The cinema of Romania is the art of motion-picture making within the nation of Romania or by Romanian filmmakers abroad. The history of cinema in Romania dates back to the late 19th century, as early as the history of film itself. With the first set of films screened on May 27, 1896, in the building of L'Indépendance Roumanie newspaper in Bucharest. In the Romanian exhibition, a team of Lumière brothers' employees screened several films, including the famous L'Arrivée d'un train en gare de La Ciotat. The next year, in 1897, the French cameraman Paul Menu (an employee of the Lumière brothers) shot the first film set in Romania, The Royal parade on May 10, 1897.
The first Romanian filmmaker was doctor Gheorghe Marinescu. He created a series of medically themed short films for the first time in history between 1898 and 1899.

The cinema of Romania has been home to many internationally acclaimed films and directors. The first internationally awarded Romanian movie was the 1938 documentary Țara Moților (about Moților Land in the Apuseni Mountains, Romania) directed by Paul Călinescu which received a prize at the 1939 7th Venice International Film Festival.
The first Romanian film that won an award from the Cannes Film Festival was the 1957 animated short film "Scurtă istorie" (A Short History) directed by Ion Popescu-Gopo. The film won the Short Film Palme d'Or at the 1957 Cannes Film Festival. The first live-action Romanian film that won an award from the Cannes Film Festival was the 1965 film Forest of the Hanged. The film's director, Liviu Ciulei won the award for Best Director at the 1965 Cannes Film Festival.

Romanian cinema achieved wide international recognition in the 2000s with the Romanian New Wave movement that often incorporated a genre of realist and minimalist films that won many awards at European film festivals such as the Cannes Film Festival and the Berlin International Film Festival.

Actualities (1897-1910)
The history of cinema in Romania started before 1900, pushed by film screenings which helped arouse public curiosity towards the new invention and enthusiastic cameramen began making films out of passion for the newly discovered art. Due to the rudimentary technical conditions, the early films were actualities, very short (many less than one minute) one-shot scenes capturing moments of everyday life.

The first cinematographic projection in Romania took place on 27 May 1896, less than five months after the first public film exhibition by the Lumière brothers on 28 December 1895 in Paris. In the Romanian exhibition, a team of Lumière brothers' employees screened several films, including the famous L'Arrivée d'un train en gare de La Ciotat. The event was arranged by Edwin Schurmann, the impresario of Adelina Patti and Eleonora Duse,and was hosted by the French-language newspaper L'Indépendance Roumanie. Mișu Văcărescu (descendant of the boyar Văcărescu family), a journalist for L'Indépendance Roumanie, noted that "there took place a representation of 'the miracle of the century'". Initially an elite attraction, permanent screenings both in the building of L'Indépendance Roumanie and in other locations (such as the biggest room of the newspaper building on Eforiei Spitalelor Civile Boulevard, then the Hugues room across from the old National Theatre) helped bring the ticket price down and cinema became a popular spectacle in Bucharest.

The next year, in 1897, the French cameraman Paul Menu (an employee of the Lumière brothers) shot the first film set in Romania, The Royal parade on 10 May 1897, showing King Carol I mounted, taking his place on the boulevard to head the parade. He continued by filming other 16 news items over the following two months, but only two survive today as nr. 551 and 552 in the Lumière catalogue. Menu's first Romanian films were presented on 8 June/23 June 1897, including images of the floods at Galați, Romanian Navy vessels on the Danube, and scenes from the Băneasa Hippodrome.

Starting in 1906, in Macedonia, the Aromanian Manakia brothers made a career with their social and ethnographic themed actualities.

Film screenings resumed in Bucharest in 1905 at various locations, as the Edison, the Eforie, the Lyric Theatre, and Circul Sidoli. In May 1909, the first theater in Romania built especially for exhibiting films, Volta, was opened on Doamnei Street in Bucharest. Transylvania, then part of Austria-Hungary, had already had its first movie theatre in Brașov since 1901. Volta was followed starting with the next year by others, such as Bleriot on Sărindar Street, Bristol, Apollo and Venus. The programs consisted of actualities and short "little films with actors" (for example, a five-minute shot of Victor Eftimiu and Aristizza Romanescu during a stately walk on the seashore). The films gradually increased in running time, eventually developing into newsreels and fiction films.

First scientific films in history (1898-1899)

By 1898, public interest in cinema started fading, so Paul Menu offered his camera for sale. The camera was bought by doctor Gheorghe Marinescu who became the first Romanian filmmaker, realizing a series of short medically themed films for the first time in history between 1898 and 1899. Gheorghe Marinescu, together with cameraman Constantin M. Popescu, made in 1898 the first scientific film in the world, Walking difficulties in organic hemiplegia.
In a letter to doctor Marinescu from 29 July 1924, speaking about these films, Auguste Lumière wrote: "I've seen your scientific reports about the usage of cinematograph in studies of nervous illnesses, when I was still receiving La Semaine Médicale. Unfortunately, not many scientists have followed your way."  His films were considered lost until 1975, when a TV reporter named Cornel Rusu discovered them in a metal cabinet in a hospital bearing the famous doctor's name.

First Romanian silent era films (1911-1920)

An investigation regarding the beginnings of non-actualities Romanian fiction films, published in an insert of the newspaper Cuvântul (The Word) in December 1933, mentions that in 1911 an "arrangement of a play for the cinema", Păpușa (The Doll), was produced by the cameramen Nicolae Barbelian and Demichelli in collaboration with the head of the actors' troupe, Marinescu. At the same time, Victor Eftimiu, in collaboration with Emil Gârleanu, wrote a film script which they offered for free to a certain Georgescu. The resultant film, called Dragoste la mănăstire (Love in a Monastery) or Două altare (Two Altars) and shown only in 1914, played for just eight days. This was despite the fact that the film was composed merely of shots taken during two rehearsals for the role, attended by Tony Bulandra and Marioara Voiculescu, the rest of the film being taken up by intertitles and long letters.

The first Romanian fiction film was Amor Fatal (Fatal Love Affair), starring Lucia Sturdza, Tony Bulandra and Aurel Barbelian, actors from the National Theatre Bucharest. The film was directed by Grigore Brezeanu, a director from the same theatre and the son of the great actor Ion Brezeanu. The film played between 26 and 30 September 1911 at the Apollo Cinema.

On 7 November 1911, the film Înșirăte mărgărite... (Spread Yourselves, Daisies) premiered. It was based on Victor Eftimiu's poem, and in fact showed scenes filmed in different locations in the country for the completion of the play with the same name that was playing at the National Theatre Bucharest; it was what today would be called a magic lantern show. Aristide Demetriade and Grigore Brezeanu directed. Aristide Demetriade appeared in the role of Făt-Frumos. This film/theatre hybrid was well received by spectators of the day.

In December 1911, the theatrical magazine Rampa published a note under the heading "The Cinema in the Theatre" (signed by V. Scânteie) indicating that "The Maestro Nottara is in the course of making a patriotic work re-creating the Romanian War of Independence on film, so that today's generations might learn the story of the battles of 1877, and for future generations a live tableau of Romanian bravery will remain".

As a result, the director of the Bucharest branch of the Gaumont-Paris studio, Raymond Pellerin, announced the premiere of his film Războiul din 1877-1878 (The 1877–1878 War), scheduled for 29 December 1911. A "film" made in haste, with a troupe of second-hand actors and with the help of General Constantinescu, who commanded a division at Pitești, from whom he had obtained the extras needed for the war scenes, "Războiul din 1877-1878" was screened a day before by the prefect of the capital's police, who decided that it did not correspond with historic fact. Consequently, the film was confiscated and destroyed, Raymond Pellerin was declared persona non grata and he left for Paris, while the "collaborationist" general saw himself moved to another garrison as a means of discipline.

On 5 May 1912, the magazine Flacăra (The Flame) brought to its readers' attention the fact that "as it is known, a few artists have founded a society with the goal of producing a film about the War of Independence... Such an undertaking deserves to be applauded". The initiators were a group of actors: Constantin Nottara, Aristide Demetriade, V. Toneanu, Ion Brezeanu, N. Soreanu, P. Liciu, as well as the young Grigore Brezeanu, associate producer and the creative force behind the whole operation. Since a large amount of money was needed for the production, they also brought into this effort Leon Popescu, a wealthy man and owner of the Lyric Theatre. The group received strong backing from government authorities, with the army and all necessary equipment being placed at its disposal, plus military advisers (possibly including Pascal Vidrașcu). The cameras and their operators were brought from abroad, and the print was prepared in Parisian laboratories. Could Grigore Brezeanu have been the film's director? No source from that time gives credence to such a hypothesis. On the contrary, they present him as "initiator", producer of the film, beside members of the National Theatre and Leon Popescu. Furthermore, it appears that it was he who attracted the financier of the entire undertaking. In 1985, the film critic Tudor Caranfil discovered among Aristide Demetriade's papers his director's notebooks for Independența României, unequivocally confirming that he was the film's director. Thus, the film's production crew was as follows: Producers: Leon Popescu, Aristide Demetriade, Grigore Brezeanu, Constantin Nottara, Pascal Vidrașcu. Screenwriters: Petre Liciu, Constantin Nottara, Aristide Demetriade, Corneliu Moldoveanu. Director: Aristide Demetriade. Cinematographer: Franck Daniau. Makeup and hairstylist: Pepi Machauer.

On 2 September 1912, at the Eforie cinema, the largest movie theatre in Bucharest, the premiere of Independența României took place. Despite all its shortcomings as the theatrical game of the actors, the errors of an army of extras uncontrolled by direction which provoked unintended laughter in some scenes and rendered dramatically limp those of the beginning, the film was well received by spectators, being shown for several weeks. Through this realization, through the dimensions of its theme, through the distribution method chosen, through the genuine artistic intentions, through its professional editing (for the time), the creation of this film can be considered Romania's first step in the art of cinematography.

