Professional sports leagues are organized in numerous ways. The two most significant types are one that developed in Europe, characterized by a tiered structure using promotion and relegation in order to determine participation in a hierarchy of leagues or divisions, and a North American originated model characterized by its use of franchises, closed memberships, and minor leagues. Both these systems remain most common in their area of origin, although both systems are used worldwide.

Etymology
The term league has many different meanings in different areas around the world, and its use for different concepts can make comparisons confusing. Usually a league is a group of teams that play each other during the season. It is also often used for the name of the governing body that oversees the league, as in America's Major League Baseball or England's Football League. Because most European football clubs participate in different competitions during a season, regular-season home-and-away games are often referred to as league games and the others as non-league or cup games, even though the separate competitions may be organized by the same governing body. Also, there is a rugby football code called rugby league, which is distinct from rugby union.

Structure of North American leagues (Franchise and minor league system)

Professional sports leagues in North America comprise a stipulated number of teams, known as franchises, which field one team each.
The franchises have territorial rights, usually exclusive territories large enough to cover major metropolitan areas, so that they have no local rivals. New teams may enter the competition only by a vote of current members; typically, a new place is put up for bid by would-be owners. The "franchise system" was introduced in baseball with the formation of the National League in 1876 and later adopted by the other North American leagues.

Although member teams are corporate entities separate from their leagues, they operate only under league auspices. North American teams do not play competitive games against outside opponents.

The leagues operate in a closed membership system and do not have promotion and relegation. It is organized in a way that assures the teams' continued existence in the league from year to year. On occasion a league may decide to grow by admitting a new expansion team into the league. Most of the teams in the four major North American leagues were created as part of a planned league expansion or through the merger of a rival league. Only one team in the National Hockey League (the Montreal Canadiens), for example, existed before becoming part of the NHL. The rest of the teams were created ex novo as expansion teams or as charter members of the World Hockey Association, which merged with the NHL in 1979.

American and Canadian sports leagues typically have a "playoff" system where the best teams in a given season compete in a tournament, with the winner being crowned champion of the league for that season. These have their roots in the long travel distances common in US and Canadian sports; to cut down on travel, leagues are typically divided into geographic divisions and feature unbalanced schedules with teams playing more matches against opponents in the same division. Due to this, not all teams face the same opponents, and some teams may not meet during a regular season at all. This results in teams with identical records that have faced different opponents differing numbers of times, making team records alone an imperfect measure of league supremacy.

Major League Soccer is technically not an association of franchises but a single business entity, though each team has an owner-operator; the team owners are actually shareholders in the league. The league, not the individual teams, contracts with the players. Unlike teams in the four traditional major North American sports leagues, MLS teams play meaningful games against teams from other nations. The MLS season serves as a qualifier for the CONCACAF Champions League, featuring teams from throughout the northern half of the Americas, including the Caribbean. Starting in 2023, all MLS teams play in the Leagues Cup, a competition also involving all sides in Mexico's top flight of Liga MX that serves as an additional qualifier for the Champions League. Also, MLS uses playing rules set by the international governing body of its sport. MLS followed its own playing rules until 2004, when it adopted FIFA rules. Under the auspices of US Soccer and the Canadian Soccer Association, respectively, the U.S. and Canada have separate knockout cup competitions during the MLS season that include teams from lower leagues. In the U.S., the U.S. Open Cup has had MLS participation from the league's inception; since the 2012 cup, each competition has featured all American-based MLS sides. Similarly, all of Canada's MLS teams compete in the Canadian Championship. However, the league structure of MLS follows the North American model, with a single premier league and no promotion or relegation.

Major League Rugby, which began play in 2018 as the second attempt to launch a professional rugby union competition in the U.S., has a business structure identical to that of MLS. It is a single business entity, with each team owner-operator being a league shareholder, and all player contracts are held by the league. Also similar to MLS, MLR uses playing rules set by its sport's international governing body. However, MLR teams do not play competitive matches against teams from other leagues, and there is currently no cup competition in U.S. rugby similar to soccer's U.S. Open Cup. The MLR league structure also follows the North American model of one premier league without promotion and relegation.

A more rarely seen business model in North America is the pure single-entity league, typified by the two incarnations of the XFL, where there are no individual owners or investors, with all teams centrally owned and operated by the league. Many upstart leagues begin their existence as pure single-entity leagues before they secure investors for teams (such as the Premier Hockey Federation) or are forced to operate in the pure single-entity model when investors fail to materialize (such as the Stars Football League).

Many North American systems have a secondary or minor league but without promotion and relegation of teams between them. Often a minor league team is partly or wholly owned by a major league team, or affiliated with one, and utilized for player development. For example, Major League Baseball operates Minor League Baseball. The minor clubs do not move up or down in the hierarchy by on-field success or failure. Professional ice hockey has a system somewhat similar to baseball's (without as many levels), while the National Basketball Association operates a single NBA G League. The National Football League does not have a minor league system as of 2023 but it has operated or affiliated with minor leagues in the 1930s, 1940s, 1960s, 1990s, and the early 2000s and invested in one in the late 2000s.

Men's soccer has multiple minor leagues. The United Soccer League operates two of these, the second-level USL Championship and the third-level USL League One. Major League Soccer operates the third-level MLS Next Pro, consisting primarily of reserve sides of MLS teams. Another third-level league, the National Independent Soccer Association, is totally independent. None have a promotion/relegation system, although many teams have moved between levels, either by invitation or by choice.

To prevent conflicts of interest, most North American sports leagues that operate on the franchise system do not allow individual owners to hold an interest in more than one franchise at once. Most such leagues also use revenue sharing and a salary cap in an effort to maintain a level of parity between franchises.

Structure of European leagues (Promotion and relegation system)

Football in England developed a very different system from that in North America, and it has been adopted for football in most other European countries, as well as to many other sports founded in Europe and played across the world. The features of the system are:

The existence of an elected governing body to which clubs at all levels of the sport belong.
The promotion of well-performing teams to higher-level leagues or divisions and the relegation of poorly performing teams to lower-level leagues or divisions.
Matches played both inside and outside of leagues.

European football clubs are members both of a league and of a governing body. In the case of England, all competitive football clubs are members of The Football Association, while the top 20 teams also are members of the Premier League, a separate organization. The 72 teams in the three levels below the Premier League are members of still another body, the English Football League. The FA operates the national football team and tournaments that involve teams from different leagues (except the EFL Cup, operated by the English Football League and open to its own teams and those in the Premier League). In conjunction with FIFA and other countries' governing bodies, it also sets the playing rules and the rules under which teams can sell players' contracts to other clubs.

The rules or Laws of the Game are determined by the International Football Association Board.

The Premier League negotiates television contracts for its games. However, although the national league would be the dominating competition in which a club might participate, there are many non-league fixtures a club might play in a given year. In European football there are national cup competitions, which are single elimination knock-out tournaments, are played every year and all the clubs in the league participate. Also, the best performing clubs from the previous year may participate in pan-European tournaments such as the UEFA Champions League, operated by the Union of European Football Associations. A Premier League team might play a league game one week, and an FA Cup game against a team from a lower-level league the next, followed by an EFL Cup game against a team in the EFL, and then a fourth game might be against a team from across Europe in the Champions League.

The promotion and relegation system is generally used to determine membership of leagues. Most commonly, a pre-determined number of teams that finish at the bottom of a league or division are automatically dropped down, or relegated, to a lower level for the next season. They are replaced by teams who are promoted from that lower tier either by finishing with the best records or by winning a playoff. In England, in the 2010–2011 season, the teams Birmingham City, Blackpool and West Ham United were relegated from the Premier League to the Football League Championship, the second level of English football. They were replaced by the top two teams from the second level, Queens Park Rangers and Norwich City, both of which won automatic promotion, as well as Swansea City (a Welsh club that plays in the English system), which won a playoff tournament of the teams that finished third through sixth. In the 2011–12 season, the teams Wolverhampton Wanderers, Blackburn, and Bolton were relegated to the Championship. They were replaced by Reading, Southampton, and West Ham.  The two former teams had won automatic promotion, while the latter occupied the last promotion spot when they defeated Cardiff 5–0 on aggregate in the semifinals, and defeated Blackpool 2–1 at the final in Wembley Stadium.

The system originated in England in 1888 when twelve clubs decided to create a professional Football League. It then expanded by merging with the Football Alliance in 1892, with the majority of the Alliance teams occupying the lower Second Division, due to the divergent strengths of the teams. As this differential was overcome over the next five years, the winners of the Second Division went into a playoff with the worst placed team in the First Division, and if they won, were promoted into the top tier. The first club to achieve promotion was Sheffield United, which replaced the relegated Accrington F.C.

Relegation often has devastating financial consequences for club owners who not only lose TV, sponsorship and gate income but may also see the asset value of their shares in the club collapse. Some leagues offer a "parachute payment" to its relegated teams for the following years in order to protect them from bankruptcy. If a team is promoted back to the higher tier the following year then the parachute payment for the second season is distributed among the teams of the lower division. There is of course a corresponding bonanza for promoted clubs.

The league does not choose which cities are to have teams in the top division. For example, Leeds, the fourth-biggest city in England, saw their team, Leeds United, relegated from the Premier League to the Championship in 2004, and went without top-flight football for 16 seasons before United returned to the Premier League in 2020. During this period, United were relegated again to the third-tier League One in 2007 and returned to the Championship in 2010. Any city that loses all of its Premier League clubs to relegation will continue to be without a club in the top league until a local club plays well enough to be promoted into the Premiership. Famously, the French Ligue 1 lacked a team from Paris, France's capital and largest city, for some years. Likewise, Berlin clubs in the Bundesliga have been rare, due to the richer clubs being all located in the former West Germany.

As well as having no right to being in a certain tier, a club also has no territorial rights to its own area. A successful new team in a geographical location can come to dominate the incumbents. In Munich, for example, TSV 1860 München were initially more successful than the city's current biggest team Bayern München. As of the current 2022–23 season, London has 13 teams in the top four league levels, including seven Premier League teams.

