In the history of video games, the first generation era refers to the video games, video game consoles, and handheld video game consoles available from 1972 to 1983. Notable consoles of the first generation include the Odyssey series (excluding the Magnavox Odyssey 2), the Atari Home Pong, the Coleco Telstar series and the Color TV-Game series. The generation ended with the Computer TV-Game in 1980 and its following discontinuation in 1983, but many manufacturers had left the market prior due to the market decline in the year of 1977 and the start of the second generation of video game consoles.

Most of the games developed during this generation were hard-wired into the consoles and unlike later generations, most were not contained on removable media that the user could switch between. Consoles often came with accessories and cartridges that could alter the way the game played to enhance the gameplay experience as graphical capabilities consisted of simple geometry such as dots, lines or blocks that would occupy only a single screen. First generation consoles were not capable of displaying more than two colours until later in the generation, and audio capabilities were limited with some consoles having no sound at all.

In 1972, two major developments influenced the future of the home video game market. In June, Nolan Bushnell and Ted Dabney founded Atari, which would go on to be one of the most well-known video game companies and play a vital role in the early generations of consoles.  In September, Magnavox, an established electronics company, released the Odyssey.  While highly limited in its capabilities compared to future consoles and a commercial failure, the Odyssey introduced features that became standards in the industry including removable cartridges and multiple detached controllers for two players. Inspired by the Odyssey's ping-pong game, Atari would soon go on to market the game Pong in both arcade and home versions; Nintendo, a well-established Japanese company that made a number of different products, entered the video game console market for the first time in 1977 with its Color TV-Game series.

Overview

History
In 1951, Ralph Baer conceived the idea of an interactive television while building a television set from scratch for Loral in the Bronx, New York. Baer did not pursue the idea, but it returned to him in August 1966 when he was the Chief Engineer and manager of the Equipment Design Division at Sanders Associates. By December 1966, he and a technician created a prototype that allowed a player to move a line across the screen. After a demonstration to the company's director of research and development, some funding was allotted and the project was made official. Baer spent the next few months designing further prototypes, and in February 1967 assigned technician Bill Harrison to begin building the project. Harrison spent the next few months in between other projects building out successive modifications to the prototype. Baer, meanwhile, collaborated with engineer Bill Rusch on the design of the console, including developing the basis of many games for the system. By May, the first game was developed and by June, multiple games were completed for what was then a second prototype box. This included a game where players controlled dots chasing each other and a light gun shooter game with a plastic rifle. By August 1967, Baer and Harrison had completed a third prototype machine, but Baer felt that he was not proving successful at designing fun games for the system; to make up for this he added Bill Rusch, who had helped him come up with the initial games for the console, to the project. He soon proved his value to the team by coming up with a way to display three dots on the screen at once rather than the previous two, and proposing the development of a ping pong game.

As Sanders was a military contractor and not in the business of making and selling commercial electronics, the team approached several cable television industry companies to produce the console, but were unable to find a buyer. By January 1969 the team had produced the seventh and final prototype, nicknamed the "Brown Box". After a Sanders patent attorney recommended approaching television manufacturers, they found interest first at RCA and finally at Magnavox, who entered negotiations in July 1969 and signed an agreement in January 1971. Magnavox designed the exterior of the machine, and re-engineered some of the internals with consultation from Baer and Harrison; they removed the ability to display color, reduced the number of controller types, and changed the system of selecting games from a dial to separate game cards that modified the console's circuitry when plugged into the console. Magnavox named the console the Magnavox Odyssey and announced the system's launch date for September 1972.

In the late 1960s, Nolan Bushnell saw Spacewar! at Stanford University. Spacewar! is a 1962 mainframe game developed by a group of students and employees at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Bushnell had worked at an amusement park, and felt that an arcade game version of the game would be very popular. The high price of computers capable of running the game, however, meant that any such arcade game would not be economically feasible. By 1970, however, minicomputers were beginning to come down in price. He and his office mate, Ted Dabney, agreed to work together to try and design a prototype of the game. By the end of November 1970, the pair had abandoned the project as untenable, as economically feasible computers were not powerful enough. Dabney soon thought of a way to manipulate the video signal on the screen without a computer controlling it, and from there Syzygy Engineering came up with the idea of removing the computer altogether and building specialized hardware to handle everything for the game instead. Computer Space, the first commercial arcade video game, was released by the pair as Syzygy Engineering through Nutting Associates at the end of 1971 and after its release they incorporated as Atari in the following year and began designing more games. Bushnell saw a demonstration of the Odyssey console playing its Table Tennis game in early 1972 and assigned their first employee, Allan Alcorn, to produce an arcade table tennis game. The result, Pong, was the first major arcade video game success, and inspired a large number of arcade and dedicated console versions and clones, including Atari's Home Pong in 1975.

