Warhammer 40,000: Dawn of War – Dark Crusade is the second expansion to the real-time strategy video game Warhammer 40,000: Dawn of War developed by Relic Entertainment and published by THQ. Based on Games Workshop's tabletop wargame, Warhammer 40,000, Dark Crusade was released on October 9, 2006. The expansion features two new races, the Tau Empire and the Necrons. Including the Imperial Guard from Dawn of Wars first expansion pack Winter Assault, a total of seven playable races in this expansion.

Unlike Winter Assault, Dark Crusade is a standalone expansion that does not require prior installation of Dawn of War or Winter Assault to play, allowing the user to play as all seven factions in both single player Skirmish and Campaign modes.

Parallel to the release of Dark Crusade, THQ also released a triple pack of Dawn of War, Winter Assault, and Dark Crusade, dubbed Dawn of War Anthology. The case is embossed with images of all the faction leaders of the campaign dressed in their respective wargear.

Gameplay

As with previous Dawn of War titles, Dark Crusade is focused on the conflict part of gameplay; in order to obtain more resources players must fight over them. Each player starts off with a base and wins by fulfilling mission objectives. There are multiple tiers of technology, with each allowing for more powerful units and upgrades.

Campaign
Unlike the previous games in the series, Dark Crusade features a non-linear sandbox campaign in which the factions compete for control of Kronus. The player begins the campaign by selecting a faction. Campaign gameplay is broken into rounds consisting of two phases, the world map and the battle map.

World Map
The world map is divided into territories, each of which can be captured and controlled by the various factions. Each faction starts with a "stronghold" territory, that faction's home base. Each faction also has an army led by that faction's leader. Every round, the player may move his or her army to an adjacent allied territory, or attack an adjacent enemy territory. When the player attacks a territory, gameplay will transition to a real-time battle in the battle map (see next section). After the player's turn, the NPC factions will each take a turn where they move their army and/or attack. If an NPC attacks a territory controlled by the player, the player is given the option to auto-resolve the battle based on the relative strengths of the territory and attacking faction, or to play out the battle in the battle map.

Capturing a faction's stronghold territory will remove that faction from the game; likewise, if the player's stronghold is captured, he or she will lose the game. Other territories, when captured, grant bonus abilities or the ability to manufacture "honor guard" units for the player's army. Each owned territory produces a "planetary requisition" resource that can be used to purchase honor guard units or garrison standard units on the player's owned territories.

Battle Map
The battle map is where attack and defense actions are resolved. This is a traditional real-time battle similar to previous games in the series. Some offensive battles, particularly to capture enemy strongholds, feature scripted and story driven missions similar to campaign missions in the previous Dawn of War games. Other offensive battles, and all defensive battles, play out as generic skirmishes where the objective is to destroy all enemy bases. Notably, the game includes a "persistent bases" feature: any structure that the player builds in a battle will be present in future battles when the player defends that territory (unless the structure is destroyed). Research upgrades are not persistent and must be re-acquired in each battle as normal.

During an attack, the player will start the battle with his or her faction's commander unit and any active honor guard units. Honor guard units that survive the battle can be used in the next attack action. During a defense, the player will start with any units garrisoned in the territory. If the defense takes place at the territory where the player's army is currently located, the player will also start the battle with the commander and honor guard units. NPC armies also have commander and honor guard units that follow the same rules.

Units
The number of units a player may field at one time is determined by population and vehicle 'squad caps'; these limit the number of infantry troops and vehicles a player may have on the battlefield. Squad caps may be increased using methods differing between races. Most units have a melee attack and a ranged attack. Units are often specialized to be better using one attack type. All units also have stances; these affect how the units respond to enemies. There are six types of units: commanders, infantry, heavy infantry, daemons, vehicles, and Titans.

Commanders are hero units, and can usually only be built once. If they perish, they may be rebuilt. A sub-class is the semi-commander unit, which has many abilities like the commander unit but may be built multiple times. Infantry are foot soldiers, and may either be regular or heavy, with heavy infantry being much tougher than normal infantry. Vehicles are heavy weaponry and transports, and include tanks, artillery, troop carriers and walkers. Titans are end-game units, which usually require the highest tech level and a captured relic. Titans appear as all the other unit types depending on Factions. Like Commanders they can only be built once and may be rebuilt.

All units, aside from titans and most heroes, builders and vehicles, come in squads. These are groups of infantry that are commanded as a single entity. They may be reinforced with additional members, equipped with special weapons, or be attached to hero units. Some squads have special abilities, such as grenades, teleportation, and stealth, unlocked with research or leader units. Unit longevity is determined by their health and morale points, which govern a squad's fighting effectiveness. Both are reduced by weaponry; morale recharges independently or due to unit abilities, while health is increased by healer units or repair, with some units also able to heal themselves. The Necrons have the ability to reassemble themselves and spawn again.

Multiplayer
Players may either connect directly by IP connection, or play on their LAN. There are eight game modes available for online skirmish play, such as Annihilate, which requires the player to destroy every enemy buildings capable of unit production or Sudden Death, which causes a player to be eliminated if another captures one of their strategic points. Multiple game modes may be enabled, calling for multiple winning conditions. Due to its nature as a standalone expansion pack, the player may only play as the Tau or Necrons in multiplayer. They may enter their original Dawn of War CD key to gain access to the original four races. Likewise, a Winter Assault CD key is needed to access the Imperial Guard.

Plot

Setting
After the Eldar on Lorn V break their alliance with the Imperial Guard during the events of Winter Assault, the Guard form a task force led by Colonel Lukas Aleksander to hunt their leader, Farseer Taldeer. The awakening of Necrons on the fringe planet of Kronus triggers her journey to the planet, with Aleksander in pursuit. The planet has been under the tenuous control of the Tau Empire for centuries, having wrested it from the Imperium of Mankind and subjugated its human population. The protagonist of Fire Warrior, Kais, leads the Tau forces arriving on the planet. Feral Orks are combined into a force by the arrival of Warboss Gorgutz, who killed the former ruler of Lorn V, the Chaos Lord Crull. The Chaos Lord Eliphas commanding forces from the Chaos Undivided warband Word Bearers arrives in turn to conquer the world and retrieve Crull's skull. Blood Raven Space Marines under the charge of Captain Davian Thule are tasked by Chapter Master Azariah Kyras to purge the world and retrieve relics and information pertaining to the chapter's early history. However, Thule's orders lead him into conflict with the Imperial Guard forces.

Possible Endings
Tau: The Tau regain control of Kronus. Imperial Guard forces and human dissidents are forced into reeducation camps. Humanity becomes a small minority on Kronus, with mass sterilization rumored to have been undertaken.
Chaos: Eliphas ascends into Daemonhood, uses Kronus as a staging point, and leads Chaos forces in the most devastating offensive since the Horus Heresy.
Necron: The Necrons purge Kronus of all life, and campaigns throughout nearby systems, repelling all attempts at retaking the planet.
Ork: Gorgutz uses the planet as a recruiting ground for his later campaigns.
Imperial Guard: Aleksander remains on the planet as its Imperial governor. He yields command of his regiment, passing it to his deputy.
Eldar: Taldeer leaves the planet after putting enemy forces into chaos, leaving it as anarchic, contested by warlords.

Canonical Plot
The canonical plot of the game follows the Blood Ravens. The Blood Ravens defeat the Imperial Guard and kill Colonel Aleksander. The survivors are given treatment and evacuated off-world. The Blood Ravens then defeat the Eldar, capturing and then executing their leader, Taldeer. The Word Bearers are defeated and Eliphas' body is destroyed by a daemon. The Necron Lord of Kronus is destroyed by Thule, though he loses an eye in the process. The Tau and Orks are defeated by an unknown force. With the Blood Ravens victorious, the world is returned to the Imperium of Man, though not before it is purged and pillaged. The Imperial Guard report the Blood Ravens to the Imperial Inquisition, though Thule and his officers manage to convince the Inquisition that their actions were justified. However, the victory on Kronus precedes the revelation of Kyras' allegiance to Chaos, and the defeat of the Blood Ravens in the Kaurava System.

Campaign
The expansion features a "Risk-based strategic layer", a campaign including a "meta-map", similar to that in Westwood Studios's Dune games as opposed to the programmed, linear storylines of previous versions. Due to this lack of linearity, there is no plot aside from the opening cinematic; rather, as the player conquers various opposing factions the game provides a narrative specific to whom the player has conquered. If the player wins the campaign, a cinematic is played that depends on which faction the player was controlling.

The player may pick a faction to play as, and then engages in turn-based combat with the other A.I.-controlled factions. There are multiple provinces, which are conquered by fighting a regular skirmish match over them. These may either give a special bonus or supply special 'honour guard' units, which are powerful, non-trainable versions of regular units. They may only be made on the main battlefield overview screen, and, like provincial reinforcements, cost planetary requisition, a resource gained on a per-turn basis based on how many provinces the player controls. Honour guard units transfer over provinces and may be used repeatedly. There are also seven 'Stronghold' provinces that function as bases for respective factions; these are made like more traditional campaign games, with multiple secondary and primary objectives that vary from faction to faction.

Also, a race's commander unit may be upgraded with special "wargear", unique, customizable upgrades that vary by race. These are awarded at battle milestones, ranging from a certain amount of kills to conquering many provinces.

Campaign scenarios are persistent, meaning that all player structures are 'saved' when a game is won. For example, if a player builds a base and conquers a province, only to have a neighbouring faction attack aforementioned province, the player will start out with his previous base, with the exception of having no technology researched. Also, the CPU always starts out in the same spot, rather than being random. If you build a defense around the CPU's starting point and it's too close, it will be removed at the beginning of the defense match. Players may also choose to garrison provinces with units that are instantly available should the province be attacked. These are bought with planetary requisition.

