An electronic identification ("eID") is a digital solution for proof of identity of citizens or organizations. They can be used to view to access benefits or services provided by government authorities, banks or other companies, for mobile payments, etc. Apart from online authentication and login, many electronic identity services also give users the option to sign electronic documents with a digital signature.

One form of eID is an electronic identification card (eIC), which is a physical identity card that can be used for online and offline personal identification or authentication. The eIC is a smart card in ID-1 format of a regular bank card, with identity information printed on the surface (such as personal details and a photograph) and in an embedded RFID microchip, similar to that in biometric passports. The chip stores the information printed on the card (such as the holder's name and date of birth) and the holder's photo(s). Several photos may be taken from different angles along with different facial expressions, thus allowing the biometric facial recognition systems to measure and analyze the overall structure, shape and  proportions of the face. It may also store the holder's fingerprints. The card may be used for online authentication, such as for age verification or for e-government applications. An electronic signature, provided by a private company, may also be stored on the chip.

Countries which currently issue government-issued eIDs include Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Belgium, Bulgaria, Chile, Estonia, Finland, Guatemala, Germany, Iceland, India, Indonesia, Israel, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Nigeria, Morocco, Pakistan, Peru, Portugal, Poland, Romania, Saudi Arabia, Spain, Slovakia, Malta, and Mauritius. Germany, Uruguay and previously Finland have accepted government issued physical eICs. Norway, Sweden and Finland accept bank-issued eIDs (also known as BankID) for identification by government authorities. There are also an increasing number of countries applying electronic identification for voting (enrollment, issuing voter ID cards, voter identification and authentication, etc.), including those countries using biometric voter registration.

eID in Europe

European Union
According to the EU electronic identification and trust services (eIDAS) Regulation, described as a pan-European login system, all organizations delivering public digital services in an EU member state shall accept electronic identification from all EU member states from 29 September 2018.

Belgium

Belgium has been issuing eIDs since 2003, and all identity cards issued since 2004 have been electronic, replacing the previous plastic card.

Chip contents
The eID card contains a chip containing:

 the same information as legible on the card
 the address of the card holder
 the identity - and signature keys and certificates
 fingerprints
 place of birth

Using the eID
At home, the users can use their electronic IDs to log into specific websites (such as Tax-on-web, allowing them to fill in their tax form online). To do this the user needs

 an eID card
 a smartcard reader
 the eID middleware software

When other software (such as an Internet Browser) attempts to read the eID, the users are asked for confirmation for this action, and potentially even for their PIN.

Other applications include signing emails with the user's eID certificate private key. Giving the public key to your recipients allows them to verify your identity.

Kids ID
Although legally Belgian citizens only have to carry an ID from the age of 12, as of March 2009, a "Kids ID" has been introduced for children below this age, on a strictly voluntary basis. This ID, beside containing the usual information, also holds a contact number that people, or the child themselves, can call when they, for example, are in danger or had an accident. The card can be used for electronic identification after the age of six, and it does not contain a signing certificate as minors cannot sign a legally binding document. An important goal of the Kids-ID card is to allow children to join "youth-only" chat sites, using their eID to gain entrance. These sites would essentially block any users above a certain age from gaining access to the chat sessions, effectively blocking out potential pedophiles.

Bulgaria
Bulgaria introduced a limited scale proof-of-concept of electronic identity cards, called ЕИК (Eлектронна карта за идентичност), in 2013.

Croatia
Croatia introduced its electronic identity cards, called e-osobna iskaznica, on 8 June 2015.

Denmark
Electronic identities in Denmark issued by banks are called NemID. NemID authentication allows larger payments in MobilePay - a service used by more than half of the population as of 2017.

Estonia
The Estonian ID card is also used for authentication for Estonia's Internet-based voting system. In February 2007, Estonia was the first country to allow for electronic voting for parliamentary elections. Over 30,000 voters participated in the country's e-election.

At end of 2014 Estonia extended the Estonian ID Card to non-residents. The target of the project is to reach 10 million residents by 2025, which is 8 times more than the Estonian population of 1.3 million.

Finland
The Finnish electronic ID was first issued to citizens on 1 December 1999. Electronic identities in Finland are issued by banks. They make it possible to log into Finnish authorities, universities and banks, and to make larger payments using the MobilePay mobile payment service. The mobiilivarmenne is utilizing the mobile phone SIM card for authentication, and is financed by a fee to the mobile network operator for each authentication.

Germany
Germany introduced its electronic identity cards, called Personalausweis, in 2010.

Iceland
In Iceland, electronic IDs (Icelandic: Rafræn skilríki) are extensively used by the public and private sector today and were first introduced in 2008. The most widely used version today is on a mobile phone - with the authentication key held on a SIM card. In Iceland 95% of the eligible population (13 years or older) has an active eID, including 75% of over 75s. Icelandic eID holders used their eID more than 20 times a month in 2021.

During enrollment, users create a PIN. Each time they need to identify, verify or sign something online, a prompt via flash SMS is initiated and the PIN code is validated. Today this system is used by all banks, government services (island.is portal), healthcare, eductation, document signing and over 300 private companies using for customer page logins (linked to the Icelandic ID no.). Since the only thing to remember is one's PIN code and their phone, it is very prevalent, and works as a sort of single-sign-on service. They are administered by Auðkenni hf., which was initially created by a consortium of banks but is now owned by the government.

The first form of the system in 2008 was a special smartcard with an EMV chip, paired with a smartcard reader on the client's computer. The smartcard was first introduced in late 2008 for employees of government departments, large companies and the healthcare system. It was rolled out to all departments and companies handling sensitive data. It was also possible to store one's eID on a debit card. In November 2013 the SIM card implementation for mobile phones was introduced, which led to a much quicker take-up of eIDs due to its ease of use. By 2014, 40% of Icelanders were using eIDs.

Italy

Italy introduced its electronic identity cards, called Carta d'Identità Elettronica (in Italy identified with the acronym CIE), to replace the paper-based ID card in Italy. Since 4 July 2016, Italy is in the process of renewing all ID cards to electronic ID cards.

Latvia
eID and eSignature service provider in Latvia is called eParaksts

Malta
Since 12 February 2014, Malta is in the process of renewing all ID cards to electronic ID cards.

Netherlands
Electronic identities in Netherlands are called DigiD and Netherlands is currently developing an eID scheme.

Norway
Electronic identities in Norway issued by banks are called BankID (different than Sweden's BankID). They make it possible to log into Norwegian authorities, universities and banks, and to make larger payments using the Vipps mobile payment service, used by more than half of the population as of 2017. The Norwegian BankID på mobil service is utilizing the mobile phone SIM card for authentication, and is financed by a fee to the mobile network operator for each authentication.

Romania
Since 25 May 2023, Romanians are able to use their national ID to sign up to the RoEID application which allows them to access public servcies

Spain
Electronic identity cards in Spain are called DNIe and have been issued since 2006.

Switzerland
SwissID,
developed by SwissSign,
is a certified digital ID in Switzerland offered since 2017 (2010–17 as SuisseID). As a base for a new Federal Act on Electronic Identification Services (e-ID Act),
an eID-concept had been developed by the authorities, yet experts criticized its technology part.
The law was accepted by the Swiss parliament on 29 September 2019. It would have updated current legislation and would have continued to allow private companies or public organizations to issue eIDs if certified by a new federal authority. However, an optional referendum called for a public vote on this issue in the weeks until Sunday, 7 March 2021. The vote resulted in 35.6% Yes and 64.4% No, rejecting the proposed new law.

SwissSign might develop the SwissID further, to make it compatible with future E-ID regulations.

Sweden
The most widespread electronic identification in Sweden is issued by banks and called BankID. The BankID may be in the form of a certificate file on disk, on card or on smart phones. The latter (Swedish mobile BankID service) was used by 84 percent of the Swedish population in 2019. A Mobile BankID login does not require a fee since the service is provided by banks rather than mobile operators. It can be used both for authentication within various apps and web services on the same smart phone, and also for web pages on other devices. It also supports fingerprint and face recognition authentication on compatible iOS and Android devices.

Electronic IDs are used for secure web login to Swedish authorities, banks, health centers (allowing people to see their medical records and prescriptions and book doctors visits), and companies such as pharmacies. Mobile BankID also allows the Swish mobile payment service, utilized by 78 percent of the Swedish population in 2019, at first mainly for payments between individuals. BankID was previously used for university applications and admissions, but this was prohibited by Swedbank since universities utilized the system for distribution of their own student logins. Increasingly, BankID is used as an added security for signing contracts.

eID in other countries

Afghanistan

Afghanistan issued its first electronic ID (e-ID) card on 3 May 2018. Afghan President Ashraf Ghani was the first to receive the card. Afghan President was accompanied by First Lady Rula Ghani, his VP, Head of Afghan Senate, Head of Afghan Parliament, Chief Justice and other senior government officials, and they also received their cards. As of January 2021, approximately 1.7 million Afghan citizens have obtained their e-ID cards.

Costa Rica
Costa Rica plans to introduce facial recognition data into its national identification card.

Guatemala
Guatemala introduced its electronic identity card called DPI (Documento Personal de Identificación) in August 2010.

India

Indonesia
Indonesian electronic ID was trialed in six areas in 2009 and launched nationwide in 2011.

Israel
Electronic identity cards in Israel have been issued since July 2013.

Kazakhstan
Kazakhstan introduced its electronic identity cards in 2009.

Mauritius
Mauritius has had electronic identity cards since 2013.

Mexico
Mexico had an intent to develop an official electronic biometric ID card for all youngsters under the age of 18 years and was called the Personal Identity Card (Record of Minors), which included the data verified on the birth certificate, including the names of the legal ascendant(s), a unique key of the Population Registry (CURP), a biometric facial recognition photograph, a scan of all 10 fingerprints, and an iris scan registration.

Nigeria
General Multi-purpose Electronic Identity Cards are issued by the National Identity Management Commission (NIMC), a Federal Government agency under the Presidency. The NeID Card complies with ICAO standard 9303, ISO standard 7816–4., as well as GVCP for the MasterCard-supported payment applet.
NIMC plans to issue 50m multilayer-polycarbonate cards, the first set being contact only, but also dual-interface with DESFire Emulation in the near future.

Pakistan

Pakistan officially began its nationwide Computerized National Identity Card (CNIC) distribution in 2002, with over 89.5 x CNICs issued by 2012. In October 2012, the National Database and Registration Authority (NADRA) introduced the smart national identity card (SNIC), which contains a data chip and 36 security features. The SNIC complies with ICAO standard 9303 and ISO standard 7816–4. The SNIC can be used for both offline and online identification, voting, pension disbursement, social and financial inclusion programmes and other services. NADRA aims to replace all 89.5 million CNICs with SNICs by 2020.