And yet he who had realized this work, the man who kept the whole team together, the theatre director Grigore Brezeanu, was left disappointed. The press of the time made ostentatious mention of Leon Popescu, who financed the film and made sure to distance the other financiers, buying their part; no such praise was heaped on the artistic makers of the film. This caused producer Grigore Brezeanu to say in an interview given to the magazine "Rampa" and published on 13 April 1913: "My dream would have been to build a large film studio. I have come to believe that this is impossible. First of all, we are missing a large capital investment. Without money we cannot rival the foreign studios...A studio, according to our financiers, is something outside art, something in the realm of agriculture or the C.F.R. Hence I have abandoned this dream with great regret."

But Leon Popescu — after the appearance of certain products allegedly of the Romanian cinema, filmed by the Pathe-Frères studio and featuring second-hand actors; in fact, these were a mixture of foreign films with scenes shot in which Romanian actors appeared (they were presented on the stages of movie theatres, in the form of theatre productions played by actors "in flesh and blood" coupled with filmed scenes of the same actors), known as "cinemasketches" — responded with a wide-ranging offensive plan, forming the Film de artă Leon Popescu (Leon Popescu Art Film) society in 1913.

Collaborating with the troupe of Marioara Voiculescu, which included actors sympathetic to Popescu (C. Radovici, Ion Manolescu and G. Storin), they managed to put on the market the following films: Amorul unei prințese (The Love Affair of a Princess) (1913), Răzbunarea (Revenge) (1913), Urgia cerească (The Sky-borne Disaster) (1913), Cetatea Neamțului (The Neamț Citadel) (1914), Spionul (The Spy) (1914), with all but the penultimate proving to be well below expectations.

Notably, in 1913, there appeared another Romanian film, Oțelul răzbună (Steel Takes Its Revenge), directed by Aristide Demetriade - who that same year directed another film: Scheci cu Jack Bill (Sketch with Jack Bill). The film was financed by the director, with substantial help from Professor Gheorghe Arion (8,000 lei). The 40-minute film received favorable reviews and enjoyed great success. Today only one reel remains at the A.N.F., taking up a minute of projection time; happily, all the actors can be seen in close-up. The film's producer was Gheorghe Arion; its director and editor was Aristide Demetriade; Franck Daniau was the cinematographer, and it starred Aristide Demetriade, Andrei Popovici, Mărioara Cinsky, Țacovici-Cosmin, Nicolae Grigorescu, Petre Bulandra, and Romald Bulfinsky.

At the end of 1914, the Leon Popescu Society merged with the Cipeto society with the aim of importing small-sized projectors and at the same time of renting films produced by the Marioara Voiculescu company to third parties.

During the First World War, film production was mainly directed toward documentaries and newsreels. The few Romanian cameramen were mobilized, and during the retreat to Moldova all film cameras in the country were saved. His Majesty Ferdinand I was filmed on the front, together with the generals Constantin Prezan and Alexandru Averescu, while Queen Marie was filmed in hospitals, easing the suffering of patients. Few sequences remain of the thousands of metres filmed. Some of these were later used in the film , produced in 1930.

After World War I, internationally, film production developed in accordance with the interest of businessmen in the new industry. New studios endowed with good equipment and specialists well trained in the new technology appeared, directors and actors known to the public at large were attracted to work in the new industry, as were renowned screenwriters. Markets were opened for finished film products, which through a market-tested formula managed to bring profits and finance new productions. Film industries with lavish financial resources came to dominate the market, decimating national cinemas.

To all these were added two other catastrophes: Leon Popescu died in 1918, after which his studio on the grounds of the Lyric Theatre burned down.  Miraculously, of all the films, only one was saved: a copy of Independența României (this being incomplete, with about 20 minutes missing). According to other versions of the story told at the time, suffering from a crisis of nerves brought about by his films' failures, Leon Popescu set fire to his own storehouse of films and died shortly thereafter.

In 1920, a film studio, Soarele (The Sun), began producing Pe valurile fericirii (On the Waves of Happiness), which starred the Hungarian actress Lya De Putti, and the Romanian actors Maria Filotti, Ion Manolescu, Gheorghe Storin, Alexandre Mihalesco, and Tantzi Cutava-Barozzi. It was directed by Dolly A. Sigetti and the script was based on a play by K. Williamson. The film was never completed. Nevertheless, a few sequences were shown in the form of a trailer.

First Romanian animated film (1920)

The year 1920 marked the production of the first Romanian animated film, more precisely of the first Romanian animated cartoon, conceived by Aurel Petrescu and called Păcală în lună (Păcală on the moon). Surprisingly, all the animated films of this director and artist, which he was producing into the sound era, are lost. Showing foresight, Aurel Petrescu created an album with about 80 stills, today owned by the A.N.F (Arhiva Națională de Filme, in English: National Movie Archive) and from which we can get an idea of the techniques used by Petrescu in animating. Some stills have on their edge the black strip denoting recorded sound, which has led researchers to confirm that in his last phase, Petrescu produced sound cartoons.

Romanian silent era films (1921-1930)

Jean Mihail was one of the pioneers of Romanian cinema. He began his career through his participation as assistant director under the German Alfred Hallm, director of Țigăncușa din iatac (The Gypsy Girl in the Bedroom). The film, shot on locations such as Mogoșoaia Palace, Pasărea Monastery, and Minovici Vila, was based on a script by Victor Beldiman, in turn written after a novel by Radu Rosseti. It was a Spera-Film Berlin and Rador-Film Bucharest co-production. It starred Dorina Heller, Elvira Popescu, Ion Iancovescu, Mitzi Vecera, Tantzi Elvas, Ecaterina Vigny, Leon Lefter, Petre Sturdza, Petrescu Muscă and premiered on 30 December 1923. The film is lost today.

The young actor-director Jean Georgescu found an investor in the year 1925 who invested his savings in the production of a film called Năbădăile Cleopatrei (Cleopatra's Caprices). Ion Șahighian made his directing debut on this film, which starred Jean Georgescu, Ion Finteșteanu, A. Pop Marțian, Alexandru Giugaru, N. Soreanu, Brândușa Grozăvescu and others. It premiered on 5 October 1925 at the Lux theatre. In the same fashion, Jean Georgescu produced the film Milionar pentru o zi (Millionaire for a Day) (1925) in a Bucharest cabaret, since the owner wanted to advertise the building.

Jean Mihail directed Lia (1927), on a screenplay by Mircea Filotti financed by a German businessman who wanted to fulfill the wish of his wife, well-known actress Lilly Flohr. Likewise, he made Povara (The Burden) at Vienna in 1928 with the money of a lady who wished to see her name listed in the credits as production director.

At the request of a firm that sold coffee, radios, etc., Marcel Blossoms and Micu Kellerman directed the film Lache în harem (1927) (The valet in the harem).

On other occasions, due to lack of money, film enthusiasts would form a cooperative: one would contribute the camera, the other the laboratory, the other the script, the other the direction; the actors were easily obtained due to their desire to see themselves on screen, and finally they had to find a creditor willing to lend them some money on the assurance that it would be returned to him after "the great success of the premiere". This is how there appeared under Jean Mihail's direction Păcat (Sin) (1924) and Manasse (Manasseh) (1925). The actor Ghiță Popescu directed Legenda celor două cruci (The Legend of the Two Crosses) (1925), Vitejii neamului (The Bravest of Our People) (1926) and Năpasta (The Calamity) (1927). Jean Georgescu directed Maiorul Mura (Major Mura) (1928), financed by collecting money from friends.

The attraction of the screen and the real desire to make a name for oneself in the new art led to the foundation of several film schools. Students' tuition fees paid for the production of certain films. Of course, the students were unpaid actors, which allowed for widespread distribution. The Clipa-Film studio produced, with this form of financing, the films Iadeș (The Wishbone) (1926), Iancu Jianu (1927), Haiducii (The Haiducs) (1929), Ciocoii (The Boyars) (1930) and, later, Insula Șerpilor (Snake Island) (1934), the penultimate one featuring an attempt at sound, and the last one being a talkie.

On the other hand, a film production society called Soremar, generally specializing in documentaries and newsreels, produced the 1928 film Simfonia dragostei (The Symphony of Love), directed by Ion Șahighian. With the director Niculescu Brumă they produced the film Ecaterina Teodoroiu, in which there appear clips filmed during the First World War of the great personages of the time; the mother of Ecaterina Teodoroiu appeared as herself. These films were produced in Vienna studios.

Other films from this period include Gogulică C.F.R. (1929) (unfinished), and Haplea (The Dullard) (animated by Marin Iorda in 1928) - the first Romanian animated film preserved archivally.

From a technical point of view, making these films was very difficult. If a film camera could be obtained from newsreel photographers, the print was prepared with them also. The problem of finding a set to use was very difficult, with the director searching for a set among all nearby warehouses, granaries, stables or dance halls. Sometimes filming was done in different apartments or in homes owned by those willing to help. Lights were usually gathered up from photographers' studios. Often, due to overcrowding in residences, films would accidentally display a light or the cameraman and his camera reflected in a mirror or a piece of furniture. The best locations were those offered by various theatres on occasion that work take place at night. Another solution was for them to shoot interiors outdoors. They built their "interiors" on sets exposed to sunlight (thus eliminating artificial lights) and built on a platform that could be rotated and thus make full use of sunlight. The technical crews, in contrast to those found abroad, had to be jacks-of-all-trades, yet ultimately workmen: the cameraman would also prepare the print in the laboratory, the director might be a make-up artist as well, the producer a prop-man, an actor an assistant director. As for distribution, this depended on the actors' willingness to work for free. To all this was added the fact that negatives were scarce, meaning that sequences were filmed in one take only, regardless of the quality of the outcome.

Even if the conditions in which these people worked and created did not allow them to reach a level equal to wider contemporary standards on a technical level, they still managed to record a pretty page in the annals of Romanian film history, despite all the inherent artistic lapses at the beginning.