Technology
The first generation of consoles did not contain a microprocessor and were based on custom codeless state machine computers consisting of discrete logic (TTL) circuits comprising each element of the game itself. Over the generation, technology steadily improved and later consoles of the generation moved the bulk of the circuitry to custom integrated circuits such as Atari's custom Pong chips and General Instruments' AY-3-8500 series.

Graphical capabilities were limited throughout the generation, often supported with physical accessories and screen overlays, but saw some improvement towards the end of the generation. While the Odyssey could only display 3 square dots in black and white, as the generation progressed, consoles started being able to display color as well as more complex shapes and text. Early consoles such as the Odyssey and TV Tennis Electrotennis required players to keep track of scores manually but later, many introduced score counters on the display to assist players in score tracking. Audio capabilities were slow to improve over the generation, starting with the Odyssey, which had no audio, and later moving on to consoles which had buzzers that could produce a small range of beeps and buzzes.

Market saturation and the end of the generation
In 1976, General Instruments produced a series of affordable integrated chips that allowed companies to simplify console production and lower costs. Due to this, many companies had entered the home console market by the late 1970s. A significant number released consoles that were essentially clones of Atari's Home Pong and many were poorly made and rushed to market, causing the home console market to saturate. The demand for the chip was so high that General Instruments could not supply enough to satisfy all the orders it was receiving causing problems for some smaller companies. Coleco received their order early on, allowing them to build up strong production capabilities and have success with their Telstar range.

The start of the second generation and the next major advancement in home console technology began in 1976 with the release of the Fairchild Channel F. The technology behind the first generation quickly became obsolete as consumers had the ability to purchase new games for second generation consoles instead of having to purchase new systems when they wanted new content as with the dedicated consoles of the first generation. In comparison to the limited game library for each dedicated console, the Atari VCS launched with Combat, a cartridge containing 27 games. As people transitioned to the newer systems, some companies were left with surplus stock and were selling at a loss. The combination of market saturation and the start of the second generation caused many companies to leave the market completely. These events became known as the video game crash of 1977, as sales of second generation consoles were only modest for the next few years until the arrival of the killer app, the home port of Space Invaders for the Atari VCS in 1980.

Home systems

There were hundreds of home video game consoles known to have existed in the first generation of video games. This section lists the most notable.

Odyssey series

In 1972 Magnavox released the world's first home video game console, the Magnavox Odyssey. It came packaged with board game paraphernalia such as cards, paper money and dice to enhance the games. It had features that became industry standard in subsequent generations such as detachable controllers, light gun accessories and interchangeable game cartridges. While no game data was stored on the cartridges as they would be in future consoles, they could be used to select one of the twelve games built onto the hardware. Magnavox licensed its video game patents to other companies for a fee and prosecuted companies who released consoles without a licensing agreement.

It was with the Odyssey that Nintendo first became involved in the home video game market. According to Martin Picard in the International Journal of Computer Game Research: "in 1971, Nintendo had – even before the marketing of the first home console in the United States – an alliance with the American pioneer Magnavox to develop and produce optoelectronic guns for the Odyssey, since it was similar to what Nintendo was able to offer in the Japanese toy market in [the] 1970s."

In 1974 Philips purchased Magnavox and released a series of eight Odyssey consoles in North America from 1975 to 1977. All of them were dedicated consoles, and each subsequent release was an improvement over the previous, adding features such as additional game variations, on-screen displays, and player-controlled handicaps such as smaller paddle sizes and variable ball speed. Three Odyssey series consoles were also released in Europe with similar features from 1976 to 1978.