Serbia
Serbia has its first trustful and reliable electronic identity since June 2019. The first reliable service provider is The Office for IT and eGovernment, through which citizens and residents of Serbia can access services on eGovernment Portal and eHealth portal. The electronic identification offers two levels of security, first basic level with authentication of only user name and password, and medium level of two-factor of authentication.

Sri Lanka
Since on 1 January 2016, Sri Lanka is in the process of developing a Smart Card based RFID E-National Identity Card which will replace the obsolete 'Laminated Type' cards by storing the holders information on a chip that can be read by banks, offices etc. thereby reducing the need to have documentation of these informations physically by storing in the cloud.

Turkey
In Turkey the e-Government (e-Devlet) Gateway is a largely scaled Internet site that provides access to all public services from a single point. The purpose of the Gateway is to present public services to the citizens, enterprises and public institutions effectively and efficiently with information and communication technologies.

Uruguay
Uruguay has had electronic identity cards since 2015. The Uruguayan eID has a private key that allows to digitally sign documents, and has the user fingerprint stored in order to allow to verify the identity. It is also a valid travel document in some South American countries.
As of 2017 the old laminated ID coexists with the new eID.

Manufacturing
Electronic identification can also be attributed to the manufacturing sector, where the technology of electronic identification is transferred to individual parts or components within a manufacturing facility in order to track, and identify these parts to enhance manufacturing efficiency. This can also be referred to location detection technologies within the Fourth Industrial Revolution.

See also
 List of national identity card policies by country
 Digital wallet
 Mobile driver's license
 Self-sovereign identity

References

External links
 World Map of eID deployments

Identity documents
Identification

Electronic identification


Santiago Millán Montes (born 13 September 1968, in Barcelona), professionally known as Santi Millán, is a Spanish actor, showman and television presenter.

Career
Millán studied theatre at Colegio del Teatro in Barcelona and in 1989 he joined theatre company La Cubana. In 1999 he left La Cubana and he joined Andreu Buenafuente's late night show La Cosa Nostra on TV3, playing the role of a reporter called Paco Monteagudo. Thanks to his collaboration with Buenafuente, in January 2001 he was cast in late night show La última noche on Telecinco, cancelled after a few weeks. By the end of the year he went back to TV3 to lead along with his friend José Corbacho the improvisational comedy show A pèl. He also worked with Corbacho in his return to theatre with the play 5hombres.com. In this period, Millán was also featured in the radio show El Terrat, hosted by Andreu Buenafuente on Radio Barcelona (Cadena SER).

In 2002 Millán landed a role on national television in the series Periodistas, produced by Globomedia for Telecinco, playing photojournalist Pep. After the end of the series, Millan was hired by the same production company to play the role of Sergio Antúnez in the sitcom Siete Vidas, also aired on Telecinco. At the same time, he appeared in Catalonia on Buenafuente's new late night show Una altra cosa.

Capitalising on his television fame, he started a career in cinema: Vivancos 3 (2003), Di que sí (2004) and his first dramatic role, Amor idiota (2005), which was followed by comedy Va a ser que nadie es perfecto (2006).

In 2005 Millán collaborated with Andreu Buenafuente in the first season of his first venture on national television, Buenafuente. The next year, he produced (with El Terrat) and starred in the TV series Divinos, aired on Antena 3 and cancelled after two episodes due to poor ratings.

In 2007 he left El Terrat and created his own production company, Zoo Partners Entertainment (Zoopa). On 10 October 2007, he premiered on TV3 the first show hosted by him, Boqueria 357, which aired until March 2008. He came back with a spin-off in Summer 2008, titled Boqueria After Sun. In the same period, Millán starred in the television series LEX on Antena 3, alongside Javier Cámara and Nathalie Poza.

From April to June 2010, Millán hosted late night show UAU! on Cuatro.

In 2012, Millán starred in the drama television series Frágiles on Telecinco, and was hired by variety show El Hormiguero on Antena 3 as a new collaborator.

In 2014,  the comedy television series El chiringuito de Pepe premiered on Telecinco, starred by Millán, Jesús Bonilla and Blanca Portillo. On 26 August 2015, Millán was announced as the host of Got Talent España.

Personal life
In 2009 Milán married actress Rosa Olucha, with whom he has two children: Ruth and Marc.

Filmography

Cinema

El amor perjudica seriamente la salud, by Manuel Gómez Pereira  (1996)
Torrente 2: Misión en Marbella, by Santiago Segura  (2000)
Lisístrata, by Francesc Bellmunt  (2002)
Nudos, by Lluís Maria Güell  (2003)
Vivancos 3, by Albert Saguer  (2003)
Di que sí, by Juan Calvo (2004)
Amor idiota, by Ventura Pons (2005)
Va a ser que nadie es perfecto, by Joaquín Oristrell (2006)
La habitación de Fermat, by Luis Piedrahita & Rodrigo Sopeña (2007)
Rivales, by Fernando Colomo (2008)
Bruc, el desafío, by Daniel Benmayor (2010)
Paul, by Greg Motola (2010) (Spanish voice)
Mil cretins, by Ventura Pons (2011)
Any de Gracia, by Ventura Pons (2011)
Ted, by Seth MacFarlane (2012)
Solo para dos, by Roberto Santiago (2013)
Ted 2, by Seth MacFarlane (2015) (Spanish voice)
 Espejo, espejo (2022)

Television

Programs
El día por delante (TVE, 1989).
Especial nochebuena en TVE (1989).
Especial cap d'any "Aquest any TV3 no fa res" (1989–1990).
El Martes que viene (TVE, 1990), actor.
La Cosa Nostra (TV3, 1999–2000), reporter
La última Noche (Telecinco, 2001), subdirector, actor.
A pèl (TV3, 2001–2002), showman.
El club de la comedia' (Digital +, 2001–2005).Una altra cosa (TV3, 2002–2003), reporterA pèl tour (TV3, 2002–2003), reporterBuenafuente, (Antena 3, 2005)  collaboratorBoqueria 357 / Boqueria After Sun (TV3, 2007–2008), showman & directorGala Premios Ondas (Cuatro, 2008–2009), presenterGala X1FIN: juntos por el Sáhara (Cuatro, 2009), showman & singerUAU!' (Cuatro, 2010), director and presenter.Gala Voces X1FIN: juntos por Mali (Cuatro, 2010), singer.El Hormiguero, Antena 3 (2012-2015), collaborator.Sopa de gansos, (Cuatro, 2015), sant-up comedy monologue.Got Talent España, (Telecinco, 2016–present), host.Cero en Historia, (#0, 2017).Got Talent: Lo mejor del mundo, (Telecinco, 2020–present)

 Fiction Els grau (TV3, 1991), actorTeresines, SA (TV3, 1992), actorMe lo dijo Pérez (Telecinco, 1999), actorPeriodistas (Telecinco, 2002), actor7 vidas (Telecinco, 2002–2005), actorDivinos, (Antena 3, 2006), productor ejecutivo, actorLos simuladores (Cuatro, 2006), actorCuestión de sexo  (Cuatro, 2007), actorLEX (Antena 3, 2008), actorFrágiles, (Telecinco, 2012-2013), actorEl chiringuito de Pepe, (Telecinco, 2014–present), actor
 El pueblo (Prime Video, 2019–), actor

 Radio El Terrat. Estem arreglats, Radio Barcelona (2001–2002)

 Theatre Cubanas a la carta (1988)Cómeme el coco, negro (1989)Cubana Maratón dancing (1992)Cegada de amor (1994–1998)5 Hombres.comUstedes se preguntarán como he llegado hasta aquí (2001) directorWanted, el show de los cómicos más buscados (2007)Singles, de Toni Moog (2008) directorMás Allá del Puente, by David Botello (2010) producer/actorSanti Millán Live!'' (2013–present)

References

1968 births
Living people
Male actors from Barcelona
Spanish male stage actors
Spanish male television actors
Spanish male film actors
20th-century Spanish male actors
21st-century Spanish male actors

Santi Millán


Baldoyle Bay is a sea inlet on the east coast of Fingal in Ireland, in the traditional County Dublin. It is situated between Portmarnock, at its head, and Baldoyle.  It contains two small estuaries, those of the Sluice River and the Mayne River, and is sometimes called Baldoyle Estuary. The inlet is an important natural feature with protected status.  It was once the site of a Viking longphort and later the fishing village of Baldoyle developed near its outlet to the sea.

Location and access
The narrow inlet runs north–south, reaching the sea north of Howth Head, along the Burrow Beach.  At its head is Portmarnock Bridge, where a road from old Portmarnock meets the road from the modern Portmarnock village centre, while near its outlet is the former fishing village of Baldoyle, now a residential suburb of Dublin.  It is bounded on the seaward side by the peninsula on which the Velvet Strand (used as a runway for early flights) and the Portmarnock Golf Club course are situated.

The estuary is paralleled by a coastal road to the west and north, served by bus, and with few possibilities for parking.  To the east, access is possible on foot from parking for Portmarnock's southern beaches.  A small green space exists at the northern end of the estuary.  This is popular with birds and holds an interpretative sign with information on the area.  There is also a walking route to the estuary from the Clongriffin area, across the former Baldoyle Racecourse.

Nature
The inlet contains the estuaries of two small rivers, the Sluice at the northern, Portmarnock, end, and the Mayne, mid-way south, at the north end of Baldoyle.  Each river is formed from several tributaries in mid-Fingal, and both cause flooding fairly regularly at certain points on their courses.

The inlet contains both freshwater and saltwater marshes, as well as raised salt marsh, mud and sand, and riverine shallows and mud channels, and is protected by sand dunes.  Four habitat types feature in Annex I of the EU Habitats Directive, namely Salicornia mud, Mediterranean salt meadows, Atlantic salt meadows and tidal mudflats. Much of the intertidal flats are exposed at low tide, mostly sand but also some muds in the inner estuary.

Notable flora include common cord-grass, narrow-leafed eelgrass, dwarf eelgrass, and, in summer, green algae.  In the salt marsh area, sea rush, sea purslane, sea plantain and glasswort are found.

Baldoyle Bay is an important coastal site, used by wintering wildfowl, including Brent geese, and waders and other birds.  Regularly sighted species included mallard duck, shelduck, great crested grebe, pintail, golden plover, redshank, bartailed godwit and the common scoter. Tubeworms and mud shrimps can be found in the bay.

Designations
The bay is a Special Protection Area, cared for by the local authority and the National Parks and Wildlife Service. Declared a Statutory Nature Reserve in 1988 the inner, estuarine, parts of the bay are protected as a Special Area of Conservation (SAC) while, under the Ramsar Convention, the wetlands have been designated as of international importance. They support several habitats that are listed in the EU Habitats Directive. It is part of the Dublin Bay Biosphere Reserve.

