The Court of Cassation  ( ) is the supreme court for civil and criminal cases in France. It is one of the country's four apex courts, along with the Council of State, the Constitutional Council and the Jurisdictional Disputes Tribunal.

It primarily hears appeals against the decisions of courts of assizes and courts of appeal (appeals-in-cassation). The Court only reviews questions of law (but not questions of fact) and bears ultimate responsibility for a uniform interpretation and application of statutory law throughout France. It also filters out appeals challenging the constitutionality of statutes before forwarding them to the Counstitutional Council, reviews lower court verdicts on request of the European Court of Human Rights and hears several other types of cases.

The Court is organized into three civil chambers, a commerce chamber, a labour chamber, a criminal chamber, a prosecutorial service and various other bodies. The Court usually rules in panels of three or five judges; the most significant cases are adjudicated by plenary sessions.

The Court was established in 1790 as the Tribunal of Cassation during the French Revolution; its original purpose was to act as a court of error with revisory jurisdiction over lower provincial prerogative courts (parlements). However, much about the Court continues the earlier Paris Parlement.

The Court is located in the Palace of Justice in the 1st arrondissement of Paris.

Composition

The Court is made up of justices, the Public prosecutor's office, . In addition, a separate bar of specially certified barristers exists for trying cases at the French Court.

Judges and divisions
Overall, the Court consists of nearly 85 trial judges (conseillers) and about 40 deputy judges (conseillers référendaires), each divided among six different divisions (chambres):
First Civil Division (première chambre civile) deals with contractual liability, international private law, arbitration, consumer law, family law, successions (wills), child custody, professional discipline, individual rights
Second Civil Division (deuxième chambre civile) handles civil procedural issues, torts, insurance law, social insurance law and electoral matters
Third Civil Division (troisième chambre civile) (or "Land Court") for immovable property (real estate), housing, commercial leases, construction law, urban planning law, environmental law
Commercial Division (chambre commerciale, financière et économique) handles corporate law, bankruptcy, commercial law, business contracts, competition law, financial law and intellectual property rights
Labor Division (chambre sociale) handles labor disputes, worker compensation.
Criminal Division (chambre criminelle) deals with criminal cases and criminal procedural rules

Each division is headed by a presiding justice referred to in French as a président, or President of Division. The Chief Justice bears the title of the premier président, or President of the Court, who supervises the presiding justices of the various divisions. The Chief Justice is the highest-ranking judicial officer in the country and is responsible for administration of the Court and the discipline of justices. The current Chief Justice is . The Court also includes 12 masters (auditeurs), the lowest rank of justice, who are primarily concerned with administration.

There is, in addition to the abovementioned six divisions, a separate organization known as the Divisional Court (chambre mixte). The Divisional Court adjudicates where the subject matter of an appeal falls within the purview of multiple divisions. The Bench of the Divisional Court seats the Chief Justice and a number of other judges from at least three other divisions relevant to a given case. Any participating division is represented by its Presiding Justice and two puisne judges.

Finally, a full court (Assemblée plénière) is called, presided over by the Chief Justice or, if he is absent, by the most senior presiding justice. It also seats all divisional presiding justices and senior justices, assisted by a puisne judge from each division. The full court is the highest level of the Court.

Office of the Prosecutor

The prosecution, or parquet général, is headed by the Chief Prosecutor (procureur général). The Chief Prosecutor is a judicial officer, but does not prosecute cases; instead, his function is to advise the Court on how to proceed, analogous to the Commissioner-in-Council's role within the Conseil d'État (lit. Council of State, but function may vary). Duties include filing motions to bring cases before the Court "in the name of the law" and bringing cases before the French Court of Justice (Cour de justice de la République), which tries government officials for crimes committed while in office. The Chief Prosecutor is assisted by two Chief Deputy Prosecutors (premiers avocats généraux) and a staff of about 22 deputy prosecutors (avocats généraux), and two assistant prosecutors (substituts).

Supreme Court bar
Barristers (avocats), though not technically officers of the court, play an integral role in the justice system. Except for a few types of actions, advocate counsel in the form of a barrister is mandatory for any case heard at the Court or Council of State. Barristers with exclusive rights of audience and admitted to practice law in either senior court are titled avocat au Conseil d'État et à la Cour de Cassation, or avocats aux Conseils ("Counsel at Senior Court") for short. Admission to the Supreme Court bar is particularly difficult, requiring special training and passing a notoriously stringent examination. Once admitted, bar members can advise litigants on whether their actions are justiciable, that is, issuable and exceeding de minimis requirements—an important service since the court hears appeals only on points of law and not issues of fact. Membership is restricted to 60 total positions and is considered a public office.

General counsel
In May 2019, Jean-François Ricard was appointed General Counsel at the Court of Cassation to exercise the function of anti-terrorism public prosecutor at the Tribunal de grande instance de Paris, heading a new National Terrorism Prosecution Office (; PNAT), beginning on 25 June 2019. He leads a team of 25 magistrates.

Proceedings
The Court's main purpose is to review lower court rulings on the grounds of legal or procedural error. As the highest court of law in France, it also has other duties.