Clubs may be sold privately to new owners at any time, but this does not happen often where clubs are based on community membership and agreement. Such clubs require agreement from members who, unlike shareholders of corporations, have priorities other than money when it comes to their football club such as tradition or local identity. For similar reasons, relocation of clubs to other cities is very rare. This is mostly because virtually all cities and towns in Europe have a football club of some sort, the size and strength of the club usually relative to the town's size and importance. Buying an existing top-flight club and moving it to a new location is problematic, as the supporters of the town's original club are unlikely to switch allegiance to an interloper. This means anyone wanting ownership of a high ranked club in their native city must buy a local club as it stands and work it up through the divisions, usually by hiring better talent. There have been some cases where existing owners have chosen to relocate out of a difficult market, to better facilities, or to realize the market value of the land that the current stadium is built upon (A famous example being the Relocation of Wimbledon F.C. to Milton Keynes). As in the U.S., team relocations have been controversial as supporters of the club will protest at its loss.

Systems around the world
Leagues around the world generally follow one or the other of these systems with some variation.
Most sport leagues in Australia are similar to the North American model, using post-season playoffs and no relegation, but without geographical divisions, with the most notable examples being the Australian Football League (Aussie rules) and National Rugby League (rugby league). Nippon Professional Baseball in Japan uses the North American system due to American influence on the game. In cricket, the Indian Premier League, launched in 2008, also operates on this system. The Super League, which is the top level of rugby league in the United Kingdom and France (also with a Canadian team), was run on a franchise basis from 2009 to 2014, but returned to a promotion-relegation model with the 2015 season. Another example of a franchised league in European sport is ice hockey's Kontinental Hockey League, centered mainly in Russia with teams also located in Belarus, China, and Kazakhstan. Rugby union also has a European-based franchised league in the United Rugby Championship (historically the Celtic League, Pro12, and Pro14). It was founded with teams in the Celtic nations of Ireland, Scotland, and Wales, and later added teams outside those nations, first from Italy and then South Africa.

The promotion-relegation system is widely used in football around the world, notably in Africa and Latin America as well as Europe. The most notable variation has developed in Latin America where many countries have two league seasons per year, which scheduling allows because many Latin American nations lack a national cup competition. Another notable variation is the Brazilian system of two parallel league systems each with its own separate promotion and relegation, one national and another on state-level, the same teams play both leagues each year.

The European model is also used in Europe even when the sports were founded in America, showing that the league system adopted is not determined by the sport itself, but more on the tradition of sports organization in that region. Sports such as basketball in Spain and Lithuania use promotion and relegation. In the same vein, Australia's A-League Men does not use the pyramid structure normally found in football, but instead follows the tradition of Australian sports having a franchise model and a post-season playoff system. This model better suits a country with a few important central locations where a sport needs to ensure there is a team playing with no risk of relegation. Likewise, the American franchise model is used by rugby union's Super Rugby, which features 12 non-European franchises. Australia and New Zealand have five franchises each; one franchise represents Fiji but currently plays most of its "home" games in Australia; and one franchise represents the Pacific islands as a whole (mainly Samoa and Tonga) but is based in New Zealand. Super Rugby also formerly featured franchises in South Africa, Japan, and Argentina.

In east Asia, places such as Japan, China, South Korea and Taiwan have a particular differentiation among leagues: "European" sports such as football and rugby use promotion and relegation, while "American" sports such as baseball and basketball use franchising and minor leagues, with a few differences varying from country to country. A similar situation exists in countries in Central America and the Caribbean, where football and baseball share several close markets.

Historical comparisons

A major factor in the development of the North American closed membership system during the 19th Century was the distances between cities, with some teams separated by half of the North American continent, resulting in high traveling costs. When the National League of Professional Base Ball Clubs was established in 1876, its founders judged that in order to prosper, they must make baseball's highest level of competition a "closed shop", with a strict limit on the number of teams, and with each member having exclusive local rights. This guarantee of a place in the league year after year would permit each club owner to monopolize fan bases in their respective exclusive territories and give them the confidence to invest in infrastructure, such as improved ballparks. This in turn would guarantee the revenues needed to support traveling across the continent.

In contrast, the shorter distances between urban areas in England allowed more clubs to develop large fan bases without incurring the same travel costs as in North America. When The Football League, now known as the English Football League, was founded in 1888, it was not intended to be a rival of The Football Association but rather the top competition within it. The new league was not universally accepted as England's top-calibre competition right away. To help win fans of clubs outside The Football League, a system was established in which the worst teams at the end of each season would need to win re-election against any clubs wishing to join. A rival league, the Football Alliance, was then formed in 1889. When the two merged in 1892, it was not on equal terms; rather, most of the Alliance clubs were put in the new Football League Second Division, whose best teams would move up to the First Division in place of its worst teams. Another merger, with the top division of the Southern League in 1920, helped form the Third Division in similar fashion, firmly establishing the principle of promotion and relegation.

See also
 Gate receipts
 History of Baseball
 Football in England
 Football in France
 Football in Italy
 Football in Germany
 Football in Australia
 European Football
 Football in Spain
 Football in the Netherlands
 Football in Portugal
 Football in Scotland
 Rugby Football League
 EuroHockey Club Champions Cup
 Handball-Bundesliga
 Liga ASOBAL
 EHF Cup
 List of largest sports contracts
 List of professional sports leagues

Notes

References

Further reading
 Cain, Louis P. and Haddock, David D.; 2005; 'Similar Economic Histories, Different Industrial Structures: Transatlantic Contrasts in the Evolution of Professional Sports Leagues'; Journal of Economic History 65 (4); pp1116–1147

Sports culture
Sports law
Sports business
organization

Professional sports league organization


The Jackson Covered Bridge also known as the Rockport Covered Bridge is located in the 'forgotten town' of Rockport, northwest of Bloomingdale, Parke County, Indiana, USA.

History
It was built by J. J. Daniels in 1861, and is the oldest remaining bridge built by him. Crossing Sugar Creek, on county road 83 at the intersection with county roads 25 and 232, it is a single span Double Burr Arch truss covered bridge structure built on a base of hewn stone.

Prior Wright had built his second mill in the area of 'Devil's Den' in 1848, after his mill located at The Narrows was washed away by a freshet on New Year's Day 1847. During this time, flat boats would be built and floated over the shallows of Sugar Creek during high waters for the trip to the markets in New Orleans. When the Wabash and Erie Canal came through more business originated from here.

Eventually the mill, a general store, cooper shop, blacksmith shop, two sawmills, and four dwelling houses would come to make up the town of Rockport. In addition, an iron smelter operated for a while using a poor grade of iron ore and the plentiful and high grade coke made from local coal.

By December 1860, the citizens of the area had decided to call on Dr. Hobbs to be their spokesman for a new bridge near Wright's Mill. Dr. Hobbs called upon the Parke County Commissioners to hold a special meeting, and on December 28, they discuss the issue of "several citizens who had presented a petition for a bridge over Sugar Creek at Wright's Upper Mills." John Scott, "presented on behalf of various citizens a petition and subscriptions for a bridge at Star Mills," at the same meeting.

Just four days later on New Year's Day 1861, the commissioners held another special meeting and approved both bridges to be built with $8,000 from the county, "...provided the citizens would make up enough subscriptions to make up the balance on the cost of these two bridges."

Within a week and a half, January 17, $3,307 and 300 signatures had been collected by the petition leaders Byers, Milligan, Graham, and Elwood Hadley. James Johnson and Henry Wolf were appointed to select sites for the bridges, establish specifications and provide estimates for the county commissioners.

Back in 1859, the Parke County Commissioners had received a letter from J. J. Daniels, on the behalf of William D. Daniels, on the proposal of building bridges at Wright's Mill and Star Mills. Bids were opened at the March 1861 meeting. William D. Daniels was awarded the bid and on April 22, the contracts were signed, filed, and $1,000 advance was allowed. Brown and Company had finished the masonry work, that had been subcontracted out to them, for the abutments by September 16, and Mr. Daniels was given $6,000 to pay for the work. This was to be the only bridge in Parke County built by J. J. Daniels that would contain a cornerstone in the abutment. The cornerstone is located in the south upstream side of the bridge and reads, "Builder J. J. Daniels 1861".  On November 9, 1861, the bridge was ready for its final inspection by the county commissioners and on November 11, Daniels was paid $1,500 for the Jackson bridge contract and an additional $2,500. The additional amount may have been for the Star Mills Bridge which was completed in December.

It is the longest single span covered bridge in Indiana and the oldest bridge still standing built by J. J. Daniels.

Built during the unstable political era of the American Civil War, J. J. Daniels wanted to make a clear political statement and named the bridge after Andrew Jackson to honor his statement to John Calhoun: "To the Union, it must be preserved." When the bridge was first built the portal was lettered: "The Federal Union: It must be preserved."

It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1978.

Gallery

See also
List of bridges documented by the Historic American Engineering Record in Indiana
List of Registered Historic Places in Indiana
Parke County Covered Bridges
Parke County Covered Bridge Festival

References

External links

Parkcounty.com Photo Gallery

Parke County Covered Bridge Festival

Covered bridges on the National Register of Historic Places in Parke County, Indiana
Bridges completed in 1861
Historic American Engineering Record in Indiana
Bridges Built by J. J. Daniels
1861 establishments in Indiana
Wooden bridges in Indiana
Burr Truss bridges in the United States

Jackson Covered Bridge


Viktor Vasilyevich Avilov (; August 8, 1953 –  August 21, 2004) was a Soviet and Russian film and theater actor, Honored Artist of the Russian Federation (1993). He is best known for his roles in the 1988 films Mister Designer and The Prisoner of Château d'If.

Biography

Early life
Viktor Vasilievich Avilov was born on August 8, 1953, in Moscow in a family of laborers.

In 1972 he graduated from the Moscow Industrial College, specializing in "Installation and adjustment of automatic control systems", and served in the army from 1972 to 1974. He worked as a technician for instrumentation and as a driver.

Theatre
In 1974, Viktor Avilov began to participate in the work of an amateur theatrical company, created by Valery Belyakovich in the village of Vostryakovo outside Moscow. In 1975, he appeared in the premiere performance of Vostryakov residents Marriage in the role of Kochkarev.