History
The Baldoyle area was raided and later settled by the "dark-haired foreigners" (Danish Vikings), who found the bay convenient for their long-boats, with their shallow draft - the Mayne River and related streams provided fresh water.  Their settlement was near what later became Baldoyle village, while Portmarnock formed on the Sluice River near the bay.

In more recent times, north of Baldoyle village, was Baldoyle Racecourse, for a period Dublin's main racecourse, and later one of two, then three, major horse-racing venues serving the city. Established around 1853, it closed in 1973.

References

Bays of County Dublin
Landforms of Fingal
Baldoyle
Portmarnock
Protected areas established in 1988
Special Protection Areas in the Republic of Ireland
Ramsar sites in the Republic of Ireland

Baldoyle Bay


Autumn Lights is an American–Icelandic international drama film written and directed by Angad Aulakh. The film stars Guy Kent, Marta Gastini, and Sveinn Ólafur Gunnarsson. Set in Iceland, the film is a meditative story of morality, virtue, and relationships as seen through the eyes of a foreigner in a strange land. The film was honored as a Peter Travers New York Film Critics Series (NYFCS) pick before it opened in limited theatrical release in North America on October 21, 2016, from Freestyle Releasing and Freestyle Digital Media. The film opened in theaters in Northern Europe on November 4, 2016, and was nominated for Best Picture at the Riviera International Film Festival.

The film is produced by Angad Aulakh and Guy Kent, alongside Ashley M. Kent, Davíd Óskar Ólafsson and Árni Filippusson.

Plot
The story follows David (Guy Kent), an introverted American photographer adrift in remote Iceland while on assignment. When he gets caught in a local investigation after discovering a deserted body washed ashore, David is temporarily bound to a place he doesn't call home and he acquaints himself with the few inhabitants in the area, among them Marie (Marta Gastini), an Italian woman whose shiftiness betrays not only her beautiful face but her Icelandic husband Jóhann (Sveinn Ólafur Gunnarsson) and his own unruffled demeanor. As days pass, David's fascination with the couple intensifies and he slowly begins to find himself entangled in their mysterious lives.

Cast
 Guy Kent as David
 Marta Gastini as Marie
 Sveinn Ólafur Gunnarsson as Jóhann
 Thora Bjorg Helga as Eva
 Salome R. Gunnarsdottir as Liv
 Stefán Hallur Stefánsson as Sveinn
 Kolbeinn Arnbjörnsson as Alex
 Snorri Engilbertson as Lars
 Sveinn Geirsson as The Detective
 Lilja Birgisdottir as Elisa
 Jordan Goldnadel as Marcel
 Charlotte Vercoustre as Isabella

Production

Locations

According to IndieWire, Autumn Lights was the first American film in history to have been both shot and completed in Iceland. Aside from American writer/director Angad Aulakh, American actor/producer Guy Kent, and Italian actress Marta Gastini, the rest of the cast and crew were Icelandic, include BAFTA winner Valdís Óskarsdóttir, Icelandic Academy Award-winning production designer Hulda Helgadóttir, and Icelandic Academy Award-winning make-up artist Steinnun Thordardóttir.

Autumn Lights was shot on location throughout Iceland and in Paris, France. Production of the film primarily took place in Þingvellir, Iceland but filming also took place in studio in Reykjavík.

Crew
In addition to producers Angad Aulakh and Guy Kent, Icelandic producers Davið Óskar Ólafsson and Árni Filippusson also produced the Autumn Lights. Their previous films include Icelandic Academy Award-winning films Metalhead, which premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival in 2013; Either Way, which premiered at Karlovy Vary International Film Festival; and David Gordon Green's Prince Avalanche, which was a remake of their original film Either Way and premiered at the Sundance Film Festival.

Release
Autumn Lights was acquired by North American distributor Freestyle Releasing, ahead of its limited theatrical release in the United States and Canada on October 21, 2016. The film opened in theaters in Northern Europe on November 4, 2016.

Ahead of its European release, the film was programmed in Italy's inaugural Riviera International Film Festival, where it competed in the Main Competition for the Grand Jury Prize against films such as Xavier Dolan's It's Only the End of the World, Amanda Kernell's Sami Blood, Leyla Bouzid's As I Open My Eyes, and Ciro Guerra's Academy Award-nominated film Embrace of the Serpent.

Soundtrack
The soundtrack includes the original score by Hugi Gudmundsson and Hjörtur Ingvi Jóhannsson and the original song "Seconds" by Hjaltalín's Sigrídur Thorlacius, with music and lyrics written by Johannsson. The soundtrack was released on October 16, 2016.

The film's original song "Seconds" and the film's score were shortlisted by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences for the 2017 Academy Awards.

Accolades
The film was In Competition at the 2017 Riviera International Film Festival where it was nominated for Best Picture, Best Director, Best Actress, and Best Actor. The film was considered divisive among critics, with the Village Voice calling the film "a blast of quiet chilly melancholy". Michael Calleri at the Niagara Gazette wrote: "Aulakh's exceptional movie explores the emptiness that shadows so many lives. A fleeting image can take on a powerful meaning. What are people, really, than what they choose to reveal to others?". Calleri further mentioned the divisive nature of the film with: "Movies like this either wrap moviegoers in a welcome cocoon of anticipation, or they falter due to cryptic inferences that don't quite come together. Aulakh succeeds".

Nominated – Grand Jury Prize, Riviera International Film Festival (Italy)
Nominated - Jury Prize, Best Director (Angad Aulakh), Riviera International Film Festival (Italy)
Nominated - Jury Prize, Best Actress (Marta Gastini), Riviera International Film Festival (Italy)
Nominated - Jury Prize, Best Actor (Guy Kent), Riviera International Film Festival (Italy)
Nominated – Best Film, Cinema Scandinavia Awards (Norway)

References

External links

2016 films
2010s mystery drama films
American independent films
Icelandic independent films
French independent films
2010s Icelandic-language films
Films set in Iceland
Films shot in Iceland
Films shot in Paris
Films set in Paris
Films shot in France
Films about sexuality
2016 drama films
2010s American films
2010s French films

Autumn Lights


A dead cake is a type of food that is traditionally eaten at a wake to honour the deceased individual. It is closely related to the folklore of funeral customs.

The 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica states:

...in the Balkan peninsula a small bread image of the deceased is made and eaten by the survivors of the family. The Dutch doed-koecks or 'dead-cakes', marked with the initials of the deceased, introduced into America in the 17th century, were long given to the attendants at funerals in old New York. The 'burial-cakes' which are still made in parts of rural England, for example Lincolnshire and Cumberland, are almost certainly a relic of sin-eating.

See also
Funeral biscuit

Funeral food and drink

Dead-cakes


Il Serpente di Bronzo, ZWV 61 is a sacred cantata composed by the Czech composer Jan Dismas Zelenka (1679–1745).

It was composed in 1730 and was first performed in Dresden. The libretto used is a Biblical story slightly modified by Zelenka. It is sung in Italian and it is untraditional in the fact that God has several passages in the cantata. The story is of the Jewish people travelling from Egypt to the Promised Land.

Three Jews – Azaria, Egla and Namuel are fatigued by having to go on such a long journey and start complaining about their burden. This angers God, who sends one thousand snakes down to plague the blasphemers. Moses begs for forgiveness and is told by God to cast a snake out of bronze, hence the name Il Serpente di Bronzo – serpent of bronze. Anyone who is bitten by a snake and sees the bronze serpent will be saved. The end of the cantata is a repetition of the chorus from the beginning.

Parts
 Azaria – Alto
 Egla – Soprano
 Namuel – Alto
 Mosè – Tenor
 Dio – Bass

Structure
I.     Coro
II.    Recitativo (Azaria, Namuel)
III.   Aria (Namuel)
IV.    Recitativo (Egla)
V.     Aria (Egla)
VI.    Recitativo (Dio)
VII.   Aria (Dio)
VIII.  Recitativo (Azaria, Eglia, Namuel)
IX.    Aria (Azaria)
X.     Recitativo (Egla, Namuel)
XI.    Aria a due (Egla, Namuel)
XII.   Recitativo (Mosè)
XIII.  Aria (Mosè)
XIV.   Recitativo (Dio)
XV.    Recitativo (Egla)
XVI.   Arietta con recitativo (Egla, Azaria)
XVII.  Aria (Azaria)
XVIII. Recitativo (Mosè)
XIX.   Coro

References

Compositions by Jan Dismas Zelenka
Cantatas
1730 cantatas

Il Serpente di Bronzo


The Gulf of Mannar ( ) is a large shallow bay forming part of the Laccadive Sea in the Indian Ocean with an average depth of . It lies between the southeastern tip of India and the west coast of Sri Lanka, in the Coromandel Coast region. The chain of low islands and reefs known as Adam's Bridge or Rama Setu (Rama's Bridge), which includes Mannar Island, separates the Gulf of Mannar from Palk Bay, which lies to the north between India and Sri Lanka. The estuaries of Thamirabarani River and Vaippar River of South India and the Malvathu Oya (Malvathu River) of Sri Lanka drain into the Gulf. The dugong (sea cow) is found here.

Conservation

Marine sanctuary

Located on the southeastern tip of the subcontinent, the Gulf of Mannar is known to harbour over 3,600 species of flora and fauna, making it one of the richest coastal regions in Asia. Around 117 hard coral species have been recorded in the Gulf of Mannar. Sea turtles are frequent visitors to the gulf as are sharks, dugongs, and dolphins. However, the combined effects of 47 villages, with a total population of around 50,000 has meant that overharvesting of marine species has become a problem. The decline of fish populations has been accompanied with reducing numbers of pearl oyster, gorgonian coral, and acorn worm. Local fishermen rely on the reef to feed their families, but destructive fishing methods combined with the stress of pollution and coral mining have meant both nearshore and offshore catches have decreased. Endangered species include dolphins, dugongs, whales and sea cucumbers.

In 1986, a group of 21 islets lying off the Tamil Nadu coast between Thoothukudi and Dhanushkodi was declared the Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park. The park and its 10 km buffer zone were declared a Biosphere Reserve in 1989.

Biosphere reserve
The Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve covers an area of 10,500 km2 of ocean, 21 islands and the adjoining coastline. The islets and coastal buffer zone include beaches, estuaries, and tropical dry broadleaf forests, while the marine environments include seaweed communities, sea grass communities, coral reefs, salt marshes and mangrove forests.
In May 2019, The National Centre for Coastal Research, an institute under the Ministry of Earth Sciences of India, which has a field research station in the Gulf of Mannar region, found an alarming pattern of bleaching in the reefs in Mandapam, Kilakarai and Palk Bay. Researchers observed a pattern of bleaching in corals when the temperatures rose to between 32 °C and 36 °C.

