The Hongwu Emperor (29 October 1328 – 24 June 1398), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Taizu of Ming (), personal name Zhu Yuanzhang (), courtesy name Guorui (), was the founding emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigning from 1368 to 1398.

As famine, plagues and peasant revolts increased across China proper in the 14th century, Zhu Yuanzhang rose to command the Red Turban forces that conquered China proper, ending the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty and forcing the remnant Yuan court (known as Northern Yuan in historiography) to retreat to the Mongolian Plateau. Zhu claimed the Mandate of Heaven and established the Ming dynasty at the beginning of 1368 and occupied the Yuan capital, Khanbaliq (present-day Beijing), with his army that same year. Trusting only his family, he made his many sons feudal princes along the northern marches and the Yangtze valley. Having outlived his eldest son Zhu Biao, Zhu enthroned Zhu Biao's son via a series of instructions. This ended in failure when the Jianwen Emperor's attempts to unseat his uncles led to the Jingnan Rebellion.

The era of Hongwu was noted for its tolerance of minorities and religions; Ma Zhou, the Chinese historian, indicates that the Hung-wu ordered the renovation and construction of many mosques in Xi'an and Nanjing. Wang Daiyu also recorded that the emperor wrote 100 characters praising Islam, Baizi zan.

The reign of the Hongwu Emperor is notable for his unprecedented political reforms. The emperor abolished the position of chancellor, drastically reduced the role of court eunuchs, and adopted draconian measures to address corruption. He also established the Embroidered Uniform Guard, one of the best known secret police organizations in imperial China. In the 1380s and 1390s, a series of purges were launched to eliminate his high-ranked officials and generals; tens of thousands were executed. The reign of Hongwu also witnessed much cruelty. Various cruel methods of execution were introduced for punishable crimes and for those who directly criticized the emperor, and massacres were also carried out against everyone who resisted his rule.

The emperor encouraged agriculture, reduced taxes, incentivized the cultivation of new land, and established laws protecting peasants' property. He also confiscated land held by large estates and forbade private slavery. At the same time, he banned free movement in the empire and assigned hereditary occupational categories to households. Through these measures, Zhu Yuanzhang attempted to rebuild a country that had been ravaged by war, limit and control its social groups, and instill orthodox values in his subjects, eventually creating a strictly regimented society of self-sufficient farming communities.

Early life
Zhu was born to a family of impoverished peasant tenant farmers in Zhongli County in the Huai River plain, which is in present-day Fengyang, Anhui Province. His father's name was Zhu Shizhen (, original name Zhu Wusi ) and his mother was Chen Erniang. He had seven older siblings, several of whom were "given away" by his parents, as they did not always have enough food to support the family. When he was 16, severe drought ruined the harvest where his family lived, and famine subsequently killed everyone in his family except for him and one of his brothers. He then buried them by wrapping their bodies in white cloth.

His grandfather, who lived to be 99 years old, had served in the Southern Song army and navy, which had fought against the Mongol invasion, and told his grandson tales of it.

Destitute after his family's death, Zhu accepted a suggestion to take up a pledge made by his brother and became a novice monk at the Huangjue Temple, a local Buddhist monastery. However, he was forced to leave the monastery after it ran short of funds.

For the next few years, Zhu led the life of a wandering beggar and personally experienced the hardships of the common people during the late years of the Yuan dynasty. After about three years, he returned to the monastery and stayed there until he was around 24 years old. He learned to read and write during the time that he spent with the Buddhist monks.

Rise to power

The monastery where Zhu lived was eventually looted and destroyed by an army whose task was supposedly to suppress a local rebellion. In 1352, Zhu joined one of the many insurgent forces that had risen in rebellion against the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. He rose rapidly through the ranks and became a commander. His rebel force later joined the Red Turbans (then led by Han Shantong), a millenarian sect related to the White Lotus Society, and one that followed cultural and religious traditions of Buddhism, Manichaeism and other religions. Widely seen as a defender of Confucianism and neo-Confucianism among the predominant Han population in China proper, Zhu emerged as a leader of the rebels that were struggling to overthrow the Yuan dynasty.

In 1356, Zhu and his army conquered Nanjing, which became his base of operations and later the capital of the Ming dynasty during his reign. Zhu's government in Nanjing became famous for good governance, and the city attracted vast numbers of people fleeing from other more lawless regions. It is estimated that Nanjing's population increased tenfold over the next 10 years. In the meantime, the Yuan government had been weakened by internal factions fighting for control, and it made little effort to retake the Yangtze River valley. By 1358, central and Southern China had fallen into the hands of different rebel groups. During that time the Red Turbans also split up. Zhu became the leader of a smaller faction (called "Wu" around 1360), while the larger faction, under Chen Youliang, controlled the center of the Yangtze River valley.

Zhu Yuanzhang was the Duke of Wu, which was nominally under the control of Han Shantong's son Han Lin'er (), who was enthroned as the Longfeng Emperor of the Song dynasty.

Zhu was able to attract many talents into his service. One of them was Zhu Sheng (), who advised him to "build high walls, stock up rations, and delay claiming kingship" (). Another, Jiao Yu, was an artillery officer, who later compiled a military treatise outlining the various types of gunpowder weapons. Another one, Liu Bowen, became one of Zhu's key advisors, and edited the military-technology treatise titled Huolongjing in later years.

Beginning in 1360, Zhu and Chen Youliang fought a protracted war for supremacy over the former territories controlled by the Red Turbans. The pivotal moment in the war was the Battle of Lake Poyang in 1363. The battle lasted three days and ended with the defeat and retreat of Chen's larger navy. Chen died a month later in battle. Zhu did not participate personally in any battles after that and remained in Nanjing, where he directed his generals to go on campaigns.

In 1367, Zhu's forces defeated Zhang Shicheng's Wu regime, which was centered in Suzhou and had previously included most of the Yangtze River Delta, and Hangzhou, which was formerly the capital of the Song dynasty. This victory granted Zhu's government authority over the lands north and south of the Yangtze River. The other major warlords surrendered to Zhu and on 23 January 1368, Zhu proclaimed himself emperor of the Ming dynasty in Nanjing and adopted "Hongwu" (lit. "vastly martial") as his era name.

In 1368, Ming armies headed north to attack territories that were still under Yuan rule. Toghon Temür (Emperor Shun of Yuan) gave up his capital, Khanbaliq (present-day Beijing), and the rest of northern China in September 1368 and retreated to the Mongolian Plateau. On 15 October 1371, one of Hongwu's sons, Zhu Shuang, was married to the sister of Köke Temür, a Bayad general of the Yuan dynasty.

In 1371, the Ming dynasty defeated the Ming Xia dynasty founded by Ming Yuzhen, which ruled Sichuan.

The Ming army captured the last Yuan-controlled province of Yunnan in 1381, and China proper was unified under Ming rule.

Reign

Under Hongwu's rule, Mongol and other foreign bureaucrats who had dominated the government during the Yuan dynasty along with Northern Chinese officials were replaced by Han Chinese officials. The emperor re-instituted, then abolished, then restored, the Confucian civil service imperial examination system, from which most state officials were selected based on their knowledge of literature and philosophy. The Ming examination curriculum followed that set by the Yuan in 1313: a focus on the Four Books over the Five Classics and the commentaries of Zhu Xi. The Confucian scholar-bureaucrats who had been previously marginalized during the Yuan dynasty were reinstated to their predominant roles in the government.

"Barbarian" (i.e. Mongol-related) elements, including garments and names, were made illegal. There was no clear definition on what was "barbarian", and individual clothing styles and names were banned at the emperor's will. There were also attacks on palaces and administrative buildings previously used by the rulers of the Yuan dynasty. But many of Taizu's government institutions were actually modeled on those of the Yuan dynasty: community schools required for primary education in every village.

Ming's legal system established by Hongwu contains various methods of execution including flaying, and slow slicing. One of his generals, Chang Yuchun, carried out massacres in Shandong and Hunan provinces to take revenge against people who resisted his army. Over time, Hongwu became increasingly fearful of rebellions and coups, and also ordered the execution of those of his advisors who criticized him. Manicheanism and the White Lotus Sect, which played significant roles during the revolts against the Yuan, were outlawed. He was also said to have ordered the massacre of several thousand people living in Nanjing after having heard one talked about him without respect. In the Hu Weiyong case alone, tens of thousands of officials and their families were executed over sedition, treason, corruption and other charges. According to an anecdote noted by Ming dynasty writers, in 1380, after much killing, a lightning bolt struck his palace and he stopped the massacres for some time, as he was afraid divine forces would punish him. In the 1390s, however, tens of thousands more people were executed due to their association with an alleged plot of rebellion by general Lan Yu.

When the Ming dynasty emerged, Hongwu's military officers were given noble titles. These privileged the holder with a stipend, but in all other aspects was merely symbolic. Mu Ying's family was among them. Special rules against abuse of power were implemented on the nobles.

Land reforms
As Hongwu came from a peasant family, he was aware of how peasants used to suffer under the oppression of the scholar-bureaucrats, and the wealthy. Many of the latter, relying on their connections with government officials, encroached unscrupulously on peasants' lands and bribed the officials to transfer the burden of taxation to the poor. To prevent such abuse, he instituted two systems: Yellow Records and Fish Scale Records. They served both to secure the government's income from land taxes and to affirm that peasants would not lose their lands.

However, the reforms did not eliminate the threat of the bureaucrats to peasants. Instead, the expansion of the bureaucrats and their growing prestige translated into more wealth, and tax exemption for those in the government service. The bureaucrats gained new privileges, and some became illegal money-lenders and managers of gambling rings. Using their power, the bureaucrats expanded their estates at the expense of peasants' lands through outright purchase of those lands, and foreclosure on their mortgages whenever they wanted the lands. The peasants often became either tenants, or workers, or sought employment elsewhere.