In 1977, after the unification of the Vostryak troupe with the actors of the Young Muscovite Theater at the Palace of Pioneers on the Lenin Hills, the Theater Studio in the Southwest appeared. In 1979 Avilov started working here. In 1980, the premiere of the play Moliere based on the play by Mikhail Bulgakov The Cabal of Hypocrites, in which Viktor Avilov played the main role.

One of the staged roles of the actor took place in 1984, he played Hamlet in the performance of the same name. In 1987, the play participated in the Edinburgh Festival.

Among the roles of Viktor Avilov in the Theater Studio in the Southwest: actor in The Lower Depths, Donalbain in Macbeth, Woland in The Master and Margarita, Caligula in Caligula, Khlestakov in The Government Inspector, Berange in Rhinoceros, tailor and Thisbe in A Midsummer Night's Dream, Chief in Agent 00, Pashka in Pretender, the role of Mercutio and Paris in Romeo and Juliet, Varravina in the Trilogy and many others.

In the 2000s, Viktor Avilov was also engaged in performances of other theaters: the Dance of Death (2001, Kurt) at the Theatre of Nations, in Don Quixote (2001, Don Quixote) at the Clownery Theater under the direction of Teresa Durova, About the Hobbits, or There and Back (2002, The Leader of the Goblins and the Dragon Red Smog) at the Kino Performance  Theatre;  Perfume  (2002, Grenouille) in the theater "Art House"; in The Master and Margarita (2003, Woland) in the private project  Russian Independent Theater, etc.

In 2002, Avilov worked as a choreographer in the play Perfume of the  Art House Theatre, staging two contemporary style dances for his Grenouille. In the same year at the Cinema  he opened his acting school.

In 2004 Viktor Avilov tried himself in directing. In the theater   Kino Performance  Theatre he worked on staging the play  The Sinful Village of Dalskabata, or the Forgotten Devil  based on the play of Czech playwright Jan Drda.

Film
His cinematic debut was in the 1988 horror film Mister Designer based on the story of Green's "The Gray Car" and he also acted in the film The Prisoner of Château d'If based on the novel  The Count of Monte Cristo   which was also released in the same year.

Viktor Avilov starred in the films On the Grass Barefoot (1987), Love for Neighbor (1988), The Art of Living in Odessa (1989), Safari No. 6 (1990), Polygon (1990), Dissolved Evil (1991), Dancing Ghosts (1992), Psychic (1992), Musketeers Twenty Years After (1992), Cockroach Run (1993), Antifaust (1993), Wolf's Blood (1995), The Frog Princess (1998); Synoptic (2002), The Golden Head on the Scaffold (2004) and others.

Personal life

Marriages and children
Viktor Avilov was married three times, he has two daughters.

Illness and death
In the last years of his life, the actor had health problems. In 1995, during a tour in Berlin, he was hospitalized with the diagnosis of perforated ulcer and suffered a clinical death twice. In 2004, Avilov was diagnosed with cancer.

Viktor Avilov died on August 21, 2004, in the Akademgorodok of Novosibirsk. He was buried at Vostryakovskoe cemetery in Moscow.

Selected filmography
 Mister Designer (, 1988) as Platon Andreevich
 The Prisoner of Château d'If (Узник замка Иф, 1988) as mature  Edmond Dantès / Count of Monte Cristo
 Musketeers Twenty Years After (Мушкетёры двадцать лет спустя, 1992) as Mordaunt

References

External links

 Мемориальный сайт

1953 births
2004 deaths
Burials at Vostryakovskoye Cemetery
Male actors from Moscow
Russian male film actors
Russian male stage actors
Russian male television actors
Soviet male film actors
Deaths from cancer in Russia
Honored Artists of the Russian Federation
Deaths from stomach cancer

Viktor Avilov (actor)


Raymond Martinez Fernandez (December 17, 1914 – March 8, 1951) and Martha Jule Beck (May 6, 1920 – March 8, 1951) were an American serial killer couple. They were convicted of one murder, are known to have committed two more, and were suspected of having killed up to twenty victims during a spree between 1947 and 1949.

After their arrest and trial for serial murder in 1949, Fernandez and Beck became known as the Lonely Hearts Killers for meeting their unsuspecting victims through personal ads, posted in newspaper lonely hearts columns. A number of films and television shows are based on this case.

Before the murders

Raymond Fernandez
Raymond Martinez Fernandez was born in the Territory of Hawaii to Spanish parents on December 17, 1914. Shortly thereafter, the family moved to Bridgeport, Connecticut. As a teenager, Fernandez went to work on his uncle's farm in Spain, married a young local woman named Encarnación Robles and had four children, all of whom he abandoned later in life.

After serving in the Spanish merchant navy and with British intelligence services during World War II, Fernandez decided to seek a job. Shortly after boarding a ship bound for the U.S., a steel hatch fell on him, fracturing his skull and injuring his frontal lobe. The damage caused by this injury may well have affected his social and sexual behavior.

Upon his release from a hospital, Fernandez stole some clothing and was subsequently imprisoned for a year, during which time his cellmate converted him to a belief in voodoo and black magic. Fernandez later claimed black magic gave him irresistible power and charm over women.

Martha Beck
Martha Beck was born Martha Jule Seabrook on May 6, 1920, in Milton, Florida. Allegedly due to a glandular problem (then a common explanation for obesity), Beck was overweight and underwent puberty prematurely. At her trial, she claimed to have been raped by her brother and subsequently beaten by her mother, blaming Beck for the incident. As a teen, Beck ran away from home to join a traveling circus; writer Truman Capote later claimed to have briefly toured with Beck when he was ten years old.

After finishing school, Beck studied nursing but had trouble finding a job due to her weight. She initially became an undertaker's assistant and prepared female bodies for burial. She soon quit that job and moved to California, where she worked in a United States Army hospital as a nurse. While living in California she eventually became pregnant, but the father of the baby refused to marry her. Single and pregnant, at a time when a social stigma existed concerning out of wedlock childbirth, Beck returned to Florida.

Beck claimed that her child's father had been killed in the Pacific Campaign. The town mourned her loss and the story was published in the local newspaper. Shortly after her daughter was born, she became pregnant again by a Pensacola bus driver named Alfred Beck. They married quickly and divorced six months thereafter. She gave birth to a son.

Unemployed and the single mother of two young children, Beck escaped into a fantasy world, buying romance magazines and novels, and watching romantic movies. In 1946, she found employment at the Pensacola Hospital for Children. She placed a lonely hearts ad in 1947, which Raymond Fernandez answered.

Murders
Fernandez visited Beck and stayed for a short time; she told everyone they were to be married. He returned to New York City while she made preparations in Florida. When she was abruptly fired from her job, Beck packed her belongings and arrived on Fernandez' doorstep in New York. Fernandez enjoyed the way she catered to his every whim, and when he learned she had left her children for him, he thought it was a sign of an unconditional love. He confessed his criminal enterprises to Beck, who quickly sent her children to the Salvation Army in order to devote herself to Fernandez without any distractions.

Beck posed as Fernandez's sister, giving him an air of respectability. Their victims, feeling more secure knowing there was another woman in the house, often agreed to stay with the pair. Beck also convinced some victims that she lived alone and that her "brother" was only a guest. She was extremely jealous and went to great lengths to make sure Fernandez and his "intended" never consummated their relationship. When he did have sex with a woman, Beck subjected both to her violent temper.

In 1949, the pair committed the three murders for which they later were convicted. Janet Fay, 66, became engaged to Fernandez and went to stay at his Long Island apartment. When Beck caught her in bed with Fernandez, she brutally struck Fay's head with a hammer in a murderous rage. Fernandez then strangled Fay. Her family became suspicious when she disappeared, and Fernandez and Beck fled.

Beck and Fernandez traveled to Byron Center Road in Wyoming Township, Michigan, a suburb of Grand Rapids, where they met and stayed with Delphine Downing, a 28-year-old widow with a two-year-old daughter. On February 28, Downing became agitated and Fernandez gave her sleeping pills to calm her. The daughter witnessed Downing's resulting stupor and began to cry, which enraged Beck. Panicked, Beck strangled the child but didn't kill her. Fernandez thought Downing would become suspicious if she saw her bruised daughter, so he shot the unconscious woman. The couple then stayed for several days in Downing's house. Again enraged by the daughter's crying, Beck drowned her in a basin of water. They buried the bodies in the basement, but suspicious neighbors reported the Downings' disappearances, leading the police to arrive at the door on March 1, 1949, and arrest Beck and Fernandez.

Trial and executions
Fernandez quickly confessed. The pair vehemently denied committing seventeen murders that were attributed to them, and Fernandez tried to retract his confession, saying he made it only to protect Beck. They were extradited to New York, which still instituted the death penalty. Fay's murder was the only one for which the couple were tried, and they were both sentenced to death. They were executed at Sing Sing prison on March 8, 1951.

In media
"Lonely Hearts Killers", a 1960 episode of the American TV show Deadline, released on DVD in 2019
The Honeymoon Killers, 1970 American cult classic about the same events
Deep Crimson, 1996 Mexican film about the same events
Lonely Hearts, 2006 American film about the same events
Alleluia, 2014 Belgian-French film inspired by the same events
 A 2006 episode of the TV series Cold Case was called "Lonely Hearts", featuring a pair of killers named Martha Puck and Ramon Delgado.

See also
Lonely hearts scam
List of homicides in Michigan
List of serial killers in the United States
List of serial killers by number of victims

References

Sources
Lane, Brian and Gregg, Wilfred [1992]. The Encyclopedia Of Serial Killers. Berkley Books.
Fuchs, Christian [1996] (2002). Bad Blood. Creation Books.

External links

Martha Beck and Raymond Fernandez at Frances Farmers Revenge

1947 murders in the United States
1948 murders in the United States
1949 murders in the United States
1951 deaths
20th-century executions by New York (state)
20th-century executions of American people
American murderers of children
Couples
Criminal duos
Criminals from New York City
Executed American serial killers
Executed people from New York (state)
Inmates of Sing Sing
People convicted of murder by New York (state)
People executed by New York (state) by electric chair
Serial killers from Michigan
Serial killers from New York (state)
Violence against women in the United States

Raymond Fernandez and Martha Beck


ActiveX is a system for managing computer. it controls the DLL (Dynamic-link library) that can be used as a shared data over the applications. ActiveX is a type of library in the file DLL.