Setting

Races
All five of the pre-existing factions gain new units, and two new playable races are available.

Tau Empire

One of the two newer races, the Tau are unique in multiple ways. Tau warriors and vehicles are powerful in ranged battles, but lack melee prowess; their commander even lacks a melee attack entirely. Many Tau units tend to be relatively fragile, few in number, and expensive. To compensate, they fight alongside the alien Kroot, using these primal warriors as auxiliaries. Also, they are the only race with a 'choice' in their final technology choices; two final tier buildings are presented, which provide different end-game units and technologies. Only one may be chosen. The Tau also do not have any standalone defensive structures or minefields. However one of their Heavy Infantry; the Broadside Battlesuit, can be entrenched and use its shoulder mounted railguns, effectively making them into turrets.

Necrons

The Necrons are unique, as they do not require requisition to build their army. All units are in and of themselves free of requisition point cost. Power is the only resource Necrons need, in order to perform research, construct buildings and to construct and reinforce squads. However, capturing Strategic Points and building Obelisks (the Necrons listening post) on them will increase the speed of research and building, and will also expand the population cap. The Necron Monolith, their home base, is restored as more buildings are built, while also unlocking new units, and functions as the only vehicle- and troop-producing building. When fully restored it becomes mobile (albeit very slow, though it can teleport) and is armed with powerful weaponry. Many Necron units have the ability to resurrect, and most will leave persistent corpses on the battlefield that may either self-resurrect after they die or be restored by specialized Necron units (this resurrection can actually allow the Necrons to go over their population cap).

Necrons were previously seen in Winter Assault at the end of the single-player campaign, but noticeably stronger.

Development
Dark Crusade uses the same engine as the original Dawn of War game, which allowed game developer Relic to focus most efforts on revamping the single-player campaign and balancing out the two new races. By E3 2006, the two new races were demonstrated through an in-engine feature, though no playable version was showcased. New units were unveiled regularly after August 11. The first available playable build was released on September 18 to GameSpot. Dark Crusade exited the development stage on September 21, and was expected to be shipped worldwide by October 9.

Reception

The expansion was praised as an "excellent real-time strategy game", with its non-linear single-player campaign, stabilized multiplayer and additional features, and was selected by IGN and GameSpot as the best expansion pack of 2006. Most were quite surprised by the quality and size of the expansion, stating that the large amount of new content "[breathed] new life into the game". Critics cited the excellent balancing between races, saying it had a positive effect on both single-player and multiplayer. Aside from new units and races, changes to the gameplay mechanics, such as reworking of the elite unit system, were well-received, as critics felt that the changes "forced players to actually think about using real combined arms tactics in multiplayer and contributed to more games decided by genuine strategy and skill rather than just who can spec out the proper build order."

Some critics stated that the game's weak points included its complexity; some reviewers disliked how much micromanagement was required to effectively field one race against another, saying that this complexity was detrimental to the game. As one reviewer mentioned, "...when I stop having fun, I stop playing." The learning curve was also stated as being very steep for an RTS, due to each race being different. Another thing critics disliked was the player's inability to 'zoom out' with the in-game camera; this sometimes got in the way of large battles, and was especially noticeable when playing as or against the Tau, as their long-range weapons often resulted in them engaging their targets off-screen. While general consensus on the revamped single-player campaign was positive, some critics felt that it was not particularly challenging; they found that the AI was strategically weak, and there were no random elements in most skirmish missions that would enhance replayability. The usage of a random auto-resolve feature to determine which races won which territories was seen as a downside; also, one critic found that the AI attacked his homebase very rarely, and that they would attack insignificant zones regardless of the opportunity to capture more significant ones.
In terms of new additions, some critics felt that the races, in particular the Necrons, were overpowered.

Dark Crusade won Computer Games Magazines 2006 "Expansion of the Year" award. The editors wrote, "With this expansion, Dawn of War has become the ultimate Warhammer game."

References

External links
Warhammer 40,000: Dawn of War – Dark Crusade at MobyGames

2006 video games
Multiplayer and single-player video games
Real-time strategy video games
Relic Entertainment games
THQ games
Video game expansion packs
Video games developed in Canada
Video games featuring female protagonists
Video games set on fictional planets
D
Windows games
Windows-only games


The tusk shells or tooth shells, technically the Scaphopoda  (the scaphopods , from Ancient Greek σκᾰ́φης skáphē "boat" and πούς poús "foot"), are members of a class of shelled marine mollusc with worldwide distribution, and are the only class of exclusively infaunal marine molluscs. Shells of species within this class range from about 0.5 to 18 cm (for Fissidentalium metivieri) in length. Members of the order Dentaliida tend to be larger than those of the order Gadilida.

These molluscs live in soft substrates offshore (usually not intertidally). Because of this subtidal habitat and the small size of most species, many beachcombers are unfamiliar with them; their shells are not as common or as easily visible in the beach drift as the shells of sea snails and clams.

Molecular data suggest that the scaphopods are a sister group to the cephalopods, although higher-level molluscan phylogeny remains unresolved.

Orientation
The morphological shape of the scaphopod body makes it difficult to orient it satisfactorily.  As a result, researchers have often disagreed as to which direction is anterior/ posterior and which is ventral/ dorsal.  According to Shimek and Steiner, "[t]he apex of the shell and mantle are anatomically dorsal, and the large aperture is ventral and anterior.  Consequently, the concave side of the shell and viscera are anatomically dorsal.  The convex side has to be divided into anteriorly ventral and dorsally posterior portions, with the anus as the demarcation.  Functionally, as in cephalopods, the large aperture with the foot is anterior, the apical area posterior, the concave side dorsal and the convex side ventral."

Anatomy

Shells
The shells of the members of the Gadilida are usually glassy-smooth and narrow, with a reduced aperture. This along with other structures of their anatomy allows them to move with surprising speed through loose sediment to escape potential bottom-dwelling predators.

The Dentalids, by contrast, tend to have strongly ribbed and rough shells. When they sense vibrations anywhere around them, their defensive response is to freeze. This makes them harder to detect by animals such as ratfish, which can sense the electrical signals given off by the most minute muscle movement.

Mantle
The mantle of a scaphopod is entirely within the shell. The foot extends from the larger end of the shell, and is used to burrow through the substrate. The scaphopod positions itself head down in the substrate, with the apical end of the shell (at the rear of the animal's body) projecting upward. This end seldom appears above the level of the substrate, however, as doing so exposes the animal to numerous predators.  Most adult scaphopods live their lives entirely buried within the substrate.

Water enters the mantle cavity through the apical aperture, and is wafted along the body surface by cilia. There are no gills; the entire surface of the mantle cavity absorbs oxygen from the water. Unlike most other molluscs, there is no continuous flow of water with a separate exhalant stream. Instead, deoxygenated water is expelled rapidly back through the apical aperture through muscular action once every ten to twelve minutes.

Feeding and digestion
A number of minute tentacles around the foot, called captacula, sift through the sediment and latch onto bits of food, which they then convey to the mouth. The mouth has a grinding radula that breaks the bit into smaller pieces for digestion. The radulae and cartilaginous oral bolsters of the Gadilidae are structured like zippers where the teeth actively crush the prey by opening and closing on it repeatedly, while the radulae and bolsters of the Dentaliidae work rachet-like to pull the prey into the esophagus, sometimes whole.

The massive radula of the scaphopods is the largest such organ relative to body size of any mollusc (among whom, except for the bivalves, the presence of a which is a defining characteristic). The remainder of the digestive system consists of a digestive diverticulum, esophagus, stomach, and intestine. A digestive gland secretes enzymes into the stomach, but, unlike some other molluscs, does not digest the food directly itself. The anus opens on the ventral/ underside of the animal, roughly in the middle of the mantle cavity.

Vascular system
The scaphopod vascular system is rudimentary lacking heart auricles as well as corresponding ctenidia (gills) and blood vessels; the blood is held in sinuses throughout the body cavity, and is pumped through the body by the rhythmic action of the foot. The heart, a characteristic feature of all other groups of mollusca, has been considered totally lost or reduced to a thin fold of the pericardium; however, according to more recent studies, the muscular, regularly beating perianal blood sinus is homologous to the ventricle and is therefore considered the scaphopod heart.

Metabolic waste is excreted through a pair of nephridia close to the anus.  The tusk shells appear to be the only extant molluscs which completely lack the otherwise standard molluscan reno-pericardial apertures.  Furthermore, they also appear to be the only molluscs with openings that directly connect the hemocoel with the surrounding water (through two "water pores" located near the nephridial openings).  These openings may serve to allow the animal to relieve internal pressure by ejecting body fluid (blood) during moments of extreme muscular contraction of the foot.

Nervous system
The nervous system is generally similar to that of cephalopods. One pair each of cerebral and pleural ganglia lie close to the oesophagus, and effectively form the animal's brain.

A separate set of pedal ganglia lie in the foot, and a pair of visceral ganglia are set further back in the body, and connect to pavilion ganglia via long connectives. Radular and sub-radular ganglia are also present, as are statocysts with staticonia. Scaphopods have no eyes, no osphradia, or other distinct sensory organs. However, scaphopods do possess genes involved in photoreceptor formation and function implying scaphopods may have had eyes that degenerated over evolutionary time.

Reproduction and development
Scaphopods have separate sexes, and external fertilisation. They have a single gonad occupying much of the posterior part of the body, and shed their gametes into the water through the nephridium.