Since the beginning of the Ming dynasty in 1357, great care was taken by Hongwu to distribute land to peasants. One way was by forced migration to less-dense areas. Hongtong County, for example, was the source of many of those migrants due to its particularly dense population. The migrants were gathered under a pagoda tree () and escorted to neighboring provinces. "The great pagoda tree in Hongtong, Shanxi" became a common idiom when referring to one's ancestral home in certain areas of Henan and Hebei. Public works projects, such as the construction of irrigation systems, and dikes, were undertaken in an attempt to help farmers. In addition, Hongwu also reduced the demands for forced labor on the peasantry.

In 1370, Hongwu ordered that some lands in Hunan and Anhui should be given to young farmers who had reached adulthood. The order was intended to prevent landlords from seizing the land, as it also decreed that the titles to the lands were not transferable. During the middle part of his reign, he passed an edict, stating that those who brought fallow land under cultivation could keep it as their property without being taxed. The policy was well received by the people and in 1393, cultivated land rose to 8,804,623 qing and 68 mu, something not achieved during any other Chinese dynasty. Hongwu also instigated the planting of 50 million trees in the vicinity of Nanjing, reconstructing canals, irrigation, and repopulation of the North.

Social policy
Under the Hongwu reign, rural China was reorganized into li (), communities of 110 households. The position of community chief rotates among the ten most populous households, while the rest were further divided into tithings (jia, 甲). Together, the system was known as lijia. The communities were responsible for collecting tax and drafting labor for the local government. Village elders were also obliged to keep surveillance on the community, report criminal activities, and ensure that the residents are fully committed to agricultural work.

The Yuan dynasty Zhuse Huji () system was continued and the households were categorized into different types. The most basic types, namely civilian households (), military households (), craftsmen households () and salt worker households (), defined the family's form of corvée labor. Military households, for example, accounted for around one-sixth of the total population at the beginning of the Yongle era, and each was required to provide an adult man as soldier, and at least one more person to work in support roles in the military. The military, craftsmen and salt worker households were hereditary, and converting into civilian households was impossible except in a few very rare situations. A family may simultaneously belong in one of the minor categories, e.g. physician households and scholar households, according to their occupation. In addition to the aforementioned "good" households, discriminatory types also existed, such as entertainer households ().

Travelers were required to carry a luyin (), a permit issued by the local government, and their neighbors were required to have knowledge of their itinerary. Unauthorized domestic migration was banned, and offenders were exiled. The policy was strictly enforced during the Hongwu era.

Zhu Yuanzhang passed a law on mandatory hairstyle on 24 September 1392, mandating that all males grow their hair long and making it illegal for them to shave part of their foreheads while leaving strands of hair which was the Mongol hairstyle. The penalty for both the barber and the person who was shaved and his sons was castration if they cut their hair and their families were to be sent to the borders for exile. This helped eradicated partially shaved Mongol hairstyles and enforced long Han hairstyle.

Military

The Hongwu Emperor realized that the Northern Yuan still posed a threat to the Ming dynasty, even though they had been driven away after the collapse of the Yuan dynasty. He decided to reassess the orthodox Confucian view that the military class was inferior to that of the scholar bureaucracy. He kept a powerful army, which in 1384 he reorganized using a model known as the weisuo system (). Each military unit consisted of 5,600 men divided into five battalions and ten companies. By 1393 the total number of weisuo troops had reached 1,200,000. Soldiers were also assigned land on which to grow crops whilst their positions were made hereditary. This type of system can be traced back to the fubing system () of the Sui and Tang dynasties.

Training was conducted within local military districts. In times of war, troops were mobilized from all over the empire on the orders of the Ministry of War, and commanders were appointed to lead them to battle. After the war, the army was disbanded into smaller groups and sent back to their respective districts, while the commanders had to return their authority to the state. This system helped to prevent military leaders from having too much power. The military was under the control of a civilian official for large campaigns, instead of a military general.

Bureaucratic reforms and consolidation of power

Hongwu attempted, and largely succeeded in, the consolidation of control over all aspects of government, so that no other group could gain enough power to overthrow him. He also buttressed the country's defense against the Mongols. He increasingly concentrated power in his own hands. He abolished the Chancellor's post, which had been head of the main central administrative body under past dynasties, by suppressing a plot for which he had blamed his chancellor Hu Weiyong. Many argue that Hongwu, because of his wish to concentrate absolute authority in his own hands, removed the only insurance against incompetent emperors.

However, Hongwu could not govern the sprawling Ming Empire all by himself and had to create the new institution of the "Grand Secretary". This cabinet-like organisation progressively took on the powers of the abolished prime minister, becoming just as powerful in time. Ray Huang argued that Grand-Secretaries, outwardly powerless, could exercise considerable positive influence from behind the throne. Because of their prestige and the public trust which they enjoyed, they could act as intermediaries between the emperor and the ministerial officials, and thus provide a stabilising force in the court.

In Hongwu's elimination of the traditional offices of grand councilor, the primary impetus was Hu Weiyong's alleged attempt to usurp the throne. Hu was the Senior Grand Councilor and a capable administrator; however over the years, the magnitude of his powers, as well as involvement in several political scandals eroded the paranoid emperor's trust in him. Finally, in 1380, Hongwu had Hu and his entire family arrested and executed on charges of treason. Using this as an opportunity to purge his government, the emperor also ordered the execution of countless other officials, as well as their families, for associating with Hu. The purge lasted over a decade and resulted in more than 30,000 executions. In 1390, even Li Shanchang, one of the closest old friends of the emperor, who was rewarded as the biggest contributor to the founding of the Ming Empire, was executed along with over 70 members of his extended family. A year after his death, a deputy in the Board of Works made a submission to the emperor appealing Li's innocence, arguing that since Li was already at the apex of honour, wealth and power, the accusation that he wanted to help someone else usurp the throne was clearly ridiculous. Hongwu was unable to refute the accusations and finally ended the purge shortly afterwards.

Hongwu also noted the destructive role of court eunuchs under the previous dynasties. He drastically reduced their numbers, forbidding them to handle documents, insisting that they remain illiterate, and executing those who commented on state affairs. The emperor had a strong aversion to the eunuchs, epitomized by a tablet in his palace stipulating: "Eunuchs must have nothing to do with the administration". This aversion to eunuchs did not long continue among his successors, as the Hongwu and Jianwen emperors' harsh treatment of eunuchs allowed the Yongle Emperor to employ them as a power base during his coup. In addition to Hongwu's aversion to eunuchs, he never consented to any of his consort kin becoming court officials. This policy was fairly well-maintained by later emperors, and no serious trouble was caused by the empresses or their families.

The Embroidered Uniform Guard or Jinyiwei was transformed into a secret police organization during the Hongwu era. It was given the authority to overrule judicial proceedings in prosecutions with full autonomy in arresting, interrogating and punishing anyone, including nobles and the emperor's relatives. In 1393, Jiang Huan (), the chief of Jinyiwei, accused general Lan Yu of plotting rebellion. 15,000 people was executed in familial extermination during the subsequent purges, according to Hongwu.

Through the repeated purges and the elimination of the historical posts, Hongwu fundamentally altered the centuries-old government structure of China, greatly increasing the emperor's absolutism.

Legal reforms

The legal code drawn up in the time of Hongwu was considered one of the great achievements of the era. The History of Ming mentioned that as early as 1364, the monarchy had started to draft a code of laws. This code was known as Da Ming Lü (, "Code of the Great Ming" or "Laws of the Great Ming"). The emperor devoted much time to the project and instructed his ministers that the code should be comprehensive and intelligible, so as not to allow any official to exploit loopholes in the code by deliberately misinterpreting it. The Ming code laid much emphasis on family relations. The code was a great improvement on the code of the Tang dynasty in regards to the treatment of slaves. Under the Tang code, slaves were treated as a species of domestic animal; if they were killed by a free citizen, the law imposed no sanction on the killer. Under the Ming dynasty, the law protected both slaves and free citizens.

Later during his reign, however, the Code of the Great Ming was set aside in favor of the far harsher legal system documented in Da Gao (大誥, "Great Announcements"). Compared to the Da Ming Lü, the penalties for almost all crimes were drastically increased, with more than 1,000 crimes eligible for capital punishment. Much of the Da Gao was dedicated to the government and officials, particularly for anti-corruption. Officials who embezzled more than the equivalent of 60 liang (one liang was around 30 grams) of silver were to be beheaded and then flayed, the skin publicly exhibited. Zhu Yuanzhang granted all people the right to capture officials suspected of crimes and directly send them to the capital, a first in Chinese history. Apart from regulating the government, Da Gao aimed to set limits to various social groups. For example, "idle men" () who did not change their lifestyles after the new law came into effect would be executed and their neighbors exiled. Da Gao also included extensive sumptuary laws, down to details such as banning ornaments in heating rooms in the houses of commoners.

Economic policy
Supported by the scholar-bureaucrats, he accepted the Confucian viewpoint that merchants were solely parasitic. He felt that agriculture should be the country's source of wealth and that trade was ignoble. As a result, the Ming economic system emphasized agriculture, unlike the economic system of the Song dynasty, which had preceded the Yuan dynasty and relied on traders and merchants for revenues. Hongwu also supported the creation of self-supporting agricultural communities.

However, his prejudice against merchants did not diminish the numbers of traders. On the contrary, commerce increased significantly during the Hongwu era because of the growth of industry throughout the empire. This growth in trade was due in part to poor soil conditions and the overpopulation of certain areas, which forced many people to leave their homes and seek their fortunes in trade. A book titled Tu Pien Hsin Shu, written during the Ming dynasty, gave a detailed description of the activities of merchants at that time.