Appeals
The Court has inherent appellate jurisdiction for appeals (called pourvois en cassation) from courts of appeal or, for certain types of small claims cases not appealable to appellate courts, from courts of record. The Supreme Court reviews the appeal on the record and may affirm or set aside lower court rulings; if set aside, the ruling is said to be cassé (French for "quashed"), hence the French name of Cour de cassation, or "Quashing Court". The Court adjudicates by strict appeal, or appeal stricto sensu, which is limited to review of the decision and of the decision-making process on a point of law, and may only allow the appeal in cases of serious error; fresh evidence is not admissible. The typical outcome of a successful appeal is setting aside of the lower court's decision and remittal for reconsideration.

An intermediate appellate court, the Cour d'appel, hears general appeals de novo on points of law and procedure as well as errors of fact and reasoning. The Court of Cassation only decides matters of points of law or procedure on the record, as opposed to factual errors. Lower courts may petition the Court for an interlocutory order during the proceedings on any new and complex point of law; any such order, however, is not final or conclusive.

Appeal procedure
A case is heard by a bench of three or five relevant divisional justices. For either civil or criminal appeals, the bench seats by three judges unless the Chief Justice or the divisional presiding justice orders a full bench of five judges. Furthermore, any one of the three judges originally assigned to the bench may order it expanded to five. If the case falls in the legal areas handled by more than one division, the Chief Justice may order the divisional court, rather than a Bench, to consider the case.

The Court can affirm a decision from below by dismissing the appeal (rejet du pourvoi) or overturn or amend the decision by allowing the appeal (accueil du pourvoi). If it finds that the lower court erred, it sets aside the lower court decision and remits the case with its opinion to an appellate court for reconsideration (cassation avec renvoi). If only a portion of a ruling is overturned, it is called cassation partielle, or partial setting aside. Sometimes, the Court may overturn a lower court ruling and judge the case ex proprio motu without being petitioned (cassation sans renvoi), as long as the merits and facts of the case are on record.

When overturned, the case is remanded to a second appellate court, in other words not the appellate court whose decision is being appealed; never to the same judges. The decision of the Bench of the Court of Cassation or Divisional Court is not binding on the lower court, and the appellate court has full discretion to decide the case, but the higher court's ruling has persuasive authority. The appellate court's ruling may again be appealed to the Court of Cassation. If so, the Full Court hears and judges the case. It may, again, uphold an earlier decision or reverse it and remand the case to another appellate court. In the latter case, the determination of the Full Court is binding; the facts, however, may be reviewed by the court retrying the case.

Published judgments are extremely brief, containing a statement of the case—citing relevant statutory authorities—and a summary of ruling. The ruling does not contain a ratio decidendi in the style of common-law jurisdictions. Instead, it is left to legal experts to explain the importance of rulings. The Court often drastically changes the way the Civil Code or other statutory laws are interpreted. Legal digests, such as the Recueil Dalloz, and treatises written by legal scholars analyze and explain rulings through precedents. Much of this information is available through online databases.

Unlike common-law jurisdictions, there is no doctrine of binding precedent (stare decisis) in France. Therefore, previous decisions of higher courts do not bind lower courts in the same hierarchy, though they are often followed and have persuasive authority. Instead, the French legal system subscribes to the legal doctrine of jurisprudence constante according to which courts should follow a series of decisions that are in accord with each other and judges should rule on their own interpretation of the law.

Criminal appeals
Major felonies (indictable offences), called crimes in French, are tried by jury in a county Court of Assizes. In the past, their decisions were not open to appeal in an intermediate appellate court, and before 2001, could only be appealed to the Supreme Court. The Court would review the case on points of procedure and law only, and when handing down a reversal, which was uncommon except for capital punishment cases, vested a second Court of Assizes to retry the case. An argument in favor of this system was that allowing appeals to be tried by active judges after having been decided by a jury would in essence deny popular sovereignty. Since 2001, Assize court rulings may be appealed on points of fact to a Court of Assizes in another county, vested by the Court, and before a larger jury. The case is then fully retried. For procedural issues, appeals to the Supreme Court are still possible since assize courts, which operate by jury trial, would not be competent to hear them.

Certified questions
Where no appeal has been made but the government disagrees with the lower court's interpretation of the law, it may order the Chief Prosecutor to "lay an appeal before the Court in the interest of law" (former un pourvoi dans l'intérêt de la loi), i.e., appeal to certify a question of general public importance. The Chief Prosecutor may do so sua sponte or at the Court's behest in either civil or criminal cases. The Court will then issue an advisory opinion which has no bearing on the lower court's ruling since it was satisfactory to all parties involved and no motion was made to appeal. If the government is dissatisfied with the law as stated by the courts, it may ask Parliament to rewrite the law, as long as no constitutional issue is involved.

Other duties
The Court publishes an annual report on the French court system. The report includes a section with suggested changes to laws concerning the legal system, including criminal procedure. The Court awards damages to defendants exonerated after incarceration. Some high-level members of the court are ex officio members of special ad hoc courts; the investigatory commission of the High Court of Justice (Haute Cour de Justice), which may be convened to try the French President for high treason; the French Court of Justice (Cour de Justice de la République), which may be convened to try current or former cabinet ministers for crimes committed while in office; and the National Judicial Council (Conseil supérieur de la magistrature), which serves as a court of judicial discipline and disciplinary counsel. The High Court of Justice has never been convened during the Fifth Republic and the French Court of Justice, only rarely.