TV Tennis Electrotennis

On September 12, 1975, several months before the release of Home Pong in North America, Epoch released Japan's first home console, the TV Tennis Electrotennis. The technology was licensed from Magnavox and it contained a single ball and paddle style game that resembled Pong but without an onscreen score display. The game controls were contained within the base unit and it connected to a television set through an ultra high frequency (UHF) antenna, as opposed to being directly connected, which was unique to the console at the time. Compared to popular consoles of the generation, it performed poorly with an approximate 20,000 units sold.

Atari Home Pong

In late 1975 Atari released a home version of their popular arcade game Pong. It was the first use of a microchip in an Atari product and had been in development since 1974 under the lead of Allan Alcorn and Harold Lee. By the end of 1975, Atari had become a major company in the home console market due to Home Pong. Following Pong's success, Magnavox filed suit against Atari for infringement on its technology patents and ended up settling out of court with Atari becoming a licensee of Magnavox.

Home video games achieved widespread popularity with the release of a home version of Pong and its success sparked hundreds of clones, including the Coleco Telstar, which went on to be a success in its own right with over a dozen models, and the Binatone TV Master by British company Binatone.

Coleco Telstar series

Starting in 1976, Coleco released a series of fourteen dedicated consoles up until 1978, when they suffered a significant loss due to the combination of dock workers' strike, preventing it from shipping the final product in time for the holidays, and the start of the second generation. The series featured a number of different styles of ball games and external accessories to enhance gameplay such as the Telstar Arcade, which had a unique triangular design that came with a light gun and steering wheel attached to the casing. The series was marketed at a lower price than its competitors and sold well with over a million sales.

Color TV-Game series

In the late 1970s, Nintendo released a series of five consoles for the Japanese market. The first of the series and the first console created by Nintendo, the Color TV-Game 6, was released in 1977 and contained six ball-and-paddle games. The last, the Computer TV-Game, was a 1980 port of Nintendo's first arcade game, Computer Othello. The third console in the series, the Color TV-Game Racing 112, was the first project of Shigeru Miyamoto, who would go on to become the creator of some of the most well-known video game franchises.

Comparison

Notes

Handheld systems

All of the handheld systems from the first generation are dedicated consoles and started late into the first generation. It was not until the second generation and the release of the Microvision that players could purchase games separately for the systems. The early dedicated handheld consoles were eventually eclipsed in popularity by programmable video games, which became popular in the fourth generation with the introduction of the Game Gear.

One notable example is the Mattel handheld game series, which were released from 1976 to 1982. The first to be released were Mattel Auto Race and Mattel Football, whilst some of the latter models like the Mattel Speed Freak and the Mattel Competition Football handhelds are closer to the end of the first generation (1982). They were followed by other titles based on sports and some licensed properties such as Battlestar Galactica. Each game had basic controls, a simple LED interface and a buzzer for sound. The series was popular, sold well and, at times, was difficult to find due to high demand.

In the same year, Coleco began to release handheld consoles after the end of the Telstar home console series. They released Electronic Quarterback, which expanded on the popular American football style games by adding new features. Alongside Mattel Football, it became the other popular sports game of the period.

See also

 1970s in video games
 Home computer
 History of computing hardware (1960s–present)
 Second generation of video game consoles

References

Further reading
 How Video Games Invaded the Home TV Set by Ralph Baer
  by Michael Miller

External links
 The Dot Eaters: Bits From the Primordial Ooze
 ClassicGaming Expo 2000: Baer Describes the Birth of Videogames
 Video Games Turn 40 (1UP.com)

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American Civil War casualties are those soldiers, both Union and Confederate, who died, were wounded, went missing or were captured. The American Civil War was the nation's bloodiest war. The violence in battles such as Shiloh, Antietam, Stones River and Gettysburg shocked everyone in the country, both North and South. It also shocked international observers. Of those who died, by far the leading cause of death was disease. The exact number of dead will never be known with any certainty. All Civil War casualty numbers are estimates, no matter what the source. For over a hundred years the total number of dead has been accepted by most historians as 618,222, generally rounded off to 620,000. Newer estimates have put the number at about 750,000 or about 20% higher than previously approximated.