Marine activities

The Gulf of Mannar is known for its pearl banks of Pinctada radiata and Pinctada fucata for at least two thousand years. Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE) praised the pearl fishery of the gulf as one of the most productive in the world. Although extraction of natural pearls is considered too expensive in most parts of the world, it is still carried out in the gulf.

The chief seaports on the Gulf of Mannar are Thoothukudi (Tuticorin) in Tamil Nadu, and Colombo in Sri Lanka. While these ports can accommodate deep-draft vessels, the shallow Palk Strait can only accommodate small shallow-draft vessels. In July 2005, the Indian Government took preliminary steps to go ahead with the Sethusamudram Shipping Canal Project, which would create a deep channel linking the Gulf of Mannar to the Bay of Bengal. Project boosters emphasize the benefits of a direct shipping route that connects India's east and west coasts without the long trip around Sri Lanka; environmentalists have warned against the grave damage such a project could cause to the sea life and fisheries of the Palk Strait and the Gulf.

See also
 Coral reefs in India

References

Bodies of water of Mannar District
Coromandel Coast
Mannar
Mannar
India–Sri Lanka border
Landforms of Tamil Nadu

Gulf of Mannar


Stephen Carter (born 5 February 1974) is a former Australian rules footballer who played with Port Adelaide in the Australian Football League (AFL).

In the 1994 AFL Draft, Carter was selected by Essendon with pick 39, but he decided to remain in South Australia and wait for Port Adelaide's entry to the league in 1997. He already played for Port Adelaide in the South Australian National Football League (SANFL) and was a zone selection for the AFL club.

Carter made 10 appearances for Port Adelaide in the 1997 AFL season, including their first ever game, against Collingwood at the MCG, but was delisted at the end of the year.

A half back flanker, he was a member of five Port Adelaide premiership teams in the SANFL during the 1990s.

References

External links

1974 births
Australian rules footballers from South Australia
Port Adelaide Football Club players
Port Adelaide Magpies players
Port Adelaide Football Club (SANFL) players
Port Adelaide Football Club players (all competitions)
Living people

Stephen Carter (footballer)


A hall church is a type of church building. The term "hall church" is about the architecture of the building. Most very large churches and cathedrals are built with a long part where people sit, called the "nave". On each side of the nave is a lower "aisle". Between the nave and the aisles are rows of columns. Above the columns are windows which let light into the nave. In a hall church, there are no windows above the columns. The nave and the aisles are about the same height.

Famous cathedrals which are hall churches are Milan Cathedral in Italy, St. Stephen's Cathedral, Vienna and Bristol Cathedral in England.

The term was first used in the mid-19th century by the German art historian Wilhelm Lübke.

Related pages
Gothic architecture

References

Churches

Hall church


Seventh Avenue is a station on the IND Sixth Avenue Line and IND Queens Blvd Line of the New York City Subway. It is located at the intersection of Seventh Avenue and 53rd Street in Manhattan, it is served by the D and E trains and B train on weekdays. The station is announced 7th Avenue 53rd Street, in the style of other stations that orients east - west along 53rd Street such as 5th Avenue 53rd Street and Lexington Avenue 53rd Street as well to prevent confusion with 7th Avenue along the BMT Brighton Line in Brooklyn, which is also served by the B.

This station is for B, D and E trains.

After this station on the Sixth Avenue Line , the next stations will be 59th Street Columbus Circle and 47th and 50th Streets Rockefeller Center.

After this station on the Queens Blvd Line , the next stations will be 5th Avenue 53rd Street and 50th Street.

Railway stations opened in 1933

Seventh Avenue station


Jonathan R. Bass (November 25, 1830 - September 13, 1892) was an American sideshow attraction. His stage name was The Ossified Man. He was born in New York State. Rheumatism led to the ossification of his joints, tendons, and muscles in his teen years. His sideshow career began in 1887 at Niagara Falls. He toured the United States. He died in New York City in 1892.

Early years
Bass was born in Cambria in western New York State. He was the eldest of three brothers. He appeared perfectly normal in his very early years. As a child and a teenager however, a series of rheumatism attacks left him unable to walk without crutches and canes.

Middle years
Eventually, Bass became completely ossified. The rheumatism led to ankylosis of his joints, tendons, and muscles. They turned to bone. Things got worse. In 1869, he lost his eyesight. He had to eat by sucking food up and swallowing it whole. When his mother died in 1872, a brother began taking care of him.

In 1887, Bass began his show biz career at Niagara Falls. He then worked his way across the United States. In spite of his disabilities, Bass remained cheerful. He parted with his manager after a dispute about his cut of the take.

Last years and death
Bass died of a fever and pneumonia while performing in Huber's Museum in New York City. The family refused an autopsy. Bass was buried in an ironclad vault to deter grave robbers from making off with the body.

An article in a 1908 issue of Scientific American accused a careless museum attendant of causing Bass's death by letting the man fall to the pavement while being lifted from a carriage.

References
 Hartzman, Marc. 2005. American Sideshow. Penguin. Unpaged.

1830 births
1892 deaths
American sideshow attractions

Jonathan Bass


Thompson Creek Metals Company Inc. was a full cycle mining company with acquisition, exploration, development, and operation in North America. The corporate office was located in Denver, Colorado. The company primarily produced copper, gold, and molybdenum. Over its history, the Company evolved from being a major primary molybdenum producer to becoming a copper and gold mining company with the construction and development of the Mount Milligan (open-pit copper-gold) mine and concentrator in British Columbia, Canada. Mount Milligan was Thompson Creek Metals principal operation and the company owned 100% of this property. The company also owned 100% of its Thompson Creek Mine (open-pit molybdenum and concentrator) in Idaho. Thompson Creek Metals owned 75% joint venture interest in two other properties, including its Endako Mine (open-pit molybdenum, concentrator and roaster) in British Columbia, and its Langeloth Metallurgical Facility (roaster) in Pennsylvania. Thompson Creek Metals had additional development projects, including the Berg property in British Columbia (exploration of copper, molybdenum, and silver).

In 2016, Thompson Creek was acquired by Centerra Gold for $1.1 billion.  The deal took place because of Thompson Creek's substantial debt incurred to develop their Mount Milligan mine.

History
In 2006, the privately held Thompson Creek Metals Company (USA) was acquired by Canadian-based, publicly traded mining company Blue Pearl Mining Ltd for US$575 million, in addition to other payments worth as much as US$125 million depending on the price of molybdenum.  The name Blue Pearl Mining Ltd was changed to Thompson Creek Metals Company Inc. in May 2007.  From October 2006 through August 2013, Thompson Creek Metals was solely a molybdenum producer.

Pursuant to the acquisition of Terrane Metals Corp. in October 2010 for about US$700 million in a combination of cash and common stock, the company diversified its assets by adding significant reserves of copper and gold. Concurrent with the acquisition of Terrane, the Company entered into a Gold Stream Arrangement with Royal Gold Inc. as a  financing mechanism for the purchase of Terrane. The Gold Stream Agreement was amended twice for a total payment by Royal Gold of approximately US$781 million for the right to purchase 52.25% of the gold from Mount Milligan Mine for US$435 per ounce for the life of the mine.

Operating Mines

Mount Milligan — Mount Milligan Mine (open-pit copper and gold mine) is located 90 miles northwest of Prince George in Central British Columbia, Canada. Mount Milligan Mine has a concentrator with a 60,000 tpd design capacity copper flotation processing plant. The estimated life of Mount Milligan Mine is approximately 24 years (which is based on spot metal prices copper and gold). Over the life of the mine, it is estimated that it will produce an average annual of 85 million pounds of copper and 186,700 ounces of gold in 155,000 tonnes of concentrate. In 2015 through 2019, the average annual production is projected to increase at approximately 94 million pounds of copper and 285,800 ounces of gold in 165,000 tonnes of concentrate.  Thompson Creek Metals Company filed an updated NI 43-101 Technical Report for Mount Milligan Mine on January 21, 2015 that confirms these projections.

In October 2010, through the Terrane acquisition, Thompson Creek Metals obtained the Mount Milligan development project and initiated construction soon after. On August 15, 2013, the initial feed to the concentrator started the operation of the mine. By September 2013, the mine had its first production, a copper-gold concentrate. Mount Milligan Mine reached commercial production as of February 18, 2014, which means that the mill operated at 60% planned capacity throughput for 30 days. Industrious activities were sustained through 2014 and are consistent today. The Company predicts that it will reach 60,000 tpd on a steady basis once it installs a secondary crushing circuit. Thompson Creek Metals expects to reach approximately 60,000 tpd by the end of 2015 by utilizing temporary crushing.

Thompson Creek Mine (near Challis, Idaho) — The Thompson Creek Mine is a primary molybdenum mine located approximately 35 miles southwest of Challis in Idaho's Custer County, a historic mining area. Known as the Thompson Creek deposit, it was discovered in 1968 by Cyprus Minerals Corporation. The mine has been in operation since 1983 and uses conventional open-pit mining methods. The mine was sold in 1993 to Thompson Creek Metals Company (USA), which began mining at the site in April 1994.  The company has claims on over 22,000 acres of land (includes waste dumps). It operates as an open pit mine, and includes Bruno Creek Tailings Impoundment, the second tallest center-line tailings dam in the world. The capacity of the mill to process is approximately 30,000 tons of ore per day to produce molybdenum sulfide concentrate. It is then roasted at the Company's Langeloth Metallurgical Facility into molybdenum trioxide, ferromolybdenum products, and other specialty products. Due to low molybdenum prices, this mine is under maintenance and care currently.

Endako Mine — 3 pit, open pit mine in central British Columbia (other 2 projects Berg and Davidson are west of it).  Subsidiary Thompson Creek Holding owns 75% of the mine while Japanese company Sojitz Corporation has the other 25%.  The operation also involves processing the molybdenum ore into a disulfide and then molybdenum trioxide through roasting.  Expansion projects, which began in 2008 increased capacity by 77.4% (though expansions which include new mills will cut the mine life by 38.5% to 16 years).

Langeloth Metallurgical Facility — The Langeloth Metallurgical Facility, located 25 miles west of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, is a world-class facility with a long history of producing high-quality metallurgical products used mainly in the steel and chemical industries. The facility has roasting capacity of 35 million pounds of molybdenum per year. Four multiple-hearth furnaces are used for the conversion (roasting) of molybdenum disulfide concentrates into technical grade molybdenum oxide (tech oxide), which is sold in powder form or briquettes or converted into pure molybdenum oxide or ferromolybdenum. Two other furnaces process spent catalyst material containing other metals.

Projects
As part of the Terrane acquisition, Thompson Creek also acquired a copper, molybdenum and silver exploration property located in British Columbia, Canada (the Berg Property).