Other related courts
The Court is not the only court of last resort in France. Cases involving claims against government bodies, local authorities, or the central government, including all delegated legislation (e.g., statutory instruments, ministerial orders), are heard by the administrative courts, for which the court of last resort is the Conseil d'État. In cases where there appears to be concurrent jurisdiction or a conflict of laws between the judicial and administrative courts, whether both retain jurisdiction ("positive dispute") or decline jurisdiction ("negative dispute"), the Jurisdictional Disputes Court (Tribunal des Conflits) decides the issue. The Court is composed of 4 members from both senior courts and occasionally, to break a tie, the justice minister who, if present, presides.

Neither court has the power to strike down primary legislation, such as acts of Parliament. The courts can, however, refuse to apply any statutory provision they consider inconsistent with France's international treaty obligations. Constitutional review lies in the Constitutional Council, which can strike down any law that it deems unconstitutional. Before a law is enacted, the French President, the speaker of either house of Parliament, or, more commonly, 60 parliamentarians from the same house may petition the Council for review. Some laws, mostly constitutional laws (loi organique), come before the Constitutional Council for review without first being petitioned. Courts may adopt a restrictive approach to applying statute. A 2009 reform, effective on 1 March 2010, enables parties to a lawsuit or trial to question the constitutionality of the law that is being applied to them. The procedure, known as question prioritaire de constitutionnalité, is broadly as follows: the question is raised before the trial judge and, if it has merit, it is forwarded to the appropriate supreme court (Council of State if the referral comes from an administrative court, Cour de Cassation for other courts). The supreme court collects such referrals and submits them to the Constitutional Council. If the Constitutional Council rules a law is unconstitutional, the law is struck down and no longer has legal force; this decision applies to everybody and not just the appelant in the case at hand.

The European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) has jurisdiction over claims of government violations in breach of the European Convention on Human Rights in any ECHR member country, which includes all EU member countries. Before the ECtHR grants appeal, a claimant must have exhausted all available judicial recourse in the violating country; in France this means following the appeals process to either of the senior courts. Even so, the ECtHR has original jurisdiction, not appellate jurisdiction.

Additionally, French courts may petition the European Court of Justice to  certify a question of law concerning EU law.

See also
 French criminal law
 Jurisdictional dualism in France

References
Citations

Notes

External links

Cour de cassation cases (English translations)

Judiciary of France
Society of France
Judiciaries
Courts in France
France
1790 establishments in France
Courts and tribunals established in 1790

Court of Cassation (France)


Kradolf is a village and former municipality in the canton of Thurgau, Switzerland.

It was first recorded in year 883 as Chreinthorf.

The municipality had 147 inhabitants in 1850, which decreased to 228 in 1880, 649 in 1900 and 1,064 in 1920. It then dropped to 983 in 1950 before increasing again, to 1,183 in 1990.

In 1996 the municipality was merged with the other, neighboring municipalities Buhwil, Neukirch an der Thur and Schönenberg an der Thur to form a new and larger municipality Kradolf-Schönenberg.

References

Former municipalities of Thurgau
Villages in Switzerland

Kradolf


Junior is when a son has the same name as the father, in which case he is referred to by his father's name plus Junior. For instance, if the father is Bob Jones, the son would be Bob Jones Junior (or Bob Jones Jr., for short). Of course, the father could also be called Bob Jones Senior (or Bob Jones Sr., for short).

Names

Junior


Prince Tomislav of Yugoslavia (; 19 January 1928 – 12 July 2000) was a member of the House of Karađorđević, the second son of King Alexander I and Queen Maria of Yugoslavia. He was a younger brother of King Peter II of Yugoslavia and a former nephew-in-law to Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip.

Early life and education
Prince Tomislav was born on 19 January 1928, on Epiphany according to the Julian calendar used by the Serbian Orthodox Church, at 1 am, as the second son of the sovereign of the then Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later the Kingdom of Yugoslavia), Alexander I (1888–1934) and Queen Maria (1900–1961), the second daughter of King Ferdinand of Romania (1865–1927) and his wife Queen Marie (1875–1938).

He was baptized on 25 January in a salon of the New Palace in Belgrade, with the British Minister to the Yugoslav Court, Kennard, representing the godfather King George V, with water from the Vardar and Danube rivers and the Adriatic Sea. The Prince was named after Tomislav of Croatia, the King of medieval Croatia.

At the beginning of February 1928, a delegation was sent from Županjac (present-day Tomislavgrad) headed by the parish priest Šimun Ančić who handed Alexander the resolution in which the population of the Srez of Županjac asks him to change the name of the srez to Tomislavgrad, in honour of his son and Tomislav of Croatia. Not long after, Alexander granted them their petition but dropped Tomislav of Croatia from his decree.

He began his elementary education at the Belgrade Palace but in 1937 he started to attend Sandroyd School in Cobham, England. He stayed in the UK throughout World War II and after King Peter was deposed, moving on to Oundle School from 1941 to 1946 and Clare College, Cambridge in 1946–1947.

Events in Yugoslavia
In 1934 when he was only six, Prince Tomislav's father, Alexander I, was assassinated and his elder brother Peter succeeded to the throne as King Peter II of Yugoslavia. As he was still only 11, because of his young age, a regency was established, headed by their father's cousin Prince Paul of Yugoslavia.