Once fertilized, the eggs hatch into a free-living trochophore larva, which develops into a veliger larva that more closely resembles the adult, but lacks the extreme elongation of the adult body. The three-lobed foot originates prior to metamorphosis while the cephalic tentacles develop post metamorphosis. Scaphopods remain univalved throughout their morphogenesis contrary to bivalves.

Ecology
Tusk shells live in seafloor sediment, feeding primarily on foraminiferans; some supplement this with vegetable matter.

Classification
The group is composed of two subtaxa, the Dentaliida (which may be paraphyletic) and the monophyletic Gadilida.
The differences between the two orders is subtle and hinges on size and on details of the radula, shell, and foot. Specifically, the Dentaliids are the physically larger of the two families, and possess a shell that tapers uniformly from anterior (widest) to posterior (narrowest); they also have a foot which consists of one central and two lateral lobes and which bends into the shell when retracted.  The Gadilids, on the other hand, are much smaller, have a shell whose widest portion is slightly posterior to its aperture, and have a foot which is disk-like and fringed with tentacles which inverts into itself when retracted (in this state resembling a pucker rather than a disk).

According to the World Register of Marine Species:
 Dentaliida da Costa, 1776
 family Anulidentaliidae Chistikov, 1975 – 3 genera
 family Calliodentaliidae – 1 genus
 family Dentaliidae Children, 1834 – 14 genera
 family Fustiariidae Steiner, 1991 – 1 genus
 family Gadilinidae Chistikov, 1975 – 3 genera
 family Laevidentaliidae Palmer, 1974 – 1 genus
 family Omniglyptidae Chistikov, 1975 – 1 genus
 family Rhabdidae Chistikov, 1975 – 1 genus
 Gadilida Starobogatov, 1974
 sub-order Entalimorpha Steiner, 1992
 family Entalinidae Chistikov, 1979  – 9 genera
 sub-order Gadilimorpha Steiner, 1992
 family Gadilidae Stoliczka, 1868 – 8 genera
 family Pulsellidae Scarabino in Boss, 1982 – 3 genera
 family Wemersoniellidae Scarabino, 1986 – 2 genera

Evolution

Fossil record
There is a good fossil record of scaphopods from the Mississippian onwards, making them the youngest molluscan class.

The Ordovician Rhytiodentalium kentuckyensis has been interpreted as an early antecedent of the scaphopods, implying an evolutionary succession from ribeirioid rostroconch molluscs such as Pinnocaris.  However, a competing hypothesis suggests a Devonian/Carboniferous origin from a non-mineralized ancestor, or from a more derived, Devonian, conocardioid rostroconch.

Phylogeny
The scaphopods are largely agreed to be members of the Conchifera, however their phylogenetic relationship with the other members of this subphylum remains contentious. The Diasoma concept proposes a clade of scaphopods and bivalves based on their shared infaunal lifestyle, burrowing foot, and possession of a mantle and shell. Pojeta and Runnegar proposed the extinct Rostroconchia as the stem group of the Diasoma. An alternative hypothesis proposes the cephalopods and gastropods as sister to the scaphopods with helcionellids as the stem group. A review of deep molluscan phylogeny in 2014 found more support for the scaphopods, gastropods, or cephalopods than for scaphopods and bivalves, thus the shared body features of scaphopods and bivalves may be convergent adaptations due to similar lifestyles. Analysis of the scaphopod nervous system demonstrated that both scaphopods and cephalopods share a similar nervous system structure, with ventrally shifted pedal nerves and lateral nerves that extend dorsally. These similarities led to the conclusion that scaphopods are sister to the cephalopods with gastropods as sister to them both. More recent research, including the sequenced genome of tusk shells, support the Diasoma model with bivalves as the sister group.

Human use
The shells of Dentalium hexagonum and Dentalium pretiosum were strung on thread and used by the natives of the Pacific Northwest as shell money. Dentalium shells were also used to make belts and headdresses by the Natufian culture of the Middle East, and are a possible indicator of early social stratification.

References

Further reading

 For a comprehensive overview, see
 Scarabino V., (1995) Scaphopoda of the tropical Pacific and Indian Oceans, with description of 3 new genera and 42 new species P. Bouchet (ed) Résultats des Campagnes MUSORSTOM, Volume 14 Mémoires du Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, 167 189-379.
 Cited by —

 Steiner G. & Kabat A. 2004. Catalog of species-group names of Recent and fossil Scaphopoda (Mollusca). Zoosystema 26 (4): 549-726
 Steiner, G.; Kabat, A. R. (2001). Catalogue of supraspecific taxa of Scaphopoda (Mollusca). Zoosystema. 23(3): 433-460

Mollusc shells

Mississippian first appearances
Extant Carboniferous first appearances
Taxa named by Heinrich Georg Bronn

Tusk shell


Gardens of the French Renaissance were initially inspired by the Italian Renaissance garden, which evolved later into the grander and more formal jardin à la française during the reign of Louis XIV, by the middle of the 17th century.

In 1495, King Charles VIII and his nobles brought the Renaissance style back to France after their war campaign in Italy.  They reached their peak in the gardens of the royal Château de Fontainebleau, Château d'Amboise, Château de Blois, and Château de Chenonceau.

French Renaissance gardens were characterized by symmetrical and geometric planting beds or parterres, plants in pots, paths of gravel and sand, terraces, stairways and ramps, moving water in the form of canals, cascades and monumental fountains, and extensive use of artificial grottoes, labyrinths, and statues of mythological figures. They became an extension of the châteaux that they surrounded, and were designed to illustrate the Renaissance ideals of measure and proportion, and to remind viewers of the virtues of Ancient Rome.

History

Italian influence

In the 13th century, the Italian landscape architect Pietro de' Crescenzi wrote a treatise called Opus Ruralium Commodium, which laid out a formal plan for gardens, ornamented with topiary sculptures, trees and bushes trimmed into architectural shapes, following a tradition begun by the Romans.  King Charles V of France ordered a French translation in 1373, and the new Italian style began to appear in France.

Another influential writer was Leon Battista Alberti (1404–1472), who in 1450 wrote a tract, De re aedificatoria for Lorenzo de' Medici. Alberti used the geometric principles of Vitruvius to design building façades and gardens.  He suggested that the house should look over the garden, and that the garden should have "porticos for giving shade, cradles where vines grow on columns of marble, and there should be vases and even amusing statues, provided that they are not obscene."

In his design of the gardens of the Cortile del Belvedere in Rome, the architect Bramante (1444–1544) introduced the idea of perspective, using a long axis perpendicular to the palace, along which he placed parterres and fountains.  This became a central feature of Renaissance gardens.

A popular novel by the monk Francesco Colonna, published in Venice in 1499, called The Dream of Poliphile, an allegorical journey by a traveller, Poliphile, to fantastic lands in search of his love, Polia, had an enormous influence upon gardens of the time.  The ideas of a "garden-island" in a lake, such as the one in the Boboli Gardens in Florence, of statues of giants coming out of earth in the park of the Villa di Pratolino, and the theme of labyrinth were all taken from the imaginary voyages of Poliphile. All these elements were to appear in French Renaissance gardens.

Birthplace of Renaissance gardens in France: Château-Gaillard (Amboise)

In 1495, Charles VIII invaded the kingdom of Naples, and he saw the luxury of the palaces and gardens in Italy. When he returned to France in 1496, he convinced and brought back with him 22 Italian artists, including a monk and master gardener from Naples named Pacello da Mercogliano. They decided to reproduce in Amboise the marvels of Tuscany and elected a 15 hectares amphitheater-shaped land in the heart of the city to realize the King's dream of Poggioreale.  Charles VIII ordered the construction of Château-Gaillard and Pacello chose this royal domain to introduce and acclimatize the first orange trees in France. He created lawns, floral beds and settings for his "Arte del Verde" and successfully introduced Italian style gardens for the very first time in France. He used Château-Gaillard as an experimental laboratory for his innovations: he created a new variety of plum called "Reine Claude" ("Queen Claude"), and used very specific techniques such as half barrels as tree planter boxes.

The gardens of Château-Gaillard stand as the "missing link" between medieval monastic gardens and future French formal gardens.

Gardens of the Château d'Amboise, Blois, Gaillon and Bury

At the beginning of the 16th century, King Francis I, who had also visited Italy and had met Leonardo da Vinci, built gardens in the new style on three terraces of different levels bordered by the old walls of his Château de Blois.  Besides the parterres of flowers, the gardens produced a wide variety of vegetables and fruits, including orange and lemon trees in boxes, which were taken indoors in winter.  The building that sheltered them, still standing,  was the first orangerie in France.  The gardens were on the site of the present-day Place Victor-Hugo and the site of the railways station. The last vestiges of the garden were destroyed in 1890 by the construction of the Avenue Victor-Hugo.

At about the same time, Pacello da Mercogliano designed gardens for the Château de Gaillon owned by Cardinal Georges d'Amboise, a Minister of King Henry IV, who had also spent time in Italy.  The gardens, built on different levels below the old medieval château, were planted in parterres of flowers and fruit trees. The parterre at the entrance of the garden featured the coat of arms of France in flowers.  Bushes were trimmed into the shapes of men on horseback, ships, and birds.  It was also decorated with imposing fountains of marble.

The gardens of the Château de Bury were built between 1511 and 1524 by Florimont Robertet, a Secretary of State for both Louis XII and Francis I. Robertet had visited the Villa Medici in Fiesole and wanted to reproduce the terraced gardens he saw there. The château, departing from the traditional design, was integrated closely with its gardens.  Visitors passed through a square garden inside the castle and out into two geometric gardens behind the château, decorated with fountains and surrounded by a wooden gallery. The axis went from the entrance to the chapel, at the far end of the garden.  Like Italian Renaissance gardens, the gardens of Bury were located on the edge of a hill, with a fine view of the forest of Blois. In the centre of the court of the château, Robertet placed a bronze copy of Michelangelo's David, which had been given to him by the Republic of Florence.