In any of operating systems, such as Linux, Mac or the Microsoft Windows, data files have the same kind of file format as that of the Dynamic-link library. They can be called a resource DLL. Examples of such DLLs include icon libraries, sometimes having the extension ICL, and the font files, having the extensions FON and FOT. For example, ActiveX is well-known for use in web browsers.

Microsoft software

ActiveX


The  is a biography of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who rose to the office of taikō during the Azuchi–Momoyama period of Japanese history. The Confucian scholar  (1564–1640) published the work in 1626 during the rule of the third Tokugawa shōgun Iemitsu. The work was published five times between 1626 and 1710. The complete work spans 22 scrolls.

The Taikōki shows the influence of Hoan's individual views of history and interpretations of historical materials.

Modern historical novels based on the Taikōki include the Shinsho Taikōki by Eiji Yoshikawa, Ihon Taikōki by Sōhachi Yamaoka, and Shinshi Taikōki by Ryōtarō Shiba. Yoshikawa's novel was the basis for the yearlong NHK television Taiga drama Taikōki (1965). Shiba's novel and others of his works gave the story to Kunitori Monogatari (1973), another Taiga drama.

References

Edo-period works
Toyotomi clan

Taikōki


Karlie Elizabeth Kloss (born August 3, 1992) is an American fashion model. Vogue Paris declared her one of the "top 30 models of the 2000s" when she was 17.
Kloss was a Victoria's Secret Angel from 2013 until 2015; she resigned to study at New York University. Models.com has said that Kloss "represents the gold standard of modeling—a girl with the look, the poise, and the drive to take things to the next level", and she ranks on their "New Supers" and "Money Girl" lists. By 2019, she had appeared on 40 international Vogue covers.

Outside of modeling, Kloss has an interest in technology and has founded the "Kode with Klossy" camp, which aims to get young girls interested in STEM fields. In 2019, Kloss became the host of the reality competition television series Project Runway. She has signed with several top modeling agencies throughout her career including Elite Model Management, Next Management, IMG Models, and The Society Management.

Early life and education
Kloss was born on August 3, 1992, in Chicago, Illinois, to Tracy, a freelance director, and Kurt Kloss, an emergency physician. Her family has German, Danish, and Polish ancestry. She has three sisters; two younger sisters Kimberly and Kariann (twins), and one older sister Kristine. She moved to St. Louis with her family in 1994. In 2013, the family moved to Goshen, New York to support her modeling career. Kloss has called her classical ballet training "a beautiful thing" that taught her how to move in the modeling world and was a great training ground for her runway walk.

In 2011, Kloss graduated from Webster Groves High School in Webster Groves, Missouri, where she was a cheerleader. In September 2015, Kloss enrolled in the Gallatin School of Individualized Study of New York University.

Career

2006–2010: Beginnings and modeling breakthrough
Kloss was discovered at a local benefit runway show. In 2006, at the age of 14, Kloss posed for a cover and editorial shoot for the June issue of Scene Magazine in Chicago with photographer David Leslie Anthony, in an editorial spread titled "Almost Famous". Elite Model Management Chicago then forwarded these tear sheets to Elite Model Management's New York office, who signed her.

Her first credited modeling shoot was photographed by Arthur Elgort for Teen Vogue. One of her first modeling stints was for Abercrombie Kids when she posed for the brand's photography shot by Bruce Weber. In January 2008, she left Elite Model Management and signed with Next Management. She walked 31 runways in New York Fashion Week, notably walking as an exclusive for Calvin Klein, closing for Marc Jacobs, opening Carolina Herrera, and occupying both spots at Doo.Ri. After New York, she walked 20 shows in Milan, and 13 in Paris for the fall 2008 collections, with 64 shows in a single season.

Kloss found herself in the middle of a legal dispute when her former agency, Elite Model Management, sued Next Management for allegedly stealing its star by offering her "improper compensation" to sign; Elite Model Management felt they were responsible for launching her career. The case was eventually settled out of court. After four years of being represented by Next Management, Kloss signed with IMG Models (also leaving Mother Model Management in St. Louis).

She has been in advertisements for Rebecca Taylor, Jean Paul Gaultier, Donna Karan, Nina Ricci, Chloé, Lacoste, Sportmax, Alexander McQueen, Yves Saint Laurent, Elie Saab, Dolce & Gabbana, Gap, Bally Shoe, Bergdorf Goodman, Pringle of Scotland, Dior, Hermès, Oscar de la Renta, Sonia Rykiel, Aquascutum, Topshop, Eryn Brinie, Uniqlo, Omnia Jade, Lord & Taylor, Barneys New York, American Eagle, Victoria's Secret PINK, and Adidas. Kloss is the face of the Marc Jacobs fragrance Lola. She has walked for numerous designers in New York, London, Milan, and Paris, including Shiatzy Chen, Calvin Klein, Karl Lagerfeld, Marc Jacobs, Zac Posen, Givenchy, Gucci, Valentino, Louis Vuitton, Versace, and Elie Saab.

Kloss has appeared in editorials for American and Korean W, American Elle, Allure, i-D, French and Japanese Numéro, Vanity Fair, Dazed & Confused; and American, Australian, Italian, French, British, Korean, German, Japanese, Chinese, Turkish, Portuguese, Teen, and Latin American editions of Vogue magazine. She notably appeared on 12 international Vogue covers, including Vogue Italia, in a five-year span. She appeared on the cover of Teen Vogue, alongside Chanel Iman and Ali Michael in February 2008, and by herself in May 2010.

She made her first venture into television when she appeared in the Gossip Girl episode "Belles de Jour" as herself. She became a muse for fashion designer John Galliano, and has appeared in Dior and John Galliano campaigns. She opened both shows, Christian Dior Haute Couture and Dior resort for spring/summer 2010. In the spring/summer 2011 season, she opened ten shows and closed eight.

2011–present: Recognition and success
Her runway walk, one of the most unusual, is often described as powerful. Kloss's height, long legs, and precise placement of one foot perfectly in front of the other in fluid motion distinguish her catwalk stride, usually garnished with a serious, sultry expression. Kloss has described her runway walk a "moody gait".

In 2011, Kloss renewed her contract with Christian Dior for the third season in a row. Photographer Gabrielle Revere was commissioned by Life magazine to photograph Karlie Kloss for the cover of a special print issue handed out during New York Fashion Week in September 2011. The photo story inside the issue was photographed during the summer of 2011, and shows her at the couture shows in Paris, in New York City, and in Saint Louis, her hometown. The same year, she made her debut in the Victoria's Secret Fashion Show.

In 2012, Kloss was featured on the September covers of British Vogue, Japanese Vogue, Harper's Bazaar Russia, and Numéro. She appeared in the campaign ads of Juicy Couture, Stefanel, Elie Saab, and Jean Paul Gaultier. She co-hosted the revival of the MTV series House of Style with fellow model Joan Smalls. She also appeared in that year's Victoria's Secret Fashion Show, but one of her outfits was cut out of the broadcast after appearing in a Native American headdress that was deemed offensive. Just before the Victoria's Secret Fashion in 2012, Kloss cut her long hair into a bob which is famously called the "Karlie".

In 2013, Kloss was the face of Donna Karan, Lacoste, and Lanvin campaigns. Kloss worked with Victoria's Secret on their 2013 summer swimwear video. She was also the red carpet host of the 2013 MTV Movie Awards pre-show. In April, Kloss starred alongside Daria Strokous, Monika Jagaciak, and Iris Strubegger in Louis Vuitton's Alma bag campaign. In 2013, Kloss was named as one of the new ambassadors for Coach, Inc. and starred in the accessory maker's fall 2013 campaign.

In 2014, Kloss was the face of Jean Paul Gaultier, Nike, Donna Karan, Lancaster, and the Chanel Coco Noir fragrance campaigns. She also collaborated with Frame Denim to design the Forever Karlie jeans collection. In summer 2014, Kloss worked with Warby Parker to design the Karlie Kloss x Warby Parker eyewear line, proceeds of which benefited Edible Schoolyard NYC. In September 2014, after many speculations, L'Oreal Paris officially announced that they have signed Kloss to be the newest face. In the September 2014 issue of American Vogue, she was featured on the cover with Joan Smalls, Cara Delevingne, Arizona Muse, Edie Campbell, Imaan Hammam, Fei Fei Sun, Vanessa Axente, and Andreea Diaconu as "The Instagirls!"

In 2015, Kloss covered the March issue of American Vogue with singer-songwriter Taylor Swift. Kloss portrayed the role of "Knockout" in the music video for Swift's song "Bad Blood" which premiered at the 2015 Billboard Music Awards. Kloss appeared in several video segments during Taylor Swift's 1989 World Tour and appeared live on stage with Swift at the performance of June 27, 2015 at London's Hyde Park, as well as on July 11, 2015, at the MetLife Stadium in East Rutherford, New Jersey. Kloss also starred in the music video for Chic's "I'll Be There", which was directed by Inez van Lamsweerde and Vinoodh Matadin. On July 21, 2015, Kloss started her own YouTube channel, Klossy, which features weekly vlogs and Q&A videos. Kloss is a close friend of filmmaker Casey Neistat, who assisted her in starting up on YouTube.

In May 2016, Kloss was named the new face of Swarovski, replacing fellow Victoria's Secret alumna Miranda Kerr, for a two-year contract.

In April 2017, she appeared as a correspondent on the Netflix series Bill Nye Saves the World. Kloss was featured in Vogue's March 2017 issue. The spread was criticized by some as a form of cultural appropriation as she appeared styled as a geisha. She later posted a public apology. In Fall 2017, Kloss announced her TV show, Movie Night with Karlie Kloss, airing on Freeform in winter 2017. On May 24, 2017 Kloss won the Diane von Furstenberg Inspiration Award.

In April 2018, Kloss was announced as Estée Lauder's newest Global spokesmodel and Brand Ambassador. The company is committed to supporting her initiative "Kode with Klossy" through scholarships and events. In October 2018, Kloss confirmed that she would be stepping in Heidi Klum's shoes on the seventeenth season of Project Runway as the host and executive producer: "I could not be more excited to host and produce a series that provides a platform to aspiring American designers as they pursue their creative and entrepreneurial dreams."