After initially declaring neutrality, on 25 March 1941, although King Peter and his advisors were opposed to Nazi Germany, the Regent, Prince Paul, under immense German pressure signed the Tripartite Pact originally signed by Germany, Italy, and Japan. Two days later, in a British-supported coup d'état opposing the Tripartite Pact, King Peter, then 17, was proclaimed of age, and the regency overthrown. Postponing Operation Barbarossa, Germany simultaneously attacked Yugoslavia and Greece. From 6 April Luftwaffe pounded Belgrade for three days and three nights, Operation Punishment. Within a week, Germany, Bulgaria, Hungary and Italy invaded Yugoslavia and the government was forced to surrender on 17 April. Yugoslavia was divided to satisfy Italian, Bulgarian, Hungarian and German demands and puppet Croat, Montenegrin and Serb states proclaimed.

King Peter was forced to leave the country with the Yugoslav government following the Axis invasion; initially the King went with his government to Greece, and Jerusalem, then to the British Mandate of Palestine and Cairo, Egypt. He went to England in June 1941, where he joined numerous other governments in exile from Nazi-occupied Europe. Local Yugoslav forces continued to resist the occupying Axis powers. Initially the monarchy preferred Draža Mihailović and his Serb-dominated Četnik resistance.  However, in 1944, the Tito–Šubašić agreement recognised the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia as a provisional government, with the status of the monarchy to be decided at a later date. Three regents, Srđan Budisavljević, a Serb, Ante Mandić, a Croat, and Dušan Sernec, a Slovene, were sworn in at Belgrade on 3 March 1945. They appointed the new government, to be headed by Tito as prime minister and minister of war, with Šubašić as foreign minister, on 7 March.

On 29 November 1945, while still in exile, King Peter II was deposed by the constituent assembly. The Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia was internationally recognized as Yugoslavia while Peter II became a pretender.

Life in exile
After Cambridge, and not being able to return to Yugoslavia following the abolition of the monarchy, Prince Tomislav remained in the UK and devoted himself to fruit growing. While he attended agricultural college, he worked summers as an ordinary field hand in an orchard in Kent. In 1950, he bought a farm at Kirdford, near Petworth, in West Sussex, and subsequently specialized in growing apples, having at one point 17,000 trees on 80 hectares of land.

He supported the Serbian community and the Serbian Orthodox Church in the United Kingdom, helping found St Lazar's Church, Bournville where he married his second wife, Linda Bonney, in 1982.

Return to Yugoslavia

He was the first member of the ex-royal family who permanently moved back to Serbia, in early 1992, making his residence at the King Peter I Foundation Complex in Oplenac, Serbia.

He frequently visited the Serb soldiers in Republika Srpska and the Republic of Serb Krajina, and dispensed aid with his wife, Princess Linda. There were initiatives for him to be crowned prince of the Serb-held part of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which were rejected by the local political leadership.

After publicly accusing Serbian president Slobodan Milošević of having betrayed the Republic of Serb Krajina, after it fell to the joint Croatian Army operation "Storm" at the beginning of August 1995, his media presence was drastically reduced.

He became terminally ill; however, he turned down offers for surgery abroad at the time NATO forces began their bombing of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia on 24 March 1999, choosing to remain and share the lot of the nation, touring bombing sites even while seriously ill.

He died after five years of illness on 12 July 2000, on Ss. Peter and Paul Day in the Julian Calendar, the patron saints of the family crypt on Oplenac, where he was buried, in a funeral attended by several thousand mourners.

Marriage and issue
He was married on 5 June 1957, in Salem, Baden-Württemberg, West Germany, to Princess Margarita of Baden, niece of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. Tomislav and Margarita were divorced in 1981. They had two children;

 (born 15 March 1958, London); married to Ljiljana Licanin (b. 12 December 1957 in Zemun, Serbia) on 30 August 1992 in Denmark. They have a daughter:
Princess Marija (b. 31 August 1993, Belgrade).
Princess Katarina of Yugoslavia (b. 28 November 1959, London). She was married for several years to Sir Desmond de Silva QC, KStJ (b. 13 December 1939 Sri Lanka), has a daughter and works in public relations. The couple is now divorced.
 Victoria Marie Esmé Margarita de Silva (b. 6 September 1991).

On 16 October 1982, he married Linda Mary Bonney (b. 22 June 1949, London) at the Serbian Orthodox Church of St Lazar, Bournville, Worcestershire; they had two sons:

 (b. 25 May 1984 at Portland Hospital, London). Married Fallon Rayman (b. 5 September 1995 in Guildford, Surrey) on 5 July 2016 at Gretna Green.
 (b. 15 December 1985, London). Married Ljubica Ljubisavljević (b.1989 in Belgrade) on 23 October 2016 at Oplenac. Has two daughters:
 Princess Natalija of Yugoslavia (b. 26 December 2018, Belgrade).
 Princess Isidora of Yugoslavia (b. 17 May 2022, Belgrade).