Gardens of Fontainebleau

The gardens of the Château de Fontainebleau, located in a forest which had been the hunting preserve of the Capetian Kings of France, were created by Francis I beginning in 1528.  The garden featured fountains, parterres, a forest of pine trees brought from Provence and the first artificial grotto in France in 1541.  Catherine de' Medici ordered copies in bronze of the statues which decorated the Cortile del Belvedere in Rome.  A statue of Hercules in repose by Michelangelo decorated the garden of the lake. In 1594, Henry IV added a small island in the lake connected to the court of fountains by a bridge.

Gardens of Chenonceau

The Château de Chenonceau had two separate gardens: the first created in 1551 for Diane de Poitiers, the favorite of King Henry II, with a large parterre and a jet d'eau (jet of water), and a second, smaller garden created for Catherine de' Medici in 1560, on a terrace raised above the river Cher, divided into compartments, with a basin in the centre.

Gardens of Saint-Germaine-en-Laye
The gardens of the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye marked the beginning of the transition to a new style, which would be called jardin à la française.  The garden was laid out in 1595 by royal gardener Charles Mollet for Henry IV.

Chronology

Château d'Amboise (1495)
Château de Blois (1499) (gardens were destroyed in the 19th century.)
Château de Gaillon (1502 to 1550)
Château de Bury-en-Blesois (1511–1520)
Château de Chenonceau, (1515–1589) gardens of Diane de Poitiers (1551) and Catherine de' Medici (1560)
Château de Chantilly (1524)
Château de Fontainebleau (1528–1447)
Château de Saint-Maur (1536)
Château d'Anet (1536)
Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1539–1547) -old Château and gardens
Château de Villandry (1536)
Montceaux-les-Maux (1549–1560)
Château de Vallery (1550)
La Bastie d'Urfe (1551)
Château de Dampierre-sur-Boutonne (1552–1600)
Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1539–1547) -new Château and terraces
Château de Charleval (1560)
Tuileries Palace and Gardens (1564–1593)
Château de Verneuil (1565)
Château d'Anet (1582) New Gardens.
Château de Fontainebleau (1594–1609) New gardens by Claude Mollet
Tuileries Garden in Paris (1599) by Claude Mollet, Delorme, Duperac
Luxembourg Garden in Paris (1612–1630)

Modern versions
Garden of the Château d'Ambleville

Bibliography

 Yves-Marie Allain and Janine Christiany, L'art des jardins en Europe, Citadelles et Mazenod, Paris, 2006
 Claude Wenzler, Architecture du jardin, Editions Ouest-France, 2003
 Lucia Impelluso, Jardins, potagers et labyrinthes,  Hazan, Paris, 2007.
 Philippe Prevot, Histoire des jardins, Editions Sud Ouest, 2006

Notes

+
Gardens in France
French Renaissance
Renaissance gardens
Culture of France

Gardens of the French Renaissance


Aubrey Kerr McClendon (July 14, 1959 – March 2, 2016) was an American businessman. He was the founder and chief executive officer of American Energy Partners. He was also the co-founder and retired chief executive officer and chairman of Chesapeake Energy. He was an outspoken supporter for natural gas as a cleaner and safer alternative to oil and coal fuels. He was born in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma.

McClendon was a part-owner of the Oklahoma City Thunder of the National Basketball Association (NBA) and was part of the ownership that moved the team to Oklahoma City in 2008.

On March 1, 2016, McClendon was charged by the United States Department of Justice of conspiring "to rig bids for the purchase of oil and natural gas leases in northwest Oklahoma". He died the following day in a car crash near Oklahoma City. He was 56 years old.

References

1959 births
2016 deaths

American chief executives
Businesspeople from Oklahoma
People from Oklahoma City
Road accident deaths in the United States

Aubrey McClendon


Paul Bécart de Granville et de Fonville (January 18, 1695 – March 19, 1754) was an officer in the colonial regular troops and a seigneur.

Bécart de Fonville, was the brother of Charles Bécart de Granville et de Fonville, a king's attorney. He entered military service in 1712 and had achieved the rank of captain by April, 1737. In 1733, he had received the seigneury of Île aux Grues.

In 1743, Paul Bécart became commandant of Fort Saint Frédéric on Lake Champlain. He replaced François-Antoine Pécaudy de Contrecœur. In 1750, he was made a knight of the order of Saint-Louis particularly because of his service at Fort Saint Frédéric.

External links

People of New France
1695 births
1754 deaths
Knights of the Order of Saint Louis

Paul Bécart de Granville et de Fonville


In cryptography, GMR is a digital signature algorithm named after its inventors Shafi Goldwasser, Silvio Micali and Ron Rivest.

As with RSA the security of the system is related to the difficulty of factoring very large numbers. But, in contrast to RSA, GMR is secure against adaptive chosen-message attacks, which is the currently accepted security definition for signature schemes— even when an attacker receives signatures for messages of his choice, this does not allow them to forge a signature for a single additional message.

External links

Digital signature schemes

GMR (cryptography)


Jonathan McCully (July 25, 1809 – January 2, 1877) was a participant at the Confederation conferences at Charlottetown, Quebec City, and in London, and is thus considered one of the Fathers of Canadian Confederation. He did much to promote union through newspaper editorials. For his efforts, he received a Senate appointment. He later became a judge of the Nova Scotia Supreme Court.

McCully was born at his family's farm in Cumberland County, Nova Scotia. He attended various local schools before going to work on the family farm. From 1828 to 1830, he taught school  in order to fund his legal studies. One of his pupils was Sir Charles Tupper. He was called to the Nova Scotia bar in 1837, and set up his practice in Amherst. In 1842 he married Eliza Creed.

A confirmed Liberal by 1837, he expressed his views in frequent contributions to the Acadian Recorder. In addition, he was a contributor to the Halifax Morning Chronicle, the major Liberal newspaper of the province of Nova Scotia. Although he took a marginal role at the conferences at Charlottetown and Québec City he was an important promoter of union to Nova Scotians through editorials in both the Morning Chronicle and the Unionist & Halifax Journal. After the passage of the union resolution in 1866 McCully eased this newspaper crusade.

His support of Joseph Howe during the 1847 election earned him an appointment to the Legislative Council where he held various offices.  When the Liberals were re-elected in 1860 he became solicitor general and railway commissioner. His policy of cost cutting over efficiency, and his lack of personal popularity, caused Joseph Howe to blame him for the 1863 Liberal election loss.

Despite being the Liberal leader in the Legislative Council in 1864 Jonathan McCully's name was not on the initial list of delegates to the Charlottetown Conference. After one of the other delegates withdrew Charles Tupper picked McCully as a replacement. Although Jonathan McCully was not previously a strong supporter of union he was converted at the Charlottetown meeting. He was a delegate to the London Conference but made few contributions to the proceedings.

For his support of Confederation, McCully was appointed to the Senate of Canada in 1867. He was soon overshadowed by his more prominent colleagues Charles Tupper, Adams George Archibald and eventually even Joseph Howe. He supported the "better terms" offered to Nova Scotia in 1869. He resigned the Senate of Canada when he was appointed puisne judge of the Nova Scotia Supreme Court in 1870. While his taste for efficiency was unpopular with lawyers, his personal popularity amongst Nova Scotians rose for the first time.

He died at his home in Halifax,  Nova Scotia on January 2, 1877 and was buried in that city at Camp Hill Cemetery.  His Halifax residence was designated as a National Historic Site of Canada in 1975, due to its associations with McCully.

References

External links
 Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online

1809 births
1877 deaths
Canadian senators from Nova Scotia
Canadian people of English descent
Canadian people of Scottish descent
Fathers of Confederation
Members of the Legislative Council of Nova Scotia
Liberal Party of Canada senators
People from Cumberland County, Nova Scotia
Colony of Nova Scotia people
Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada)

Jonathan McCully


The 1926 Imperial Conference was the fifth Imperial Conference bringing together the prime ministers of the Dominions of the British Empire. It was held in London from 19 October to 23 November 1926. The conference was notable for producing the Balfour Declaration, which established the principle that the dominions are all equal in status, and "autonomous communities within the British Empire" not subordinate to the United Kingdom. The term "Commonwealth" was officially adopted to describe the community.

The conference was arranged to follow directly after the 1926 Assembly of the League of Nations (in Geneva, Switzerland), to reduce the amount of travelling required for the dominions' representatives.

The conference created the Inter-Imperial Relations Committee, chaired by Arthur Balfour, to look into future constitutional arrangements for the Commonwealth. In the end, the committee rejected the idea of a codified constitution, as espoused by South Africa's former Prime Minister Jan Smuts, but also fell short of endorsing the "end of empire" espoused by Smuts's arch-rival, Barry Hertzog. The recommendations were adopted unanimously by the conference on 15 November, followed by an equally warm reception in the newspapers.

Participants
The conference was hosted by King-Emperor George V, with his Prime Ministers and members of their respective cabinets:

References

Citations

Sources

Imperial Conference
History of the Commonwealth of Nations
1926 in London
1926 in international relations
William Lyon Mackenzie King
Events in London
1926 in the British Empire
1926 conferences
October 1926 events
November 1926 events
1920s in the City of Westminster
George V
Stanley Baldwin
Winston Churchill
Arthur Balfour

1926 Imperial Conference


I Wish My Brother George Was Here is the debut solo studio album by American hip hop musician Del the Funky Homosapien. It was released by Elektra Records in 1991. It peaked at number 24 on the Billboard Heatseekers Albums chart, as well as number 48 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart.