In October 2019, Kloss narrated the season 2 episode "Coding" on the Netflix and Vox Media television show Explained.

Other ventures
Kloss is also a computer programmer, having studied Ruby on Rails and other web development technologies at the Flatiron School in 2014.

In April 2015, Kloss began partnering with Flatiron School and Code.org to offer an annual scholarship called Kode with Klossy for young girls interested in computer science and software engineering. In 2015, she also launched the Kode with Klossy two-week summer coding camp for girls from ages 13–18. As of 2018, the camp had expanded to include "50 coding camps in 25 US cities, teaching 1,000 girls to code". The camp teaches the basics of numerous programming languages, such as Ruby, JavaScript, and Swift. By the end of the program, participants in the camp had built fully functional mobile apps or websites.

In collaboration with Momofuku Milk Bar, Kloss created a special recipe called Karlie's Kookies sold in DKNY Soho during Fashion's Night Out in New York City, with proceeds benefiting hungry children around the world (through FEED Projects). Kloss called it a "Perfect 10 Kookie" because for every tin of cookies sold, 10 meals were donated to starving children all over the world.

Kloss is an investor, with the Daily Front Row reporting in 2020 that Kloss was one of a group of high profile investors who purchased the fashion magazine W. She is also an investor in probiotic company Seed.

In 2020, she was named a trustee of Barnard College for a term of four years.

Personal life
Kloss began dating businessman and investor Joshua Kushner in 2012. On July 24, 2018, Kloss announced her engagement to Kushner, one month after she converted to Judaism (Kushner's religion). The couple married on October 18, 2018, in upstate New York. In June 2019, Kloss and Kushner had a second wedding celebration in Wyoming.

Through her marriage, she is related to Kushner's brother Jared and his wife Ivanka Trump, who are members of the family of Donald Trump. She has stated that she finds it "frustrating [...] that the spotlight is always shifted away from [her] career toward [her] relationship".

In October 2020, it was reported that Kloss and Kushner were expecting their first child. In December 2020, the couple purchased a home in Miami, Florida for US$23.5 million. Their first child was born in March 2021. She supported Hillary Clinton in the 2016 United States presidential election.

In March 2018, both Kloss and her husband attended the March for Our Lives event in Washington, D.C. in protest of gun violence in the United States. She is a feminist, and has stated that her decision to leave Victoria's Secret was partly motivated by her beliefs. Kloss supported Joe Biden in the 2020 United States presidential election.

On May 1, 2023, during the 2023 Met Gala, Kloss announced her second pregnancy with Kushner. Their second child was born on July 11, 2023.

See also
Kushner family

References

Notes

Further reading

External links

1992 births
Living people
21st-century American businesswomen
21st-century American Jews
American ballerinas
American child models
American feminists
American people of Danish descent
American people of German descent
American people of Polish descent
American YouTubers
American female models
Businesspeople from Chicago
Businesspeople from St. Louis
Converts to Judaism
Female models from Illinois
Jewish female models
Jewish feminists
Kushner family
Missouri Democrats
Models from Chicago
New York (state) Democrats
New York University Gallatin School of Individualized Study alumni
People from Webster Groves, Missouri
The Society Management models
Victoria's Secret Angels
Webster Groves High School alumni

Karlie Kloss


Hokah Township ( ) is a township in Houston County, Minnesota, United States. The population was 545 at the 2000 census.

Hokah Township was organized in 1858, and given the Native American name of the Root River.

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the township has a total area of , of which   is land and   (6.49%) is water.

Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 545 people, 189 households, and 157 families residing in the township.  The population density was .  There were 196 housing units at an average density of .  The racial makeup of the township was 98.90% White, 0.18% African American, 0.73% Native American, and 0.18% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.73% of the population.

There were 189 households, out of which 45.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 70.9% were married couples living together, 5.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 16.9% were non-families. 14.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 5.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.  The average household size was 2.88 and the average family size was 3.18.

In the township the population was spread out, with 31.2% under the age of 18, 5.5% from 18 to 24, 26.8% from 25 to 44, 28.8% from 45 to 64, and 7.7% who were 65 years of age or older.  The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 101.1 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 104.9 males.

The median income for a household in the township was $53,375, and the median income for a family was $53,750. Males had a median income of $34,107 versus $22,361 for females. The per capita income for the township was $20,752.  About 2.5% of families and 3.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 2.9% of those under age 18 and 4.8% of those age 65 or over.

References

Townships in Houston County, Minnesota
Townships in Minnesota

Hokah Township, Houston County, Minnesota


Colonel Rufus Sumter Bratton (September 5, 1892 – March 19, 1958) was Chief of the Far Eastern Section of the Intelligence Branch of the Military Intelligence Division (G-2) in the War Department in December 1941, when the United States entered World War II.

Career prior to December 1941
Bratton graduated West Point in 1914 and was posted to Oahu as a lieutenant in the 1st Infantry Regiment, where he served until the regiment returned to the continental U.S. in 1917. In 1919, Bratton returned to West Point as an instructor until reassigned to Fort Benning to teach infantrymen, Bratton himself being a member of the Infantry Branch.

From 1922 to 1924 Bratton learned Japanese as a student officer in Japan, followed by an appointment to be an assistant military attaché in Tokyo. In 1926 Bratton became a battalion commander of the 45th Regiment of the Philippine Scouts, then returning to America to attend the General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth in 1929. Upon completion of this course in 1931 he returned to Japan and attended the Japanese Imperial War College. The next year he became military attaché at the American Embassy.

Bratton returned from Japan for another battalion command appointment in 1934, taking up his new post early the following year. His new battalion was part of the 7th Infantry and was housed at Vancouver Barracks, Washington. His command ended in late 1936, and he spent the next six months lecturing at the University of Idaho on military science and tactics.

In early 1937 he was appointed to the War Department as a member of the Army General Staff's Military Intelligence Division with responsibility for the Far East and especially Japan. As Chief of the Far Eastern Section, Colonel Bratton was one of the few men, military or civilian, privileged to be given access to the product of American cryptanalysis efforts against Japanese secret codes, known as Magic.

December 7th
Bratton was one of the first officers to receive the intercepted final section of the "14-Part Message" breaking off diplomatic relations early on the morning of December 7. Bratton later recalled treating this intercept as, militarily speaking, unimportant, since it added little to what was already known of Japanese intentions for an attack towards Southeast Asia. Shortly afterwards, however, at close to 9:00 am, a second message was brought to him, revealing the Japanese government expected Ambassador Nomura to deliver the earlier message by no later than 1pm Eastern Standard Time that afternoon. Bratton remembered later that the deadline message "stunned me into frenzied activity because of its implications", which were that the suspected Japanese attack would occur very soon after 1:00 pm local time. Bratton immediately began attempting to contact both his superiors and other members of the General Staff. His first call, very soon after 9:00 am, was to Army Chief of Staff George C. Marshall at Fort Myer, but Marshall was on his customary morning horseback riding excursion, so Bratton left an urgent message with Marshall's orderly and telephoned the Assistant Chief of Staff for Intelligence, Brigadier General Sherman Miles, who hurried to his office, arriving just after 10:00 am.

Soon after Miles arrived, General Marshall called from Fort Myer. Bratton explained the urgent nature of the message, but for security reasons did not explicitly discuss its content. The Colonel offered to drive to Fort Myer with a copy, but Marshall told him he was coming back to his office. Marshall then said he would come to the War Department, but he took 75 minutes to arrive, and didn't come to his office until 11:25 am.

At 11:25am Bratton and Miles presented Marshall with both the Fourteen Part Message and the subsequent deadline message. They were soon joined in Marshall's office by Brigadier General Leonard T. Gerow, Chief of the War Plans Division, and Colonel Charles Bundy, Chief of the War Plans Group. Upon reading the dispatch Marshall realized that it "meant Japanese hostile action against some American installation in the Pacific at or shortly after 1 o'clock that afternoon" (494), and decided that all Army Pacific Commands including Hawaii should be alerted, although the Philippines and Thailand were thought to be more likely targets. Colonel Bratton took Marshall's warning message, encoded it, and delivered it to the War Department Message Center. While the Philippines and the Panama Canal Zone received the warning by radio, poor atmospheric conditions were blocking radio communications with Hawaii and the warning was sent as a (non-urgent) telegram. However, when the warning message was finally delivered in Hawaii, the attack was already underway. The telegram messenger on his way to deliver it was forced to abandon his bicycle and take cover in a ditch and the naval commander in charge of the Pacific fleet Adm Husband Kimmel didn't receive it until after the attack was over.

Third Army
Bratton remained with the Intelligence Division until assigned to George S. Patton's Third Army as Headquarters Commandant, a role he undertook all throughout the subsequent liberation of Europe.

His actual role, however, was much larger. He functioned as Patton's conduit for Ultra intelligence, often briefing Patton privately in the evenings on what had been discovered that day. Patton tried several times to get Bratton promoted to brigadier general, but without success. Ongoing questions about Bratton's role at Pearl Harbor were thought by many to be the reason behind the denial.

Fictional representation
In the 1970 movie Tora! Tora! Tora! he was played by E.G. Marshall. The film shows him being summoned by Naval Intelligence Lieutenant Commander Alwin Kramer, (played by Wesley Addy). We see Bratton reading a Japanese transcription, nicknamed "Magic", as it comes out of the decryption machine, codenamed "Purple". Later on in the film, because of the incoming messages, Bratton becomes convinced that the Japanese are about to attack Pearl Harbor, though he is incorrect about exactly when the attack will occur – thinking it will come on the Sunday before December 7. The film shows Bratton and Kramer's futile efforts to alert higher-ups that an attack is imminent on the night of December 6 and the morning of the 7th.

Notes

References
US Senate. Joint Committee on the Investigation of the Pearl Harbor Attack. Investigation of the Pearl Harbor Attack. 79th Cong., 2nd sess, (S. doc no. 244) Government Printing Office, 1946.
Hess, Jerry N., Oral History Interview with Karl R. Bendetsen, General Counsel, Department of the Army, 1949; Assistant Secretary of the Army, 1950–52; Under Secretary of the Army, 1952, New York: November 21, 1972, Truman Library Oral Archives
Prange, Gordon W. At Dawn We Slept. New York. Penguin Books. 1981.