On the other hand, the intellectuals of the day still considered cinematographic art to be a lowly sideshow, not according it its due importance. It is true that the specialty press was also rather thin on content and sometimes uninspired. In 1928 Tudor Vianu wrote in the article "The Movie Theatre and the Radio Broadcaster in the Politics of Culture": "The cinematic press [was] created first of all in order to sustain the interests of cinematographic capitalism...There is no actor, no matter how mediocre, not to have been proclaimed a first-rate star by the cinematic press and there is no film, no matter how boring or mundane, not to have been declared an incomparable achievement".

At the end of the 1920s and beginning of the 1930s, cinema entered the consciousness of certain Romanian writers and cultural figures, such as Tudor Vianu, Liviu Rebreanu, Victor Eftimiu, Camil Petrescu and Dimitrie Gusti, who all became aware of this new mode of expression and culture. As Rebreanu observed in 1930,

In this period the film critic D. I. Suchianu made his debut, first in newspapers, then in 1929 in radio. Later on the critic Ion Filotti Cantacuzino also started broadcasting.

The Romanian poet and aristocract Elena Văcărescu said in 1930 about the importance of the cinematic art: "Having great power at its disposal, the cinema should work hard...toward the greatest good of peoples and what brings them together, that is, toward peace".

Romanian sound era films (1930-1947)

The appearance of sound films opened a new stage in the development of world cinema, by implication in the cinema of Romania as well.  The appearance of sound further complicated the tricky problem of the technical-material base, both in terms of production and of projection in theatres. From 1930 until 1939, only 16 films were produced. The majority were "Romanian versions" of foreign films produced in Paris, Prague or Budapest studios with a few Romanian technicians and some Romanian actors. . Among these were the Franco-American film Parada Paramount (Paramount on Parade), Televiziune (Television) (both 1931 and dubbed in Paris) (with George Vraca's voice in the second film), Fum (Smoke) 1931, Trenul fantomă (The Phantom Train) 1933, Prima dragoste (First Love) and Suflete în furtună (Tempest-tossed Souls) 1934, Hungarian films dubbed in Budapest.

The German director Martin Berger, who in 1929 had directed the silent film (among the last Romanian silent films) Venea o moară pe Siret (A Mill Was Coming down the Siret) through an official subsidy, came back and in 1930 directed a film based on the novel by Liviu Rebreanu with the same name, Ciuleandra. This was the first Romanian talking film. The film was an artistic fiasco because the famous German actors provoked laughter through the German accent they had when speaking Romanian. Even the few Romanian actors who appeared in the film spoke strangely, as the German producers, being unused to the cadence of the Romanian language, imposed a diction of phrases with long pauses. Hence, in one scene, the son climbed down a staircase saying one word on each step: "How... are... you... father?". The reply sounds the same: "Fine... dear..."!

The year 1932 brought the production Visul lui Tănase (Tănase's Dream) to Romanian screens. It was self-produced in Berlin by Constantin Tănase. He was the film's financier, screenwriter, and its principal star alongside several good Romanian actors, while the German side provided the studio, direction, technicians, and a troupe of actors.

The great comedians of the inter-war Romanian stage, , managed, with the help of a Romanian engineer, Argani, who had put together a sound device, to produce the only entirely domestic film of the period, titled Bing-Bang (1934). As film posters noted, it was a "humorous musical" based on a script by Argani, Stroe, and Vasilache; with camerawork by I. Bartok; music by N. Stroe and Vasile Vasilache; musical arrangements by Mihai Constantinescu and Max Halm; and starring N. Stroe, Vasile Vasilache, Nora Piacenti, Grigore Vasiliu Birlic, Titi Botez, C. Calmuschi, Silly Vasiliu, Nutzi Pantazi, Lucica Părvulescu, Richard Rang, Alexandru Brunetti, and Alexandru Giovani. Its premiere took place on 7 February 1935 at the Arpa Cinema, inside the Bucharest Military Circle.

Enthusiastic Romanian directors, due to lack of funds and disinterest on the part of the ruling authorities, all began to take other paths in their lives. Jean Georgescu left for Paris, where he added sound to his 1934 film, State la București (States in Bucharest) in the Gaumont Studio; the film had originally been made as a silent comedy. Ion Șahighian left cinema for the theatre. Eftimie Vasilescu worked as a newsreel photographer. Only Jean Mihail remained a director based in Romania, though he too had to do work abroad, participating in the dubbing of films at Hunnia Film Studio in Budapest and Barrandov Studios in Czechoslovakia.

During this nadir of Romanian cinema a ray of hope appeared. Politicians, and not only in Romania, realized the great influential power that cinema had as part of the mass media. Cinema could be used for purposes of propaganda, for influencing the masses at large with different levels of culture. (Even Lenin, realizing the propaganda power of film, said: "Of all the arts, the most important for us is cinema". Hence, film could be used as an important ideological weapon and the Communists needed it in their "great work" of destroying democracies). Furthermore, it had been proven that the tenacious work of Romanian film directors, despite all its imperfections, had been well received by the public, and had begun to prove right those who kept calling for subsidies toward the production of Romanian films.

Thus, at the beginning of 1934, a law was passed establishing a National Cinema Fund. This was funded through a tax of 1 leu per ticket and 10 lei per meter of imported film. Its stated purpose was to create a material base for Romanian film production (studios, laboratories, equipment, etc.) and, as subsequent revenue came in, to finance productions as well. The fund's administration was placed in the hands of a committee formed by Professor Tudor Vianu, Professor Alexandru Rosetti and the writer Ion Marin Sadoveanu. These taxes provoked strong protests from film importers and movie theatre owners, yet with the authorities not yielding, tempers soon relaxed.

Following the passage of this law, Romanian cinéastes began a flurry of activity, planning all sorts of projects. An entrepreneur brought in a Bell-Howel sound recorder and founded a company called The Romanian Sound Film Industry, commencing with the production of newsreels. Together with Jean Mihail he began the production of a documentary film, România (Romania).

Through the contribution of a private entrepreneur, Tudor Posmantir, a laboratory named Ciro-film was built in 1936–1937, equipped with Debrie devices. This was a modern laboratory for developing and copying films, thus assuring that modern work techniques would be used. A "film studio" was also built nearby–this was in fact a large wooden hangar, but rather good for producing films. It was here that Ion Șahighian filmed O noapte de pomină (An Unforgettable Night), from a script by Tudor Mușatescu, starring George Timică and Dina Cocea, in 1939. The film found great success with audiences and received a favorable critical reception. Thus it was shown what good technical equipment could do for the industry.

Through various governments' decisions, the National Cinema Fund was placed within the Tourism Office, where a cinema section had been established for creating travelogues. The material base created was that initially stated as the project's goal and indeed of good quality. The film cameras were of the newsreel type, with portable sound equipment set up in an automobile; work was soon finished on a sound recording room for documentaries, with minimal artificial lights in the studio. This all disappointed the creators of artistic films, as they lacked suitable sets for filming.

Also in this period at the end of the 1930s, Oficiul Național Cinematografic (ONC, the National Cinematographic Office) was formed, headed by the film critic D. I. Suchianu. In the beginning the office worked on a periodic newsreel program and on documentary production. Construction was also begun on a studio and completed with difficulty due to the start of World War II. The ONC produced the documentary Țara Moților (Moților Land), which received a prize at the 1938 Venice Film Festival. The film was directed by Paul Călinescu and marked the entry of the Romanian documentary into the realm of cinematic art.  During the war, the ONC was placed at the disposal of the Army General Staff, the majority of cameramen being sent to the front, and technicians being employed exclusively for the needs of wartime propaganda.

Despite all these difficulties, the film O noapte furtunoasă (A Stormy Night) was completed between 1941 and 1942 in the ONC "studio". Producing the film under wartime conditions was a labor fit for Sisyphus, equally for the actors, cameraman, stage electricians, script-girl, stage designers and prop handlers. All the exteriors had to be constructed in the small 18×11 m studio, intended for music recording, since exterior shooting at night was impossible due to the need to maintain camouflage. For panoramic or travelling shots, two or three scenes had to be shot on a stage that had to be decorated two or three times over, and then combined in order to constitute a whole shot. The way this worked in practice was that once a scene was filmed, the set was taken down and the next design thrown up. Only one thing was not lacking for them: photographic material. In the end, 29,000 m were shot. The film O noapte furtunoasă was directed by Jean Georgescu, based on the eponymous comedy by Ion Luca Caragiale; the assistant directors were Ionel Iliescu, Virgil Stoenescu, I. Marinescu, and P. Băleanu; the cameraman was Gerard Perrin (from Paris); the sound engineers were A. Bielisici, V. Cantunari, and G. Mărăi; editing was done by Ivonne Hérault (from Paris) and Lucia Anton; makeup by the Sturh couple (of Berlin); choreography by Emil Bobescu; music by Paul Constantinescu; set design by Ștefan Norris; storyboards and costumes by Aurel Jiquidi; and production direction by Ion Cantacuzino. The film starred Alexandru Giugaru, Maria Maximilian, Florica Demion, Radu Beligan, Iordănescu Bruno, George Demetru, Ion Baroi, George Ciprian, Miluță Ghiorghiu, Leontina Ioanid, Doina Missir, Iuliana Sym, Cornelia Teodosiu, Elena Bulandra, Vasiliu Falti, Lică Rădulescu, Ion Stănescu, Nicolae Teodoru, O. Rocos, Iancu Constantinescu and Jean Moscopol. It premiered on 22 March 1943 at the ARO theatre. This was the first and last film produced by the ONC; for many years it remained a point of reference in the annals of cinematic art in Romania.