Although the Hongwu era saw the reintroduction of paper currency, its development was stifled from the beginning. Not understanding inflation, Hongwu gave out so much paper money as rewards that by 1425, the state was forced to restore copper coins because the paper currency had sunk to only 1/70 of its original value.

Education policy

Hongwu tried to remove Mencius from the Temple of Confucius as certain parts of his work were deemed harmful. These include "the people are the most important element in a nation; the spirits of the land and grain are the next; the sovereign is the lightest" (Mengzi, Jin Xin II), as well as, "when the prince regards the ministers as the ground or as grass, they regard him as a robber and an enemy" (Mengzi, Li Lou II). The effort failed due to the objection from important officials, particularly Qian Tang (), Minister of Justice. Eventually, the emperor organized the compilation of the Mencius Abridged () in which 85 lines were deleted. Apart from those mentioned above, the omitted sentences also included those describing rules of governance, promoting benevolence, and those critical of King Zhou of Shang.

At the Guozijian, law, math, calligraphy, equestrianism, and archery were emphasized by Hongwu in addition to Confucian classics and also required in the Imperial Examinations. Archery and equestrianism were added to the exam by Hongwu in 1370, similarly to how archery and equestrianism were required for non-military officials at the College of War () in 1162 by Emperor Xiaozong of Song. The area around the Meridian Gate of Nanjing was used for archery by guards and generals under Hongwu.
A cavalry based army modeled on the Yuan military was implemented by the Hongwu and Yongle Emperors. Hongwu's army and officialdom incorporated Mongols.

Equestrianism and archery were favorite pastimes of He Suonan who served in the Yuan and Ming militaries under Hongwu. Archery towers were built by Zhengtong Emperor at the Forbidden City and archery towers were built on the city walls of Xi'an which had been erected by Hongwu.

Hongwu wrote essays which were posted in every village throughout China warning the people to behave or else face horrifying consequences. The 1380s writings of Hongwu includes the "Great warnings" or "Grand Pronouncements", and the "Ancestral Injunctions". He wrote the Six Maxims (, ) which inspired the Sacred Edict of the Kangxi Emperor.

Around 1384, Hongwu ordered the Chinese translation and compilation of Islamic astronomical tables, a task that was carried out by the scholars Mashayihei, a Muslim astronomer, and Wu Bozong, a Chinese scholar-official. These tables came to be known as the Huihui Lifa (Muslim System of Calendrical Astronomy), which was published in China a number of times until the early 18th century,

Religious policy

Mongol and Central Asian Semu Muslim women and men were required by the Code of the Great Ming to marry Han Chinese after the first Ming emperor Hongwu passed the law in Article 122.

Hongwu ordered the construction of several mosques in Nanjing, Yunnan, Guangdong and Fujian provinces, and had inscriptions praising the Islamic prophet Muhammad placed in them. He rebuilt the Jinjue Mosque (literally meaning: Pure Enlightenment Mosque) in Nanjing and large numbers of Hui people moved to the city during his rule.

Foreign policy

Hongwu designated the "country without conquest" (). He listed 15 countries that Ming would not attempt to conquest, such as Japan, Srivijaya, Siam, Lewchew and Vietnam.

Vietnam
Hongwu was a non-interventionist, refusing to intervene in a Vietnamese invasion of Champa to help the Chams, only rebuking the Vietnamese for their invasion, being opposed to military action abroad. He specifically warned future emperors only to defend against foreign barbarians, and not engage in expansionist military campaigns for glory and conquest. In his 1395 ancestral injunctions, the emperor specifically wrote that China should not attack Champa, Cambodia or Annam (Vietnam). With the exception of his turn against aggressive expansion, much of Hongwu's foreign policy and his diplomatic institutions were based on Yuan practice.

"Japanese" pirates

Hongwu sent a message to the Japanese that his army would "capture and exterminate your bandits, head straight for your country, and put your king in bonds". In fact, many of the "dwarf pirates" and "eastern barbarians" raiding his coasts were Chinese, and Hongwu's response was almost entirely passive. The Ashikaga shōgun replied "Your great empire may be able to invade Japan, but our small state is not short of a strategy to defend ourselves." The necessity of protecting his state against the Northern Yuan remnants meant that the most Hongwu was able to accomplish against Japan was a series of "sea ban" measures. Private foreign trade was made punishable by death, with the trader's family and neighbors exiled; ships, docks, and shipyards were destroyed, and ports were sabotaged. The plan was at odds with Chinese tradition and was counterproductive as it tied up resources. 74 coastal garrisons had to be established from Guangzhou to Shandong, though they were often manned by local gangs. Hongwu's measures limited tax receipts, impoverished and provoked both coastal Chinese and Japanese against the Hongwu regime, and actually increased piracy- offering too little as a reward for good behavior and enticement for Japanese authorities to root out their own smugglers and pirates. Regardless of the policy, piracy had dropped to negligible levels by the time of its abolition in 1568.

Nonetheless, the sea ban was added by Hongwu to his Ancestral Injunctions and so continued to be broadly enforced through most of the rest of his dynasty: for the next two centuries, the rich farmland of the south and the military theaters of the north were linked only by the Jinghang Canal.

Despite the deep distrust, in Hongwu's Ancestral Injunctions, he listed Japan along with 14 other countries as "countries against which campaigns shall not be launched", and advised his descendants to maintain peace with them. This policy was violated by his son Yongle Emperor who ordered multiple interventions in Annam (present-day northern Vietnam), but remained influential for several centuries afterwards.

Byzantine Empire

The History of Ming, compiled during the early Qing dynasty, describes how Hongwu met with an alleged merchant of Fulin (; the Byzantine Empire) named "Nieh-ku-lun" (). In September 1371, he had the man sent back to his native country with a letter announcing the founding of the Ming dynasty to his ruler (i.e. John V Palaiologos). It is speculated that the merchant was actually a former bishop of Khanbaliq (Beijing) called Nicolaus de Bentra, sent by Pope John XXII to replace Archbishop John of Montecorvino in 1333. The History of Ming goes on to explain that contacts between China and Fu lin ceased after this point, and diplomats of the great western sea (the Mediterranean Sea) did not appear in China again until the 16th century, with the Italian Jesuit missionary Matteo Ricci.

Death

After a 30-year reign, Hongwu died on 24 June 1398, at the age of 69. After his death, his physicians were penalized. He was buried at Xiaoling Mausoleum on the Purple Mountain, in the east of Nanjing. The mass sacrifice of concubines after the emperor's death, a practice long disappeared among Chinese dynasties, was revived by Zhu Yuanzhang, probably to clear potential obstacles to the reign of his chosen successor. At least 38 concubines were killed as part of Hongwu's funeral human sacrifice.

Assessment
Historians consider Hongwu as one of the most significant emperors of China. As Patricia Buckley Ebrey puts it, "Seldom has the course of Chinese history been influenced by a single personality as much as it was by the founder of the Ming dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang." His rise to power was fast despite his having a poor and humble origin. In 11 years, he went from being a penniless monk to the most powerful warlord in China. Five years later, he became emperor of China. Simon Leys described him this way: 'an adventurer from peasant stock, poorly educated, a man of action, a bold and shrewd tactician, a visionary mind, in many respects a creative genius; naturally coarse, cynical, and ruthless, he eventually showed symptoms of paranoia, bordering on psychopathy.'

Family

Zhu Yuanzhang had many Korean and Mongolian women among his concubines along with his Empress Ma and had 16 daughters and 26 sons with all of them.