Berg Property — Located about 50 miles southwest of Houston, BC and 15 miles northwest of Huckleberry Mine, this project is continuously assessed to determine if the deposit of copper, molybdenum, and silver is commercially ready for production. The Berg property is 100% owned by the company. Royal Gold has 1% net smelter return royalty held on eight of the mineral claims and one mining lease, including those which host the deposit on the Berg property. All mineral claims and the mining lease are in good standing and good to dates ranging from August 2015 to November 2021. Mineral claims are subject to exploration expenditure obligations, or they may choose to pay annual fees to the province in lieu of exploration expenditures. Thompson Creek expects to renew such mineral claims and mining lease in the ordinary course.

References

External links
Thompson Creek Mine sale to close mid-October
Grmike, Kumar Thompson Creek Metals Company Overview production, total processed, revenue, reserves and cash costs by mine and year.

Mining companies of Canada
Silver mining companies of Canada
Molybdenum mining
Companies formerly listed on the Toronto Stock Exchange
Companies formerly listed on the New York Stock Exchange
Mining companies of the United States

Thompson Creek Metals


Makawao Union Church is a church near Makawao on the Hawaiian island of Maui. It was founded by New England missionary Jonathan Smith Green during the Kingdom of Hawaii. The third historic structure used by the congregation was designed by noted local architect C.W. Dickey and dedicated in 1917 as the Henry Perrine Baldwin Memorial Church. In 1985, Makawao Union Church was placed on the Hawaii and National Register of Historic Places.

Wood-framed church

In 1870, Henry Perrine Baldwin his wife, Emily Alexander Baldwin, and their children joined the church. Henry served as organist for over forty years. Baldwin and his brother-in-law became wealthy co-founders of Alexander & Baldwin.
On January 5, 1878, Rev. Green died; Asenath Green would maintain the church until she died in 1894, and then daughters Mary and Laura.

His son Joseph Porter Green (1833–1886) served at the church, and was elected to the legislature of the Hawaiian Kingdom in 1860.

In 1888, Baldwin offered the church a site for a new building, on the foundation of the former Paliuli Sugar Mill near what is now called Rainbow Gulch and Rainbow County Park. The mill was named for Pali uli (literally "green cliff"), the place in Hawaiian mythology roughly equivalent to the garden of Eden.

This church, a New England style white frame structure, was dedicated on March 10, 1889. The Pāia Community House, finished in hardwood on the inside, was built in 1914 adjacent to the church. The Community House, with its large auditorium and  deep stage was used for plays, operettas, school graduations, concerts, lectures, silent movies and dances. The site of the old church,  became the cemetery. Later the Maui Veteran's Cemetery was built adjacent to the church cemetery.

A native Hawaiian pastor John Kalama served at both Makawao and Pookela until his death in 1896. The original building stood until about 1900.

The "Daily Bulletin Newspaper, Honolulu Oct 2, 1889 pg3 Announced the purchase of a new pipe organ built for the church, by the NY firm of Roosevelt. A small organ of one manual/pedal & 6 speaking stops.  This being purchased, by Baldwin while he was in New York, he paid a visit to the organ Company.

Stone church

The frame church was razed in 1916 and construction began immediately on a new Gothic Revival style structure. The new building was designed by architect Charles William Dickey (1871–1942), whose mother was Emily Baldwin's sister.
It has been called "one of his more outstanding works." The stone church was dedicated September 2, 1917. It was about the same size as the frame building, and also used the original Paliuli Mill foundation. Henry Alexander Baldwin (known as "Harry"), Henry Perrine's son, was featured speaker, along with William Hyde Rice. The organ was donated in the memory of Harry Baldwin's sons Jared Smith Baldwin (1889–1914) and Leslie Alexander Baldwin (1898–1901).

The walls were built of reinforced concrete with native basalt lava rock veneer. The roof was covered in slate from Vermont. Four stained glass windows and the bell were reused from the old building. A Seth Thomas clock has three faces on the Norman style tower. The main entry is through oak doors in the tower.

Austin Craig Bowdish was pastor at the dedication. Augustine Jones became pastor in 1921. The 1938 Maui earthquake damaged the community house, but not the stone church.

On June 29, 1985, Makawao Union Church was placed on the Hawaii Register of Historic Places as site 50-05-1610, and December 17, 1985, it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places listings in Hawaii as site 85003227.
It now calls itself an "interdenominational, community church with Congregational heritage".
 the pastor was Rev. Robin Lunn.
The road past the church was named Baldwin Avenue for the Baldwin family.
It is located at 1445 Baldwin Avenue, Makawao, Hawaii, .

Burials
The church cemetery is located 3.9 miles southeast of the church, in the 3300 block of Baldwin Avenue (@20.861218,-156.311417.) Notable people buried there include the original missionary family: Theodosia Arnold Green, 1859,
Jonathan Smith Green, 1878,
and Ansenath Cargill Green, 1894.
Harry Baldwin, 1946 was a Republican Politician,
Annie Montague Alexander, 1950 an explorer and scientist. Others from the Alexander and Baldwin families are buried in the cemetery.
James Dole, 1958 owned the largest pineapple plantation in the world.
Anne Alexander, 1940, and Charles Henry Dickey, 1932 were parents of architect Charles William Dickey.

The Maui Veteran's Cemetery, near the church cemetery, holds the graves of two actors:
horror movie actress Evelyn Ankers, 1985, and her husband
Richard Denning, 1998, of Hawaii Five-O.

Gallery

References

Churches on the National Register of Historic Places in Hawaii
Churches completed in 1917
20th-century churches in the United States
Religious buildings and structures in Maui County, Hawaii
Gothic Revival church buildings in Hawaii
1917 establishments in Hawaii
National Register of Historic Places in Maui County, Hawaii
Buildings and structures in Makawao, Hawaii
Hawaii Register of Historic Places

Makawao Union Church


Conchoidal fracture describes the way that brittle materials break or fracture when they do not follow any natural planes of separation. Mindat.org defines conchoidal fracture as follows: "a fracture with smooth, curved surfaces, typically slightly concave, showing concentric undulations resembling the lines of growth of a shell". Materials that break in this way include quartz, chert, flint, quartzite, jasper, and other fine-grained or amorphous materials with a composition of pure silica, such as obsidian and window glass, as well as a few metals, such as solid gallium.

Crystalline materials such as quartz also exhibit conchoidal fractures when they lack a cleavage plane and do not break along a plane parallel to their crystalline faces. So, a conchoidal, or uneven, fracture is not a specific indication of the amorphous character of a mineral, or a material. Amorphous, cryptocrystalline, and crystalline materials can all present conchoidal fracture when they lack a preferential cleavage plane.

Conchoidal fractures can occur in various materials if they are properly percussed (struck). Cryptocrystalline silica, such as chert, or flint, with this material property were widely sought after, traded, and fashioned into sharp tools in the Stone Age.

Conchoidal fractures often result in a curved breakage surface that resembles the rippling, gradual curves of a mussel shell; the word "conchoid" is derived from the word for this animal ( konchoeidēs <  konchē). A swelling appears at the point of impact called the bulb of percussion. Shock waves emanating outwards from this point leave their mark on the stone as ripples. Other conchoidal features include small fissures emanating from the bulb of percussion.

They are defined in contrast to the faceted fractures often seen in single crystals such as semiconductor wafers and gemstones and to the high-energy ductile fracture surfaces desirable in most structural applications.

Subsets
Several subdefinitions exist, for instance on the Webmineral website:

 Brittle—conchoidal: very brittle fracture producing small, conchoidal fragments
 Brittle—subconchoidal: brittle fracture with subconchoidal fragments
 Conchoidal—irregular: irregular fracture producing small, conchoidal fragments
 Conchoidal—uneven: uneven fracture producing small, conchoidal fragments
 Subconchoidal: fractures developed in brittle materials characterized by semi-curving surfaces

Lithics
In lithic stone tools, conchoidal fractures form the basis of flint knapping, since the shape of the broken surface is controlled only by the stresses applied, and not by some preferred orientation of the material. This property also makes such fractures useful in engineering, since they provide a permanent record of the stress state at the time of failure. As conchoidal fractures can be produced only by mechanical impact, rather than frost cracking for example, they can be a useful method of differentiating prehistoric stone tools from natural stones.

See also

 Fracture (mineralogy)

References

External links

Lithics
Materials degradation
Mineralogy concepts
Petrology
Stone Age

Conchoidal fracture


Andrew Keith Hore (born 13 September 1978) is a former New Zealand rugby union player. He played for the All Blacks between 2002 and 2013. His position was hooker. He notably played for the Hurricanes in Super Rugby, but also represented the Highlanders and the Crusaders. When available, he played for Taranaki in the ITM Cup, now known as the Mitre 10 Cup. Hore retired from international rugby after playing  during the 2013 All Black Northern Hemisphere tour, with a total of 83 test caps to his name. In 2008 Hore received the Kelvin Tremain Trophy for Rugby player of the year. In 2011, Andrew Hore captained the All Blacks against Canada.

Rugby career

ITM/Mitre 10 Cup
Hore debuted for Otago in 1998, and in 2001 shifted to Taranaki; in 2014 Hore made his debut for Southland. In 2016 he made a comeback and helped Otago in the Mitre 10 Cup final.

Super Rugby
Hore made his Super Rugby debut for the Crusaders in 2001. In 2002 he shifted to the Hurricanes, with whom he made over 100 appearances. In 2011 he was controversially released from the Hurricanes by coach Mark Hammett and joined the Highlanders in 2012.

He was named Super Rugby Player of the Year and received the Kelvin Tremain New Zealand rugby player of the year in 2008.

International
Hore retired following the 2013 season. In 2011 he was selected for the All Blacks 2011 Rugby World Cup squad. In the final pool match of the tournament, he was selected to captain the side against Canada when both Richie McCaw and Dan Carter were injured and unable to play.

During the All Blacks end-of-year European Tour, controversy arose during the Wales versus New Zealand test match on 24 November 2012 after Hore tackled the Welsh lock Bradley Davies
across the head off the ball. The offence - a red card one - was missed by the match referee, Hore faced the judiciary and received an end of season suspension. This incident resulted in Davies being taken off of the field and taken to a hospital for further concussion assessment. He was suspended for 5 weeks following the incident.

Hore retired after the 2013 match against Ireland, in this match the All Blacks succeeded going an entire calendar year without being defeated, a feat which hasn't been managed since the dawn of the professional era. Although in 2014 he was selected by Dean Ryan to play in the Barbarians squad.

On returning to farming, Hore continued to play club-level rugby, serving as player–coach for the local Maniototo Maggots, later moving on to coach junior rugby for his son's team.

Legal issues
In 2005, Hore was one of three men convicted and fined for shooting and killing a protected fur seal in New Zealand. Judge Rollo described the offending as a "grossly irresponsible, spontaneous act of hooliganism". Judge Rollo said he believed the aggravating features of the offending were the number of shots fired, the close proximity to the public and the fact that the area in which they were shooting was world-renowned for its wildlife.