External links
The Report of the Joint Committee on the Investigation of the Pearl Harbor Attack -- http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/pha/congress/part_0.html
Oral History Interview with Karl Bendetsen -- http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/bendet1.htm—Note: The events and timeline described by Bendetsen are contradictory and conflict with Bendetsen's "known" military record.

1892 births
1958 deaths
People from York, South Carolina
United States Army colonels
United States Military Academy alumni
United States Army Command and General Staff College alumni
United States Army personnel of World War II
Attack on Pearl Harbor
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
Military personnel from South Carolina
United States Army personnel of World War I
American expatriates in Japan

Rufus S. Bratton


Ray Mallock Ltd., also known as RML Group, is a motorsports and high performance engineering company, based in Wellingborough, Northamptonshire, United Kingdom.

Early history
Ray Mallock began building racing cars, alongside his brother Richard, as an assistant to his father, Major Arthur Mallock, who created the Mallock U2 chassis for Clubmans racing. After racing in Formula 3, Formula Atlantic and sports car racing, Mallock founded his team, Ray Mallock Atlantic Racing, in 1979, which he renamed RML in 1984.

Sports car racing
Ray Mallock, a driver for Viscount Downe Racing, helped develop the privateer Aston Martin-powered Nimrod NRA/C2 for Group C regulations in the World Endurance Championship in 1982, 1983 and 1984. In 1984, RML was contracted to build the Ecurie Ecosse prototypes for the C2 class, winning the class title in 1986.

In 1987, RML returned to the main class by developing the Aston Martin AMR-1. The project was closed in 1990, but RML found work with the works Nissan team instead. RML developed and prepared NPTI's Nissan R90CK programme for Le Mans. One of the cars manages to lead the race for five hours and set a new lap record.

In 1999, RML returned sportscars by producing the RML Mallock P20 Supersports Car, in association with Mallock Sports his brother Richard's company. The car won the National Supersports championships in 1999 and in 2000, when it was driven by Michael Mallock.

In 2000, RML created the Saleen S7 supercar initially as a road car, and then the racing version the S7-R, winning the European Le Mans Series in the GT1 class in 2001 and the Spanish GT Championship overall in 2002. In 2004 RML entered the FIA GT Championship with two cars.

Also in 2004, RML ran an MG-Lola EX257 in the Le Mans 24 Hours and Le Mans Endurance Series. After the design became obsolete with the onset of new LMP2 regulations, RML merged components from the EX257 into the Lola B05/40's chassis and bodyshell, creating the MG-Lola EX264, which won Le Mans in the LMP2 class in 2005 and 2006.

The team's car was further upgraded for the 2008 Le Mans Series season, using a new XP21 motor developed by MG, and renaming the car EX265.  This car was then replaced before the season finale by a coupe bodystyle, based on the new Lola B08/80.  Using components of the EX265, including the MG XP21 motor, the new car was christened the EX265C, and made its debut at the 2008 1000km of Silverstone.

In 2009, the team turned to the Mazda MZR-R turbocharged engine in the back of the Lola B08/80, abandoning the MG moniker, but issues with the spec fuel caused several engine failures over the season, the car finishing only twice over the whole season. For the 2010 season, the team is retaining the Lola B08/80 chassis, but with a normally aspirated V8 engine developed by Honda Performance Development, the same engine used in the HPD ARX-01.

RML competed in the Le Mans Series in 2011 with a HPD ARX-01d LMP2 car, becoming the second team to run the ARX-01 in Europe after Strakka Racing.

In 2012, RML developed a new engine on behalf of Nissan for the unique Nissan DeltaWing RML, as Nissans Motorsport Partner ran the car and provided engineering and technical support at Le Mans 24 hours and Petit Le Mans where it finished 5th overall.

For 2014, RML were engaged to design and build the Nissan ZEOD RC, an innovative race car designed to run in Le Mans Garage 56. The car was the first to switch between Electric and Petrol powered Propulsion. RML were responsible for the whole vehicle, including developing a high performance lightweight powertrain. The engine was a new RML design, a 3-cylinder 1.5 litre weighing only 40 kg and producing over 400 bhp. The ZOED RC suffered a gearbox failure due to a new part with a material defect early in the 24 hour race, however in practice had achieved the first ever all electric lap of Le Mans and over 300 km/h on in Electric mode.

Touring Car Racing

British Touring Car Championship

Vauxhall (1992–1996)
Taking advantage of its relationship to Ecurie Ecosse, RML made its debut in touring car racing in 1992, by moving to the British Touring Car Championship. The team ran two semi-works Vauxhall Cavaliers for Ecurie Ecosse for two years.

RML built its first ground up Super touring car the Vauxhall Cavalier RML P7 in 1993, it took RML's maiden BTCC victory with David Leslie at the wheel at Thruxton.

Due to the teams success, RML was awarded with the works Vauxhall contract in 1994 taking over from Dave Cook Racing, winning the championship the following year. The RML Vauxhall Cavalier RML P11 won the 1995 in both the teams and Drivers standings. Vauxhall launched the new Vectra RML P12 for 1996. The season was a transitional year with the team scoring just one victory with James Thompson.

Nissan (1997–1999)
RML's association with Nissan in touring car racing began with the design of South African Touring car championship Sentra RML P8 in 1993, It grew in 1997 moving on from Vauxhall to become the works partner for Nissan in Super Touring, being responsible for the build, development and operation of the BTCC cars as well as the build of the cars for the German and Japanese series.

The team won the BTCC manufactures and teams titles in 1998 & 1999 with RML project numbers P17 & P18 respectively and the manufactures, teams and drivers championship in 1999 with Laurent Aïello.

SEAT (2004)

In 2004, RML contracted with SEAT Sport UK to run two SEAT Toledo Cupras in the BTCC with drivers Jason Plato and Rob Huff, at the end of the year RML moved into the WTCC with Chevrolet.

Chevrolet (2009–2011)
RML re-entered the BTCC in 2009, running their ex-WTCC Chevrolet Lacettis for 2001 champion Jason Plato, Mat Jackson since round two and James Nash since round four. Their 2009 campaign has brought good results, taking 11 wins and Plato taking second in the drivers championship. In 2010, RML ran the Works Chevrolet team in the BTCC, winning the drivers championship with Jason Plato. On 1 February 2012, Chevrolet announced that they will be pulling out of the BTCC to focus on the WTCC, therefore RML will not be taking part in the 2012 BTCC season.

World Touring Car Championship

Chevrolet (2005–2012)
RML won the contract to build, develop and run the works Chevrolet Lacetti in the WTCC from the 2005 season. The Lacetti won 1 race in its first year, 7 wins in 2007 and 5 wins in 2008. In 2009 the  new Chevrolet Cruze was introduced and took 6 wins in the first year. In 2010, the Chevrolet team won both the Manufacturers Championship by a substantial 74 points and, with Yvan Muller, won the Drivers Championship. The RML Chevrolet team won the WTCC again in 2011 with Muller and again in 2012 with Rob Huff. On 4 July 2012, Chevrolet Europe announced that the 2012 season will be the last for the Chevrolet WTCC team.

Independent entry (2013)
On 4 March 2013, RML announced they would enter the WTCC in 2013 as an independent two-car entry with Chevrolet Cruzes run for Yvan Muller and new recruit from the closed down Team Aon team, Tom Chilton. Muller will win the 2013 WTCC championship & Chilton finishes 5th overall.

Since 2014, RML develops the Chevrolet Cruze to the new 2014 TC1 specs for various teams, but did not field a team.

South African Touring Car Championship
RML built the works Nissan Sentra for the South African Touring Car Championship.

Rallying
At the end of 1997, Opel decided to cut down its involvement in touring cars, and contracted RML to the develop the Opel Astra Kit-car for the Formula 2 regulations for them in the World Rally Championship and several national rallying championships in Europe. In 1999, the RML Astra won titles in Germany, Norway and Sweden.

In late 2000 Opel assigned RML to design and build the Opel Corsa for the new Super 1600 category, which replaced the F2 kit-cars. The car made its competition debut in the 2002 JWRC class of the Monte Carlo Rally and its first title the following year.

During this period RML were responsible for the build, development and customer support of all Opel Astra and Corsa Rally cars.

Formula One
RML considered lodging an entry for the 2010 Formula One World Championship, however decided against it, citing the current uncertainty over 2010 regulations as their reason for doing so. They were to use Cosworth engines had they submitted an entry.
RML have also said they are still considering an entry into Formula One in the future.

Other series
In 2002, RML entered the British ASCAR stock car series, based on ASA-type racing, winning the 2002 and 2003 titles with Nicolas Minassian and Ben Collins. Also in 2002, RML prepared Darren Manning's Team St. George car for the British Champ Car race at the Rockingham race track.

Road cars
RML's engineering skills were used in road-going cars for the first time in 1990, when the company built a small number of Ford GT40 replicas. In 1994, RML created several concept sketches for an undisclosed Japanese manufacturer.

In 1999, RML returned with two different projects, the Opel Astra Concept DTM, a road-going prototype based on the Opel Astra Coupé the German company would debut the following year, and the ground up design of the Saleen S7.

In 2003, Nissan ordered a prototype based on the new Nissan Micra, powered initially by a  Touring Car race engine (with a 6-speed sequential gearbox), and later by a   Nismo tuned V6 engine and called Micra R. The car debuted in the Geneva Auto Show.

In 2011, RML showcased the Nissan Juke-R with Nissan announcing a limited production run of 'the worlds fastest crossover' in 2012.

In 2014, RML developed and built the Q50 Eau Rouge concept on behalf of Infiniti Motor Co.

RML Group produced a road-legal converted version of the Aston Martin Vulcan some time before 2018.

In 2021, RML showcased the Short Wheelbase, essentially a modern classic inspired by the famed Ferrari 250 GT SWB. Only a few months later, more details surrounding it have been released. As such, only 30 units will be made and will go on sale at the end of 2021.