Consorts and Issue:
 Empress Xiaocigao, of the Ma clan (; 1332–1382), personal name Xiuying ()
 Zhu Biao, Crown Prince Yiwen (; 10 October 1355 – 17 May 1392), first son
 Zhu Shuang, Prince Min of Qin (; 3 December 1356 – 9 April 1395), second son
 Zhu Gang, Prince Gong of Jin (; 18 December 1358 – 30 March 1398), third son
 Zhu Di, the Yongle Emperor (; 2 May 1360 – 12 August 1424), fourth son
 Zhu Su, Prince Ding of Zhou (; 8 October 1361 – 2 September 1425), fifth son
 Princess Ningguo (; 1364 – 7 September 1434), second daughter
 Married Mei Yin, Duke Rong (; d. 1405) in 1378, and had issue (two sons)
 Princess Anqing (), fourth daughter
 Married Ouyang Lun (; d. 23 July 1397) on 23 December 1381
 Noble Consort Chengmu, of the Sun clan (; 1343–1374)
 Princess Lin'an (; 1360 – 17 August 1421), personal name Yufeng (), first daughter
 Married Li Qi (; d. 1402), a son of Li Shanchang, in 1376, and had issue (two sons)
 Princess Huaiqing (; 1366 – 15 July 1425), sixth daughter
 Married Wang Ning, Marquis Yongchun () on 11 September 1382, and had issue (two sons)
 Tenth daughter
 Thirteenth daughter
 Noble Consort, of the Jiang clan (貴妃 江氏)
 Noble Consort, of the Zhao clan ()
 Zhu Mo, Prince Jian of Shen (; 1 September 1380 – 11 June 1431), 21st son
 Consort Ning, of the Guo clan ()
 Princess Runing (), fifth daughter
 Married Lu Xian () on 11 June 1382
 Princess Daming (; 1368 – 30 March 1426), seventh daughter
 Married Li Jian (; d. 1401) on 2 September 1382, and had issue (one son)
 Zhu Tan, Prince Huang of Lu (; 15 March 1370 – 2 January 1390), tenth son
 Consort Zhaojingchong, of the Hu clan ()
 Zhu Zhen, Prince Zhao of Chu (; 5 April 1364 – 22 March 1424), sixth son
 Consort Ding, of the Da clan (; d. 1390)
 Zhu Fu, Prince Gong of Qi (; 23 December 1364 – 1428), seventh son
 Zhu Zi, Prince of Tan (; 6 October 1369 – 18 April 1390), eighth son
 Consort An, of the Zheng clan ()
 Princess Fuqing (; 1370 – 28 February 1417), eighth daughter
 Married Zhang Lin () on 26 April 1385, and had issue (one son)
 Consort Hui, of the Guo clan ()
 Zhu Chun, Prince Xian of Shu (; 4 April 1371 – 22 March 1423), 11th son
 Zhu Gui, Prince Jian of Dai (; 25 August 1374 – 29 December 1446), 13th son
 Princess Zhenyi of Yongjia (; 1376 – 12 October 1455), 12th daughter
 Married Guo Zhen (; 1372–1399) on 23 November 1389, and had issue (one son)
 Zhu Hui, Prince of Gu (; 30 April 1379 – 1428), 19th son
 Princess Ruyang (), 15th daughter
 Married Xie Da (; d. 1404) on 23 August 1394
 Consort Shun, of the Hu clan ()
 Zhu Bai, Prince Xian of Xiang (; 12 September 1371 – 18 May 1399), 12th son
 Consort Xian, of the Li clan ()
 Zhu Jing, Prince Ding of Tang (; 11 October 1386 – 8 September 1415), 23rd son
 Consort Hui, of the Liu clan ()
 Zhu Dong, Prince Jing of Ying (; 21 June 1388 – 14 November 1414), 24th son
 Consort Li, of the Ge clan ()
 Zhu Yi, Prince Li of Yi (; 9 July 1388 – 8 October 1414), 25th son
 Prince Zhu Nan (; 4 January 1394 – February 1394), 26th son
 Consort Zhuangjinganronghui, of the Cui clan ()
 Consort, of the Han clan (). She was an ethnic Korean from Goryeo
 Zhu Zhi, Prince Jian of Liao (; 24 March 1377 – 4 June 1424), 15th son
 Princess Hanshan (; 1381 – 18 October 1462), 14th daughter
 Married Yin Qing () on 11 September 1394, and had issue (two sons)
 Consort, of the Yu clan ()
 Zhu Zhan, Prince Jing of Qing (; 6 February 1378 – 23 August 1438), 16th son
 Consort, of the Yang clan ()
 Zhu Quan, Prince Xian of Ning (; 27 May 1378 – 12 October 1448), 17th son
 Consort, of the Zhou clan ()
 Zhu Pian, Prince Zhuang of Min (; 9 April 1379 – 10 May 1450), 18th son
 Zhu Song, Prince Xian of Han (; 20 June 1380 – 19 November 1407), 20th son
 Beauty, of the Zhang clan (), personal name Xuanmiao ()
 Princess Baoqing (; 1394–1433), 16th daughter
 Married Zhao Hui (; 1387–1476) in 1413
 Lady, of the Lin clan ()
 Princess Nankang (; 1373 – 15 November 1438), personal name Yuhua (), 11th daughter
 Married Hu Guan (; d. 1403) in 1387, and had issue (one son)
 Lady, of the Gao clan ()
 Zhu Ying, Prince Zhuang of Su (; 10 October 1376 – 5 January 1420), 14th son
 Unknown
 Princess Chongning (), third daughter
 Married Niu Cheng () on 21 December 1384
 Zhu Qi, Prince of Zhao (; October 1369 – 16 January 1371), ninth son
 Princess Shouchun (; 1370 – 1 August 1388), ninth daughter
 Married Fu Zhong (; d. 20 December 1394), the first son of Fu Youde, on 9 April 1386, and had issue (one son)
 Zhu Ying, Prince Hui of An (; 18 October 1383 – 9 October 1417), 22nd son

Ancestry

In popular culture
 Novels
 The Heaven Sword and Dragon Saber (), a 1961–63 wuxia novel by Louis Cha. Zhu Yuanzhang appears as a minor character in the novel. Zhu Yuanzhang has been portrayed by various actors in the films and television series adapted from this novel.
She Who Became the Sun, a 2021 novel by Shelley Parker-Chan. Zhu Yuanzhang and his rise to power is the historical basis of the main character Zhu Chongba.

 Television series
 Born to be a King (), a 1987 Hong Kong television series produced by TVB and starring Simon Yam as Zhu Yuanzhang.
 Zhu Yuanzhang (), a 1993 Chinese television series produced by Beijing TV and starring Lü Qi as Zhu Yuanzhang.
 Empress Ma With Great Feet (), a 2002 Chinese television series about Zhu Yuanzhang's wife, Empress Ma. Tang Guoqiang starred as Zhu Yuanzhang.
 Chuanqi Huangdi Zhu Yuanzhang (), a 2006 Chinese television series starring Chen Baoguo as Zhu Yuanzhang.
 Founding Emperor of Ming Dynasty (), a 2006 Chinese television series directed by Feng Xiaoning and starring Hu Jun as Zhu Yuanzhang.
 The Legendary Liu Bowen (), a 2006–2008 Taiwanese television series about Zhu Yuanzhang's adviser, Liu Bowen. It was produced by TTV and starred Huo Zhengqi as Zhu Yuanzhang.
 Zhenming Tianzi (), a 2015 Chinese television series produced by Jian Yuanxin and starring Zhang Zhuowen as Zhu Yuanzhang.
 Love Through Different Times (), a 2002 Chinese television comedy-drama that is considered the first time-travel television series produced in mainland China.

See also

 Chinese emperors family tree (late)
 Huang Ming Zu Xun, the "Ancestral Instructions" written by Hongwu to guide his descendants
 Ming Xiaoling Mausoleum
 Rags to riches
 Ming–Tibet relations
 Ming dynasty in Inner Asia
 Hongwu Tongbao

Notes

References

Further reading

 Brook, Timothy. (1998). The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China. Berkeley: University of California Press.  (Paperback).

External links

Ming dynasty emperors
Ming dynasty Buddhists
Chinese Buddhist monarchs
14th-century Chinese monarchs
Medieval legislators
Politicians from Chuzhou
People from Fengyang
History of Nanjing
1328 births
1398 deaths
Burials in Nanjing
Founding monarchs
Red Turban rebels
Chinese reformers

Hongwu Emperor


Sacrario militare di Pocol (also known as Ossario di Pocol) is a cemetery and shrine near the Falzarego Pass, in the locality of Pocol in the comune of Cortina d'Ampezzo in the Veneto region of northern Italy. The small church and cemetery were built in 1916 as a military cemetery by the 5th Alpine group. A shrine was built in 1935 as memorial to the thousands who died during World War I on the Dolomite front. It is a massive square tower of stone, clearly visible from the entire Ampezzo valley below. The remains of 9,707 Italian soldiers (4,455 of them unknown) and 37 Austro-Hungarian soldiers are buried in the shrine. In a crypt in the centre of the structure rests the body of general Antonio Cantore, who was awarded the gold medal for military valor.

References

External links

Buildings and structures in Cortina d'Ampezzo
Monuments and memorials in Veneto
Cemeteries in Italy
Buildings and structures completed in 1935
1935 establishments in Italy

Sacrario militare di Pocol


Prasophyllum sargentii, commonly known as the frilled leek orchid, is a species of orchid endemic to the south-west of Western Australia. It is a tall orchid with a single smooth, tubular leaf and up to thirty or more purplish and white or golden brown and white flowers with a frilled labellum.

Description
Prasophyllum sargentii is a terrestrial, perennial, deciduous, herb with an underground tuber and a single smooth green, tube-shaped leaf  long and  in diameter near the base. Between 10 and 35 or more flowers are arranged on a flowering spike  high. The flowers are brownish and white, about  long and  wide. The petals face forwards and the lateral sepals are erect, white and fused at their edges. The labellum is white, suffused with pink, has frilly edges and is turned upwards towards the lateral sepals. Flowering occurs from August to October and is stimulated by fire or light disturbance.

Taxonomy and naming
The frilled leek orchid was first formally described in 1948 by William Nicholls who gave it the name Prasophyllum australe var. sargentii and published the description in The Victorian Naturalist. In 1971, Alex George raised it to species status, noting that the species P. australe does not occur in Western Australia. The specific epithet (sargentii) honours Oswald Sargent, the collector of the type specimen.

Distribution and habitat
The frilled leek orchid  grows in sandy soil in shrubland and woodland, usually flowering after fire or light disturbance. It occurs from Kalbarri in the north to Israelite Bay in the east.

Conservation
Prasophyllum sargentii is classified as "not threatened" by the Western Australian Government Department of Parks and Wildlife.

References

External links

sargentii
Endemic flora of Western Australia
Endemic orchids of Australia
Plants described in 1948

Prasophyllum sargentii


Osman Faruk Loğoğlu (born 1941) is a Turkish diplomat and the former Turkish ambassador to the United States of America, having served from 2001 to 2005.

Education
Loğoğlu graduated from Tarsus American College and received his undergraduate and master's degree in political science at Brandeis University in Waltham, MA on the Wien International Scholarship, and his Ph.D. from Princeton University in 1970.

Career
Loğoğlu has more than thirty-five years of experience in the Turkish Ministry of Foreign Services (MFS), and has specifically addressed issues relating to Turkey's external affairs, the Middle East and Europe. Loğoğlu is currently the  president of the Eurasian Strategic Studies Center (ASAM), one of the leading think tanks in Turkey, headquartered in Ankara. Additionally, he serves as deputy chairman of the Turkish National Commission for UNESCO, as acting president of the Foundation for Local Volunteers for Disaster Relief, and as a member of the board of the Strategic Studies Center of the Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

Prior to entering the Turkish Ministry of Foreign Services, Loğoğlu was a lecturer in political science at Middlebury College in Vermont, from 1969 to 1970.