Ancestry

Footnotes

Bibliography

External links

 Royal Mausoleum Oplenac

1928 births
2000 deaths
People from Belgrade
Yugoslav princes
Serbian princes
Karađorđević dynasty
Serbian exiles
People educated at Sandroyd School
People educated at Oundle School
Alumni of Clare College, Cambridge
20th-century Serbian people
Recipients of the Order of St. Sava
Grand Crosses of the Order of St. Sava
Recipients of the Order of the Yugoslav Crown
Bailiffs Grand Cross of the Order of St John
Burials at the Mausoleum of the Royal House of Karađorđević, Oplenac
Sons of kings
Exiled royalty

Prince Tomislav of Yugoslavia


The Schröder family is a Hanseatic family of Hamburg, that is, a family that belonged to the historical ruling class of grand burghers (also known more broadly in English as patricians) of the city republic prior to the constitutional changes in 1918–19. The Schröder family has traditionally been Lutheran.

Notable members
Christian Matthias Schröder (1742–1821), a native of Quakenbrück, became a Hamburg merchant and acquired the hereditary grand burghership. He founded the well-known firm Christ. Matthias Schröder & Co., with branches in Bremen, Amsterdam, London, St. Petersburg and Riga. He was elected a senator in 1799 and served as First Mayor of Hamburg, i.e. head of state and head of government of the sovereign city republic, from 1816 until his death in 1821. He was married to Luise Mutzenbecher (1754–1813), a member of a prominent Hamburg family.

They were the parents of Christian Mathias Schröder (1778–1860), who succeeded him as head of the firm and also became a Hamburg senator (1821–1859), and of Johann Heinrich Schröder, who settled in London and founded the investment bank Schroders. In 1868, Johann Heinrich Schröder was ennobled by Prussia and received the title of Freiherr (Baron).

Christian Matthias Schröder was the grandfather of Hamburg First Mayor Carl August Schröder. The firm Christ. Matthias Schröder & Co. went bankrupt in 1858.

Bruno Schroder was a non-executive director of Schroders and a member of the company's nominations committee.

References

Renate Hauschild-Thiessen: "Schröder." In: Neue Deutsche Biographie (NDB). Vol. 23, Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 2007, , S. 553 f.
Deutsches Geschlechterbuch, Vol. 128, 1962, p. 189
Percy Ernst Schramm, Neun Generationen: Dreihundert Jahre deutscher Kulturgeschichte im Lichte der Schicksale einer Hamburger Bürgerfamilie (1648–1948). Vol. I and II, Göttingen 1963/64; Vol. 2, p. 186
Deutsches Geschlechterbuch, Vol. 128, 1962; p. 194

Further reading

External links

German families
German noble families
Banking families
Schroders people

Schröder family


Marshmallow creme (also called marshmallow fluff, marshmallow stuff, marshmallow spread, or marshmallow paste) is an American food item. It is a very sweet and spreadable. It is made out of marshmallows. Marshmallow creme and peanut butter are used to create a fluffernutter sandwich. In addition, marshmallow creme and Nutella can be spread on graham crackers to make s'mores.

Marshmallow creme has around 91.3 calories.

References

Snack foods

Marshmallow creme


Lake Luzerne-Hadley was a census-designated place (CDP) in Saratoga and Warren counties in the U.S. state of New York. The portion in Warren County is part of the Glens Falls Metropolitan Statistical Area. The CDP consisted of the centers of population in the towns of Hadley (Saratoga County) and Lake Luzerne (Warren County).

The population was 2,240 at the 2000 census. For the 2010 census, the area was redelineated as two separate CDPs, Lake Luzerne (pop. 1,227) and Hadley (pop. 1,009). The CDPs are located at the confluence of the Sacandaga and Hudson rivers.

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP had a total area of 4.2 square miles (11.0 km2), of which 3.8 square miles (9.7 km2) was land and 0.5 square miles (1.2 km2), or 11.11%, was water.

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 2,240 people, 882 households, and 606 families residing in the CDP. The population density was . There were 1,355 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the CDP was 98.66% White, 0.36% African American, 0.04% Native American, 0.09% Asian, 0.04% from other races, and 0.80% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.58% of the population.

There were 882 households, out of which 33.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53.3% were married couples living together, 11.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31.2% were non-families. 24.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.52 and the average family size was 2.99.

In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 26.1% under the age of 18, 7.1% from 18 to 24, 29.2% from 25 to 44, 23.1% from 45 to 64, and 14.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 93.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.8 males.

The median income for a household in the CDP was $34,922, and the median income for a family was $38,153. Males had a median income of $31,875 versus $19,444 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $15,979. About 9.2% of families and 11.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 20.1% of those under age 18 and 4.7% of those age 65 or over.

References

External links
 Map of Lake Luzerne-Hadley (CDP)

Former census-designated places in New York (state)
Glens Falls metropolitan area
Adirondacks
Populated places in Warren County, New York
Populated places in Saratoga County, New York

Lake Luzerne-Hadley, New York


Samuel Taylor Chadwick (1809 – 3 May 1876) was an English doctor and philanthropist.

Life
Chadwick was born in Newcroft House in Urmston, Lancashire, and educated at Stretford School before moving to Bolton at the age of 14 to live with a doctor uncle in Sweet Green. Chadwick himself then decided to study medicine at the University of London in 1828, becoming a Member of the Royal College of Surgeons (MRCS).