In 2015 he was convicted of supplying firearms to an unlicensed person.

Personal life
Hore was raised on Stonehenge Farm, which he now runs with his wife, a sheep station near Patearoa in the Maniototo region of central Otago which has been owned by his family since 1910, and returned to the farm to live and work full-time after he retired from international rugby. He considers farming central to his identity—so much so that when he first met his future wife Francine Hore (née Lister) while on a flight with the Hurricanes  and she asked his occupation, he replied "I'm a farmer." Hore turned down several potentially lucrative overseas moves in order to stay close to the farm with his young family, and according to British journalist Tom Hamilton, "All of Andrew's money from rugby is in the farm, in the ground preparing it for [his son] Tyrell to one day takeover."

References

External links
Highlanders profile

1978 births
New Zealand international rugby union players
Living people
New Zealand rugby union players
Rugby union hookers
Rugby union players from Dunedin
Taranaki rugby union players
Otago rugby union players
Southland rugby union players
Crusaders (rugby union) players
Hurricanes (rugby union) players
Highlanders (rugby union) players
People convicted of cruelty to animals
People educated at John McGlashan College
2007 Rugby World Cup players
2011 Rugby World Cup players

Andrew Hore


An option offense is an American football offensive system in which a key player (usually the quarterback) has several "options" of how each play will proceed based upon the actions of the defense. Traditionally, option-based offenses rely on running plays, though most mix in forward passes from an option formation as a change of pace. A successful option-based offense can keep possession of the ball for long periods of time, giving the opposing offense fewer possessions and keeping the option team's defense rested. However, because passing is often not a strength of the system, it can be difficult for option-based offenses to come back from a large deficit or to score quickly when needed.

There are several types of option plays, with the common element being that the quarterback must decide which available option has the best chance of succeeding. This decision is usually made soon after the ball is snapped based upon the initial movements of one or two specific defensive players, called "keys" or "reads".

The most common option plays are as follows:
In a triple option play, the quarterback can either hand the ball to a fullback running towards the center of the line (dive), fake a handoff and attempt to run the ball himself (quarterback keeper), or pitch the ball to a trailing running back angling towards the sideline (pitch). The quarterback decides which option to utilize by reading the reaction of specific defensive linemen and linebackers which can vary depending on the defensive formation. This triple option is most often run from a wishbone or flexbone formation.
In a read option play, the quarterback has only one teammate to whom he can pitch or hand the ball, and he typically "reads" the initial movement of the defensive end when deciding whether to run a keeper or hand it off. This play can be run from a wider variety of offensive formations than the triple option, allowing it to be used as a change-of-pace by teams that do not utilize an option-heavy offensive system.
A more recent innovation is the run-pass option play (RPO), in which the quarterback usually has the option of either handing the ball to a running back or throwing a quick pass. The defensive key for RPOs is usually a specific linebacker or safety, but as with all option plays, the read may vary depending on the play design and the pre-snap formation of the defense.

The roots of the option attack go back over a century to the earliest offensive systems of the modern game such as the T formation, Single-wing formation, and the Notre Dame Box, which were developed and widely utilized at all levels of play in the early 20th century. Option-based systems gradually lost favor in the college and pro game until the 1970s, when teams running the wishbone attack or its flexbone variant briefly dominated college football, spawning many imitators. Defenses had grown more accustomed to facing option attacks by the early 1980s, and the systems once again faded in popularity.

While many coaches at all levels include frequent RPOs and occasional read option plays in their offensive scheme, the triple option is a more specialized play that is almost exclusively run by teams employing an option-based system. Such systems have become rare in major college football and have not been used in the National Football League (NFL) for decades, mainly because of the risk of injury to a running quarterback. However, play concepts based on option-based systems are the foundation of the modern spread offense attack.

Types
An option offense is any football scheme that relies on option running plays as its cornerstone. There are a variety of such schemes. Some of the most popular versions include:

 Wishbone option offense The wishbone offense, whose introduction to Football Bowl Subdivision (formerly Division I-A) college football is credited to Emory Bellard, is named after its base formation of a quarterback, a fullback aligned four to five yards behind the quarterback, and two halfbacks aligned on each side of the fullback and one yard to two yards deeper. The result is a backfield alignment that resembles the shape of a wishbone. Also called the triple-option, this base formation allows three basic running options: the fullback receiving the handoff, the quarterback pitching to either halfback, or the quarterback running the ball himself. While the wishbone's success reached its zenith in the 1970s, it remains popular at the high school and small college level but is nearly extinct at major college programs.
 Wing T offense The traditional "wing T" offense employs many of the concepts of the wishbone offense. It often employs three running back formations, especially in the Bay City version of the offense. The wing T helped change the game of football in its formative years, and changed the traditional role of the quarterback from a blocker much like a modern fullback in the classic "single wing", to the primary distributor of the ball. As the triple-option became prominent, the wing T quickly incorporated the veer into its arsenal. In conjunction, it tends to employ significantly more misdirection running plays. The traps, crosses, fakes, pulls, sweeps, and counters that characterize the wing T are often supplemented by a heavy dose of option runs—most notably the veer triple option. The veer is well suited to the wing T offense, especially the Delaware version. The Delaware version of the wing T, with its predominant two running back sets, gained significant prominence in the late 1970s and early 1980s and was most notably employed by the Notre Dame Fighting Irish during the Parseghian era. It continues to be employed by high schools and small college teams.
 Flexbone option offense  The "Flexbone" was invented by Emory Bellard at Mississippi State in 1979.  It was called the "Wingbone", a variation of the Wishbone Bellard originally invented. A variant of the wishbone offense, the flexbone came to prominence in the 1980s and 1990s. The flexbone offense varies from the wishbone in a few fundamental ways. First, and most notably, the flexbone replaces the halfbacks that are aligned in the backfield of a wishbone with one or two "wingbacks" or "slot backs," that align off-tackle or off-end. These "hybrid" players are typically very quick and must be adept at running, blocking (particularly cut blocking), and receiving. Because of their positioning, they can more easily facilitate the passing game in the flexbone and serve to stretch the defensive alignment laterally prior to the snap. Teams that employ this scheme tend to amass consistently high rushing averages. The name "flexbone" is somewhat controversial and usually reflects the school of thought from which the offense was born. Some practitioners, such as Air Force's famed former head coach, Fisher DeBerry, welcomed the name flexbone because the offense was seen as a modification of the traditional wishbone. Still others, such as Paul Johnson reject the moniker, preferring instead to call their systems, the "spread offense".  To these practitioners, the offense is more related to spread schemes such as the run and shoot, and simply uses the triple-option as a foundation instead of a dynamic passing game. The offense was actually born in the latter school of practitioners, with its origins attributed to Paul Johnson while at Georgia Southern in the mid-80s. He brought the system briefly to Hawaiʻi in the late '80s and then returned to Georgia Southern, which won a record six Division I-AA national titles and eight conference titles while using this offense. As traditional wishbone coaches sought to make their offenses more dynamic, they began to mimic the alignments of this "spread offense" and re-dubbed it the flexbone. The name has since stuck, most likely in order to prevent confusion with other spread offenses. By the late '90s, the flexbone was adapted by all three NCAA Division I-A military academies, where it provided strong statistical results. After bringing Navy to its greatest run of success in decades, Johnson brought the offense with him to Georgia Tech, where it has achieved great success.
 I-option offense Also known as the "Nebraska I-offense," this offense derives its name from its extensive use of the I formation with its vertical alignment of quarterback, fullback, and running back. Though balanced attacks from the I formation have been around for decades, the I-option gained extraordinary popularity with its employment by Tom Osborne at the Nebraska Cornhuskers. Using this offense, Osborne had outstanding success from the time of its introduction in 1980 until his retirement in 1997, including three national championships. His successor, Frank Solich, continued to have success with the offense until his departure in 2003. The I-option offense offered a more traditional balanced attack. At its core, the offense relies on a devastating combination of power running, the option, and play-action passing, which are easily run from the I-formation and its variations. The concept of a balanced offensive attack combined with the big play potential of the option enticed vast numbers of top-level college teams to include some components of the Nebraska I.
 Spread option offense  The spread option offense is a variant of the more generic "spread offense". It has found success and widespread employment in college and high school football. Essentially a hybrid of the traditionally pass-oriented spread offense, the spread option is based on the concept of defensive isolation. The offense "spreads" the defense by aligning in three-to-five receiver sets, using two or fewer running backs in the backfield and often setting the quarterback in shotgun. This spread forces the defense to defend more of the field and isolates its players in space. To exploit this, the offense employs double or triple option plays which further mitigates the athleticism of the defense and forces it to play their assignments. When used in combination with a consistent passing game, the spread option offense can yield strong results. The means by which option plays are run from the spread option offense vary greatly.

The most popular running play employed in the spread is the read option. This play is also known as the zone read, QB choice, or QB wrap. A type of double option, the read option is a relatively simple play during which the offensive line zone blocks in one direction, ignoring defensive personnel, while the quarterback makes a single read (usually of the backside defensive end or linebacker) and decides whether to keep the ball (if the backside defender crashes down) or to hand off to the back (if the defender indicates that he will cover the quarterback). Some spread offenses employ complicated pre-snap motion schemes that move wide receivers or tight ends into formations in which they can either become ball carriers or run pass routes, allowing for additional possible options.

Since the early 2000s, spread offenses have become very common, as they spread the defense to open running lanes for various option plays while also putting offensive players in favored matchups to allow for a prolific passing attack. The attack was initially developed in the college game, and Rich Rodriguez is generally credited with popularizing the zone read play run out of the shotgun formation while at West Virginia. Over the following seasons, other college coaches such as Urban Meyer (Utah, Florida, Ohio State), Bill Snyder (Kansas State), and Chip Kelly (Oregon, UCLA) developed formidable offenses based on spread option concepts.

Option plays

At the heart of all option offenses is the option run. This relatively complicated running play may take on many forms. All option runs, however, rely on two common principles: Whereas the traditional running play typically designates the ballcarrier prior to the snap, the ballcarrier in a true option running play is determined by reading the defensive alignment or the actions of defensive players. This may occur at the line of scrimmage or after the ball is snapped. The second principle of the option run is that it must include two or more potential ballcarriers. These individuals each perform a predetermined route, or "track" that poses a unique threat to a defense. By threatening to attack the defense in multiple ways during the play based on the defense's own actions/alignment, the option run forces the opponent to maintain extraordinary discipline. Defenders must focus on their assignments, which stresses the defense and often mitigates its speed, size and aggressiveness. Consequently, option offenses are excellent for undersized teams.

Option runs
Option running plays are as numerous as the schemes that employ them. However, nearly all option running plays can be characterized as either a double option or triple option. This is determined by the number of choices available during the play.