References

External links

 RML AD Group | Sportscar & Endurance Racing, including Le Mans, 2003–2011

Auto racing teams in the United Kingdom
Auto racing teams established in 1984
1984 establishments in the United Kingdom
24 Hours of Le Mans teams
European Le Mans Series teams
World Touring Car Championship teams
British Touring Car Championship teams
British racecar constructors
FIA GT Championship teams
American Le Mans Series teams

RML Group


The Fourier transform is a mathematical function that can be used to find the base frequencies that a wave is made of. Imagine playing a chord on a piano. When played, the sounds of the notes of the chord mix together and form a sound wave. This works because each of the different note's waves interfere with each other by adding together or canceling out at different points in the wave. A Fourier transform takes this complex wave and is able to find the frequencies that made it, meaning it can find the notes that a chord is made from.

The output of a Fourier transform is sometimes called a frequency spectrum or distribution because it displays a distribution of possible frequencies of the input. This function has many uses in cryptography, oceanography, machine learning, radiology, quantum physics as well as sound design and visualization.

The Fourier transform of a function , sometimes written as , is given by

where:

  is a frequency.
  is the Fourier transform function and returns a value representing how prevalent frequency  is in the original signal.
  represents wrapping the input wave function  around the origin of the complex plane at some frequency .

The inverse Fourier transform is given by

A Fourier transform shows what frequencies are in a signal. For example, consider a sound wave which contains three different musical notes: A, B, and C. Making a graph of the Fourier transform of this sound wave (with the frequency on the x-axis and the intensity on the y-axis) will show a peak at each frequency which corresponds with one of the musical notes.

Many signals can be created by adding cosines and sines together with varying amplitudes and frequencies. The Fourier transform plots the amplitudes and phases of these cosines and sines against their respective frequencies.

Fourier transforms are important, because many signals make more sense when their frequencies are separated. In the audio example above, looking at the signal with respect to time does not make it obvious that the notes A, B, and C are in the signal. Many systems do different things to different frequencies, so these kinds of systems can be described by what they do to each frequency. An example of this is a filter which blocks high frequencies.

Calculating a Fourier transform requires understanding of integration and imaginary numbers. Computers are usually used to calculate Fourier transforms of anything but the simplest signals.  The Fast Fourier Transform is a method computers use to quickly calculate a Fourier transform.

Related pages
 Fourier analysis
 Fourier inversion theorem
 Fourier series
 Laplace transform

References

Other websites

Digital signal processing
Harmonic analysis

Fourier transform


A pulsed field magnet is a strong electromagnet which is powered by a brief pulse of electric current through its windings rather than a continuous current, producing a brief but strong pulse of magnetic field.  Pulsed field magnets are used in research in fields such as materials science to study the effect of strong magnetic fields, since they can produce stronger fields than continuous magnets.   The maximum field strength that continuously-powered high-field electromagnets can produce is limited by the enormous waste heat generated in the windings by the large currents required.  Therefore by applying brief pulses of current, with time between the pulses to allow the heat to dissipate, stronger currents can be used and thus stronger magnetic fields can be generated.   The magnetic field produced by pulsed field magnets can reach between 50 and 100 T, and lasts several tens of milliseconds.

References

Bernd Ctortecka, High-field NMR in pulsed magnets, Max-Planck Innovation.

Electromagnetic coils
Nuclear magnetic resonance

Pulsed field magnet


The attorney general of Israel (, Ha-Yo'etz Ha-Mishpati La-Memshala, lit. Legal Advisor to the Government) heads the legal system of the executive branch and the public prosecution of the state. The attorney general advises the government in legal matters, represents the state authorities in court, advises in the preparation of legal memoranda for the government in general and the justice minister in particular. Likewise she or he examines and advises upon private member's bills in the Knesset.

Additionally, the attorney general is tasked with protecting the rule of law and, as such, entrusted with protecting the public interest from possible harm by government authorities. It is an independent appointed position, one of the most important and influential in the Israeli democracy, and a central institution in the framework of the Israeli legal system. Owing to the common law tradition of the domestic legal system, the duties of the attorney general are not codified in law and have been born out of precedent and tradition over the years. In February 2022, lawyer Gali Baharav-Miara received unanimous backing from the cabinet to become the first-ever female attorney general.

Duties
The attorney general has four main duties:
 Head of the public prosecution system
 Representative of the state in all legal proceedings
 Chief legal counsel to the government
 Representative of the public interest in any legal matter

History
In 1997 a commission in the chairmanship of the former president of the Israeli Supreme Court, Meir Shamgar, had been established for examination of the possibilities of the future legislation on the subject of the attorney general, and recommended that the official title of his or her position will be changed from "the legal adviser to the government" to "the chief legal adviser" to reflect his responsibility for ensuring the rule of law in all of the arms of government, and not only as an adviser to the government itself in matters of law. Likewise the commission recommended that the adviser will be appointed by the government according to the recommendations of a public commission, that will include five members: a retired judge of the supreme court, a former justice minister or attorney general, a Knesset member who will be chosen by the Constitutional Affairs committee of the Knesset, an attorney who will be chosen by the national council of the Israel Bar Association, and a legal expert in the subjects of civil and criminal law who will be chosen by the heads of the university law schools in Israel—in order to ensure the choosing of an appropriate person who possesses the fitting qualifications for the job. This recommendation regarding the selection committee was adopted in August 2000, but the recommendation regarding the title of the position was not adopted.

It is customary that the decision whom to select for the legal adviser position out of the list of nominees that the public commission recommended is done by the justice minister whose selection is brought to the approval of the government, which usually approves the appointment.

The manner in which the Attorney General carries out the duties assigned to his or her position is derived to a large extent from the personality of the person holding the position. Two of the legal advisers, Aharon Barak and Yitzhak Zamir, who came to the position from academia, were distinguished in the decisiveness that they demonstrated for the guarding of the rule of law in Israel, even when their ideas conflicted with those of the government.

Deputy positions
Deputy Attorney General for consultation
Deputy Attorney General for legislation
Deputy Attorney General for Hebrew (i.e., Jewish) law
Deputy Attorney General for special assignments
Deputy Attorney General for civil matters
Deputy Attorney General for criminal matters
Deputy Attorney General for fiscal-economic matters

List of attorneys general

Comparison with government legal advisors in other countries

The position of binding advice and representational monopoly in Israel is exceptional and even unique by global standards. According to Eitan Levontin, the legal situation in Israel is not a minority opinion, but rather a single opinion.

References

Further reading
 Zilber, Dina. In The Name of The Law. Kinneret, Zmora Bitan, Dvir. 2012 (in Hebrew).

External links
Attorney General on the Israeli Ministry of Justice website
Barzilai, Gad and Nachmias, David The Attorney General: Authority and Responsibility. Israel Democracy Institute 1997.
Bakshi, Aviad Legal advisers and the government: analysis and recommendations Kohelet Policy Forum, February 2016
Bob, Yonah Jeremy; Hoffman, Gil Shaked: "A-G has no veto over what is legal", The Jerusalem Post, October 26, 2016
 videos in Hebrew from Kohelet Policy Forum Conference The legal advisers and the government 7 October 2015
The Attorney General 25.09.2000 at embassies.gov.il

Government of Israel

Attorney General of Israel


Silvia Montefoschi (1926 – 2011) was an Italian Jungian psychoanalyst.

Montefoschi was born in Rome. She started studying psychoanalysis after the degree in medicine and in biology. She was a student of Ernst Bernhard, (in turn student of Jung). She was distinguished, since her first works, for an interpretation in dialectical key of the Jungian thought.

From the vision of the psychoanalytic relationship as an intersubjective evolutionary relationship, she theorized the universal meaning of the human cognitive experience as process of self-consciousness and evolution of the being.

After 1977, she began focusing on issues of intersubjectivity in a unified reading of the history of psychoanalysis from Sigmund Freud to Carl Jung and to this day, applying the "principle of individuation" to the same psychoanalysis and its history.

Selected works
Her books constitute an organic work of knowledge of the reality, that goes over to know psychoanalytic:

 L'uno e l'altro. Interdipendenza e intersoggettività nel rapporto psicoanalitico, The one and the other (1977);
 Over the border of the person (1979);
 Dialectics of the unconscious (1980);
 Over the taboo of the incest (1982);
 The system man: catastrophe and renewal (1985);
 Carl Jung: un pensiero in divenire (1985)
 To Be the being (1986);
 The cosmic principle or of the taboo of the incest (1987);
 From the one to the one, over the universe (1998).
 Opere 1 - Il senso della psicoanalisi. Da Freud a Jung e oltre (2004)
 Il manifestarsi dell'essere in Silvia Montefoschi (2009) by Silvia Montefoschi, Bianca Pietrini and Fabrizio Raggi

Theater
 La storia vera dell'amore, The true story of love (1998), screenplay by Silvia Montefoschi, music by Giuseppe Lo Forte
 Lucifero dinamica divina, Lucifer dynamic divine (2000), screenplay by Silvia Montefoschi, music by Giuseppe Lo Forte

Poetry
 Fu una pioggia di stelle sul mio viso (1952)

Stories
 La rivoluzione radicale del reale (1996)
 Scherzo in attesa della fine del mondo (1996)

See also

 Analytical psychology (or Jungian psychology) in Italy
 Intersubjectivity
 Intersubjective psychoanalysis

References

External links
Silvia Montefoschi (documents in the network) by Andrea Morelli
Silvia Montefoschi biography
Talk with Silvia Montefoschi after the terrorist attack of September 11 to the Twin Towers in New York (2001)
"Maternal role and personal identity - On the women's movement and psychoanalysis" (1978) by Silvia Montefoschi

Bibliography
 Open Library page

Associations:
	Center of Evolutionary Intersubjective Psychology An association of Italian Jungian psychoanalysts who promote research and study in Analytic Psychology, especially regarding evolutionary aspects of the personality and intersubjective and relational method in psychoanalysis. Also studies the development of Jungian theory, such as the research of Silvia Montefoschi in Italy.(English version)
GEA Association - Analytical Psychology and Experimental Philosophy Italian Jungian psychoanalysts web site. Documents and interviews with Silvia Montefoschi about intersubjectivity concept in psychoanalysis.