He returned to Lancashire and set up a practice in Wigan, moving to Bolton in 1837 to succeed his uncle. To improve his medical knowledge and skills he went to Ireland for two years, qualifying as a Licentiate of the Royal College of Surgeons (LRCS), and Scotland for one year, qualifying LRCS of Edinburgh. After further study he was awarded the degree of MD in Edinburgh.

He again returned to Bolton and established an eye clinic and an ear, nose and throat clinic and became honorary surgeon at Bolton Hospital. He donated £5000 towards the building of the Chadwick ear, nose and throat ward. His surgical skill resulted in his election as a Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons.

He provided the funds to set up a Mechanics Institute and gave lectures on public health issues. Further donations enabled houses to be built for people living in cellars. He was elected to Bolton Council and fought for better public health provisions such as cleaner water, established the Chadwick Orphanage which could house 80 girls and improved the Bolton Workhouse. He donated money to establish a natural history museum in the town's Queen's Park, which was the basis of the present Bolton Museum now relocated to the town centre. His final act of philanthropy before his retirement to Southport in 1863 was to set up a charity to help European refugees.

He died on 3 May 1876 and was buried at Bolton Parish Church. He had married Ann Hall, a wine merchant's daughter, but both their children died young. In 1873 Bolton council erected the statue of him which stands today outside Bolton Town Hall.

References

1809 births
1876 deaths
Health professionals from Manchester
People from Urmston
19th-century English medical doctors
Fellows of the Royal College of Surgeons of England
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh

Samuel Taylor Chadwick


Georgi Stanislavovich Benkunsky (, 1913—1995) was a Russian Soviet pilot, a war hero and an Honoured Pilot of the USSR.

Benkunsky was born in 1913 in Kasimov in what was then the Russian Empire. His father, Stanislav Gilyarievich Benkunsky (1880-1920), was from the nobility of Vilna Province and fought in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905, where he won the Order of St. George. His mother, Varvara Semyonovna Yukawa (1884-1952), was graduated from the Medical Institute in Kharkov and worked as a pharmacist in Yegoryevsk. She was a recipient of the Order of Lenin.

Benkunsky was graduated from the Balashov Higher Military Aviation School in 1933, after which he was posted to Irkutsk with the Ninth Air Group; one of the unit's itineraries was Irkutsk-Yakutsk-Bodaibo which at this time was nicknamed "Route Courage".

From the beginning of the German-Soviet Campaign of World War II (called, in the Soviet Union, the Great Patriotic War), Benkunsky was part of the Special Purpose Transport Air Fleet of the Moscow Air Group, equipped with Lisunov Li-2s (license built Douglas DC-3s). In his aircraft the "Sky Snail" Benkunsky flew missions in defiance of German fighters in the skies over Moscow, then Leningrad, then Stalingrad, Sevastopol and the Caucasus – wherever the need and danger was greatest. During the war, Li-2s were used for transport, partisan supply, as ambulance aircraft, and even for bombing. Benkunsky was the only Aeroflot pilot to be awarded four Orders of Lenin. He also received other awards and medals including the Order of the Red Banner of Labour and the Order of the Red Star.

On August 12, 1944, Benkunsky and his crew flew the Soviet diplomatic delegation for the development of the United Nations Charter, headed by Ambassador Andrei Gromyko, from Moscow to Washington, D. C.

After the war, Benkunsky flew a total of nearly thirty thousand hours. He flew to the United States over the North Pole, and to Africa, Western Europe, and Asia. He mastered several kinds of piston engine and turboprop civil aviation aircraft. For his many accomplishments and for his exemplary leadership and training of younger aviators, Benkunskogo was made an Honoured Pilot of the USSR in 1971.

Benkunsky died on February 10, 1995, and was buried in Moscow. The eighth Sukhoi Superjet 100 off the production line was named "Georgi Benkunsky" in his honor.

References

1913 births
1995 deaths
People from Kasimov
People from Kasimovsky Uyezd
Soviet Air Force officers
Aeroflot
Soviet World War II pilots
Recipients of the Order of Lenin
Recipients of the Order of the Red Banner
Recipients of the Order of the Red Star

Georgi Benkunsky


Trifolium alpinum is a species of flowering plant in the legume family known by the common name alpine clover. It is native to the Alps.

This plant is a perennial herb with a large taproot which can be 1 metre long and 1 centimetre wide. The short stems bear ternate leaves divided into three leaflets each up to 5 cm long. The fragrant flowers are pink to light red, tinged with purple.

This plant grows at elevations between 1700 and 2500 m, sometimes up to 2800 m, in subalpine and alpine climates. It commonly grows on acidic soils.

In alpine regions this plant provides an important forage for livestock. It is also good for stabilizing sites of erosion at high elevations.

References

alpinum
Flora of the Pyrenees
Flora of the Alps
Plants described in 1753
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus

Trifolium alpinum


Every Saturday Night is a 1936 American comedy film directed by James Tinling and starring June Lang, Thomas Beck and Jed Prouty. This is the first of 17 low-budget films about the Jones Family (named Evers initially).