Triple option: In these highly complex running plays, three potential ballcarriers are available. The triple option typically features three components: a "dive" track, a "keep" track and "pitch" track. In its most generic version, the inside/outside veer, the dive track is typically carried out by a running back. At the snap of the ball, this player attacks the line of scrimmage somewhere between the offensive tackles (or end in the outside veer) as designated by the type of triple option play. This player is often the first choice in the triple option. His goal is to quickly attack the defensive interior in order to either pick up yardage or freeze the defense and prevent their pursuit to the outside. This quick surge into the interior of the defense is traditionally called a "dive".  The quarterback determines whether to hand the ball to the fullback by reading a "dive key" - usually a defensive end. If the dive key does not try to tackle the running back the quarterback will hand the ball off to him. Alternatively, if the defender attempts to tackle the running back, the quarterback will keep the ball himself. This decision usually takes place while both the dive back and the quarterback are holding the football in an intricate exchange called the "mesh". On the keep track, the quarterback may run upfield for yardage or pitch the ball to another ballcarrier on the "pitch" track. This player is called the "pitch back" and the quarterback determines whether or not to pitch the ball by reading the "pitch key" - usually a linebacker or defensive back.

Double option: The double option is an effective cousin of the triple option. As the name indicates, the double option provides only two potential ballcarriers instead of three. Yet it often relies on speed, or misdirection to compensate for the reduction.

Read option:  Developed in the 1990s, this play is typically run out of the shotgun formation in a spread offense. The quarterback "reads" the defensive end on the side in which the play is designed to go. If the defensive end is playing outside the tackle after the snap of the ball, the quarterback hands the ball off to the running back, who runs up the middle, away from the end. If the defensive end moves inside at the snap, the quarterback fakes a handoff to the running back and runs the ball to the outside while the offensive tackle occupies the defensive end. Though simple in concept, the play can be very effective if linebackers and defensive backs do not quickly arrive to provide run support. To further pressure the defense, the play can also include an RPO component, which adds a quick pass to the QB's possible options depending on his read of the opponents' reactions.

This read option has been a staple of the college game since the early 2000s and has been successfully utilized by many mobile quarterbacks, most notably national championship winning QBs Vince Young at Texas, Tim Tebow at Florida, and Cam Newton at Auburn, among many other quarterbacks who found team and individual success running a variation of the spread option offense with an emphasis on read option plays.

NFL coaches are generally disinclined to utilize option-based plays very often, as they can result in their valuable quarterback taking hard hits while running the ball. The read option is more often used as an occasional change of pace, particularly against an aggressive defense that is focused on stopping the running back. Only a handful of professional teams with durable and mobile quarterbacks make the play a regular part of their offense, most notably the Baltimore Ravens, which used option concepts to set an NFL team rushing record in 2019 behind league MVP Lamar Jackson, who also set a new season record for rushing yards by a QB (1,206).

Run-Pass Option (RPO)

The RPO has become widely used in both college and professional football. While most previous option plays included several possible options for running the ball, most RPOs give the quarterback the possibility of handing off the ball, running it himself, or passing the ball. The "read" in an RPO is often based on the movement of a single defender, usually a linebacker or safety. If the quarterback reads the targeted defender as defending the run, he will pass.  If the read is the defender stays put or appears to be involved in pass defense, the quarterback can hand the ball to a running back or, in some versions, run the ball himself. The idea is to choose the option that gives the offense a numerical advantage.

Because the quarterback makes the decision to run or pass after the snap of the ball, the other offensive players' assignments are a mixture of those usually used during a run or pass play, with receivers going out on pass routes and the offensive line engaging in run blocking. However, because offensive linemen are not allowed to stray much beyond the line of scrimmage before a pass is thrown, the quarterback must quickly make a decision to throw or run before his team incurs a penalty.

Modern use
Option-based offenses are most frequently utilized in the high school and collegiate ranks. It is rarely used in the National Football League for several reasons, most importantly because quarterbacks often run with the ball themselves in option plays, resulting in frequent hits. Few professional coaches are willing to assume the increased risk of injury for the player who is usually the highest paid and most important player on the team.

Use in college football
Various option-based offenses were by far the most common in the early years of college football, and with several schools winning national championships with the new wishbone attack in the 1970s, the option offense enjoyed a renaissance during that decade and beyond. However, the wishbone's effectiveness waned as defensive schemes were designed to slow it down. By 2000, almost all major college programs had abandoned option attacks for "pro-style" offenses the utilized more passing and attract athletes who had aspirations to play in the NFL, where option offenses had fallen out of favor decades earlier.

While very few teams run pure option attacks, some option concepts and plays have been incorporated into newer offensive schemes in recent years. In the early 2000s, Urban Meyer and other coaches found success with the spread offense, which incorporates elements of an option-based running game while utilizing the shotgun formation and including much more of a passing game than a traditional option scheme. Meyer visited Kansas State University's Bill Snyder and learned the principles of his system.  These combine elements of the West Coast offense and the single wing with sorted elements of the flexbone and the wishbone. Meyer used his spread option offense with great success at Bowling Green, Utah, and Florida, where he won two national titles, and at Ohio State, where he won an additional national championship.

Meyer's version is based on the spread attack developed by then-West Virginia coach Rich Rodriguez. Rodriguez earned "pioneer" status for incorporating wishbone principles, such as the zone-read and option pitches, into the primarily passing-oriented spread offense.  However, it is unclear whether Rodriguez developed the system, Kansas State coach Bill Snyder developed the zone-read philosophy with QB Michael Bishop in the late 1990s, or whether the two coaches coincidentally developed the system at the same time.

The option remains popular at mid-major levels as well. The Appalachian State Mountaineers, who won three consecutive titles in Division I FCS from 2005 through 2007, rely on the spread option offense. Additionally, the Cal Poly Mustangs achieved success with its flexbone-style option offense under former head coach Rich Ellerson, who has since installed the offense at Army. Lenoir–Rhyne played for an NCAA DII National Championship in 2013 running the flexbone.  Carson–Newman, Eastern New Mexico, and Harding have had a great deal of success running the triple option at the NCAA Division II level.

Option offenses are considered to be "equalizers" on the playing field – allowing less athletic teams to compete with larger and faster defenses, particularly since there are few teams that run the scheme and defensive players and coaches may not be adept at stopping it. Appalachian State proved this theory by defeating the heralded Michigan Wolverines at Michigan Stadium during the 2007 NCAA season. In 2013 Georgia Southern (FCS at the time) defeated Florida and in 2015 Citadel (FCS) defeated South Carolina.

Option offenses remain very popular among the United States service academies, who do not always have the specialized personnel required to successfully run a pro-style offense against top college competition. The Navy Midshipmen, Army Black Knights, and Air Force Falcons each use option offenses. If run properly, an option offense should be able to gain 2-3 yards before the linebackers and defensive backs can identify who has the football and make a tackle. Due in part to this, Navy rarely punts the ball, which has led many Navy fans to jokingly refer to 4th down (normally a punting situation) as "just another down." Coach Paul Johnson was particularly effective using this offensive scheme, leading Navy to 43 victories between 2003 and 2007, and Navy led the nation in rushing yards and rushing touchdowns in 2007. He left Navy for Georgia Tech after the 2007 season, where he continued to successfully run the option until his retirement in 2018.

Former Army coach Bob Sutton joked that the Army–Navy Game could be played in an hour because the game clock rarely stopped due to both teams running option schemes. After Sutton's firing, Army went away from the option in favor of a Pro Style attack under new head coach Todd Berry. After eight years of poor performance on the field (with a record of 17-76 from 2000–2007 including the only 0-13 season in NCAA history), Army returned to a flexbone triple-option scheme in the 2008 season. Many Army alumni pushed for a return to an option-based offense in hopes of regaining the success they saw under head coach Jim Young in the 1980s and early 1990s.  Under Young, from 1983–1990, the cadets went 51-39-1, including 3 bowl appearances. With the beginning of spring practice 2008, Army coach Stan Brock closed practices to the fans and media in order to install the new offensive scheme. In mid-April, the Times-Herald Record broke the silence and eased alumni concerns by announcing that Brock and Army would return to the triple-option offense for the 2008 season. Though Army improved statistically, they failed to achieve a winning season, and in December 2008, Army Athletic Director, Kevin Anderson announced Brock's dismissal after only two seasons. Later that month, the team welcomed famed Cal Poly head coach Rich Ellerson as the 36th head coach at West Point.  In his first season (2009) on the banks of the Hudson, Ellerson implemented his version of the option and led the Cadets to a 5-7 season. The team showed a marked improvement from the previous 10 years, missing a bowl game by one game.

The United States Air Force Academy also ran the option successfully under coach Fisher DeBerry, often having a run offense near the top of the NCAA. Falcons option quarterback Dee Dowis was a finalist for the Heisman Trophy in 1989, setting an NCAA record for rushing by a quarterback, with 3,612 yards. The option helped the team win the Commander-in-Chief's Trophy 16 times, the most among the three major football-playing service academies.

Current Army head coach Jeff Monken has extensive experience running the option. Before taking over the Army program in December 2013 he served as head coach of Georgia Southern University. His experience working under Paul Johnson at Georgia Southern, Navy and Georgia Tech made him an attractive choice for the position.

Use in professional football

Until recently, the option has made rare appearances in the NFL. An article on the option play in the ESPN College Football Encyclopedia discussed why the option was not used as much in the pros.  While coaches agreed the option would work, the problem was the impact it would have on the quarterback. The quarterback would need to run more which means taking more hits, causing greater risk of injury. Starting in 2004, Michael Vick, Warrick Dunn and T. J. Duckett ran the option with a degree of success not seen in the NFL before.  In a December 2007 game against the New England Patriots, the New York Jets ran the option with quarterback Brad Smith, substituting Smith for starter Chad Pennington.

In the 2008 AFC championship, Ravens QB Joe Flacco ran a QB option tucking the ball for a 5-yard gain and a first down on crucial third down. The Ravens offense was known for mixing up its game plan, and although Flacco is not known for his speed, the deception employed by Baltimore allowed for Flacco to mix up plays successfully despite an AFC championship game loss.

In the 2009 season, the New York Jets ran the option numerous times, with Brad Smith. Each play produced positive yards. The Tennessee Titans also ran the option when Vince Young was re-installed as quarterback. In addition, the option helped Chris Johnson rush for 2,000 yards.

On October 9, 2011, the Carolina Panthers effectively ran the option twice against the New Orleans Saints. The first play was an option pitch from QB Cam Newton to RB DeAngelo Williams for a 67-yard touchdown. The second time, Cam Newton kept the ball and ran for 13 yards.