From 1973 to 1976, Loğoğlu held the position of first secretary at the European Union and in Dhaka, Bangladesh from 1976 to 1978.

During the 1980s Ambassador Loğoğlu was the head of the Department of Ministry of Foreign Affairs where his responsibilities centered primarily on bilateral political affairs and Cyprus and Greece issues, serving as a Counselor at the Permanent Mission of Turkey to the United Nations in New York from 1980 to 1984.

From 1986 to 1989, Loğoğlu was the consulate general in Hamburg, Germany. He was appointed the deputy undersecretary in 1998.

Dr. Loğoğlu served as the Turkish ambassador to Baku, Azerbaijan from 1996 to 1998 and to Copenhagen, Denmark from 1993 to 1996.

He was appointed the undersecretary of the Turkish ministry of foreign affairs from 2000 to 2001, before assuming the position of the ambassador to the USA in 2001.

He retired from Turkish Foreign Service in 2006. He headed one of Turkey's major think tanks for two years (2006–2008), the Center for Eurasian Strategic Studies (ASAM) headquartered in Ankara. Loğoğlu also served as the Deputy Chairperson of the Turkish National Commission for UNESCO, 2006–2010 and chaired the Cultural Committee during the General Conference of UNESCO in Paris.
Loğoğlu worked with the Turkey Change Movement (TDH) in 2010. He then joined the Republican People's Party (CHP) and was elected to the Turkish Parliament as adeputy from the province of Adana in the June 2011 elections. He is now a member of the Foreign Relations Committee of the Turkish Grand National Assembly (TBMM), a member of CHP's Party Council and a Vice-chairperson of CHP in charge of foreign relations and organizations abroad.

Authorship
Loğoğlu is the author of the book Ismet Inonu and the Making of Modern Turkey, a biography about the second president of the Turkish Republic, İsmet İnönü.

Personal
He is married to Mevhibe Loğoğlu.

External links
Biography at the Brussels Forum

Brandeis University alumni
Ambassadors of Turkey to the United States
Ambassadors of Turkey to Azerbaijan
Ambassadors of Turkey to Bangladesh
Ambassadors of Turkey to Denmark
Living people
1941 births
Princeton University alumni
Tarsus American College alumni
Members of the 24th Parliament of Turkey
Deputies of Adana
Republican People's Party (Turkey) politicians

Faruk Loğoğlu


Chester Chronicle is a local weekly newspaper distributed in Chester, Cheshire and North Wales. The first edition was published by founder John Poole on 2 May 1775. Editions are published every Thursday. In 2018, it had a circulation of 7,023. In June 2019, its owners Reach plc closed the paper's Chester offices ending a 244-year association with the city, the decision was "to reduce costs and save jobs". The newspaper editorial is now produced remotely and from newsdesks in Liverpool and Manchester.

Publications
The Chester Chronicle editorial editions have included:
Chester City
Chester County
Frodsham & Helsby
Flintshire

The newspaper, which was traditionally printed as a broadsheet, switched to a tabloid format in line with other Trinity Mirror newspapers in 2006. In June of the same year, a Wirral edition was discontinued. The following month, a Flintshire edition was created by merging the Deeside, Mold & Buckley and Flint & Holywell editions. While the Flintshire Chronicle is considered part of the Chester Chronicle series for purposes of advertising, sales and promotions, its editorial content is entirely separate. Since June 2006, the City edition no longer carries the word 'City' on the masthead. A complimentary newspaper, Chronicle Xtra was published until 2015.

Archives
Historical copies of the Chester Chronicle, dating back to 1775, are available to search and view in digitized form at The British Newspaper Archive.

References

External links

Newspapers published in Cheshire
Chester
Reach plc

Chester Chronicle


Mary Ellen Carroll is a conceptual artist who lives and works in New York City. The artist has exhibited at Whitney Museum, Alserkal Avenue in Dubai, ICA London, PS1-New York, The Menil Collection in Houston, and MUMOK in Vienna.

Early life and education
Mary Ellen Carroll lives in New York City. Carroll received a Bachelor of Science degree and minored in fine art and worked with Betty Woodman and made films when Stan Brakhage taught at the University of Colorado Boulder. Carroll received a Master in Fine Arts from the School of the Art Institute of Chicago.

Teaching, Lectures, and Public Presentations
Teaching, lecturing and public presentations in architecture, art, and policy are an important part of Carroll's work, stating that, "architecture is inherently a political act." Institutions have included architecture/public policy programs at Rice University, Columbia University, Yale University, Princeton University and the DIA Art Foundation amongst others.

Notable artworks

• prototype 180 "makes architecture perform as a work of art" that is literally a ground-shifting exercise, in that it structurally involved the 180 degree rotation, back to front, of a house and its surrounding land in the development of Sharpstown, a suburb of Houston, Texas. Following the rotation, the structure was unbuilt in a choreographed demolition on November 11, 2017. Part III will be the rebuilding of the structure that is slated to begin in 2022. It will once again become an occupied structure that will function as an institute for the study of considered urbanism with a micro ethno-botanic garden . In planning for over a decade, prototype 180 is described as "reconsideration of monumentality that combines live performance, sculpture, architecture and technology." Carroll was a visiting lecturer in the Department of Architecture at Rice University and co-directed a graduate studio with the architect Charles Renfro | Diller, Scofidio + Renfro.

• indestructible language is the large scale neon work on the climate emergency. It was the inaugural commission by the Precipice Alliance in 2006, the first international organization to commission high-profile, large-scale works of art on the subject of global warming. The project intentionally sited and temporarily located at the former American Can Company factory in Jersey City, New Jersey and consists of illuminated characters spelling out: IT IS GREEN THINKS NATURE EVEN IN THE DARK.  'indestructible language was installed for the UN's Climate Summit — COP26 in Glasgow and was initially illuminated on Saturday, October 30, 2021, and continues to be daily at sunset on The School House, 101 Portman St, Kinning Park, Glasgow G41 1EJ, UK.

• The Circle Game is a permanent installation in the collection of the Alserkal Foundation in Dubai, UAE. Carroll was commissioned in 2016 to realize two site specific works of art that consist of two channel letter LED signs that read, WHEN DID YOU ARRIVE and WHEN WILL YOU RETURN, and a temporary five-story structure that used standard construction scaffolding to erect an edifice within the courtyard of Alserkal Avenue in 2016. The drawing as a built three-dimensional structure provided a platform from which it was possible to see one's self within Alserkal Avenue. The shift in elevation made it possible to have a 360-degree view of the city, providing a comprehensive view. The height of the structure was arrived at from the average of elevations of structures in the city and discussions were held on considered urbanism that included partners from the architecture firm OMA. It provided a physical understanding of the city and pointed to its origins in Deira, that intimate its return. Al Quoz was 'seeable' and one physically understood the lateralization of Dubai and how the skyscrapers are anomalies to the rest of the metropolis and where the emphasis has shifted the foundation into the cultural and the social realm.

• My death is pending ... Because. is a series of artworks and performances started in 1986 that was completed in 2017 at Irwindale Speedway in the demolition derby — Nite of Destruction in Los Angeles and was filmed by director Giorgio Angelini, Michael Isabell of Eyespy Films, with still photographs by Michele Asselin. The series conception and production was influenced by Rube Goldberg's stream-of-consciousness methodology. My death is pending ... Because. exhibition and performance at Third Streaming Gallery in New York City and in Bridget Donahue Gallery.

• PUBLIC UTILITY 2.0 is the ongoing and architects the space of radio frequency as a work of conceptual art providing equitable Internet access and groundbreaking uses of spectrum in the cultural realm. Its path-marking in policy and technology is for the development of a sustainable model and will provide wireless broadband access and associative programming for cultural, educational, and economic development. It expands the design process from what is on the ground in the built environment to what is in the airwaves as a space. It retrofits the raw material of unused radio frequency with state of the art software defined radios and the accompanying policy for broadband wireless access. PUBLIC UTILITY 2.0 was a commission featured in the biennial Prospect.3|New Orleans under the artist direction of Franklin Sirmans and used TVWS and experimental licenses from the FCC for deployments. The newly unlicensed spectrum known as the Citizens Broadband Radio Service (CBRS) will be deployed in urban and rural use cases and it will include prototype 180 in Houston for the urban deployment.

• Nothing is the seminal series that was started by Carroll in 1996. Invited to participate in an exhibition and presentation in 2006 at the Foundation Telefónica and a residency in Ostende, Argentina Carroll walked out of the door of her New York residence and followed the written instructions for the work to leave with no possessions for use or exchange, and every interaction and element were considered a part of the performance for this iteration of Nothing. Carroll traveled with only her passport and the clothes on her back to spend six weeks in the county. By design there was no documentation of the performance. Nothing fomented public outcry in 2014 by noted art historians and art professionals including David Joselit-Harvard University, Frazer Ward-Smith College, and Yona Backer-Third Streaming when Marina Marina Abramović planned and titled a performance Nothing that for the Serpentine and failed to acknowledge Carroll's performance and historical precedent. in New York City. Carroll retains the registered trademark and copyright for Nothing.

• Federal the 24-hour, two-theater movie was shot in 2003 and supported by the Guggenheim Foundation and the Rockefeller Foundation to Watch the Watchers. The movie is screened simultaneously with the north facade in one theater and the south facade in another starting at 9am and continues until 9am the following day, the same time the footage was shot in Los Angeles in 2003. The project title comes from the building where the movie was filmed, the Wilshire Federal Building.