Film production nevertheless continued. In 1944, a Romanian-Italian company, Cineromit, assigned the production of the film Visul unei nopți de iarnă (A Winter Night's Dream) to director Jean Georgescu; the script was from the play by Tudor Mușatescu. The film was finished only near the end of the year 1945 due to the events of the war. For the most part, the technical crew was that of O noapte furtunoasă, plus the French cameraman Louis Behrend. The actors were George Demetru, Ana Colda, Maria Filotti, Mișu Fotino and Radu Beligan. It premiered on 2 March 1946 at the Excelsior cinema.

There followed in rapid succession several productions completed in cooperation with Danish and Hungarian studios by Balcan-Film Company Bucharest. Of note were Allo București (Hello Bucharest), Furtul din Arizona (The Arizona Theft) and "Două lumi și o dragoste" (Two Worlds and One Love), all made in 1946.

Also important was the 1946, production Pădurea îndrăgostiților (The Lovers' Forest), produced at Doina-Film, on which the ONC technical crew worked, with the director and cameraman being Cornel Dumitrescu.

Cinema during Communism (1948-1989)

On November 2nd, 1948, Decree 303 was signed, regarding "the nationalization of the film industry and the regulation of commerce in cinematic products", marking a new beginning for Romanian cinema. This can also be called the period of socialist cinema. The newly installed regime fully subsidized the production of films which disseminated promotion of socialist values. The same themes were found in documentaries and newsreels.

So as to have cadres ready to fill the necessary positions in the industry, Institutul de artă cinematografică (The Institute of Cinematographic Art") was founded, with a mission of preparing the new cadres needed for the new cinema: actors, directors and cameramen. It was from here that the golden generation not only of Romanian film but also of the national theatre graduated: the actors , Iurie Darie, Florin Piersic, , Amza Pellea, Dem Rădulescu, Stela Popescu, Sebastian Papaiani, Leopoldina Bălănuță, and Draga Olteanu, along with directors such as Manole Marcus, Geo Saizescu, Iulian Mihu, Gheorghe Vitanidis, and many others.

In 1950, construction began at Buftea on what would come to be called Centrul de producție cinematografică Buftea (The Buftea Studio), also known as C.P.C. Buftea (today MediaPro Studios), the main center for film production in Romania. The project was finished in 1959. Technically speaking, C.P.C. Buftea rivalled any Western European film studio.

In this period a series of films was produced at the Floreasca Complex, which, since 1956, had been taken over by Televiziunea Română (Romanian Television). Another studio of about  was built inside the Tomis Cinema. For the production of technical supplies needed both by studios and film distributors, Intreprinderea de Stat Tehnocin (The Tehnocin State Enterprise) was founded in 1950 and in 1959 merged with Industria Optică Română (The Romanian Optics Industry). Movie projectors for 35 mm and 16 mm film were produced, as were sound systems for movie theatres, reflecting lenses, dollies, and artificial studio lights.

Likewise, so that there would be technical cadres well-prepared to work in studios and in the operation of movie projectors, professional schools for projectionists were founded at Craiova and Târgu-Mureș, while at Bucharest, a "technical school for technical personnel" was opened, intended to prepare movie theatre operators and studio managers.

Until 1948, most of the Romanian animated films were the ones made by Aurel Petrescu but all his animated movies have been lost. However, after 1948 animated films began to be produced at the Bucharest Studio, with a total of 15 films in 1955. Particularly notable was the contribution of Ion Popescu-Gopo, father of the little man who, appearing in Scurtă istorie (A Short History) in 1957, won him a Palme d'Or for Best Short Film at Cannes that year. The success of Romania's animated films convinced the authorities to found the Animafilm studio in 1964. Here, "diafilms", slides for teaching use, were also produced, as were television commercials.

As far as the distribution of films is concerned, after the nationalization of movie theatres (only 35 mm ones, as 16 mm theatres did not exist), it was concluded that many had to be shut down because of their decaying state or because of their physically obsolete equipment. A crisis followed, there being a shortage of theatre administrators and projectionists that forced films in some counties to be shown only outdoors. This situation caused the Committee for Cinematography to be formed on 7 June 1950 alongside the Council of Ministers, and inside this institution the Film Distribution Network Directorate was established. Later, this office ran the County-level Cinematographic State Enterprises when they were established. The importance of these led to the allocation of funds necessary for the film distribution network to be developed. Implicitly, movie theatres and the establishment of 16 mm cinemas in rural areas were also a goal–together, these objectives were known as cineficare ("filmification", analogous to electrification). In the 1950s, 1,000 16 mm projectors and 100 film caravans (mobile theatres) were imported from the Soviet Union in order to promote the introduction of film into the rural environment. Reorganizations also took place in the next few years. Thus, in July 1952, Direcția Difuzării Filmelor (D.D.F.) (The Film Screening Directorate) was founded. In 1956 this was merged with the Film Distribution Network Directorate to form Direcția Rețelei Cinematografice și a Difuzării Filmelor (D.R.C.D.F) (The Film Distribution and Screening Directorate), under the guidance of the Ministry of Culture. The purpose of this institution was to promote a single policy regarding Romania's movie theatres, "the control and guidance of political-ideological work with the cinema, the showing of films based on the political-technical demands of the various stages of the construction of socialism", as well as to craft the economical-financial plan to be fulfilled.

The reorganizations continued, so that in 1971 Centrala România-Film (Romania-Film Central) was founded, having under its authority C.P.C. Buftea, the financing of film production through five studios, import-export and the screening of films.

Although the technical vagaries of the industry at this time have nothing to do with the cinema of Romania as an art, it is also useful to recall how distribution into movie theatres took place. Romanian film production, such as it was in 1948, was practically non-existent. The timid beginnings of Romanian film production were started by director Puiu Călinescu with the film Răsună Valea (The Valley Resounds), with a theme similar to those discussed above. But, for such a "rich national production", other films were needed in the screening repertoire. Hence, the focus was on importing films also produced in countries that had started down the path of constructing socialism. Many of them also had "rich productions" and so everyone in the Eastern Bloc's orientation was toward "the country with the best and most educational cinema in the world, the USSR".

Besides films promoting the new type of government and economy, directors made films which, without renouncing "educational" values, also numbered among them diversionary films, cloak and sword epics, and adaptations of, mostly Russian, literature. Films were even imported from countries without a socialist government. The importation of these films was done in a very rigorous manner with regard to themes. However, the public was not denied a chance to see some of the great works of cinema outside the European socialist bloc, including works of Italian neorealism and its successors (Rome, open city, Bicycle Thieves, and Rocco e i suoi fratelli), Judgment at Nuremberg, Guess Who's Coming to Dinner, In the Heat of the Night, a series of Westerns, Gone with the Wind (United States), and many others from France, the United Kingdom, Spain, Mexico, Japan, and China.

The number of films produced by Romanian studios rose, and import taxes were lowered. At one point, 40% of films shown were Romanian and 60% foreign, including those from other Warsaw Pact nations.

Highest-grossing Romanian films before 1989

Romanian cinema (1990–present)

Critically acclaimed Romanian New Wave

The collapse of Communism changed the situation of Romanian cinema. Romanian cinema achieved prominence in the 2000s with the Romanian New Wave movement that often incorporated a genre of realist and minimalist films that won multiple awards at the Cannes Film Festival and the Berlin International Film Festival.

In 2001 and 2002, Romanian directors competed in the Directors' Fortnight section parallel to the Cannes Film Festival with Cristi Puiu's first feature film Stuff and Dough and Cristian Mungiu's Occident, respectively.

The 2004 Trafic film directed by Cătălin Mitulescu won the Short Film Palme d'Or award at the 2004 Cannes Film Festival.

The 2005 The Death of Mr. Lazarescu film, directed by Cristi Puiu won the Un Certain Regard award at the 2005 Cannes Film Festival.

At the 2006 Cannes Film Festival, Corneliu Porumboiu won the Caméra d'Or best-first-feature award for 12:08 East of Bucharest and Cătălin Mitulescu who directed The Way I Spent the End of the World competed in the Un Certain Regard section.

At the 2007 Cannes Film Festival Cristian Nemescu's posthumous California Dreamin' won the Un Certain Regard award, while Cristian Mungiu's 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days received the Palme d'Or. The latter, according to Variety, is "further proof of Romania's new prominence in the film world."

 by  won the Short Film Palme d'Or at the 2008 Cannes Film Festival.

The 2009 movie Police, Adjective directed by Corneliu Porumboiu  won the Un Certain Regard award at the 2009 Cannes Film Festival.

In 2010, If I Want to Whistle, I Whistle (aka Eu când vreau să fluier, fluier) directed by Florin Șerban won the Silver Bear Grand Jury Prize and the Alfred Bauer Prize at the Berlin International Film Festival

In 2013 the movie Child's Pose (Pozitia copilului) directed by Călin Peter Netzer won the Golden Bear award at the 63rd Berlin International Film Festival.

In 2015 the movie Aferim! directed by Radu Jude won the  Silver Bear for Best Director award at the 65th Berlin International Film Festival.

The 2018 drama film Touch Me Not directed by Adina Pintilie won the Golden Bear award at the 68th Berlin International Film Festival.

The 2021 comedy-drama film Bad Luck Banging or Loony Porn written and directed by Radu Jude won the Golden Bear award at the Berlin International Film Festival. It is the third Romanian film to win the Golden Bear in the last decade.

Drop in the domestic Romanian box office

During the time period between 2012-2016, according to data by the European Audiovisual Observatory, domestic productions account for only about 3% of all admissions to cinema in Romania, with US productions dominating the market (72%). As an example, 4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days'' was viewed by 350,000 people in France, 142,000 in Italy, but less than 90,000 in Romania itself.

Reemergence of domestic Romanian box office

In recent years, domestic Romanian cinema started to gain back popularity, especially in the comedy sector. With examples such as the 2020 comedy movie Miami Bici, which had 550,000+ cinema admissions in just three weeks, during late February-early March 2020, just before the cinemas in Romania closed because of the COVID-19 pandemic.
The 2022 comedy movie Teambuilding, surpassed one million cinema admissions in January 2023, becoming the first Romanian film since The Second Fall of Constantinople in 1994 to surpass this threshold. From 1 January 2023, the film was also distributed on the Netflix platform.
The 2022 comedy movie Mirciulică also gained a big audience. The movie had 320,000+ cinema admissions.