It has been incorrectly assumed that the title of the album is a reference to George Clinton. The title actually refers to a quote from a Looney Tunes short film, which is in turn a reference to Liberace's catchphrase, which he would say on his television show whenever his brother George did not appear.

Critical reception
Fred Thomas of AllMusic gave the album 4.5 stars out of 5, saying, "[Del has] clearly been writing his own rules since the beginning, and the lucid dreaming and everyday observations of I Wish My Brother George Was Here are the first and some of the best examples of this, and how wonderful the results can be."

Track listing

Charts

References

External links

1991 debut albums
Del the Funky Homosapien albums
Elektra Records albums

I Wish My Brother George Was Here


Scottish poetry is poetry fae Scotland. It includes aw forms o verse written in Brythonic, Latin, Scottish Gaelic, Scots, French, English an Esperanto an ony language in whilk poetry haes been written athin the bounds o modren Scotland, or by Scottish fowk.

A fair feck o early Welsh leeteratur wis producit in Scotland. Early Scottish leeteratur includit mony bards.

In the Middle Ages, thare wis makars at the keing's coort.

Efter the Ack o Union in 1707, there wis the vernacular revival wi Allan Ramsay an Rabbie Burns fur ensaumple.

At the stert o the 20t yeirhunner, there wis the Scottish Renaissance, follaein Hugh MacDiarmid.

References

Scottish poetry
poetry
Scotland

Scottish poetry


Rupert I "the Red", Elector Palatine (; 9 June 1309, Wolfratshausen – 16 February 1390, Neustadt an der Weinstraße) was Count Palatine of the Rhine from 1353 to 1356, and Elector Palatine from 10 January 1356 to 16 February 1390.

He was the son of Rudolf I, Duke of Bavaria and Mechtild of Nassau, the daughter of Adolf of Nassau-Weilburg, King of Germany. With the death of his brother, Rudolf II, on 4 October 1353, he inherited his domains and became sole Count for the territory, whereas they had previously shared that privilege.

The Golden Bull of 1356 guaranteed the Palatinate the right of participating in the election of the Holy Roman Emperor.  Previous Counts Palatine had participated in other Imperial elections.

In 1386, Rupert founded Heidelberg University, the third university in the Holy Roman Empire, which was named after him.

Rupert was married twice: firstly to Elisabeth, Countess of Namur (daughter of John I, Marquis of Namur), secondly to Beatrix of Jülich-Berg, the great-granddaughter of his elder brother Adolf, Count Palatine of the Rhine.  Neither marriage produced an heir.

He was succeeded by his nephew, Rupert II, Elector Palatine, grandfather of his second wife.

References

1309 births
1390 deaths
House of Wittelsbach
Counts Palatine of the Rhine
Prince-electors of the Palatinate
Heidelberg University

Rupert I, Elector Palatine


Kevin Daniel Williamson is an American journalist and political commentator. He works for  National Review, the New York Post and The Dispatch.

Works
Williamson wrote a book called The End is Near and it's going to be Awesome which criticized alarmism.  Williamson was a Republican before 2016 when he became one of many conservatives who were Never Trumpers.

Then he wrote a book called The Case Against Trump about why no one should ever vote for Donald Trump. Williamson left National Review to work for The Atlantic but was fired for believing that abortion should be a crime with the same punishment as murder.

He also wrote a book about cancel culture called The Smallest Minority. Williamson has a lot of libertarian opinions but he has some pro-government positions like having written in support of using the government to force people to get vaccinated against Covid.  Williamson was criticized for this by Charles C.W. Cooke.

He also wrote a book called Big White Ghetto about subcultures that exist among white people in the United States.

Living people
American journalists

Kevin D. Williamson


The Laptev Sea Rift is a divergent tectonic plate boundary between the North American Plate and the Eurasian Plate located on the Arctic Ocean coast of northeastern Siberia in Russia.  The Laptev Sea Rift is the continuation of the Gakkel Ridge (Mid-Arctic Ridge) into the continental crust of Siberia.  It starts offshore in the continental shelf and continues onshore to a point located in the Chersky Range where the boundary motion changes from extension to compression.

References
Joint US-Russia Workshop on the Plate Tectonic Evolution of Northeast Russia, Dec. 2004

Rifts and grabens

Laptev Sea Rift


The Karakalpaks or Qaraqalpaqs (; ), are a Turkic ethnic group native to Karakalpakstan in Northwestern Uzbekistan. During the 18th century, they settled in the lower reaches of the Amu Darya and in the (former) delta of Amu Darya on the southern shore of the Aral Sea. The name "Karakalpak" comes from two words: qara meaning "black" and qalpaq meaning "hat". The Karakalpaks number nearly 620,000 worldwide, out of which about 500,000 live in the Karakalpakstan region of Uzbekistan.

Etymology
The word Karakalpak is derived from the Russian Cyrillic spelling of their name and has become the accepted name for these people in the West. The Karakalpaks endonymically refer to themselves as Qaraqalpaqs, whilst the Uzbeks call them Qoraqalpoqs. The word means "black hat" and has caused much confusion in the past, since historians linked them with other earlier peoples (such as Cherniye Klobuki), who have borne the appellation "black hat" in Slavic vernacular.

History
Many accounts continue to link the present-day Karakalpaks with the Turkic confederation known as the Cherniye Klobuki of the 11th century, whose name also means "black hat" in Russian. Cherniye Klobuki were mercenary military troops of the Kievan Rus. Apart from the fact that their names have the same meaning, there is no archaeological or historical evidence to link these two groups.

The Karakalpaks, Uzbeks, and Kazakhs are regarded to be subgroups of the same Uzbek Confederation that arose in the fifteenth century following the breakdown of Genghis Khan's empire and the collapse of the Golden Horde. The Karakalpak group was formed in the seventeenth century as a result of a split from the Kazakh confederation.

Recent archaeological evidence indicates that the Karakalpaks may have formed as a confederation of different tribes at some time in the late 15th or the 16th centuries at some location along the Syr Darya or its southern Zhany Darya outlet, in proximity to the Kazakhs of the Lesser Horde. This would explain why their language, customs, and material culture are so similar to that of the Kazakhs.

Geography

The Karakalpak population is mainly confined to the central part of Karakalpakstan that is irrigated by the Amu Darya. The largest communities live in Nukus, the capital of Karakalpakstan and the surrounding large towns, such as Khodjeyli, Shimbay, Takhiatash, Shomanay and Kungrad. Although their homeland bears their name, the Karakalpaks are not the largest ethnic group living in Karakalpakstan. They are increasingly being outnumbered by Uzbeks, many of whom are being encouraged to move into the rich agricultural region around Turtkul and Beruniy.

Rural Karakalpaks mainly live on former collective or state farms, most of which have been recently privatised. Many rural Karakalpaks have been seriously affected by the desiccation of the Aral Sea, which has destroyed the local fishing industry along with much of the grazing and agricultural land in the north of the delta. Karakalpaks have nowhere to go. The majority of Karakalpakstan is occupied by desert: the Kyzyl Kum on the eastern side, the barren Ustyurt Plateau to the west and now the growing Aralkum to the north, once the bed of the former Aral Sea.

Language

The Karakalpak language belongs to the Kipchak–Nogai group of Turkic languages, which also includes Kazakh and Nogai. Spoken Karakalpak has two dialects: Northeastern and Southwestern. Written Karakalpak uses both a modified form of the Cyrillic alphabet and Latin alphabet, with the former being standard during the Soviet Union and the latter modelled on Uzbekistan's alphabet reform for Uzbek. Before the Soviet Union, Karakalpak was rarely written, but when it was it used a modified form of the Perso-Arabic alphabet.

Due to the geography and history of the Karakalpak people, Karakalpak has been influenced by Uzbek, Mongol, Tajik and Russian. A Karakalpak-Uzbek pidgin language is often spoken by those bilingual in both languages.

Religion

Karakalpaks are primarily followers of the Hanafi School of Sunni Islam. It is probable they adopted Islam between the 10th and 13th centuries, a period when they first appeared as a distinct ethnic group.

Dervish orders such as the Naqshbandi, Kubrawiya, Yasawi and Qalandari are fairly common in the region. The religious order that established the strongest relationship with the people of the region is the Kubrawiya, which has Shi'i adherents.

Of 553 mosques recorded in 1914, a few remain in Nókis, Tórtkúl, Xojeli, and Shımbay. Many Karakalpak mullahs use their homes for Friday prayers.

See also
 Chorni Klobuky

Notes

References

 Richardson, David; Richardson, Sue (2012), Qaraqalpaqs of the Aral Delta, Prestel Verlag, . Retrieved 2012-07-27
 MaryLee Knowlton: Uzbekistan. Marshall Cavendish 2005, , pp. 54–58 ()
 Shirin Akiner: Islamic Peoples of the Soviet Union, Taylor & Francis 1983, , pp. 338–345 ()
 James Stuart Olson, Nicholas Charles Pappas: An Ethnohistorical Dictionary of the Russian and Soviet empires. Greenwood Publishing Group 1994, , pp. 343–345 ()
 David J. Phillips: Peoples on the Move: Introducing the Nomads of the World. William Carey Library 2001, , p. 304 ()

External links

 The Qaraqalpaqs
 Karakalpakstan

Turkic peoples of Asia
Ethnic groups in Uzbekistan
Ethnic groups in Turkmenistan
Ethnic groups in Kazakhstan
Muslim communities in Asia
Ethnic groups in Asia
Ethnic groups  in Central Asia
Ethnic groups in Russia

Karakalpaks


Slim Aarons (born George Allen Aarons; October 29, 1916 – May 30, 2006) was an American photographer noted for his images of socialites, jet-setters and celebrities. His work principally appeared in Life, Town & Country, and Holiday magazines.