• Alas, poor YORICK!, 1998/99 - 2008, is the inclusive title of four artworks. In 1998/99 the entire text from Laurence Sterne's novel The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman was drawn on a 72 x 50 inches sheet of Arches paper, from which a silkscreen print was produced. On the ten-year anniversary of the drawing, August 8, 2008, Carroll procured a fire permit from the National Park Service in Truro, Cape Cod, Massachusetts. The drawing was burned at Long Nook Beach which is located on the ocean side of the Cape in Truro. The burning of the drawing took 00:10:15:07 minutes to complete and was filmed in Super 8 which was then transferred to MiniDV and finally to 16 mm film. The ash and charcoal was removed from the sand and was used to make a drawing of the black page on Arches paper. The film was screened in New York City, through the organization Light Industry, alongside Rachel Harrison as presented by David Joselit. Artworks from the series were included in The Evryali Score an exhibition at David Zwirner Gallery.

PublicationsMEC was published by Steidl/Mack in May 2010 and is designed to reflect the conceptual system by which Carroll makes art. Its chapters bear the titles of sixteen of the 209 categories that Carroll has used since 1988 to organize a card catalog index of her ideas and potential works. The book received the AIGA award in 2010.

"A Modest Proposal/A Modist Prepozel" by Mary Ellen Carroll and Jonathan Swift The book includes illustrations from the artist visually representing every word of Swift's text on World War I1 era armylnavy blankets, taking even a version of Swift's title for her own. It is a phonetic translation which forces the viewer to pay close attention to the text, also is stitched in a Bauhaus typeface to the blankets, showing her fidelity to Swift's text.(New York, NY: Presse Endémique, 1994.

"Without Intent" is a documentation of Manhattan, using a camera mounted on the photographer's back. The focus is set to infinity and the walk is from Broadway from the Harlem River to Battery Park. The photos, printed to the edge, give the reader a near-actual walk through New York City—almost better than a videotape, since the interactivity comes with the hand. Yet people are real, and blocks are actual. Edition of 500, signed and numbered by the artist. New York, NY: Presse Endémique, 1996.

"100 German Men"
Synopsis: After more than a year's worth of nearly one thousand encounters with men on the street, Carroll collected photographs of one hundred men who responded "Germany" when asked where they were from (implying their heritage), and who then also agreed to be photographed. In this investigation of ethnicity, Carroll examines the effects of history on the development of Germany's cultural identity. The back cover reprints a passage from Norbert Elias, "The Germans, Civilization and Informalization" (in German). New York, NY: Presse Endémique, 1998.

"All the men that think they can be me." What would it be like if one day everyone you encountered said that they were you. Would you let them assume your identification, knowing that ultimately they can only be themselves. These questions are what Carroll provokes us with in "All the men that think they can be me." In this artist's book whose title says it all, Carroll takes the issue of the normative in relation to aesthetics and identification in photography from the universal to the particular—where all meanings exist subjectively. Onestar Press, 2004.

Awards, grants and honors

Carroll is the recipient of numerous grants and honors including:

 American Academy in Rome Fellowship
 IASPIS—Swedish Arts Grants Committee's International Programme for Visual and Applied Artists
 American Academy in Berlin Guna S. Mundheim Fellowship
 Guggenheim Fellowship
 Civitella Ranieri Foundation Fellowship
 Rockefeller Fellow Grant
 MacDowell Colony Fellowship
 Pollock-Krasner Foundation Awards
 In 2010, Carroll was awarded a Graham Foundation for Advanced Studies in the Fine Arts Fellowship for prototype 180 and innovation territory'' and the AIA's Artist of the Year Award.
 Robert Rauschenberg Residency Fellowship.

See also
 prototype 180
 Robert Blanchon
 Conceptual art
 DYKWTCA

External links
 http://prototype180.org
 http://www.artlies.org/article.php?id=1750&issue=62
 http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/abs/10.1162/octo.2009.129.1.143
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9OMxn98_bj4
 http://www.artreview.com/forum/topics/sense-and-sensibility
 http://www.esopus.org/contents/view/120
 http://thirdstreaming.com/artists/10-carroll
 http://www.artlies.org/issue.php?issue=68&s=0&p=staff
 http://www.domusweb.it/en/news/prototype-180-by-mary-ellen-carroll/
 http://www.domusweb.it/en/art/open-outcry-
 http://smartmuseum.uchicago.edu/exhibitions/feast/
 http://www.americanacademy.de/home/person/mary-ellen-carroll
 https://www.civitella.org/fellow/mary-ellen-carroll/
 https://www.konstnarsnamnden.se/default.aspx?id=21382

References

Living people
American performance artists
Rice University faculty
American conceptual artists
Women conceptual artists
American installation artists
1961 births
21st-century American women artists
American women academics

Mary Ellen Carroll


The Salt Lake Cutoff is one of the many shortcuts (or cutoffs) that branched from the California, Mormon and Oregon Trails in the United States. It led northwest out of Salt Lake City, Utah and north of the Great Salt Lake for about  before rejoining the California trail near the City of Rocks, Idaho. From there Oregon Trail travelers could easily travel down the Raft River valley portion of the California Trail to return to the Oregon Trail. It provided a way to stop in Salt Lake City (the only significant city on the trail then) for repairs, fresh supplies, fresh livestock, etc. In later years it was used by tens of thousands of pioneers and miners going east and west on their way to or from the future states of California, Oregon, Utah, Idaho, Montana, Nevada or Washington.

History
Samuel J. Hensley, returning to California in the summer of 1848, led a pack train of ten men on a quest to get back to the California Trail. After trying Hastings Route south of the Great Salt Lake and finding the salt flats too soft (heavy rains that year) for passage he returned to Salt Lake City and discovered a route, north of the Great Salt Lake. His newly blazed trail (cutoff) went from Salt Lake City back to the Oregon Trail and/or California Trail, rejoining it near the City of Rocks, Idaho—about  north of today's Utah–Idaho border. This became known as the Salt Lake Cutoff and was about the same distance as the Fort Hall, Snake River, Raft River, City of Rocks route which it bypassed.

On the Humboldt River portion of the California Trail route, Hensley met and talked with a party of former Mormon Battalion personnel consisting of 45 men and one woman under Samuel Thompson driving wagons east on the California Trail to rejoin their families in Utah. On September 15, 1848 they found the junction of Hensley's pack trail near the rock formation called the Twin Sisters. Thompson's group with wagons followed Hensley's pack trail back to Salt Lake City—converting it into a passable wagon road. Thompson's company traveled southeast into northern Utah, crossing Deep Creek near present-day Snowville, Utah. They found plentiful water and grass on the route just as Hensley had told them. With some difficulty they crossed the Malad River and the Bear River still traveling south east. They then went to the tiny community of Ogden, Utah where they crossed the Weber River before traveling on to Salt Lake City. Ebenezer Brown, leading a party from the 1846 Mormon ship Brooklyn, followed them three weeks later and helped to further define the trail. Word spread quickly that a good road with good grass and water was known out of Salt Lake City back to the California or Oregon Trail.

When the gold-crazy emigrants of 1849 heard of this new route to the California gold fields, many thousands detoured to Salt Lake City to get new supplies and livestock. In Utah, ferries charging a few dollars per wagon were established at the Weber, Bear River and the Malad River in 1849 and later. An estimated 10,000 to 15,000 California- or Oregon-bound immigrants a year passed through Salt Lake City between 1849 and 1852. Thousands more followed every year before 1869 and the Transcontinental Railroad completion.

References

Further reading

 DeLafosse, Peter H. Ed (1994); Trailing The Pioneers; Logan Utah; Utah State University Press with Oregon-California Trails Association;

California Trail
Mormon Trail
Oregon Trail
Mormon Battalion

Salt Lake Cutoff


Piramide is a station on Line B of the Rome Metro. It was opened on 10 February 1955 and is sited on Piazzale Ostiense (across which is the Pyramid of Cestius that gives the station its name) just outside Porta San Paolo, in the Ostiense quarter. Its atrium houses mosaics that have won the Artemetro Roma by Enrico Castellani (Italy) and Beverly Pepper (United States). The station has escalators.

Connections
Alongside the Metro station is the Porta San Paolo station on the Ferrovia Roma-Lido. The Stazione Ostiense is connected to the metro station via an underpass - from here run the FR1, FR3 and FR5 mainline services.

Surroundings
Acea
Stazione di Roma Ostiense
via Marmorata post office

Direction of traffic
Via Marmorata (towards Ponte Sublicio and Trastevere)
Viale Aventino (towards il Circo Massimo)
Via Marco Polo (towards via Cristoforo Colombo-EUR and via Cilicia-Appio Latino)
Via Ostiense (towards the Basilica di San Paolo fuori le mura)

Rioni and quarters
Rione Testaccio
Rioni Ripa and Aventino
Rione San Saba

Monuments and churches
Pyramid of Cestius
Porta San Paolo
Protestant Cemetery
Monte dei cocci
Campo Testaccio
Centrale Montemartini
Museo ferroviario di Porta San Paolo
Santa Maria Liberatrice
Chiesa di Santa Sabina
Chiesa di San Saba

Gallery

External links

Station on the site of ATAC.

Rome Metro Line B stations
Railway stations opened in 1955
1955 establishments in Italy
Rome Q. X Ostiense
Railway stations in Italy opened in the 1950s

Piramide (Rome Metro)


Sigurd Barrett (born 20 January 1967) is a Danish pianist, entertainer, composer, and writer and creator of "Pilfingerdansen". As a musician he operates in many genres (jazz, classical, etc.) and he is popular with different age-groups.

Biography
Sigurd Barrett played the piano for the first time as a two-year-old. At the age of six he composed his first songs. In 1979 he got his first paid job and the following years he played a lot of jobs.
He graduated 1992 from Århus University where he studied music with top grades.

His breakthrough was in the TV show "Hit med Sangen" and has later had shows himself. Among others: Sigurds Bjørnetime, a children's program with musical accompaniment; Sigurd og Symfoniorkestret(Sigurd and the symphony orchestra), a program teaching classical music to children; Sigurds Ulvetime, a musical TV show for adults.
He made "Pilfingerdansen" in 2002.