1926 births
2011 deaths
Italian psychiatrists
Italian women psychiatrists

Silvia Montefoschi


A diary is a written or audiovisual memorabilic record, with discrete entries arranged by date reporting on what has happened over the course of a day or other period. Diaries have traditionally been handwritten but are now also often digital. A personal diary may include a person's experiences, thoughts, and/or feelings, excluding comments on current events outside the writer's direct experience. Someone who keeps a diary is known as a diarist. Diaries undertaken for institutional purposes play a role in many aspects of human civilization, including government records (e.g. Hansard), business ledgers, and military records. In British English, the word may also denote a preprinted journal format.

Today the term is generally employed for personal diaries, normally intended to remain private or to have a limited circulation amongst friends or relatives. The word "journal" may be sometimes used for "diary," but generally a diary has (or intends to have) daily entries (from the Latin word for 'day'), whereas journal-writing can be less frequent.

Although a diary may provide information for a memoir, autobiography or biography, it is generally written not with the intention of being published as it stands, but for the author's own use. In recent years, however, there is internal evidence in some diaries (e.g. those of Ned Rorem, Alan Clark, Tony Benn or Simon Gray) that they are written with eventual publication in mind, with the intention of self-vindication (pre- or posthumous), or simply for profit.

By extension, the term diary is also used to mean a printed publication of a written diary; and may also refer to other terms of journal including electronic formats (e.g. blogs).

Etymology
The word 'diary' comes from the Latin  ("daily allowance," from , "day"). The word 'journal' comes from the same root (, "of the day") through the Old French  (the modern French for 'day' being ).

The earliest recorded use of the word 'diary' to refer to a book in which a daily record was written was in Ben Jonson's comedy Volpone in 1605.

History
The earliest known book resembling a diary is the Diary of Merer, an ancient Egyptian logbook whose author described the transportation of limestone from Tura to Giza, likely to clad the outside of the Great Pyramid. The oldest extant diaries come from Middle Eastern and East Asian cultures, although the even earlier work To Myself (), today known as the Meditations, written in Greek by the Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius in the second half of the 2nd century AD, already displays many characteristics of a diary. Pillowbooks of Japanese court ladies and Asian travel journals offer some aspects of this genre of writing, although they rarely consist exclusively of diurnal records.

In the medieval Near East, Arabic diaries were written from before the 10th century. The earliest surviving diary of this era which most resembles the modern diary was that of Abu Ali ibn al-Banna in the 11th century. His diary is the earliest known to be arranged in order of date ( in Arabic), very much like modern diaries.

The precursors of the diary in the modern sense include daily notes of medieval mystics, concerned mostly with inward emotions and outward events perceived as spiritually important (e.g. Elizabeth of Schönau, Agnes Blannbekin, and perhaps also, in the lost vernacular account of her visions, Beatrice of Nazareth).

From the Renaissance on, some individuals wanted not only to record events, as in medieval chronicles and itineraries, but also to put down their own opinions and express their hopes and fears, without any intention to publish these notes. One of the early preserved examples is the anonymous  covering the years 1405–1449, giving subjective commentaries on current events. Famous 14th to 16th century Renaissance examples, which appeared much later as books, were the diaries by the Florentines Buonaccorso Pitti and Gregorio Dati and the Venetian Marino Sanuto the Younger. These diaries include records of even less important everyday occurrences together with much reflection, emotional experience and personal impressions.

In 1908, the Smythson company created the first featherweight diary, enabling diaries to be carried about.

Published diaries

Many diaries of notable figures have been published and form an important element of autobiographical literature.

Samuel Pepys (1633–1703) is the earliest diarist who is well known today; his diaries, preserved in Magdalene College, Cambridge, were first transcribed and published in 1825. Pepys was amongst the first who took the diary beyond mere business transaction notation, into the realm of the personal. Pepys' contemporary John Evelyn also kept a notable diary, and their works are among the most important primary sources for the English Restoration period, and consist of eyewitness accounts of many great events, such as the Great Plague of London, and the Great Fire of London.

The practice of posthumous publication of diaries of literary and other notables began in the 19th century. As examples, the Grasmere Journal of Dorothy Wordsworth (1771–1855) was published in 1897; the journals of Fanny Burney (1752–1840) were published in 1889; the diaries of Henry Crabb Robinson (1776–1867) were published in 1869.

Among important U.S. Civil War diaries are those of George Templeton Strong, a New York City lawyer, and Mary Chesnut, the wife of a Confederate officer. The diary of Jemima Condict, living in the area of what is now West Orange, New Jersey, includes local observations of the American Revolutionary War.

Since the 19th century the publication of diaries by their authors has become commonplace – notably amongst politicians seeking justification but also amongst artists and litterateurs of all descriptions. Amongst late 20th-century British published political diaries, those of Richard Crossman, Tony Benn and Alan Clark are representative, the latter being more indiscreet, in the tradition of the diaries of Chips Channon. In Britain in the field of the arts notable diaries were published by James Lees-Milne, Roy Strong and Peter Hall. Harold Nicolson in the mid-20th century covered both politics and the arts.

One of the most famous modern diaries, widely read and translated, is the posthumously published The Diary of a Young Girl by Anne Frank, who wrote it while in hiding during the German occupation of Amsterdam in the 1940s. Otto Frank edited his daughter's diary and arranged for its publication after the war. Many edits were made before the diary was published in other countries. This was due to sexually explicit material, which also led to some libraries banning the book.

The writing of diaries was also often practiced from the 20th century onwards as a conscious act of self-exploration (of greater or lesser sincerity) – examples being the diaries of Carl Jung, Aleister Crowley and Anaïs Nin. Among important diaries by 20th-century literary figures are those of Franz Kafka, Edmund Wilson and the French writer Paul Léautaud (1872–1956). The self-reflective Diary: Divine Mercy in My Soul written by Saint Faustina contains accounts of her visions and conversations with Jesus.

A strong psychological effect may arise from having an audience for one's self-expression, even if this is the book one writes in, only read by oneself – particularly in adversity. Anne Frank went so far as to address her diary as "Kitty." Friedrich Kellner, a court official in Nazi Germany, thought of his diary as a weapon for any future fight against tyrants and terrorism, and named it , My Opposition. Victor Klemperer was similarly concerned with recording for the future the tyrannies and hypocrisies of Nazi Germany and of its East German successor state in his diaries. However in these cases, the authors didn't anticipate publication.

Internet diaries

As internet access became commonly available, many people adopted it as another medium in which to chronicle their lives with the added dimension of an audience. The first online diary is thought to be Claudio Pinhanez's Open Diary, published at the MIT Media Lab website from 14 November 1994 until 1996. Other early online diarists include Justin Hall, who began eleven years of personal online diary-writing in 1994, Carolyn Burke, who started publishing Carolyn's Diary on 3 January 1995, and Bryon Sutherland, who announced his diary The Semi-Existence of Bryon in a USENET newsgroup on 19 April 1995.

The internet has also served as a way to bring previously unpublished diaries to the attention of historians and other readers, such as the diary of Michael Shiner, an enslaved person in the 19th century who documented his life in Washington, D.C.

Web-based services such as Open Diary (started in October 1998) and LiveJournal (January 1999) soon appeared to streamline and automate online publishing, but growth in personal storytelling came with the emergence of blogs. While the format first focused on external links and topical commentary, widespread blogging tools were quickly used to create web journals. Recent advances have also been made to enable the privacy of internet diary entries. For example, some diary software now stores entries in an encrypted format, such as 256-bit AES (Advanced Encryption Standard) encryption, and others only permit access to the diary after correct PIN entry on a secure USB device.

Digital diaries

With the popularization of mobile apps, diary or journaling apps have become available for iOS and Android. Proponents have cited numerous reasons for journaling using digital applications, including ease and speed of typing, mobile portability, and search capabilities. Digital diaries are also tailored towards shorter-form, in-the-moment writing, similar to user engagement with social media services such as Facebook, Twitter and Instagram.

Other forms of diaries

Personal organizer

A personal organizer is a form of diary to list actions and tasks for the day, which are recorded in a log, often using symbols to differentiate and categorize items.

Diet journal
A diet journal or food diary is a daily record of all food and beverage consumed as a means of tracking calorie consumption for the purpose of weight loss or other nutritional monitoring.

Gardening journal
A gardening journal helps gardeners improve their efforts over time by providing a historical record of actions taken, the weather and other elements, and the results.

Gratitude journal
A gratitude journal is a diary of things for which someone is grateful. Keeping a gratitude journal is a popular practice in the field of positive psychology.

Sleep diary

A sleep diary or sleep log is a tool used in the diagnosis and treatment of sleep disorders or to keep track of dreams had in order to gain insight to the subconscious or for further contemplation.

Tagebuch
The German Tagebuch ('days-book') is normally rendered as "diary" in English, but the term encompasses workbooks or working journals as well as diaries proper. For example, the notebooks of the Austrian writer Robert Musil and of the German-Swiss artist Paul Klee are called Tagebücher.

Travel journal

A travel journal, travel diary, or road journal, is the documentation of a journey or series of journeys.

War diary

A war diary is a regularly updated official record of a military unit's administration and activities during wartime maintained by an officer in the unit. Such diaries can form an important source of historical information, for example about long and complex battles in World War I.

Fictional diaries

There are numerous examples of fictional diaries. One of the earliest printed fictional diaries was the humorous Diary of a Nobody by George Grossmith and his brother Weedon. 20th-century examples include radio broadcasts (e.g. Mrs. Dale's Diary) and published books (e.g. the Diaries of Adrian Mole). Both prompted long-running satirical features in the magazine Private Eye: the former entitled Mrs Wilson's Diary in reference to Mary Wilson, wife of Prime Minister Harold Wilson, the latter entitled The Secret Diary of John Major Aged 47¾ and written as a pastiche of the Adrian Mole diaries from the perspective of the then-Prime Minister John Major. Another famous example of the use of fictional diaries as prose is Bram Stoker's Dracula. A modern example includes the Diary of a Wimpy Kid series where each book of the series is written in a first-person view of the main character, as if the book were an actual diary. Other examples are the Bert Diaries and the cellphone diaries in the Japanese manga and anime television series Future Diary.

See also

References

Further reading

 Ronald Blythe, The Pleasures of Diaries: Four Centuries of Private Writing (Pantheon, 1989, )—the book contains selections from (mostly) English diarists' work.

External links

Works about history

Diary