Early life
Aarons was born to Yiddish-speaking immigrants who had lived in a tenement on Manhattan's Lower East Side. His father, Charlie Aarons (born Susman Aronowicz), distanced himself from the family; his mother, Stella Karvetzky, was sent to a sanitarium. Not knowing what had become of his parents, Aarons spent his boyhood at varying times with an aunt, at an orphanage, and with his grandmother and cousins in New Hampshire.

Photography career
At 18 years old, Aarons enlisted in the United States Army, worked as a photographer at the United States Military Academy, and later served as a combat photographer in World War II and earned a Purple Heart. Aarons said combat had taught him the only beach worth landing on was "decorated with beautiful, seminude girls tanning in a tranquil sun."

After the war, Aarons moved to California and began photographing celebrities. In California, he shot his most praised photo, Kings of Hollywood, a 1957 New's Year's Eve photograph depicting Clark Gable, Van Heflin, Gary Cooper, and James Stewart relaxing at a bar in full formal wear.

Aarons never used a stylist, or a makeup artist. He made his career out of what he called "photographing attractive people doing attractive things in attractive places." An oft-cited example of this approach is his 1970 Poolside Gossip shot at the Kaufmann Desert House designed by Richard Neutra, with owner Nelda Linsk as one of the models in the photo. "I knew everyone," he said in an interview with The (London) Independent in 2002. "They would invite me to one of their parties because they knew I wouldn't hurt them. I was one of them." Alfred Hitchcock's film, Rear Window (1954), whose main character is a photographer played by Jimmy Stewart, is set in an apartment reputed to be based on Aarons' apartment.

In 1997, Mark Getty, the co-founder of Getty Images, visited Aarons in his home and bought Aarons' entire archive.

In 2017, filmmaker Fritz Mitchell released a documentary about Aarons, called Slim Aarons: The High Life. In the documentary it is revealed that Aarons was Jewish and grew up in conditions that were in complete contrast to what he told friends and family of his childhood. Aarons claimed that he was raised in New Hampshire, was an orphan, and had no living relations. After his death in 2006, his widow and daughter learned the truth that Aarons had grown up in a poor immigrant Yiddish-speaking family on the Lower East Side of Manhattan. As a boy his mother was diagnosed with mental health issues and admitted to a psychiatric hospital, which caused him to be passed around among relatives. He resented and had no relationship with his father and had a brother, Harry, who would later commit suicide. Several documentary interviewees postulate that if Aarons's true origins had been known, his career would have been unlikely to succeed within the restricted world of celebrity and WASP privilege his photography glamorized.

Death
Aarons died in 2006 in Montrose, New York, and was buried in Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts.

Bibliography

References

External links
Slim Aarons at the International Fine Arts Consortium
Slim Aarons at the Staley-Wise Gallery
Slim Aarons at Artnet
Slim Aarons at the New York Social Diary

1916 births
2006 deaths
United States Army personnel of World War II
Photographers from New York City
Burials at Mount Auburn Cemetery
Commercial photographers
Artists from Manhattan
American portrait photographers
United States Army soldiers
World War II photographers

Slim Aarons


Paul Ellering (born August 22, 1953) is an American professional wrestling manager and former professional wrestler. He is currently signed with WWE to a legends contract. Ellering spent most of his wrestling career managing the Road Warriors (Animal and Hawk), working with them from 1983 to 1990 and again on occasion between 1992 and 1997. In addition to being their on screen manager he actually handled the team's affairs outside the ring as well, including contract negotiations and travel arrangements. Ellering and the Road Warriors were inducted into both the Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame and the WWE Hall of Fame in 2011. Five years later, in June 2016, he returned to the ring at NXT TakeOver: The End as the manager of the Authors of Pain, a heel tag team making their debut. Ellering has been labeled as one of the greatest wrestling managers of all time.

Prior to becoming a manager he was a professional wrestler, but due to injuries retired in 1983 to become a full-time manager, only wrestling on special occasions. In the late-1990s, he was involved in a storyline where he actually turned on the Road Warriors and managed Disciples of Apocalypse as they fought the Road Warriors. After retiring from full-time activity in wrestling, he raced in the Iditarod and John Beargrease Dog Sled Race.

Early life
Before entering the wrestling business, Ellering was an accomplished powerlifter, setting a world record in the deadlift at  a record that stands to present day.

Professional wrestling career

Early career
Ellering was trained in Minneapolis, Minnesota at a camp run by American Wrestling Association (AWA) owner and promoter Verne Gagne and wrestler/trainer Eddie Sharkey in the mid-1970s. According to Ellering's RF Video shoot interview, of the thirty-plus trainees in the camp, only himself and later AWA mid-card wrestler Steve Olsonoski (a.k.a. Steve O) made it through the camp. Ellering would later go on to wrestle in singles and tag teams for Gagne in the AWA, Bill Watts's Mid-South promotion, and for Jerry Jarrett's Memphis promotion, where he was paired with manager Jimmy Hart. Ellering now known as "Precious" Paul Ellering His notable feuds were with Jesse Ventura as a face, and as a heel with Jerry Lawler and Jimmy Valiant, from whom he won the AWA Southern Heavyweight Championship.

In April and May 1981, Ellering wrestled in Japan for the International Wrestling Enterprise promotion as part of its Big Challenge Series. During the tour, Ellering and Terry Latham defeated Mighty Inoue and Rusher Kimura in a two-out-of-three falls match to win the IWA World Tag Team Championship. Kusatsu and Inoue regained the titles Ellering and Latham from 12 days later.

Mid-South Wrestling
While wrestling for Mid-South Wrestling, Ellering in 1982 severely injured his knee in a match with Robert Gibson. He started doing workout segments with kids for Mid South, re-injuring it after returning to the ring. The injury ended his full-time wrestling career.

Georgia and AWA

Georgia booker Ole Anderson recognized his speaking ability, however, and gave him a job as a manager.
Ellering formed a stable named the Legion of Doom including such wrestlers as King Kong Bundy, Jake Roberts and the Road Warriors.  This was later reduced down to just the Warriors who held the NWA National Tag Team Championship three times before moving to the American Wrestling Association where they held the AWA World Tag Team Championship for a year, during which time the Warriors – and Ellering by association – turned fan favorite.

Ellering is best known for managing the Warriors, from 1983 until 1992 during their stints in the AWA, various National Wrestling Alliance territories, New Japan Pro-Wrestling, All-Japan Pro Wrestling, and the World Wrestling Federation in 1992. Ellering was also the real-life manager for the team; he booked their matches, lined up their flights, set up hotel reservations, and kept track of their expenses.

Jim Crockett Promotions/World Championship Wrestling (1986–1990)
Following the loss of the AWA tag title, Ellering and the Warriors headed to Jim Crockett Promotions where their accomplishments included the Crockett Cup (1986) and the WCW World Tag Team Championship in 1988 (the team and manager briefly turning villains to achieve the latter.) Although primarily a manager, Ellering stepped between the ropes as a competitor, notably at the 1987 NWA Great American Bash in which he joined the Road Warriors, Nikita Koloff, and Dusty Rhodes to face The Four Horsemen and their manager J. J. Dillon in the first ever WarGames match. Ellering would also face Teddy Long in a 'Hair vs. Hair' match at the World Championship Wrestling Capital Combat event in 1990, coming away with a victory.

World Wrestling Federation (1992; 1998–1999)
Ellering returned as the manager of Hawk and Animal (by now using the Legion of Doom as their actual team name) at Wrestlemania VIII and stayed with them until they left the WWF after SummerSlam (1992).  During a promotional angle where Hawk and Animal "rediscovered" their childhood toy "Rocko", a ventriloquist's dummy, Ellering was the puppeteer and voice of the dummy.

Throughout 1998 he managed the Disciples of Apocalypse, who were then feuding with the Legion of Doom; according to Ellering and Animal on the Road Warriors DVD, Ellering had a hard time working with another team against Hawk and Animal, and had difficulty ripping on his former team on the microphone. By the end of his second WWF run, though, he was back to managing the LOD, most notably on Sunday Night Heat, during a tag-team battle royal for a shot at the tag titles later in the night at WrestleMania XV, though they were unsuccessful.

Return to WWE (2011–present)
In 2011, Ellering was inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame, along with the Road Warriors, by "The American Dream" Dusty Rhodes.

Ellering made his return to WWE programming at NXT TakeOver: The End on June 8, 2016, revealing himself as the manager of a debuting the Authors of Pain (Akam and Rezar), after their attack on American Alpha, turning Ellering heel for the first time in 18 years. On January 28, 2017, at NXT TakeOver: San Antonio, Ellering led Akam and Rezar to their first reign as NXT Tag Team Champions. On April 9, 2018, Paul Ellering made his debut on Monday Night Raw with Akam and Rezar as they answered an open challenge from Heath Slater and Rhyno.  After they were victorious in their match, Akam and Rezar ended their partnership with Ellering by pushing him away and leaving him ringside as they returned backstage.

Personal life

After retiring from professional wrestling, he traveled to Alaska to become a sled dog racer, participating in the Iditarod. In 2000 he came in 54th place.

In 2002, Ellering became the owner and operator of the Historic Rock Tavern on Big Birch Lake in Grey Eagle, Minnesota. In 2020, it was sold to new ownership after being on the market for three years. He has three children: Rebecca, Rachael and Saul. His daughter Rachael won the bronze medal at the 2014 World Powerlifting Championships. She made her professional wrestling debut in December 2015.

Other media
Ellering made his video game debut as a non-playable character in WWE 2K18.