External links
http://www.sigurdbarrett.dk
http://www.hejsigurd.dk

1967 births
Living people
Danish pianists
21st-century pianists

Sigurd Barrett


Alfred-Pierre Joseph Agache (; 29 August 1843 – 15 September 1915), also known simply as Alfred Agache, was a French academic painter.

Biography

Little is known of Agache's life. He was born in Lille, France, and exhibited his work frequently in Paris. He seems to have specialized in portraits and large-scale allegorical paintings. He was a member of the Société des Artistes Français, and won a third-class medal in 1885 for his work. He may have been friends with American painter James Abbott McNeill Whistler and French writer Auguste Angellier; the latter dedicated a book to him around 1893. A portrait of his wife was painted by Aimé Morot.

Awards
At the 1889 Paris Exposition Universelle he was decorated by a silver medal, and then a gold medal during the subsequent 1893 Chicago World's Columbian Exposition, where two of his pieces, "Vanity" and "The Annunciation", were exhibited.

By decree in 10 August 1899 (declaration: 24 August 1899), he was awarded a knighthood in France's Legion of Honour, which was upgraded to the rank of officer by decree on 16 May 1910 (declaration: 25 June 1910).

Death
He died in Lille in 1915.

"L'Épée"

One of these paintings, L'Épée (French, "The Sword"), painted in 1896, includes the Latin phrase "PRO IUSTITIA TANTUM" ("On behalf of Justice Only") to represent that violence should be used only by Justice. It was displayed at the Paris Salon that year. It was purchased by the Canadian National Exhibition (CNE) in 1916 from an exhibition of paintings that were currently on loan from France. Following the CNE's decision in 1938 to cease collecting and exhibiting European art, the painting (with other French works) was loaned to the Art Gallery of Ontario (AGO); in the mid-1960s these works were formally donated to the AGO. This painting remained in the AGO's vaults until the early 1990s; it was cleaned and restored and displayed in the AGO's Fudger Gallery.

In June 2005, "L'Épée" was included in an exhibition called "Favourites: Your Choices from Our Collection", which displayed works based on votes from the general public from the previous four months.

Partial list of works

"Portrait de femme agée" ("Portrait of an old woman"), 1880
 "Les parques"" ("The Fates"), 1882
"Portrait de jeune femme" ("Portrait of a young woman"), 1883
"L'Annonciation" ("The Annunciation"), 1885
"Vanité" ("Vanity"), 1885
"La roue de la Fortune" ("Wheel of Fortune"), 1885
"Enigme" ("Enigma"), 1888, oil on canvas
"La Diseuse de bonne aventure", 1895
"The Fortune Teller", 1895, oil on canvas
"Jeune fille assise tenant des fleurs dans les bras" ("Girl sitting with flowers in her arms"), 1889
"Head of a Girl with Rose Corsage", 1890, oil on canvas
"The Old Conqueror", 1904
"Along the Seine towards Notre Dame", 1905, oil on panel
"Fantaisie" ("Imagination"), unknown; shown at the Salon de la Société des Beaux-Arts, 1907
"Portraite" ("Portrait"), unknown; shown at the Salon de la Société des Beaux-Arts, 1908
"Les Couronnes" ("The Crowns"), unknown; shown at the Salon de la Société des Beaux-Arts, 1909
"Étude" ("Study"), unknown; shown at the Salon de la Société des Beaux-Arts, 1910
"Les Masques" ("The Masks"), unknown; shown at the Salon de la Société des Beaux-Arts, 1911
"Femme nue étendue, tête de femme" ("Reclining female nude, woman's head"), unknown

See also

 Legion of Honour
 Legion of Honour Museum
 List of Legion of Honour recipients by name (A)
 Ribbons of the French military and civil awards

References

Sources
 Brooke, J.M. "AGO Vaults", AGO News, February, 1992.

External links

 Photo of Alfred-Pierre Agache at Réunion des Musées Internationaux
Works by Alfred-Pierre Agache at Réunion des Musées Internationaux

1843 births
1915 deaths
19th-century French painters
French male painters
20th-century French painters
20th-century French male artists
Academic art
Officers of the Legion of Honour
Artists from Lille
19th-century French male artists

Alfred Agache (painter)


There was a complicated involvement between Scotland and the Thirty Years' War of 1618–1648. Scotland and the Scots were heavily entangled in both the diplomatic and military events which centred on the Holy Roman Empire. There were a number of reasons for this participation.

Among these, the fate of the Scottish princess Elizabeth of Bohemia (daughter of King James VI & I) proved to be a key concern. Up to 50,000 Scottish troops arrived on the continent having been levied on warrants issued by the Privy Council and countersigned by their king, usually at periods corresponding to the participation of a particular ally in a campaign against the Habsburgs. They mostly served initially in established Scottish brigades in the Dutch Republic and Sweden which had existed before 1618. Later, specially commissioned army groups were also created in Denmark-Norway and France to facilitate further Scottish participation. Some fought for better prospects, some for kin loyalty, others for dynastic and confessional considerations. A few, the minority, were plain mercenaries. Although Scots participated from the start of the war until the end, formal participation by the nation was limited. Scotland formally declared war on Spain (1625–1630) and France (1627–1629), but for the most part, Scots engaged in foreign service with consent from their monarch and under warrants issued by the Privy Council but in armies commanded by their European allies.

Through such service ambitious individual Scots in different European courts had a profound influence on the course of the war both conducting diplomacy and commanding entire army groups in the campaign. These included General Sir James Spens of Wormiston, Lieutenant General Patrick Ruthven, Lieutenant General James King and Field Marshal Alexander Leslie who all served in Sweden. These men were joined in Germany by an auxiliary army with Scots and English under notional Swedish command and led by James, 3rd Marquis Hamilton (1631–1632).

In France the main officers were Marechal de France John Hepburn (1634–1636), a former colonel in Swedish service, and Sir Robert Moray (1640s). In Denmark Robert Maxwell Earl of Nithsdale led a contingent including Donald Mackay Lord Reay and Colonel Robert Monro and Alexander Lindsay, 2nd Lord Spynie among others (1627–1629).

The Scots Brigade, which had existed since 1572, was another outlet for Scottish soldiers looking for service in Continental armies. Although in the service and under the payroll of the States-General of the Dutch Republic, these troops were, first and foremost, loyal to the House of Stuart. Nonetheless, Scottish soldiers may have chosen to serve in the Republic due to their religious beliefs, perhaps as part of movement of "Calvinist Internationalism." Notable officers include Colonel William Brog, William Balfour, James Livingston, 1st Earl of Callendar, and several generations of the Lords and Earls of Buccleuch. Notable engagements during their service in the Eighty Years' War include the Battle of Nieuwpoort (1600), the Siege of Ostend (1601-1604), the War of the Jülich Succession (1609-1610), the Siege of Bergen-op-Zoom (1622), the Siege of 's-Hertogenbosch (1629), and the Siege of Breda (1637), among countless others.

Not all Scots fought for or believed in the cause of either Elizabeth of Bohemia or the Protestant northern alliances. A number fought for the Habsburgs (Austrian and Spanish) for the same complex reasons as their countrymen; there were some committed to the counter-reformation, some compelled by circumstance and some opportunists such as Albrecht von Wallenstein's assassin, Count Walter Leslie.

Scottish people of the Thirty Years' War

Noted Scots that participated in the Thirty Years' War or had strong interests in it, include:

Scottish monarchs and royalty
 James VI & I –  King of Scotland (1567–1625) & England and Ireland (1603–1625)
 Elizabeth of Bohemia – Daughter of James VI. The Scottish-born princess became Queen of Bohemia after her husband Frederick V of the Palatinate accepted the Bohemian Crown.
 Charles I – Son of James VI. The Scottish-born prince ruled as King of Scotland, England and Ireland, 1625–1649.

Field marshals and generals

Archibald Douglas, lieutenant general of artillery in the Hamilton Army in Germany
 Robert Douglas, Count of Skenninge, eventually elevated to field marshal in the Swedish army (1655), Douglas reached the rank of lieutenant general by the end of the war in 1648. He commanded the left wing of Torstensson's army at Jankowitz
 David Drummond, major general in the Swedish army
 Alexander 'Arvid' Forbes, also known as Finn Forbes, an ethnic Scot and major general in the Swedish army.
 Alexander Hamilton, also known as 'Dear Sandy', General of Artillery in the Swedish army, later General of Artillery in the Army of the Covenant.
 James Hamilton, Marquis of Hamilton (later Duke of Hamilton), "General of British" in the Swedish army in Germany
 John Hepburn, Marechal de France and field marshal in the French army
 Thomas Kerr, major general in the Swedish army
 James King, Lord Eythin, lieutenant-general in the Swedish army in Germany, Governor of Vlotho
Alexander Leslie, Earl of Leven, field marshal in the Swedish army in Germany, Governor of the Baltic Provinces and victor of Wittstock in 1636.
 Robert Maxwell, Earl of Nithsdale, titular 'General of Scots' in the Danish army.
 James MacDouglall, a.k.a. Jacob Duwall, an ethnic Scot and major general in the Swedish army
 James Ramsay 'the Black', major general in the Swedish army.
 John Ruthven, major general in the Swedish army
 Patrick Ruthven, Earl of Forth, field marshal in the Swedish army in Germany, Governor of Ulm
 Robert Scott, General of Artillery in the Danish army.
 James Spens, "General of British", and "General of Scots" in the Swedish army.
 Frances de Traytorrens, general of fortifications in the Swedish army

