were mined or recycled. Some were razed, and others were converted into fortifications. A few continued as convenient open meeting places; in some of these, churches were sited.

Modern amphitheatres

In modern usage, an amphitheatre is a circular, semicircular or curved, acoustically vibrant performance space, particularly one located outdoors. Contemporary amphitheatres often include standing structures, called bandshells, sometimes curved or bowl-shaped, both behind the stage and behind the audience, creating an area which echoes or amplifies sound, making the amphitheatre ideal for musical or theatrical performances. Small-scale amphitheatres can serve to host outdoor local community performances.

Notable modern amphitheatres include the Shoreline Amphitheatre, the Hollywood Bowl and the Aula Magna at Stockholm University. The term "amphitheatre" is also used for some indoor venues, such as the (by now demolished) Gibson Amphitheatre.

Natural amphitheatres

A natural amphitheatre is a performance space located in a spot where a steep mountain or a particular rock formation naturally amplifies or echoes sound, making it ideal for musical and theatrical performances. An amphitheatre can be naturally occurring formations which would be ideal for this purpose, even if no theatre has been constructed there.

Notable natural amphitheatres include the Drakensberg Amphitheatre in South Africa, Slane Castle in Ireland, the Supernatural Amphitheatre in Australia, and the Red Rocks and the Gorge Amphitheatres in the western United States.

See also
 Ancient theatres
 Theatre of ancient Greece
 List of ancient Greek theatres
 Arena
 Thingplatz
 List of Roman amphitheatres
 List of contemporary amphitheatres
 List of indoor arenas

Notes

References

Buildings and structures by type

Amphitheatre


Philip Lader (born March 17, 1946), is a former US Ambassador to the Court of St. James's and former Chairman of WPP plc, the global  advertising/communications services firm (including Ogilvy & Mather, J. Walter Thompson, Young & Rubicam, Grey, Hill & Knowlton, Burson-Marsteller, Kantar, and Group M, with 205,000 people in 112 countries).

As a senior adviser to Morgan Stanley, he serves on several of its investment committees and boards of its private equity portfolio companies in addition to investment banking responsibilities. He is also a retired partner in the Nelson Mullins law firm.

In government, he also served as a member of President Clinton's Cabinet as Administrator of the US Small Business Administration, Assistant to the President, White House Deputy Chief of Staff, and deputy director of the US Office of Management and Budget.

Ambassador Lader serves, or has served, on the boards of RAND Corporation (formerly Vice Chairman),  Lloyd's of London, Marathon Oil,  AMC Entertainment, AES Corporation, UC Rusal, Songbird (Canary Wharf), Duck Creek Technologies, and Minerva Corporations, the British Museum, American Red Cross, the Smithsonian Museum of American History, St. Paul's Cathedral Foundation, Atlantic Council,  and Bankinter Foundation for Innovation.

He is a member of the Council on Foreign Relations, an Honorary Fellow of London Business School and Oxford University's Pembroke College, and an Honorary Bencher of the Middle Temple (British Inns of Court).

In 1981, he and his wife, Linda LeSourd Lader, founded Renaissance Weekends, the non-partisan retreats that seek to build bridges between innovative leaders from diverse fields. They continue to host five Renaissance Weekends each year around the U.S.

Early life and education
Lader graduated Phi Beta Kappa with a Bachelor of Arts in political science from Duke University in 1966, received the Master of Arts in History from the University of Michigan in 1967, completed graduate studies in law and English constitutional history at Oxford University from 1967 to 1968, and received his JD as a Leopold Schepp Scholar from Harvard Law School in 1972.

Career
During his studies at Harvard Law School, Lader was an Assistant Professor of Political Science at Newton College of the Sacred Heart (subsequently merged with Boston College) and a teaching assistant to Harvard Law Professor Paul Freund and Harvard Political Philosophy Professor Louis Hartz. After graduation, he was a law clerk to the late Judge Paul Roney, Chief Judge of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the 11th Circuit (formerly Fifth Circuit) and was associated with the New York law firm of Sullivan & Cromwell. He served in the U.S. Army (JAG) Reserves from 1969 to 1975.

Lader was president of Sea Pines Company, a developer/operator of large-scale recreation communities including Hilton Head Island, Amelia Island,  and Kiawah Island. Upon sale of that company in 1983, he was president of Winthrop University in Rock Hill, South Carolina, which was awarded the National Gold Medal for "general improvement in programs" by the Council for Advancement & Support of Education during his tenure, and served until becoming a candidate in the 1986 South Carolina gubernatorial election, finishing second to then-Lieutenant Governor Michael R. Daniel and foregoing the run-off in support of Daniel, who narrowly lost to Republican Carroll A. Campbell Jr. in the general election.