Championships and accomplishments
Cauliflower Alley Club
Tag Team Award (2020) – as part of the Road Warriors
Continental Wrestling Association
AWA Southern Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
AWA Southern Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Sheik Ali Hassan
International Wrestling Enterprise (Japan)
IWA Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Terry Latham
National Wrestling Alliance
NWA Legends Hall of Heroes (2016)
Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame and Museum
Class of 2011 (As a member of the Road Warriors)
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
PWI Manager of the Year (1984)
WWE
WWE Hall of Fame (Class of 2011) – as a member of the Road Warriors

References

External links

1953 births
American dog mushers
American male professional wrestlers
American male weightlifters
Living people
People from Melrose, Minnesota
Professional wrestlers from Minnesota
Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame and Museum
Professional wrestling managers and valets
St. Cloud State University alumni
Road Warriors members
WWE Hall of Fame inductees

Paul Ellering


Kumasi (historically spelled Comassie or Coomassie, usually spelled Kumase in Twi language) is a city in the Ashanti Region, and is among the largest metropolitan areas in Ghana. Kumasi is located in a rain forest region near Lake Bosomtwe, and is the commercial, industrial, and cultural capital of the historical Ashanti Empire. Kumasi is approximately  north of the Equator and  north of the Gulf of Guinea. Kumasi is alternatively known as "The Garden City" because of its many species of flowers and plants in the past. It is also called Oseikrom, after Osei Kofi Tutu I who was a king in the Ashanti empire.

Kumasi is the second-largest city in Ghana, after the capital, Accra. The Central Business District of Kumasi includes areas such as Adum, Bantama, Kejetia, Asawasi, Pampaso, and Bompata (popularly called Roman Hill), with a concentration of banks, department stalls, and hotels. Economic activities in Kumasi include financial and commercial sectors, pottery, clothing weaving, Weaving of basket and textiles. There is a significant timber processing community in Kumasi that serves the domestic market. Bantama High Street and Prempeh II Street in Bantama and Adum, respectively, are the business and entertainment hubs in Kumasi.

History

Origins

There is evidence that the area around Kumasi has been kept cleared since the Neolithic age and that the first human settlement was at Lake Bosomtwe.

Etymology
The name Kumasi was derived from the Twi language, meaning 'the Kum tree survived' or 'under the Kum tree'. The word "asi" means 'under', 'down', 'below' or 'something that has endured or survived'.

Around the end of the 17th century, the Ashanti Kingdom's chief fetish Priest, Okomfo Anokye planted three kum trees at different places: one at Kwaaman, ruled by the Nananom Ayokofuo; a second one at Apemso-Bankofo, ruled by Nananom Aduanafuo; and a third at a village near Fomena and Amoafo called Oboani, which was ruled by Nananom Ɛkoɔnafuo. Komfuo wanted to see which of these would become a great city for the kingdom, as he was directed by the oracles. The kum tree at Kwaaman flourished so vigorously that the King and his people often sat underneath, and so Kwaaman became Kum-ase, meaning 'under kum.

The tree at Oboani was, however, very tiny and for no apparent reason, relatively short. According to oral tradition, this small tree produced other trees that were all small in size. The name of the village was changed to Kuma, meaning 'small kum.

The kum tree at Apemso-Bankofo did not grow at all. After a few weeks the leaves withered and the tree fell down; so it was said that the village's kum tree was dead, and the village became Kum-awu, later Kumawu.

Ashanti Empire

The city rose to prominence in 1695, when it became the capital of the Ashanti Empire due to the activities of its ruler, Osei Tutu. The ruler of Kumasi, known as the Asantehene, also served as the ruler of the empire. With their 1701 victory over Denkyira, the Ashanti empire became the primary state among the Ashantis. In 1718–19, Aowin King Ebirimoro invaded Kumasi and sacked the capital. Asantehene Opoku Ware I was able to "beat back" this invasion.

In 1816, Huydecooper described Kumasi as having clean and straight streets with "houses excellently built, the latter being fairly tall but for the most part only one story." A year later, Thomas Edward Bowdich documented that the central city, with the exclusion of suburbs such as Bantama and Asafo - was oblong shaped and had a perimeter of approximately 4 miles. Four of its principal streets according to Bowdich, were half a mile long and about 50 to 100 yards wide. Bowdich also notes that Kumasi's streets were named and a "superior captain" was placed in charge of each street. At the time of Bowdich's visit in 1817, Kumasi had 27 streets and by the mid-1880s, another source identified 50 streets. The  palace complex was located in the eastern quarter of the central city. Bowdich refers to a piazza 200 yards long that "lines the interior of the wall secluding the palace." For sanitation, Bowdich recorded the presence of public toilets on the outskirt of town and the existence of toilets in each house as well. They were "not unfrequently upstairs" and boiling water was poured in daily to prevent "the least offence." The waste of houses was burned behind the street every morning.

In 1820, William Hutton was disappointed with the ruinous condition of Kumasi. He concludes that this condition was because Asantehene Osei Bonsu and his major administrators had recently returned from the war against Gyaman. European sources in the late 19th century mentioned the city's neatness such as the account of F. Boyle in 1874 who stated Kumasi's smell "are never those of sewage" as well as Brackenbury, who wrote around 1873 that "the streets are generally very broad and clean, and ornamented with many beautiful banyan-trees affording grateful shade from the powerful rays of the sun." Parts of the city, including the then royal residence, were burnt by the British in the Third Anglo-Ashanti War of 1874.

In 1888, R. Austin Freeman was disappointed with the ruins of Kumasi following the British destruction in 1874 and the Ashanti civil war before 1888.
 Population of Kumasi during the time of the Ashanti Empire varied. In the early 19th century, Ashanti sources estimated a populace of 100,000 while European sources gave a figure around 12–15,000. According to historian Ivor Wilks, the city may have had a population of 40,000 in the 1860s.

Lady Mary Alice Hodgson, the first English lady to visit Ashanti, wrote "The Siege of Kumasi", an account of the siege of the fort by the nationals of Ashanti and of the subsequent march to the coast. (She was the daughter of Hon. W. A. G. Young, C.M.G., former governor of the Gold Coast, and the wife of Sir Frederick Mitchell Hodgson, K.C.M.G., the governor of the Gold Coast in 1900.)

Colonial era

In 1926, following the return of the Ashanti King Prempeh I after 30-year in exile in Seychelles Island, Kumasi was vested with ceremonial control over the Ashanti sub-states. The full role of king was restored by the colonial administration in 1935. The city holds an important place in the history of the Ashanti people, as legend claims that it was here Okomfo Anokye received the golden stool, an embodiment of the soul of Ashanti nation.

Geography
The city features a tropical wet and dry climate, with relatively constant temperatures throughout the course of the year. Kumasi averages around 1400 mm (55") of rain per year.

The city almost features two rainy seasons: a longer season from March through July and a shorter rainy season from September to November.

The month of February through to November is one long wet season, with a relative lull in precipitation in August. Similar to the rest of West Africa, Kumasi experiences the harmattan during the "low sun" months. Lasting from December to February, the harmattan is the primary source of the city's dry season.

Climate

Like other parts of Ghana, Kumasi has a tropical savanna climate (Köppen climate classification Aw), with a wet season and a dry season and the temperature being hot year-round. The average annual high temperature is , while the average annual low temperature is . The hottest time of year is from February to May, around the time the wet season starts. February has the highest average high at . April has the highest average low at . August has the lowest average high at . January has the lowest average low at .

Kumasi receives  of rain over 128 precipitation days, with a distinct wet and dry season like the rest of Ghana. The dry season is short, lasting from November to February. June, the wettest month, receives  of rainfall over 17 precipitation days on average. Kumasi receives 1951.8 hours of sunshine annually on average, with the sunshine being distributed fairly evenly across the year, with a noticeable dip from June to October. March receives the most sunshine, while August receives the least.

Culture

Features of the city include Fort Kumasi (built by in 1896 to replace an Asante fort and now a museum) and the Kumasi Hat Museum. Royal Asante attractions include the Kumasi National Cultural Centre (including the Prempeh II Jubilee Museum with Asante regalia with a reproduction of the golden stool), the Okomfo Anokye Sword, the Asantehene's Palace (built in 1972), and the Manhyia Palace, dating from 1925, now a museum.

Places of worship

Among the places of worship, which are predominantly Christian churches and temples, are: Methodist Church, Presbyterian Church of Ghana, Church of the Province of West Africa, (Anglican Communion), Seventh-day Adventist Church Evangelical Presbyterian Church, Ghana (World Communion of Reformed Churches), Christ Apostolic Church International (which was the first Pentecostal church in Ghana) Ghana Baptist Convention (Baptist World Alliance), Lighthouse Chapel International, Church of Pentecost, Assemblies of God, and Catholic Church Archdiocese of Kumasi (Catholic Church). There are also Muslim mosques which include: Kumasi Central Mosque, Ahmadiyya mosque, Alhaj mosque, Kaase-Nhyiaeso mosque and Rahman mosque.

Economy

The main occupations in Kumasi are professional, such as services and manufacturing.

Mining and exports

Manufacturing

Kumasi has 50% of the timber industry of Ghana, and the Kaasi Industrial Area plays an important role in the local industry. The Guinness Ghana Breweries are based in Kumasi.

Energy
Solar panels are prevalent in Kumasi and throughout the Ashanti region. Solar energy technology is a major energy source and contributor to electricity generation in the region.