2022 was a good year for Romanian horror movies as well, with the horror movie Capra cu trei iezi amassing 128,503 cinema admissions.

Romanian co-productions/International filming location

Romania has also been chosen by various international filmmakers as a tv series/movie location, such as the 2022 Netflix series Wednesday, the 2003 American epic period war film Cold Mountain, the 2006 French drama film Transylvania, the 2018 American horror film The Nun and the 2020 fantasy film Dragonheart: Vengeance among many others.

See also
List of Romanian films
MediaPro Studios
MediaPro Pictures
Castel Film Romania
Cinema of Europe
List of Romanian film and theatre directors

Bibliography

1) Cantacuzino, Ion. "Momente din trecutul filmului românesc" (Moments from Romanian cinema's past). Sections covering up to 1947.

2) Caranfil, Tudor. Memorii și studii (Memoirs and studies)

3) Georgescu, Jean. Memorii și studii (Memoirs and studies)

4) Mihail, Jean. Memorii și studii (Memoirs and studies)

Memorii și studii (Memoirs and studies), belong to  ANF (Arhiva Națională de Filme, in English: National Movie Archive)

5) "Filme noi" (New movies) bulletins. Covers the 1948-1989 section: Edited for internal use by RomâniaFilm (). Contains various articles and distribution rules.

6) Different editions of the magazine "Cinema"

A comprehensive bibliography of Romanian Cinema can be found here.

References

External links

 Romanian Cinema Bibliography (Oxford UP)Romanian Cinema (first edition, full, up to 2014) Romanian Cinema
 A.N.F.
 European-films.net – Reviews, trailers, interviews, news and previews of recent and upcoming European films (in English)
 Scholarly Study on Authorship in Romanian Socialist Film - Opening Titles and Authorship in Romanian Socialist Film - full

Cinema of Romania


The Liver birds are two large and famous bronze metal birds on top of a building - the Liver Building - in the city of Liverpool, England. The building has the offices of an insurance organization. The birds are symbol of the city, although no birds really look like this.   There are some other similar birds on buildings in Liverpool.

The sound of the end of the word "liver" in the name of the bird is like "driver" not "river". The start of the word Liverpool ("liver") sounds like the word "river". This is a funny play on words.

There is also a British television sitcom with the same name that is about two young women who share a flat in Liverpool. The play on words is increased by a second British slang meaning of the word "bird" to mean young woman.

Many people in Liverpool (known as Liverpudlians) are proud of their city and of the Liver birds. There is a story that the birds will come alive if a truly pure woman walks between them. This will never happen! This is an example of the humor of the local people.

References

Buildings and structures in Liverpool
Sculptures
1911 works

Liver bird


The Port Washington Breakwater Light is a lighthouse built in 1935 at the entrance to the Port Washington, Wisconsin harbor on Lake Michigan. The second tower at this location, it remains an active aid to navigation.  It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2018.

History
With the dredging of the harbor in the 1870s and the extension of the piers bracketing it, the need was felt for a light to guide ships into the harbor entrance, as the existing lighthouse high above the water did no more than indicate the location of the town. Accordingly, a short wooden tower was constructed at the end of the north pier, equipped with a fourth-order Fresnel lens. This light supplanted the older lighthouse in 1903, but the keepers of the newer light continued to live in the latter, as no dwelling was provided on the pier. The beacon itself was automated in 1924 but the fog signal continued in manual operation.

In 1930 the Milwaukee Electric Railway & Light Company decided to build a $30 million steam-electric power plant south of the old shipping channel. That plant required a larger harbor to land ships carrying coal. In 1931 funds were provided to improve the harbor under the Works Progress Administration; Construction was protracted and the new breakwaters took three years to complete. As an addendum to this project a new light was constructed, identical to that built at the same time at the Indiana Harbor East Breakwater Light and a design at several other sites in the Great Lakes. This light, constructed of steel plates in an Art Deco style, stood on an open concrete platform which in turn perched at the end of the breakwater forming the northern limit of the harbor. The fourth order lens was retained. As with its predecessor, no provision was made to house the fog signal's keepers, and they continued to live in the old keeper's dwelling in town. Funds for the light were appropriated in 1934 and first light came the following year.

Full automation came late to this light. The old lens and its lantern were removed at an undetermined date, but keepers continued to operate the fog signal manually until 1975. The light continues in use, with a second but much shorter tower standing on the southern breakwater to mark the other side of the entrance.

References

Lighthouses completed in 1889
Houses completed in 1889
Lighthouses completed in 1903
Buildings and structures in Ozaukee County, Wisconsin
Lighthouses on the National Register of Historic Places in Wisconsin
National Register of Historic Places in Ozaukee County, Wisconsin
1889 establishments in Wisconsin
Works Progress Administration in Wisconsin

Port Washington Breakwater Light


Red Army is a 1989 Cold War-era war novel written by US Army intelligence analyst Ralph Peters. The story explores a Cold War scenario based on a Soviet attack on West Germany across the North German Plain, with defense provided by NATO army corps from the UK, the Netherlands, Belgium, and West Germany.

Red Army is unique among military fiction published in the US during the 1980s, as it presented the material exclusively from the perspective of officers and men in the Soviet Army.

Plot
Soldiers with the Group of Soviet Forces in East Germany prepare to launch an invasion of West Germany. Soviet General Mikhail Malinsky, commander of the First Western Front, discusses the upcoming invasion with other Soviet leaders.

The plans call for a simultaneous thrust on three fronts: across the North German Plain, through the Fulda Gap, and across Bavaria. NATO commanders are to be bluffed into thinking the main assault will come at the Fulda Gap, but the main effort will be on the North German Plain, led by Malinsky. Airborne forces will be dropped deep into West Germany to disrupt the NATO rearguard.

The Soviet commanders believe that if Soviet forces are deep inside West Germany in three days, NATO will not be able to use its nuclear weapons to blunt the advance. A Soviet propaganda film about the destruction of Lueneberg (carefully produced at a Moscow studio) will be used to psychologically shock the West Germans.

When the invasion begins, the Soviets advance quickly, bypassing strong points whenever possible. The successful capture of a NATO command post and a Soviet tank company's capture and shepherding of a German refugee convoy outside Hildesheim adds to the speed of movement. The West German forces positioned on the inter-German border are gradually cut off from their resupply lines, while a unit trapped in the Cuxhaven peninsula fights to the last man. Deprived of reconnaissance assets, however, Malinsky worries that the US Army forces based near the Fulda Gap will come to the aid of the British, Dutch, and West German forces that he faces.

Day three of the war finds the Soviets nearing the industrial Ruhr valley. Hoping to forestall a complete West German collapse, remaining NATO forces in the north, joined by the strong and relatively unbloodied US Army from the south, hit Malinsky's First Western Front from all sides. It is not enough; before the NATO counterattack has a chance to succeed, the West German government asks the Soviets for a cease-fire. In the aftermath, the Soviet Army occupies all of West Germany east of the Rhine.

See also
 Red Storm Rising - A Tom Clancy novel with a similar concept.

References

1989 American novels
Novels set during World War III
Novels set during the Cold War
American war novels
American alternate history novels
Novels set in Germany

Red Army (novel)


Saint Andrew and Saint Francis is a 1595-1598 painting by El Greco, produced in Toledo, Spain and now in the Museo del Prado in Madrid.

It shows Andrew the Apostle on the left, holding the diagonal cross on which he was martyred, with Francis of Assisi in his friar's habit to the right.

The work was only recognised during the Spanish Civil War, hanging in the Royal Monastery of La Encarnación in Madrid, to whom it had been presented by the Duke and Duchess of Abrantes in honor of their daughter, Sister Agustina del Niño Jesús, who took her vows in 1676.

Bibliography (in Spanish)
 ÁLVAREZ LOPERA, José, El Greco, Madrid, Arlanza, 2005, Biblioteca «Descubrir el Arte», (colección «Grandes maestros»). .
 SCHOLZ-HÄNSEL, Michael, El Greco, Colonia, Taschen, 2003.
https://web.archive.org/web/20100919110659/http://www.artehistoria.jcyl.es/genios/cuadros/830.htm

References

1590s paintings
El Greco
El Greco
Paintings by El Greco in the Museo del Prado

Saint Andrew and Saint Francis


Superbook is a Christian children's animated series, by the Christian Broadcasting Network, based on two time-travelling kids, Chris and Joy, and their robot friend, Gizmo. In each episode, they are always carried away by a mysterious device to visit stories, people and places in the Bible. The series currently has 5 seasons of 68 episodes.

Superbook


CamelCase (camel case, camel caps or medial capitals) is the practice of writing compound words or phrases so that each next word or abbreviation begins with a capital letter. CamelCase can either start with a lowercase or uppercase letter, although the lowerCase version is much more common in programming. Common examples are PowerPoint or iPhone.

Variations
There are many variations of CamelCase. A few important ones are:

 BumpyCaps
 camelBack (or camel-back) notation
 CamelCaps
 CapitalizedWords or CapWords for upper CamelCase in Python
 compoundNames
 Embedded Caps (or Embedded Capitals)
 HumpBack (or hump-back) notation

 InterCaps or intercapping (abbreviation of Internal Capitalization)
 mixedCase for lower CamelCase in Python
 nerdCaps or headlessCamelCase
 Pascal case for upper CamelCase
 WikiWord or WikiCase (especially in older wikis)
 wimpyCaps

History

Chemical formulae
The first use of medial capitals was the notation for chemical formulae invented by the Swedish chemist Berzelius in 1813. He did this to replace the large amount of naming and symbol systems used by chemists at that time. He suggested to show each chemical element by a symbol of one or two letters, the first one being capitalized. The capitalization allowed formulae like 'NaCl' to be written without spaces and still be read without confusion. This system is still in use today.