Some of the more notable Colonels
 William Baillie, later major general in Scotland
 William Balfour, colonel in the Scots-Dutch brigade, later a general in England
William Barclay, colonel in Swedish service, later major general in Sweden (1654)
 William Bonar, colonel and commandant (Glogau, Silesia) in Swedish service
William Brog, colonel in the Scots-Dutch Brigade
Henry (Henry) Bruce, captain in the Scots-Dutch Brigade, colonel and governor in Imperial service
Colonel Robert Cunningham, colonel in Swedish service
 James Douglas colonel in the French army
 Alexander Forbes 'the Bald', colonel in the service of Hessen-Kassel
 William Forbes, colonel of Germans in Swedish service
 Andrew Gray, Catholic and colonel of a "Regiment of Brittanes" in Bohemia
 Herbert Gladstone, colonel in Swedish service
 Alexander Gordon, colonel in the Swedish service
 John Gordon, colonel in Swedish service
 John Gunn, colonel in Swedish service
 William Gunn, colonel in Swedish service, refused promotion higher due to his Catholicism, later a colonel in Imperial service.
 Hugo Hamilton, 1st Baron of Deserf colonel in the Swedish army
 Alexander Hay, colonel in Swedish service
Robert Henderson, colonel in the Scots-Dutch Brigade
 Francis Henderson, colonel in the Scots-Dutch Brigade
 Alexander Irving, colonel in Swedish service
 Frances Johnstone, colonel in Swedish service
 Thomas Kinnemond, colonel in Swedish service
 Patrick Kinnemond, colonel in Swedish service
 Alexander Leslie, 2nd Lord Balgonie, colonel in Swedish service, later colonel in the British Civil Wars
 Alexander Leslie of Auchintoul, colonel in Swedish and Russian service, later first-ever general in Russia (1653)
 George Leslie, colonel in Swedish service
 David Leslie, Lord Newark, colonel in the Swedish army.
 Robert Leslie (brother of Lord Newark), colonel in Hessen-Kassel
 Walter Leslie, Count of the Holy Roman Empire
 Alexander Lindsay, 2nd Lord Spynie, colonel and governor in Danish service
 George Lindsay, Earl of Crawford, colonel in the Swedish army
 Harry Lindsay, colonel in Swedish service
 James Lumsden colonel in Swedish service, later lieutenant general in Scotland
 Donald Mackay, 1st Lord Reay, colonel in Danish and Swedish service
 Robert Monro, major in the Danish army, colonel in the Swedish army, later lieutenant general in Scotland and Ireland
 Robert Moray, colonel in French service and sometime quartermaster general of the Army of the Covenant
 Patrick More, colonel in the Swedish army during the war, later promoted to major general in Swedish service (March 1675) based in Buxtehude near Hamburg
 Robert Munro, Baron of Foulis, colonel in Swedish service
 John Nairn, colonel in Swedish service
 James Ramsay 'the Fair', colonel in Swedish service under Marquis Hamilton.
 William Phillip, colonel in Swedish service
 Andrew Rutherford, 1st Earl of Teviot, colonel in French service, promoted to lieutenant general in 1653
 Frances Ruthven, colonel in Swedish service
 Robert Sanderson, colonel in Swedish service
 Alexander Seaton, colonel in Danish service, later 'admiral' of a fleet in Denmark during the Torstensson War
 Johan Skytte, ethnic Scot and colonel of a Scottish regiment in Sweden
 Robert Stewart, colonel in Swedish service

Important Scottish diplomats
Sir Robert Anstruther, Stuart ambassador to Denmark (and Danish ambassador to Britain), Sweden, the Dutch Republic and the Holy Roman Empire
 William Douglas, Stuart ambassador to Poland-Lithuania and Elizabeth of Bohemia
 James Hay, 1st Earl of Carlisle. Stuart ambassador to France and Spain
 John Henderson, colonel in Swedish service, later Stuart Diplomat to Denmark-Norway and alleged Cromwellian agent.
 Walter Leslie, assassin, Imperial Count and diplomat for the House of Stuart and the Holy Roman Empire
 Hugh Mowatt, agent, spy and later accredited diplomat between Sweden and the Scottish and English parliaments
 Andrew Sinclair, Stuart ambassador to Denmark
 Sir James Spens, Stuart ambassador to Sweden (and Swedish ambassador to Britain), Denmark and the Dutch Republic

Basis for the Covenanter armies
Thousands of Scots returned home from foreign service to join the Covenanters, including experienced leaders like Alexander Leslie and General of Artillery Alexander Hamilton. These veterans played an important role in training the Covenanter recruits. However, more senior officers including Lieutenant General Patrick Ruthven, Lieutenant General James King, Major General John Ruthven also returned to confront their former comrades. Both Covenanters and Royalists returned with cohorts of officers, and both introduced the 'Swedish Discipline' into their respective armies. When the wars spread to England, a situation arose in 1644 where the senior commander of the parliamentary allied army was Alexander Leslie, Earl of Leven while his opposition was led by Patrick Ruthven, now Earl of Forth and Lord General of the Royalist forces in England. Both men survived the war and died peacefully in their beds.

Sources and fiction
Some notable Scottish contemporary published sources
 William Forbes, a diary edited by D. Pleiss, 'Das Kriegstagebuch des schwedischen Offiziers William Forbes: Von seiner Landung an der Unterelbe im Sommer 1634 bis zu seiner Rückkehr nach Stade im Winter 1649/50', Stader Jahrbuch Neue Folge 85, (1995), pp. 135–53.
 Thomas Kellie, Pallas Armata or Military Instructions for the Learned, The First Part (Edinburgh, 1627).
 Andrew Melvill, edited and published by Torick Ameer-Ali as Memoirs of Sir Andrew Melvill (London, 1918). Only a small part on the Thirty Years' War.
 Robert Monro, His Expedition with a worthy Scots Regiment called Mac-Keyes (2 vols., London, 1637).

Contemporary poetry and fiction
 Arthur Johnston, a contemporary neo-Latinist poet, wrote poems about the Bohemian part of the conflict in W.D. Geddes (ed.) Musa Latina Aberdonensis vol. 1 (Aberdeen Spalding Club, 1892)
 Simplicius Simplicissimus (1668) by Hans Jakob Christoffel von Grimmelshausen, one of the most important German novels of the 17th century, is the comic fictional autobiography of a half-German, half-Scottish peasant turned mercenary who serves under various powers during the war, based on the author's first-hand experience. An opera adaptation by the same name was produced in the 1930s, written by Karl Amadeus Hartmann.

Modern fiction
 Dallas, O., A Ragged Renown: A Romance of the Thirty Years' War (1934)
 Dallas, O., The Daughter of the Scots' Brigade (1938)
 Dickason, C., The King's Daughter (2010)
 Henty, G.A., The Lion of the North: The adventures of a Scottish lad during the Thirty Years' War (2 vol., 1997 reprint). Available under sub-title variants including a comic strip.
 Lorimer, J., The Green Brigade (1935)
 Friedrich Schiller's Wallenstein trilogy (1799) is a fictional account of the downfall of this general. Not Scottish as such, but contains fictionalised accounts of Wallenstein's assassins, including Count Walter Leslie.
 Scott, E., The Best Soldier: The Life of Sir John Hepburn, Marshal of France, Founder and First Colonel of the Royal Scots, 1628–1636 (Hawick, 2011)
 Stevenson, J., The Winter Queen (2003)

References

Further reading

 Dukes, P., 'The Leslie family in the Swedish period, (1630–5) of the Thirty Years' War', European Studies Review, vol. 12 (1982)

 W. Forbes Leith, The Scots Men at Arms and Life Guards in France, 1458–1830 (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1882)
 Edward Furgol, 'Scotland turned Sweden: the Scottish Covenanters and the military revolution' in J. Morrill, ed., The National Covenant in its British Context 1638–51 (Edinburgh, 1990)
 Alexia Grosjean,'General Alexander Leslie, The Scottish Covenanters and the Riksråd debates, 1638–1640', in Macinnes, A. I., T. Riis and F.G. Pedersen, eds., Ships, Guns and Bibles in the North Sea and the Baltic States c.1350–1700 (East Linton, 2000)
 Alexia Grosjean, An Unofficial Alliance: Scotland and Sweden 1569 – 1654 (Leiden, 2003)
 Steve Murdoch, ed., Scotland and the Thirty Years' War (Leiden, 2001)
 Steve Murdoch, 'Scotsmen on the Danish-Norwegian Frontier, 1589–1680' in S. Murdoch and A. Mackillop (eds.), Military Governors and Imperial Frontiers c.1600–1800 (Leiden, 2003)
 Steve Murdoch, Britain, Denmark-Norway and the House of Stuart, 1603–1660 (Eat Linton, 2003)
 Steve Murdoch and Alexia Grosjean, Alexander Leslie and the Scottish Generals of the Thirty Years' War, 1618–1648 (Pickering & Chatto, London, 2014)
 Steve Murdoch and Karthrin Zickermann, 'Bereft of all Human Help?: Scottish Widows of the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) in Northern Studies, vol. 50 (2019)
 G. A. Sinclair, 'Scotsmen Serving the Swede', The Scottish Historical Review, vol. 9 (1912)
 A. F, Steuart, 'Scottish Officers in Sweden' in The Scottish Historical Review, vol. 1 (1904)
 David Worthington, Scots in Habsburg Service, 1618–1648 (Leiden, 2003)

 Gunnar Westin, ed., Negotiations about church unity 1628–1634; John Durie, Gustavus Adolphus, Axel Oxenstierna (Uppsala, 1932)
 Gunnar Westin, ed., John Durie in Sweden 1636–1638; Documents and Letters (Uppsala, 1936)

17th-century military history of Scotland

Thirty Years' War
Thirty Years' War
House of Stuart
Thirty Years' War
Thirty Years' War
Thirty Years' War
Thirty Years' War
Military of Scotland

Scotland and the Thirty Years' War


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