Cast
 June Lang as Bonnie Evers
 Thomas Beck as Clark Newall
 Jed Prouty as Mr. Evers
 Spring Byington as Mrs. Evers
 Florence Roberts as Granny Evers
 Kenneth Howell as Jack Evers
 George Ernest as Roger Evers
 June Carlson as Lucy Evers
 Paul Stanton as Mr. Mewell
 Billy Mahan as Bobby Evers
 Kay Hughes as Patty Newall
 Phyllis Fraser as Millicent
 Fred Wallace as Jed
 Oscar Apfel as Mr. Dayton

References

Bibliography
 Bernard A. Drew. Motion Picture Series and Sequels: A Reference Guide. Routledge, 2013.

External links

1936 films
1936 comedy films
American comedy films
Films directed by James Tinling
20th Century Fox films
American black-and-white films
Films scored by Samuel Kaylin
1930s English-language films
1930s American films

Every Saturday Night


Constant Girard (La Chaux-de-Fonds, 1825 – La Chaux-de-Fonds, 1903) was a Swiss watchmaker from the 19th century, who marked his time by his developments in the escapement systems, in particular that of the tourbillon.  His most famous watch, the Tourbillon with three gold bridges, is still fabricated today in modern versions by the Swiss watch manufacturer, Girard-Perregaux.

His life
Constant Girard began his career apprenticed to the watchmaker of La Sagne, in the mountains of Neuchâtel, Switzerland. In 1845, he joined forces with watchmaker C. Robert. Around 1852, he practiced his profession under the name of "Girard & Cie," at the side of his older brother Numa.

In 1854, he married Marie Perregaux (1831-1912), who came from a family of watchmakers, and the two founded in 1856 the watch manufacturing company in La Chaux-de-Fonds that still carries their combined family names: Girard-Perregaux, which is still in existence today. His business developed rapidly, all the way to America and Japan.

Constant Girard-Perregaux was equally active in the social, political, and economic life of La Chaux-de-Fonds. He died in 1903.

The Tourbillon with three gold bridges
Constant Girard devoted many long years to studying and designing diverse systems of escapements and in particular that of the tourbillon. Invented at the very beginning of the 19th century, the tourbillon counteracted the differing effects of gravity on a watch held in the vertical versus horizontal position, thanks to a mobile cage that carries the settling organ.

Constant Girard redesigned the three bridges, part of the watch movement, into the form of arrows parallel to one another. With a patented design in 1884, his Tourbillon with three gold bridges was awarded a gold medal at the Universal Exposition of Paris in 1889.

Other accomplishments
Constant Girard was equally interested in the measure of time and he illustrated this in his chronometers watches. Girard-Perregaux were rewarded by several gold medals or diplomas from expositions in Europe and in America for his efforts. Some of its creations are presented at the Girard-Perregaux Museum situated in La Chaux-de-Fonds, Switzerland.

Constant Girard also produced the first ever major commercial production of a wristwatch, made for German naval officers and ordered by German Kaiser Wilhelm I for his German naval officers. Two-thousand such watches were ordered and produced, which represents the first important commercialization of wristwatches.

See also
Girard-Perregaux
Tourbillon

Notes

Sources
François Chaille, Girard-Perregaux, Editions Flammarion, 2004,

External links
Website of the company Girard-Perregaux
Website of the Fondation of Haute Horlogerie

1825 births
1903 deaths
Swiss watchmakers (people)

Constant Girard


Wunderland Kalkar is an amusement park in Kalkar, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is built on the former site of SNR-300, a nuclear power plant that never went online because of construction problems and protests. The park was constructed by Dutch entrepreneur Hennie van der Most, who purchased the site for a rumored price of US$3 million. Wunderland Kalkar receives around 600,000 visitors each year.

Many of the facilities constructed for the plant have been integrated into the park and its attractions, including the cooling tower, which features a swing ride and a climbing wall. The park also features four restaurants, eight bars, and six hotels.

References

External links

Amusement parks in Germany
Tourist attractions in North Rhine-Westphalia
Kleve (district)

Wunderland Kalkar


Richard Joseph "Rick" Sanders (January 20, 1945 – October 18, 1972) was an American folkstyle and freestyle wrestler. He won gold medals at the 1967 Pan American Games and 1969 World Championships, finishing second at the 1968 and 1972 Olympics and 1967 World Championships. After the 1972 Olympics, while traveling to Greece, he was killed in a car accident in Skopje, Yugoslavia. In 1987, Sanders was inducted into the National Wrestling Hall of Fame as a Distinguished Member.

Wrestling

High school
Rick Sanders attended Lincoln High School in Portland, Oregon. While there he wrestled at 98 pounds in 1961, 108 pounds in 1962 and 115 pounds in 1963. He won three Oregon State Championships, finishing with a high school record of 80–1.

University
When Sanders arrived at Portland State University, he quickly led his team to national prominence. As a freshman, he highlighted an undefeated season by winning the 1965 NAIA National Championships at 115 pounds and earned the Outstanding Wrestler Award. As a sophomore Sanders lost the first match of his career when he moved up to the 123 pound class and placed third in the NCAA College Division Nationals. Two weeks later he dropped down to the 115 pound class and won the 1966 NCAA University Division National Championship. As a junior Sanders had a perfect season going undefeated and winning both the 1967 NCAA College and University Division National Championships at 115 pounds. He was selected as the Outstanding Wrestler in both meets. As a senior Sanders moved up to the 123 pound class and went undefeated during the regular season. He won his second NCAA College Division National Championship and was again selected as the Outstanding Wrestler. Two weeks later at the NCAA University Division Nationals, Sanders lost for only the second time in his collegiate career when he placed second. His total collegiate record was 103–2. He led his Portland State team to a first-place finish in the 1967 NCAA College Division Nationals, a second-place finish in 1968, and a third-place finish in 1967. The same three years Portland State also finished fifth, sixth, and eighth in the NCAA University Division Nationals. Sanders is the only collegiate wrestler to win National Championships in the NAIA, NCAA College Division, and the NCAA University Division, and be designated an Outstanding Wrestler in each.