Early use in trademarks
Since the early 20th century, medial capitals have occasionally been used for corporate names and product trademarks, such as
 DryIce Corporation (1925)
 CinemaScope and VistaVision, rival widescreen movie formats (1953)
 ShopKo (1962)
 MisterRogers, the Canadian version of Mister Rogers' Neighborhood (1962)
 AstroTurf (1967)
 ConAgra

Spread to mainstream usage
Despite its unclear origins inside the computing world, the practice spread in the 1980s and 1990s, when the personal computer became popular and exposed hacker culture to the world. CamelCase then became popular for business names. By 1990, it was very common to see CamelCase used in this way:

 (1962) PolyGram, formerly one of the major labels of the music industry.
 (1971) AeroVironment
 (1976) InterCity 125
 (1977) CompuServe, UnitedHealthCare (now UnitedHealthcare).
 (1978) WordStar
 (1979) MasterCard, SportsCenter, VisiCalc
 (1980) EchoStar
 (1982) MicroProse, WordPerfect
 (1983) NetWare
 (1984) BellSouth, LaserJet, MacWorks, iDEN
 (1985) PageMaker, EastEnders
 (1986) SpaceCamp
 (1987) ClarisWorks, HyperCard, PowerPoint
 (1990) HarperCollins, SeaTac, iconic WorldWideWeb

During the late 1990s when the internet became far more popular and easily available, the lowercase prefixes "e" (for "electronic") and "i" (for "Internet", "information", "interactive", "intelligent", etc.) became quite common, and we began to see names like Apple's iMac and the eBox computer program.

History of the name "CamelCase"
The original name of the practice, used in media studies, grammars and the Oxford English Dictionary, was "medial capitals". The fancier names such as "InterCaps", "CamelCase" and other variations are pretty recent and seem more common in computer-related communities.

The earliest known occurrence of the term "InterCaps" on Usenet is in an April 1990 post to the group alt.folklore.computers by Avi Rappoport, with "BiCapitalization" appearing slightly later in a 1991 post by Eric S. Raymond to the same group. The earliest use of the name "CamelCase" occurs in 1995, in a post by Newton Love. "With the advent of programming languages having these sorts of constructs, the humpiness of the style made me call it HumpyCase at first, before I settled on CamelCase. I had been calling it CamelCase for years," said Love, "The citation above was just the first time I had used the name on USENET."

Current usage in computing

Programming and coding

The use of medial caps for identifiers is recommended by many organizations and software projects. For some languages (such as Mesa, Pascal, Modula, Java and Microsoft's .NET) CamelCase is recommended by the language developers or by important manuals and has therefore become part of the language's "culture".

Style guidelines often distinguish between upper and lower CamelCase. They usually specify which one should be used for certain kinds of things: variables, record fields, methods, procedures, types, etc. This is sometimes supported by static analysis tools that check source code to make sure it is following these guidelines.

Wiki link markup
CamelCase is used in some wiki markup languages for terms that should be automatically linked to other wiki pages. This convention was originally used in Ward Cunningham's original wiki software, WikiWikiWeb, and can be activated in most other wikis. Some wiki engines such as TiddlyWiki, Trac and PMWiki use it in the default settings. They also usually provide an option or plugin to disable it. Wikipedia used to use CamelCase linking. However, they have switched to explicit link markup using square brackets and many other wiki sites have done the same. Some wikis that do not use CamelCase linking may still use the CamelCase as a naming convention, such as AboutUs.

Other uses
The NIEM registry requires that XML data elements use upper CamelCase and XML attributes use lower CamelCase.

Most popular command-line interfaces and scripting languages usually can't handle file names that contain embedded spaces. Because of this, users of those systems often use to CamelCase (or underscores, hyphens and other "safe" characters) for compound file names like MyJobResume.pdf.

Microblogging and social networking sites that limit the number of characters in a message (most famously Twitter, where the 140-character limit can be quite restrictive in languages that rely on alphabets, including English) are usually outlets for medial capitals. Using CamelCase between words reduces the number of spaces, and thus the number of characters in a given message. This allows more content to fit into the limited space.

Current usage in natural languages
CamelCase has been used in languages other than English for several purposes. Some examples are:

Orthographic markings
CamelCase is sometimes used in the writing or translation of certain scripts as a way to tell the difference between certain letters or markings. An example is the rendering of Tibetan proper names like rLobsang: the "r" here stands for a prefix glyph in the original script that functions as tone marker rather than a normal letter. Another example is tsIurku, a Latin transcription of the Chechen term for the capping stone of the characteristic Medieval defensive towers of Chechenia and Ingushetia; the capital letter "I" here showing a phoneme different from the one transcribed as "i".

Inflection prefixes
CamelCase may also be used when writing proper names in languages that add prefixes to words. In some of those languages, the custom is to leave the prefix in lower case and capitalize the root.

This convention is used in Irish orthography e.g.,  ("in Galway"), from  ("Galway");  ("to Ireland"), from  ("Ireland).

Similarly, when translating the Hebrew language, haIvri means "the Hebrew person" and biYerushalayim means "in Jerusalem".

This convention is also used by several Bantu languages (e.g., kiSwahili = "Swahili language", isiZulu  = "Zulu language") and several indigenous languages of Mexico (e.g. Nahuatl, Totonacan, Mixe–Zoque and some Oto-Manguean languages).

In abbreviations and acronyms
Abbreviations of some academic qualifications are sometimes presented in CamelCase without punctuation, e.g. PhD or BSc.

In French, CamelCase acronyms such as OuLiPo (1960) were favored for a time as alternatives to initialisms (or representing compound words only by the first letter of each word).

CamelCase is often used to transliterate initialisms into alphabets where two letters may be required to represent a single character of the original alphabet, e.g., DShK from Cyrillic ДШК and PPSh from Cyrillic ППШ.

In Chinese pinyin, CamelCase is sometimes used for place names so that it is easier for readers to pick out the different parts of the word. For example, places like Beijing (北京) and Qinhuangdao (秦皇岛) and Daxing'anling (大兴安岭) can be written as BeiJing, QinHuangDao, and DaXingAnLing, with the number of capital letters being the same as the number of Chinese characters for each word. Writing word compounds only by the initial letter of each character is also acceptable in some cases, so Beijing can be written as BJ, Qinghuangdao as QHD, and Daxing'anling as DXAL.

Honorifics within compound words
In several languages, including English, pronouns and possessives may be capitalized to show respect. For example: when referring to the reader of a formal letter or to God. In some of those languages, the capitalization is retained even when those words occur within compound words or suffixed to a verb. For example, in Italian one would write  ("offering to You respectful salutations") or  ("adore Him").

Other uses
In German nouns carry a grammatical gender—which, for roles or job titles, is felt usually as masculine. Since the feminist movement of the 1980s, some writers and publishers have been using the feminine title suffixes -in (singular) and -innen (plural) to help boost the inclusion of women; but written with a capital 'I', to indicate that males are not excluded. Example:  ("co-workers, male or female") instead of  ("co-workers", masculine grammatical gender) or  ("female co-workers"). This use is analogous to the use of parentheses in English, for example in the phrase "congress(wo)man."

In German, the names to statutes are shortened using embedded capitals. An example would be: StGB (Strafgesetzbuch) for criminal code, PatG (Patentgesetz) for Patent Act or the very common GmbH (Gesellschaft mit beschränkter Haftung) for Company with Limited Liability.

Related pages
Snake case

References

Other websites

 Examples and history of CamelCase, also WordsSmashedTogetherLikeSo
 .NET Framework General Reference Capitalization Styles
 What's in a nAME(cq)?, by Bill Walsh, at The Slot
 The Science of Word Recognition, by Kevin Larson, Advanced Reading Technology, Microsoft Corporation
 OASIS Cover Pages: CamelCase for Naming XML-Related Components
 Convert text to CamelCase, Title Case, Uppercase and lowercase

Typography

CamelCase


Raw Deal is a 1948 American  film noir crime film directed by Anthony Mann and starring Dennis O'Keefe, Claire Trevor and Marsha Hunt. It was shot by cinematographer John Alton with sets designed by the art director Edward L. Ilou. An independent production by Edward Small, it was distributed by Eagle-Lion Films.

Plot
Prison convict Joe Sullivan has "taken the fall" for an unspecified crime. His share for committing the crime was to be $50,000. Joe breaks out of jail with the help of his girl Pat. The escape has been facilitated by their former accomplice Rick Coyle, a sadistic mobster, who expects Joe to be killed during his escape and so avoid having to pay Joe his $50,000. When against all expectations the break-out succeeds, Rick decides that he must have Joe killed.

Pat and Joe's getaway car is damaged and Joe decides that they will hide out at his legal caseworker Ann's apartment. Ann had been visiting Joe in prison because she was trying to reform him and also because she was developing feelings for him. When the police close in on Ann's apartment she tries to convince Joe to give himself up. Instead Joe forces Ann to escape with him and Pat.  Pat sees the attraction between Joe and Ann and doesn't know what to do about it. Joe finds himself between two women who love him. The three of them continue to evade the police until  one of Rick's men finds them. Rick's man Fantail and Joe get into a fight and Ann saves Joe by shooting Fantail in the back. After acting in Joe's defense this way, Ann realizes how much she is in love with him. Out of loyalty to Pat, Joe sets Ann free and prepares to flee the country with Pat. In Joe and Pat's hotel room, Pat takes a phone call warning them that Rick has seized Ann and will harm her unless Joe and Pat come out of hiding. Pat does not want Joe to go back to Ann, so she lies about the call, saying it was from the hotel desk clerk asking about their checkout time.