Commerce
Much of the shopping and trading activity in the city takes place at Kumasi's shopping streets, in and around Kejetia Market and Adum. These two areas border each other. There is also heavy economic activities at Bantama and Asafo. Asafo in particular is the printing hub of Kumasi. Most of the printing done in Kumasi and Ashanti Region as a whole is done at Asafo. Kumasi's Ahwiaa (a sub-town in Kumasi) is also well noted for its wood carvings and arts.

FM Stations

Adehye FM
Nhyira FM
Kessben FM
Luv FM
Metro FM
OTEC FM
Angel FM

Education

Primary school
There are both government-assisted primary schools in Kumasi and also private primary schools in Kumasi which educate boys and girls between the ages from 6 to 15.

Secondary education

There are elite all-boys and all-girls senior high schools such as Prempeh College, T I Ahmadiyya School, Opoku Ware School, Yaa Asantewaa Girls' Senior High School and St. Louis Senior High School in Kumasi. There are also many elite mixed senior high schools such as Kumasi Academy and Anglican Senior High School, and a host of other public secondary schools, as well as their private counterparts in the city.

Tertiary institutions
The Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi (formerly the Kumasi College of Technology) is the biggest university in the Ashanti Region and the first biggest in Ghana followed by the University of Ghana. Former Secretary-General of the United Nations, Kofi Annan attended this institution.
A number of other public and private universities and tertiary institutions have since been founded in Kumasi, some of which are listed below.

Transportation

Air
Kumasi is served by the Kumasi Airport. As of May 2020, two airlines offered regularly scheduled flights to Accra. Airlines servicing the airport included Africa World Airlines and Passion Air. In 2013, the Government of Ghana approved expansion plans to the Kumasi Airport to service international flights into the region. The airport was renovated and completed by October 2022.

Bus and taxicab
There is public transportation from Kumasi to major cities such as Accra; Tamale, Mim, Ahafo ; Cape Coast, Sunyani; Takoradi; Tema; Ho; Wa; Bolgatanga; Elubo; Aflao, Techiman;
Public transport in the city is provided by transit buses, a mix of privately owned mini-buses known as tro-tros, taxicabs and buses. Tro-tros are usually converted mini-buses that run regular, well-known routes. Some taxis also run regular routes, which cost more but provide for a more comfortable ride.

In 2002, the city introduced the metro bus services, a rapid transit system for public road transport in Kumasi (MetroMass). This was to reduce congestion on roads and to make a larger and more organized bus routine system in the city.

In 2017, Uber introduced services in Kumasi, a year after a successful introduction in Accra.

Rail
Kumasi is served by the railway lines to Sekondi-Takoradi and Accra. The train service has been suspended for several years because of damaged track, bridges and locomotives. Currently, no trains run to and from Kumasi due to the collapse of the railway corporation. A $6 billion project to upgrade the railways was due to get underway in 2011.

Port
, construction of the Boankra Inland Port, about  away, has come to a halt.

Sports

The local football (soccer) team, the Kumasi Asante Kotoko has won several national and continental trophies and awards, and serves as a rival to the Accra-based Hearts of Oak. Their Kumasi Sports Stadium, also known as Baba Yara Stadium, was built in 1959, renovated in 1978, and again in 2007 with a seating capacity of 40,000. It is also the home of King Faisal Football Club, a premier division side.

There is the Royal Golf Club which has the Asantehene as president. Former Leeds United and Ghana national football team footballer Tony Yeboah and professional wrestler Kofi Kingston was born in Kumasi, by the real name Kofi Sarkodie-Mensah.

Healthcare

Kumasi has the Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital to support medical training at the university, the West End Hospital, several other private hospitals, public clinics and hospitals. Recommended private medical facilities include Kumasi Rabito Clinic located at Ahondwo-Daban Kumasi behind the Unity Oil Filling Station. There is also the KNUST hospital that serves people in the university and surrounding communities.

Recreational parks and gardens

Kumasi has four recreational parks which are opened to the public. The list of recreational parks are Abbey's Park which is located some few meters away from Kejetia, Jackson's Park, Hero's Park located on the same premises as the Baba Yara Sports Stadium, and finally the Rattray Park which was commissioned in 2015.

International relations

Twin towns and sister cities
Kumasi is twinned with:

*Numbers in date column list the year of twinning.

Notable people
 Kofi Annan, United Nations secretary-general (1997–2006) and co-recipient of the 2001 Nobel Peace Prize
 Mohammed Muntari, footballer
 Philomena Nyarko, statistician
 Reggie Tsiboe, singer

See also
Lake Bosomtwe
Ashanti Goldfields Corporation
AngloGold Ashanti

Notes

External links

References

Bibliography

Populated places in the Ashanti Region
Regional capitals in Ghana
Ashanti Empire
Capitals of former nations
Populated places established in 1680
1680 establishments in Africa

Kumasi


Estrella Castro Navarrete known professionally as Estrellita Castro (26 June 1908 in Seville – 10 July 1983 in Madrid) was a Spanish singer and actress.

Early career

Born to a humble family (her father, born in 1875, was a Galician fisherman; and her mother, died in 1953, was Sebastiana Navarrete Funes) she started singing from an early age and busked around in Sevilla streets. At the age of 11 she attended Realito Music School to learn singing techniques and did Realito's house chores as a way to pay for her lessons. At the age of 12 she performed for the first time for King Alfonso XIII and Queen Victoria Eugenia at Sevilla Royal Alcázares. Ignacio Sánchez Mejías, a famous Spanish bullfighter, realized Estrellita's vocal and dancing qualities at a charity festival and gave her a gold coin. Estrellita Castro made her debut at Tronío Theatre in Sierpes Street in Seville but she was bound to perform in the main theatres in Spain, Europe, Latin-America and even the USA.

Film career

Her success in Spain attracted the attention of many businessmen and managers who contracted Estrellita. This enabled her to launch her career on an international level as she was successful in the main European cities and some Latin-American countries, where she became a popular idol. Her success as a singer paved her way to the film industry, and she became one of the most popular and highly-paid Spanish actresses of the time. Although she starred in a clip in 1933, she really made her debut in 1935 in Rosario la Cortijera. She starred in 40 movies the most important of which were filmed in Germany- Suspiros de España, The Barber of Seville and Mariquilla Terremoto. The charm of her movements in the cinema together with her powerful acute voice and beauty conquered the public. One of the iconic features of her personal looks was a hair-curl on her forehead.

Legacy

Estrellita Castro had her heyday in the 1930s and 1940s and she is considered to be the creator of what is known as Andalusian song or copla, a typical Spanish musical genre. Since she grew up in Seville Flamenco Cafés she was quite knowledgeable about flamenco different styles. She added flamenco resources to French couplets and created a new folk fusion-style known as copla. Mi jaca, Suspiros de España, La Morena de mi copla, Los Tientos del Reloj, María de la O, Mari Cruz o María Magdalena are some Estrellita's greatest hits. Although she mainly cultivated music of a folk nature, she is hailed as the most prolific and versatile artist of her time. She cultivated many musical styles such as zambras, Cuban boleros and mazurkas. She was also introduced to tangos by the famous Argentinian singer Carlos Gardel. It is also remarkable her value as a flamenco singer, as the styles she cultivates range from serranas, soleares and saetas to guajiras, sevillanas and tanguillos.

Tributes

In the 1960s and 1970s she received many tributes and honors because she was a living myth for the Spanish music and cinema. In 1962 she was awarded with the "Medalla al Mérito en el Trabajo" (The Gold Medal for Merit at Work)-  symbol of a lifetime devoted to music and work. In 1978 the City Council of Seville agreed to name a street after Estrellita Castro since she contributed to the popularity of her city all over the world. She also got a street named after her in Cordoba and Madrid. She died in 1983, before she arrived to an agreement with Tico Medina to publish her biography. Her dead body remained exhibited at Teatro Lara, where she had been so successful in her heyday. She was buried in Madrid in the Almudena Graveyard, with a hair curl on her forehead and a Spanish mantilla.

Filmography

1933: Mi patio andaluz (short)
 1935: Rosario la Cortijera
 1938: Suspiros de España
 1938: The Barber of Seville
 1938: Mariquilla Terremoto
 1939: Los hijos de la noche
 1940: La gitanilla
 1941: Whirlwind
 1942: Los misterios de Tánger
 1943: La maja del capote
 1943: La patria chica
 1953: You Had To Be a Gypsy
 1967: La Niña del patio
 1971: La casa de los Martínez
 1973: Casa Flora

Clips

Estrellita Castro performs "Suspiros de España" (clip de video)''

References

External links
Castro
Amigos
WEl Mundo article
Reminiscenci Asdelacopla

1908 births
1983 deaths
Actresses from Andalusia
Singers from Andalusia
Musicians from Seville
Actors from Seville
Spanish film actresses
Flamenco singers
20th-century Spanish actresses
20th-century Spanish women singers

Estrellita Castro


Sir Alex Ferguson (born 1941) is a former Scottish football player and manager.

Alex Ferguson or Alex Fergusson may also refer to:
Alex Ferguson (baseball) (1897–1976), American baseball player
Alex Ferguson (footballer, born 1903) (1903–1974), Scottish football player
Alex Ferguson (footballer, born 1913), Scottish footballer, played for Lochee Harp, St Johnstone, Hibernian, Heart of Midlothian and Rochdale
Alex Ferguson (jockey), British jockey who rode the winning horse in the 2017 Gerry Feilden Hurdle
Alex Fergusson (musician) (born 1952), Scottish guitarist and producer
Alex Fergusson (politician) (1949–2018), Scottish politician

See also
Alexander Ferguson (disambiguation)
Alejandro Ferguson (born 1978), Argentine cricketer
Alexander Ferguson MacLaren (1854–1917), Canadian businessman and politician
Sandy Ferguson (disambiguation)

Alex Ferguson (disambiguation)