A month later, the Denver Broncos ran seventeen plays with Tim Tebow as quarterback and Willis McGahee as running back totalling 298 yards on the ground. The option was so effective that the Broncos played it almost exclusively in the fourth quarter of the 38-24 win over the Oakland Raiders, continued using it a week later in a 17-10 win over the Kansas City Chiefs, and again employed it a week later in an overtime win over San Diego. In that win over San Diego, Tim Tebow set an NFL record 22 rushing attempts by a quarterback in one game. The 2011 Denver Broncos, with Tebow at quarterback, have been the most successful team in the NFL to run a read-option offense.

The 2012 season saw more NFL teams adopt the option offense, the most prominent being the Washington Redskins, the Seattle Seahawks and the San Francisco 49ers. 49ers quarterback Colin Kaepernick rushed for 181 yards (an NFL single game record for a QB) on 16 carries using the read option out of the pistol formation vs. the Green Bay Packers in a Divisional Playoff game on January 12, 2013. As a team, the San Francisco 49ers rushed for 323 yards on 43 carries.

The 2013 season saw University of Oregon's head coach Chip Kelly move to the NFL to take the head coaching job for the Philadelphia Eagles.  At the start of the season, Michael Vick was named the starting QB and the read option was used with Vick's athletic ability to take advantage of running situations for the quarterback.  However, by the 6th week, Vick was injured and Nick Foles took over as starter.  Even though Foles had less running ability than Vick, the read option was continued and used successfully.  The theory that the read option can work even with pocket passers is that as long as the quarterback can get positive yardage, big gains are not necessary as it keeps the defense honest.

The Run-Pass Option (RPO) has become a more popular play used in the NFL.  This adds the passing element to the option offense. After the snap, the quarterback can decide whether to hand off, keep, or pass.

No NFL team truly bases their offense on the option, but the zone read and RPO's have become a staple in almost every team's playbook.

Teams that have or currently run an option offense

 1970–present: Navy (Veer/Flexbone)
 1971–1982: Alabama (Wishbone)
 1971–1988: Oklahoma (Wishbone)
 1980–2003: Nebraska (I-Formation)
 1982–present: Air Force (Veer/Wishbone/Flexbone)
 1982–1989: Georgia Southern (Flexbone/Spread Option)
 1984–1988: Arkansas (Wishbone/Flexbone)
 1985–1991: Colorado (Wishbone/I-Bone)
 1986–1996: Notre Dame (Wishbone/Flexbone)
 1987–1994: Hawaii (Flexbone)
1988–present: Wofford Terriers (Wingbone/Wishbone)
 1991–2001: Syracuse (Freeze)
 1994–2006: Eastern New Mexico (Wishbone/I Bone/Flexbone)
 1994–2005: Rice (Flexbone)
 1997–2005: Georgia Southern (Flexbone)
 2005-2008  West Virginia (Zone-Read Shotgun)
 2008–2019: Georgia Tech (Flexbone)
 2010–2021: Georgia Southern (Flexbone)
 2001–present: Carson–Newman (Veer)
 2004–present: Nevada (Pistol)
 2009–present: Army (Flexbone)
 2009-present: Cal Poly (Veer)
 2010–present: The Citadel (Flexbone)
 2010–present: Auburn (Read Option)
 2012–present: Eastern New Mexico (Flexbone)
 2017–present: Coastal Carolina (Spread Option)
 2021-present: Philadelphia Eagles (Read Option)

Particularly dominant teams
 1971 Oklahoma: Went 11–1 and scored 530 points.
 1972 Oklahoma: Went 11–1 and scored 399 points.
 1973 Alabama: Went 11–1 and scored 477 points.
1973 Oklahoma: Went 10–0–1 and scored 400 points.
 1974 Oklahoma: Went 11–0 and scored 473 points, winning the national championship.
 1975 Alabama: Went 11–1 and scored 374 points.
1975 Oklahoma: Went 11–1 and scored 344 points, winning the national championship.
 1977 Alabama: Went 11–1 and scored 380 points.
 1978 Oklahoma: Went 11–1 and scored 471 points.
 1979 Alabama: Went 12–0 and scored 383 points, winning the national championship.
1979 Oklahoma: Went 11–1 and scored 409 points.
 1983 Air Force: Went 10–2 and scored 367 points.
 1983 Nebraska: Went 12–1 and scored 654 points.
 1985 Air Force: Went 12–1 and scored 470 points.
 1985 Georgia Southern: 13–2 and scored 460 points, winning the Division I-AA national championship.
1985 Oklahoma: Went 11–1 and scored 371 points, winning the national championship.
 1986 Georgia Southern: 13–2 and scored 619 points, winning the Division I-AA national championship.
1986 Oklahoma: Went 11–1 and scored 508 points.
 1987 Oklahoma: Went 11–1 and scored 493 points.
 1988 Arkansas: Went 10–2 and scored 349 points.
 1988 Georgia Southern: 12–3 and scored 469 points.
 1988 Notre Dame: Went 12–0 and scored 339 points.
 1989 Arkansas: Went 10–2 and scored 385 points.
 1989 Colorado: Went 11–1 and scored 458 points.
 1989 Georgia Southern: Went 15–0 and scored 584 points, winning the Division I-AA national championship.
 1989 Notre Dame: Went 12–1 and scored 427 points.
 1990 Colorado: Went 11–1–1 and scored 399 points, winning a share of the national championship.
 1990 Georgia Southern: Went 12-3 and scored 436 points, winning the Division I-AA national championship.
 1991 Air Force: Went 10–3 and scored 382 points.
 1991 Syracuse: Went 10–2 and scored 321 points.
 1992 Hawaii: Went 11–2 and scored 421 points.
 1992 Notre Dame: Went 10–1–1 and scored 437 points.
 1992 Syracuse: Went 10–2 and scored 340 points.
 1993 Notre Dame: Went 11–1 and scored 427 points.
 1994 Nebraska: Went 13–0 and scored 459 points, winning the national championship.
 1995 Nebraska: Went 12–0 and scored 639 points, winning the national championship.
 1996 Army: Went 10–2 and scored 379 points.
 1997 Air Force: Went 10–3 and scored 279 points.
 1997 Nebraska: Went 13–0 and scored 607 points, winning a share of the national championship.
 1998 Air Force: Went 12–1 and scored 468 points.
 1998 Georgia Southern: Went 14–1 and scored 654 points.
 1999 Georgia Southern: Went 13–2 and scored 747 points, winning the Division I-AA national championship.
 2000 Georgia Southern: Went 13–2 and scored 506 points, winning the Division I-AA national championship.
 2001 Georgia Southern: Went 12–2 and scored 525 points.
 2002 Georgia Southern: Went 11–3 and scored 493 points.
 2005 West Virginia: Went 11-1 7-0 in conference and upset heavily favored Georgia in the Sugar Bowl. Led by freshmen Pat White and Steve Slayton who combined for over 2,000 yards rushing.
 2005 Texas: Went 13-0 and scored 662 points, winning the BCS national championship.
 2006 West Virginia: Went 11-2.Led by sophomores Pat White and Steve Slayton who combined for over 3,000 yards rushing.
 2007 West Virginia: Went 11-2 and upset heavily favored Oklahoma in the Fiesta Bowl.
 2009 Georgia Tech: Went 11–3 and scored 473 points.
 2010 Auburn: Went 14–0 and scored 577 points, winning the BCS national championship.
 2011 Georgia Southern: Went 11–3 and scored 492 points.
 2013 Auburn: Went 12–2 and scored 553 points, BCS runner-up.
 2014 Air Force: Went 10–3 and scored 409 points.
 2014 Georgia Tech: Went 11–3 and scored 530 points.
 2015 Navy: Went 11–2 and scored 478 points.
 2017 Army: Went 10–3 and scored 399 points with 20 pass completions and 785 carries.
 2018 Army: Went 11–2 and finished ranked 19th in AP Poll.
 2019 Navy: Went 11-2 and scored 483 points, winning the Liberty Bowl.

References

 Nuwer, Hank. Strategies Of The Great Football Coaches. New York, New York: Franklin Watts, 1988. Print.

External links
 Culture Crossfire article covering History/Background of Option Football
 Culture Crossfire article covering Nebraska's I Formation Option Offense under Tom Osborne
 Colin Kaepernick executes the Zone Read option against Green Bay in 2013
  Defending Read Option

American football terminology

Option offense


Catherine de Mayenne (1585 – 8 March 1618), or Catherine de Mayenne-Lorraine-Guise, was a French aristocrat who became Duchess of Mantua by marriage.

Early life
Catherine de Mayenne was born in 1585, as the daughter of Charles, Duke of Mayenne, younger brother of Henry of Guise, and his wife, Henriette of Savoy-Villars (1541-1611), whom he had married in 1576.

Biography
She married Charles de Gonzague, Duke of Mantua and Montferrat, on 1 February 1599 in Soissons, at the age of 14, and actively assisted her husband in his administration.
In 1604 she was courted insistently by Henry IV of France.
She and her husband chose to leave the French court.
She gave her husband six children, three boys and three girls.

Catherine created many convents, monasteries, abbeys, churches, schools and hospitals.
In Charleville she founded a college of the Society of Jesus, where youth were educated in piety and letters.
She also founded a Capuchin convent and a hospital in that city.
She founded two Carmelite monasteries, a monastery of the Holy Sepulcher, a Franciscan convent, a Capuchin church, and a large priory of the Christian Militia that served as a hospital.

In 1615 Catherine was chosen from among the princesses of France to accompany Elizabeth of France, sister of King Louis XIII of France, to the borders of France and Spain, and there to receive Infanta Anna of Spain.
After being chilled, she died at her Hôtel de Nevers in Paris in 1618 at the age of 33.
Her biography by Père Hilarion de Coste says that "One would not know enough to praise the wise, chaste and virtuous Caterine, except to confess that she surpasses all praise."

Children

François (1606–22) was given the courtesy title of Duke Francis III of Rethel. He died on October 13, 1622, at the age of 16.
Charles (1609–31) became Duke Charles III of Mayenne in 1621 on the death of his uncle Henry of Lorraine, Duke of Mayenne, brother of his mother. In 1622 he assumed the courtesy title of Duke Charles IV of Rethel. He died in 1631 at the age of 22.
Ferdinand (1610–32) assumed the title of Duke Ferdinand of Mayenne in 1631 on the death of Charles. He died in 1632 at the age of 22.
Marie Louise (1611–67) married King Władysław IV Vasa of Poland, and after his death married his half-brother King John II Casimir Vasa. She died in 1667 at the age of 56.
Bénédicte (1614–37), pronounced her vows in 1633. She became abbess of Avenay near Épernay. She died on 20 December 1637 at the age of 23.
Anne-Marie (1616–84) in 1639 reportedly secretly married Henry II of Guise. He abandoned her and in 1645 Anne was married to Edward of the Palatinate, grandson of King James I, with whom she had three daughters. She died in 1684 aged 68.

Notes

Sources

1585 births
1618 deaths
House of Gonzaga

Catherine of Mayenne