After boarding a ship, Joe attempts to convince Pat that they can start a new life in South America together. He even proposes marriage to her. A guilt-stricken Pat now confesses to Joe that Ann has been abducted by Rick. Joe races to save Ann from her captor. Under the cover of a thick fog, Joe manages to get past Rick's henchmen and sneaks into Rick's room. A gunfight erupts with Rick and Joe shooting each other and inadvertently starting a fire. Joe and Rick, both wounded, fight hand-to-hand with Joe finally pushing Rick through an upper story window to his death. Mortally wounded and lying in the street, Joe dies in Ann's arms as Pat looks on. Seeing the resigned contentment in Joe's face, Pat comments in voice-over that: "This is right for Joe. This is what he wanted."

Cast
 Dennis O'Keefe as Joe Sullivan
 Claire Trevor as Pat Regan
 Marsha Hunt as Ann Martin
 John Ireland as Fantail
 Raymond Burr as Rick Coyle
 Curt Conway as Spider
 Chili Williams as Marcy
 Richard Fraser as Fields
 Whit Bissell as Murderer
 Cliff Clark as Gates
 Richard Irving as	Brock
 Harry Tyler as 	Oscar
 Ilka Grüning as Fran - Oscar's Housekeeper
 Tom Fadden as 	Grimshaw
 Ray Teal as Police Commanding Officer
 Robert B. Williams as San Francisco Detective Sergeant
 Carey Loftin as 	Motorcycle Cop
 Gregg Barton as 	Car Owner
 Bill Kennedy as 	Drunk
 Beverly Wills as 	Girl

Reception

Box-office
The film was a success at the box office and was profitable.

Critical reception
When the film was released, New York Times critic Bosley Crowther panned it. "But this, of course, is a movie—and a pretty low-grade one, at that—in which sensations of fright and excitement are more diligently pursued than common sense...Except for the usual moral—to wit, that crime does not pay—the only thing proved by this picture is that you shouldn't switch sweethearts in mid-lam."

In Girl and a Gun: The Complete Guide to Film Noir, David N. Meyer wrote: "It's the richest cinematography in noir outside of Orson Welles' Citizen Kane."

In popular culture
The title characters in Harlan Ellison's 1969 post-apocalyptic novella A Boy and His Dog watch Raw Deal, which is said to be 76 years old (setting the Ellison story in the year 2024).

References

External links

1948 films
1940s crime thriller films
American black-and-white films
American chase films
American crime thriller films
American prison films
Eagle-Lion Films films
1940s English-language films
Film noir
Films directed by Anthony Mann
Films produced by Edward Small
Films set in California
Films shot in California
Films scored by Paul Sawtell
1940s American films

Raw Deal (1948 film)


Luc Dietrich (17 March 1913, Dijon – 12 August 1944) was a French writer.

Dietrich was born in Dijon. His father died when he was very young, and his mother was ill and addicted to drugs. She was frequently incapable of taking care of her son; several times he was sent asylums and similar establishments. Shortly after Dietrich's release from one at the age of 18, his mother died.

In 1932 Dietrich met philosopher and poet Lanza del Vasto at the Parc Monceau in Paris. The first thing del Vasto said to Dietrich was "Are you as good as this bread?" The two became inseparable friends for the rest of Dietrich's short life. Lanza helped and mentored Dietrich in writing, although he always refused to be credited as a co-author. Another of Dietrich's famous friends was poet René Daumal. After becoming lightly wounded during a bombardment in 1944, Dietrich developed hemiplegia and then gangrene, and died the same year, aged 31.

He is best known today for his semi-autobiographical novel, Le Bonheur des tristes ("The Happiness of Sad People").

Works
 Huttes à la lisière, 1930
 The Happiness of Sad People (Le Bonheur des tristes), 1935
 Earth (Terre), 1936
 Apprenticeship of the City (L'Apprentissage de la ville), 1942
 Talk of Friendship (Le Dialogue de l'Amitié), with Lanza del Vasto, 1942
 L'Injuste Grandeur, 1943
 Emblèmes végétaux, 1993
 Demain, c'est le possible, 1996
 Poésies, 1996
 L'École des conquérants, 1997

References
 Delbourg, Patrice. Luc Dietrich, astéroïde lyrique. In: Les désemparés: 53 portraits d'écrivains, edited by Patrice Delbourg. Castor astral, 1996. ,

External links

20th-century French non-fiction writers
1913 births
1944 deaths
Writers from Dijon
French photographers
20th-century French male writers
French civilians killed in World War II

Luc Dietrich


The Martha Washingtonians (also known as the Ladies Washingtonian Society) were a group of working class women of the early 19th century committed to the idea of encouraging temperance. The organization was an outgrowth of the Washingtonian temperance movement.  As an organization, it was composed of wives, sisters, aunts, daughters and other female relatives of drunken men.

Despite the fact that for most women during this time, around the very beginnings of the United States, life was home-based, these women were actively going out into the streets and looking for the poor, impoverished souls and pointing them to a better way of life. During a time when a woman's place was in the kitchen, and creating a hearth to make the home a 'perfect' place, it might seem odd to see a group of women publicly tackling particular issues.

However, in light of context, these public acts and the roles that women were expected to take can appear somewhat less contradictory: Tyrell suggests that these women saw their public work as extensions of a 19th-century ideology that insisted on the ability of women to preserve the moral integrity of the private household. These readings seem to correspond to more general theories of an 'angel in the bedroom' theory of sexuality that has been attributed to the Victorians by late 20th century researchers of the period—the idea being that women had the capacity to cleanse the private household of the implications of 'amoral' capitalism.

Furthermore, historians such as Teresa Murphy insist on their relative subordination in the temperance movement. Murphy notes that many of these Martha Washingtonians were assigned rather traditional female roles: for example, collecting, making and selling clothing to the families of reformed drunks.

Women's rights were not prevalent nor wanted by most of these women- the movement was broadly conservative in outlook. They had no desire to vote, or to change America in any way besides alcohol consumption.

Considering that these were a group of women with little to no real political or financial power, the temperance movement was a resounding success, since America's consumption of alcohol was reduced by half in a period of around twenty years or so- the effects of these women were not insignificant.

See also
 Temperance movement
 Prohibition

References

 "We Are Engaged as a Band of Sisters": Class and Domesticity in the Washingtonian Temperance Movement, 1840-1850 Ruth M. Alexander  Journal of American History, Vol. 75, No. 3 (Dec., 1988), pp. 763–785
 http://silkworth.net/washingtonians/washingtonian_movement_spread_movement.html The Washingtonian Movement : The Spread of The Movement

Addiction and substance abuse organizations
Temperance organizations in the United States
Women's organizations based in the United States
1800s establishments in the United States

Martha Washingtonians


Ahmed Al-Waeli Al-Laithi Al-Kinani (1928–2003) () was a prominent Arab Shia Islamic Scholar, who preached the Islamic thoughts through books and lectures. He was also a poet. His poems represent his personality, spirituality and belief. In addition to his traditional studies in Najaf, he obtained a master's degree from University of Baghdad and a PhD from Cairo University.

Biography

Ahmed Al-Waeli was born in September, 1928 in Najaf, Iraq. He came from a very well cultured family. His father (Sheikh Hassoun Al-Waeli) was also a religious cleric and a poet. However, he did not become as famous as his son Ahmed. From his youth, Ahmed Al-Waeli was smart and ambitious. He studied and memorized the Qur'an when he was seven years old. He graduated with an honor degree in 1962 in Arabic language and Islamic Jurisprudence. Then, he pursued his education in the institute of higher education –one of the institutes of university of Baghdad- and finished his master's degree in the same subject. The title of his thesis is "Custody Rules in Sharia and Law" which was published as a book later. He then left Iraq and went to Egypt to pursue his doctorate education. He received his PhD in economics in 1972 and his dissertation discusses the Islamic view of exploitation of labor.

As Najaf is famous with Shiite Islamic religious schools and Arabic literature, Al-Waeli studied under prominent religious figures. He learned lecturing through a group of Islamic lecturers including Sayyid Baqir Slaimoun. He gained great admiration from his teachers through his intelligence, articulation, and presentation style. Ayatollah Imam Khomeini called him "the Islamic Library" as he was spreading his rich knowledge as well as lecturing the philosophy of Islamic jurisprudences in different places. Likewise, Grand Ayatollah Abul-Qassim Khoei called him "the Tongue of Shia" as his voice represents Shia ideology. One of his common messages in his lectures is that the differences between Shia and Sunnah jurisprudences should not create tension between the two sects since both sects ultimately have the same goal (which is getting closer to Allah). He repeatedly conveys that each sect has his own Ijtihad (interpretation of Hadith) but that should not create tension. He always condemned those whom called Shia non-Muslims.

Al-Waeli died in Baghdad on July 14, 2003 in his homeland after 24 years in exile. Thousands of people gathered in his funeral in the city of Najaf to express their sorrow and sympathy for his departure.

Presentation style

Al-Waeli has become famous with his presentation and lecturing style. In fact, his lecturing style (or school) is now known as "Al-Waeli's School of Lecturing." The main characteristics of this school are:

1. Topic Focus: this is the most important characteristic in this school. Unlike other Islamic lecturers, Al-Waeli concentrates only on one subject in each lecture and does not branch out to different subjects. The purpose of this is to avoid confusing and losing the audience's attention, and to provide enough details to cover the subject. This is not an easy task. In fact, it requires a big effort from the lecturer to study the subject thoroughly before lecturing to make sure that all aspects of the topic are covered. Besides, he starts his presentation with a short statement that describes the focus of his lecture. This statement is usually a verse from the Qur'an.

2. Courage and Sincerity: His confidence and knowledge gave him the courage to speak the truth and defend his school of thought.

3. Audience Evaluation: Al-Waeli has the ability to evaluate his audience before lecturing. This ability simplified the choice and depth of the topic he would present. Also, through this ability, he gained the audience's attention and interest.