U.S. Team and Olympics
As early as his freshman year in college, in 1965, Sanders won his first of five national freestyle championships and made the U.S. World Team. In 1966 he placed third in the World Championships, in 1967 he placed second in the World, and won the Pan American Games. In 1968, Sanders won an Olympic silver medal. A year later, at 114.5 pounds, Sanders became the first American ever to win a World Championship. He returned to the Olympics in 1972 and captured another silver medal. Of the eleven bouts he won in two Olympics, nine came by fall.

Death
Following the Olympic Games in Munich, Sanders began touring Europe. While hitch-hiking to Greece, he was killed in an automobile accident on October 18, 1972, in Skopje, Yugoslavia when the Land Rover he was riding in crashed head-on into a bus.

Sanders is buried in Forrester Cemetery in Eagle Creek, Oregon.

References

1945 births
1972 deaths
Wrestlers at the 1968 Summer Olympics
Wrestlers at the 1972 Summer Olympics
American male sport wrestlers
Olympic silver medalists for the United States in wrestling
Wrestlers from Oregon
Lincoln High School (Portland, Oregon) alumni
Road incident deaths in North Macedonia
Road incident deaths in Yugoslavia
Portland State Vikings wrestlers
World Wrestling Championships medalists
Medalists at the 1972 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 1968 Summer Olympics
Pan American Games gold medalists for the United States
Pan American Games medalists in wrestling
Wrestlers at the 1967 Pan American Games
Medalists at the 1967 Pan American Games

Rick Sanders (wrestler)


Lise Roy (born 1954) is a Canadian actress who has appeared in stage productions, film and television.

Roy graduated from the Conservatoire d'art dramatique de Montréal in 1975. In film, she worked with directors such as Denys Arcand, playing Mme. Joncas-Pelletier, the strict hospital manager in The Barbarian Invasions (2003); André Turpin in Endorphine (2015); and Podz in King Dave (2016).

Her television work has included Nouvelle adresse. On stage, she played Agathe in Michel Marc Bouchard's play Tom à la ferme, reprising the role in Xavier Dolan's 2013 film of the same name. After seeing the play, which Roy began performing in 2011, Dolan assured her he would not recast the role in the film. For the Tom at the Farm film, Roy won the Vancouver Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Canadian Film, and was nominated for the Jutra Award for Best Actress.

In 2016, she became a professor in theatre at the Université du Québec à Montréal.

References

External links
Lise Roy at the Internet Movie Database

1954 births
Actresses from Montreal
Canadian film actresses
Canadian television actresses
Living people
Academic staff of the Université du Québec à Montréal
Best Supporting Actress in a Drama Series Canadian Screen Award winners

Lise Roy


William Adolphus Knell (1801–1875) was a successful British maritime painter of the 19th century.

Life

Knell was born in 1801 at Carisbrooke on the Isle of Wight. By 1825 had already exhibited his works at the Royal Academy. He soon built up a successful practice as a painter of maritime and particularly naval subjects, exhibiting regularly at the Royal Academy, British Institution and the Society of British Artists. He was particularly praised in 1847 for The Battle off Cape St. Vincent, 14 February 1797, shown at Westminster Hall in 1847. It was purchased for the nation for £200 and is now part of the Parliamentary Art Collection. Reviewing Knell's Destruction of Toulon, shown in the same exhibition, The Athenæum said: "It is more conspicuous in chiaroscuro treatment than most of the pictures here of its class ... a little less whiteness in the more intense portions of the fire would have given greater brilliancy. The handling is as vigorous and sketchy as the effect is powerful.

Knell was twice commissioned by Queen Victoria for paintings. His picture The Arrival of Prince Albert, 6 February 1840  was bought by the prince himself  and remains in the Royal Collection.  It shows  the packet steamer Ariel, on board which Albert came to Britain for his wedding, approaching the crowded quay at Dover in a storm.

The returns of the 1861 Census record  the family as living in St Pancras, London.  William Adolphus, then aged 58 was married to Susan; his son William Calcott, aged 32 (b.c. 1829), was married to Maria and another son,  Adolphus (b.c. 1849) was aged 12. Both William Calcott Knell and Adolphus Knell also became successful painters.

He died on 9 July 1875 at his home in Kentish Town and was buried at Abney Park Cemetery.

Both WA Knell and Adolphus painted a significant number of small picture of boats at dusk and in the moonlight.  Many of these smaller pictures are on panel rather than on canvas which has the advantage that the harder surface allows for higher detail.

Notes

External links

1801 births
19th-century English painters
English male painters
1875 deaths
Burials at Abney Park Cemetery
19th-century English male artists

William Adolphus Knell