From 1986 to 1989, Lader was Executive Vice President of Sir James Goldsmith's U.S. holdings – which included America's then-largest private landholdings, sixth-largest forest products company, largest computer supplies supplier, and oil and gas interests. After the assets' restructuring and sale, he was president and Vice-Chancellor of Bond University, Australia's first private university.

Under President Bill Clinton, described by The New York Times as "a longtime friend," Lader was confirmed unanimously three times by the U.S. Senate for his State Department, SBA and OMB roles.  Returning to the private sector in 2001, Lader joined Morgan Stanley and WPP.  In addition to board services, he also was the John West Professor of International Studies at The Citadel, The Military College of South Carolina from 2001 to 2006.

He has served as president of Business Executives for National Security, chairman of the Board of Visitors of Duke University's Sanford Institute of Public Policy and the Royal Academy of Arts American Trust, a member of Harvard Law School's Visiting Committee, Columbia University's International Advisory Board, Yale Divinity School's advisory board, and Brown University's  Watson Institute for International and Public Affairs Advisory Board, and the founding Council of the Rothermere American Institute at Oxford University. In South Carolina, he was a trustee of Middleton Place Foundation (America's oldest landscaped gardens) and Liberty Fellows and was chairman of the South Carolina Small & Minority Business Council, a trustee of South Carolina State Colleges, and a director of the South Carolina Jobs-Economic Development Authority, First Carolina Bank, and the South Carolina Chamber of Commerce.

Honors
Lader has been awarded honorary doctorates by 14 universities. For his contributions to trans-Atlantic relations, the Royal Society for the Arts, Manufactures and Commerce awarded him the 2001 Benjamin Franklin Medal, and he received the Rotary International Foundation's 2007 Global Service to Humanity Award and British-American Business' 2016 Founders Award.

Personal life
He is married to Linda LeSourd Lader, who is Associate Pastor of Gardens Presbyterian Church in Palm Beach Gardens, Florida.  A graduate of Yale Divinity School and fifth-generation graduate of Ohio Wesleyan University, she was Associate Pastor of the New York Avenue Presbyterian Church in Washington, D.C.  Her editing work continued the tradition of her parents, Leonard LeSourd, longtime editor of Guideposts Magazine and Catherine Marshall, author of A Man Called Peter, Christy, and other best-selling books. She received the International Women's Foundation Leadership Award in 2000 and the 2012 Humanitarian Award from Emma Willard School, her alma mater.

Ambassador and Mrs. Lader have two daughters.  Mary-Catherine Lader, who holds  JD/MBA degrees from Harvard University, is Chief Operating Officer of the decentralized finance platform Uniswap and previously was a managing director at BlackRock (and Chief Operating Officer of the firm's Digital Wealth business and head of its climate tech business, Aladdin Sustainability).  Whitaker Lader, who holds the MBA from Stanford University and leads actor Nicholas Hoult's film/TV production company, previously worked with Ron Howard's and Brian Grazer's Imagine Entertainment and Sundance Institute; and her credits include "The World to Come" (starring Vanessa Kirby and Katherine Waterstone) and "Light of My Life" (Casey Affleck and Elisabeth Moss).  Both daughters are also graduates of Brown University.

References

External links
 Council of American Ambassadors biography
 Nelson Mullins law firm biography
 Renaissance Weekend - Founders

|-

1946 births
Living people
20th-century American diplomats
20th-century American politicians
21st-century American diplomats
Administrators of the Small Business Administration
Alumni of Pembroke College, Oxford
Ambassadors of the United States to the United Kingdom
Atlantic Council
Candidates in the 1986 United States elections
Clinton administration cabinet members
Bond University Vice-Chancellors
Deputy Directors for Management of the Office of Management and Budget
Duke University Trinity College of Arts and Sciences alumni
Harvard Law School alumni
Politicians from Charleston, South Carolina
Politicians from New York City
South Carolina Democrats
Sullivan & Cromwell people
The Citadel, The Military College of South Carolina faculty
University of Michigan alumni
White House Deputy Chiefs of Staff
Winthrop University people
WPP plc people
Newton College of the Sacred Heart faculty

Philip Lader