4. Voice Pitch: Al-Waeli's vocal quality helped him articulate his speech.

5. High Morals: Al-Waeli is known for his high morals and virtues which developed his charisma and power of persuasion.

Books

Al-Waeli wrote several books including:
 The Essence of Shiism
 Custody Rules in Sharia and Law
 Islamic View of Exploitation of Labor
 The Defense of Truth
 My Experience with Husayni Pulpit
 Toward a Scientific Interpretation of Qur'an

External links
http://www.ahmedalwaeli.com/
 http://www.Al-Waeli.com/
 http://www.alwaeli.org/
 http://www.kerbalaya.net/hashemya5/a1a/indexa1a.htm
 http://www.shiaweb.org/v2/sounds/viewcat_72.html

1928 births
2003 deaths
Iraqi Shia clerics
People from Najaf
Iraqi Shia Muslims
Twelvers

Ahmed Al-Waeli


Multimedia Broadcast Multicast Services (MBMS) is a point-to-multipoint interface specification for existing 3GPP cellular networks, which is designed to provide efficient delivery of broadcast and multicast services, both within a cell as well as within the core network. For broadcast transmission across multiple cells, it defines transmission via single-frequency network configurations. The specification is referred to as Evolved Multimedia Broadcast Multicast Services (eMBMS) when transmissions are delivered through an LTE (Long Term Evolution) network. eMBMS is also known as LTE Broadcast.

Target applications include mobile TV and radio broadcasting, live streaming video services, as well as file delivery and emergency alerts.

Questions remain whether the technology is an optimization tool for the operator or if an operator can generate new revenues with it. Several studies have been published on the domain identifying both cost savings and new revenues.

Deployments
In 2013, Verizon announced that it would launch eMBMS services in 2014, over its nationwide (United States) LTE networks. AT&T subsequently announced plans to use the 700 MHz Lower D and E Block licenses it acquired in 2011 from Qualcomm for an LTE Broadcast service.

Several major operators worldwide have been lining-up to deploy and test the technology. The frontrunners being Verizon in the United States, Kt and Reliance in Asia, and recently EE and Vodafone in Europe.

In January 2014, Korea's Kt launched the first commercial LTE Broadcast service. The solution includes Kt's internally developed eMBMS Bearer Service, and Samsung mobile devices fitted with the Expway Middleware as the eMBMS User Service.

In February 2014, Verizon demonstrated the potential of LTE Broadcast during Super Bowl XLVIII, using Samsung Galaxy Note 3s, fitted with Expway's eMBMS User Service.

In July 2014, Nokia demonstrated the use of LTE Broadcast to replace Traditional Digital TV. This use case remains controversial as some study are doubting about the capability of LTE Broadcast to address this use case efficiently in its current version.

Also in July 2014, BBC Research & Development and EE demonstrated LTE Broadcast during the XX Commonwealth Games in Glasgow, Scotland using equipment from Huawei and Qualcomm.

In August 2014, Ericsson and Polkomtel successfully tested LTE Broadcast technology by streaming the opening game of the 2014 World Volleyball Championship to hundreds of guests at Warsaw's National Stadium in Poland on August 30.

In June 2015, BBC Research & Development and EE demonstrated LTE Broadcast during the FA Cup final in the U.K.

In September 2015, Verizon demonstrated eMBMS by broadcasting INDYCAR races.

In October 2015, Verizon commercially launched their Go90 eMBMS service. Go90 offers both On-Demand and LiveTV, in both Unicast and Broadcast, and supports more than 10 different LTE Broadcast mobile devices.
 Verizon ceased operating the go90 service on July 31, 2018.

In February 2016, Akamai demonstrated with Expway, delivery of video streams across LTE networks with live on the fly switching from unicast to broadcast, at Mobile World Congress 2016.

In April 2016, Verizon, Telstra, KT and EE launched the LTE Broadcast Alliance.

As of January 2019, the Global Mobile Suppliers Association had identified 41 operators that have invested in eMBMS (including those considering/testing/trialling, deploying or piloting and those that have deployed or launched eMBMS). Five operators state they have now deployed eMBMS or launched some sort of commercial service using eMBMS.

The range of chipsets available that can support eMBMS has been steadily growing, with three mobile processors/platforms released since March 2018. GSA has identified 69 chipsets supporting eMBMS, and there are at least 59 devices that support eMBMS (in some instances after operator-specific upgrades).

Competing technologies
Main competing technologies of MBMS include DVB-H/DVB-T, DVB-SH, DMB, ESM-DAB, and MediaFLO. However, due to spectrum scarcity and the cost of building new broadcast infrastructure some of these technologies may not be viable. MediaFLO has been deployed commercially in the US by Verizon Wireless through their relationship with MediaFLO USA, Inc. (a subsidiary of Qualcomm) however the service was shut down in early 2011. DMB and DVB-H trials have been ongoing for more than a year now, like those during the football 2006 championships in Germany.

Huawei's proprietary CMB is a precursor to the Multimedia Broadcast Multicast Service. It was specified in 3GPP R6 and is using existing UMTS infrastructure. Huawei says that CMB is based on existing UMTS infrastructure and real time streaming application protocol.

The most significant competition is from services that stream individual video feeds to users over uni-cast data connections. While less efficient in certain situations, particularly the traditional case where everyone watches the same stream simultaneously, the user convenience of individual streaming has taken over the vast majority of the mobile media streaming market.

Technical description
The MBMS feature is split into the MBMS Bearer Service and the MBMS User Service and has been defined to be offered over both UTRAN (i.e. WCDMA, TD-CDMA and TD-SCDMA) and LTE (where it is often referred to as eMBMS). The MBMS Bearer Service includes a Unicast and a Broadcast Mode. MBMS Operation On-Demand (MOOD) allows dynamic switching between Unicast and Broadcast over LTE, based on configured triggers. The MBMS Bearer Service uses IP multicast addresses for the IP flows. The advantage of the MBMS Bearer Service compared to unicast bearer services (interactive, streaming, etc.) is that the transmission resources in the core and radio networks are shared. One MBMS packet flow is replicated by GGSN, SGSN and RNCs. MBMS may use an advanced counting scheme to decide, whether or not zero, one or more dedicated (i.e. unicast) radio channels lead to a more efficient system usage than one common (i.e. broadcast) radio channel.

 UTRAN MBMS offers up to 256 kbit/s per MBMS Bearer Service and between 800 kbit/s and 1.7 Mbit/s per cell/band. The actual cell capacity depends on the UE capabilities.
 GERAN MBMS offers between 32 kbit/s and 128 kbit/s. Up to 4 GSM timeslots may be used for one MBMS bearer in the downlink direction. The actual data rate per Traffic Slot depends on network dimensioning.

The MBMS User Service is basically the MBMS Service Layer and offers two different data Delivery Methods:

 The Streaming Delivery Method can be used for continuous transmissions like mobile television services. An application layer FEC code may be used to increase the transmission reliability.
 The Download Delivery Method is intended for "download and play" services. A File Repair service may be offered to compensate for unreliable delivery.

MBMS has been standardized in various groups of 3GPP (Third Generation Partnership Project), and the first phase standards are found in UMTS release 6. As Release 6 was functionally frozen by the 3rd quarter of 2004, practical network implementations may be expected by the end of 2007, and the first functional mobile terminals supporting MBMS are estimated to be available by also end of 2007.

eMBMS has been standardized in various groups of 3GPP as part of LTE release 9.  The LTE version of MBMS, referred to as Multicast-broadcast single-frequency network (MBSFN), supports broadcast only services and is based on a Single Frequency Network (SFN) based OFDM waveform and so is functional similar to other broadcast solutions such as DVB-H, -SH and -NGH.  In Release 14, the 3GPP enhanced the specifications for eMBMS with a view to making the technology more attractive for deployment by operators and broadcasters. The 3GPP's work on the next generation of technology in Release 16 includes a study on LTE-based broadcast on 5G networks, MBMS APIs for mission-critical services and MBMS user services for IoT.

3GPP technical specifications
MBMS Bearer Service (Distribution Layer):
 3GPP TS 22.146 Multimedia Broadcast/Multicast Service (MBMS); Stage 1
 3GPP TS 23.246 Multimedia Broadcast/Multicast Service (MBMS); Architecture and functional description
 3GPP TS 25.346 Introduction of the Multimedia Broadcast/Multicast Service (MBMS) in the Radio Access Network (RAN); Stage 2
 3GPP TS 25.992 Multimedia Broadcast Multicast Service (MBMS); UTRAN/GERAN Requirements
 3GPP TS 36.300 Evolved Universal Terrestrial Radio Access (E-UTRA) and Evolved Universal Terrestrial Radio Access Network (E-UTRAN); Overall description; Stage 2 (see chapter 15 for eMBMS)
 3GPP TS 36.440 General aspects and principles for interfaces supporting Multimedia Broadcast Multicast Service (MBMS) within E-UTRAN
 3GPP TS 43.246 Multimedia Broadcast/Multicast Service (MBMS) in the GERAN; Stage 2
 3GPP TR 25.803 S-CCPCH performance for Multimedia Broadcast/Multicast Service (MBMS)

MBMS User Service (Service Layer):
 3GPP TS 22.246 Multimedia Broadcast/Multicast Service (MBMS) user services; Stage 1
 3GPP TS 26.346 Multimedia Broadcast/Multicast Service (MBMS); Protocols and codecs
 3GPP TR 26.946 Multimedia Broadcast/Multicast Service (MBMS) user service guidelines
 3GPP TS 33.246 3G Security; Security of Multimedia Broadcast/Multicast Service (MBMS)
 3GPP TS 32.273 Telecommunication management; Charging management; Multimedia Broadcast and Multicast Service (MBMS) charging

See also
 LTE
 Mobile television
 TDtv
 Broadcast and Multicast Service (BCMCS), a point-to-multipoint service defined for 3GPP2 systems

References

Broadcast engineering
LTE (telecommunication)
Mobile technology
Mobile telephone broadcasting

Multimedia Broadcast Multicast Service