Background
In 1860, no one expected any armed conflict would come from the Southern states secession from the Union. Or, if it did, it would be brief and mostly for show purposes. Southerners did not believe the North would mobilize an army against them. The U.S. Senator from South Carolina made the statement he would drink all the blood shed over the South declaring their independence from the Union. Then, as it became apparent that it would become a military confrontation, both sides believed it would not last very long. In 1861, when the Union Army entered the First Battle of Bull Run, they thought a quick victory would bring an end to the war. After the Union loss at Bull Run, the Confederates thought the Union would simply give up the idea re-uniting the North and South. Both were wrong.

During the 1850s there were a number of improvements in weapons, especially rifles. During the Civil War, both armies were equipped with rifles that could shoot farther, could reload faster and were much more accurate than the muskets used in the Mexican–American War. Yet the same military tactics were being used as the earlier war; close formations of men firing in volleys. The new rifles combined with obsolete tactics were responsible for up to 90% of all deaths in battle.

Death was only one of several ways a soldier could be listed as a casualty. During the Civil War a casualty was any soldier who could not perform his duties. This could be for any reason including being sick, wounded, captured, missing or killed. A single soldier could be listed as a casualty several times during the war.

The good death
The mid-nineteenth century attitudes towards death and dying for a noble cause were considerably different than modern thinking. Men saw going to war as a chance for glory and honor. They thought that giving one's life for their country or cause was the highest calling. But dying of disease was considered a horrible way to die and most feared it more than dying in battle. War was presented to soldiers as a way to die "for God and country". It represented both Christian and nationalist reasons for going to war. As most were Christians, they were far better prepared to die than to kill. American society in general, and soldiers in particular, believed in the ars moriendi (the art of dying) or the "good death." These attitudes left soldiers to believe that a good death was glorious and at the same time a last act of redemption. Also, by dying well a person showed others how to die well.

Civil war medicine
Another factor which contributed to the high death tolls was the status of medical care at the beginning of the Civil War. In 1861, medical knowledge, diagnostic procedures, equipment, and treatment protocols were very crude by modern standards. Because doctors were often unaware of what caused the diseases they were encountering, and because medical hygiene practices were poor compared with those practiced today, physicians often could do very little to treat their patients; in many cases, they even hastened soldiers' deaths by failing to wash their hands and instruments before moving from one patient to the next - simple protocols which did not begin to take hold until later in the war through the pioneering military medical management efforts of William A. Hammond and Jonathan Letterman. As a result, at times, a physician's treatment of wounds, infections and diseases did more harm than good.

In addition, camp hygiene was extremely poor. Inadequate sanitation facilities, and the lack of shelter, clothing, shoes and food, as well as contaminated water contributed to high death rates in the camps. Diarrhea and dysentery became the leading causes of death with casualty figures showing that roughly twice as many soldiers died from disease as from the most frequent type of battle injury - the gunshot wound (shown in Latin terminology on military medical records as Vulnus Sclopet).

Other ailments which affected Civil War soldiers included:
 brain, cardiac, kidney, and respiratory conditions (asthma, Bright's Disease, bronchitis, cardiac/heart disease, heatstroke/sunstroke, nephritis, pleuresy)
 dermatologic conditions (army itch, dermatitis, erysipelas, insect stings and bites)
 digestive complaints and other illnesses arising from poor food or water quality (constipation, scurvy)
 infectious diseases (abscesses, cholera, conjunctivitis, consumption/tuberculosis, diphtheria, malarial/intermittent fevers, measles, pneumonia, scarlet fever, smallpox/variola, syphilis and other venereal diseases, tetanus, typhoid fever, typhus fever, unidentified viral infections, yellow fever)
 musculoskeletal injuries (broken bones, dislocations, rheumatism, sprains)
 parasites.
Soldiers who were captured by the enemy and held as prisoners of war (POWs) were, in a significant number of instances, housed in such miserable conditions that they faced a higher likelihood of contracting and succumbing to one of the medical conditions shown above; starvation also became a problem in POW camps as more soldiers were captured in battle and food shortages widened.

Even healthcare practitioners were not immune; nurses were particularly at risk of catching diseases from the soldiers they tended.

Poor records
As many as half of the men killed in battle were not identified when they were buried. The records kept by each company were designed to keep track of how many men were in each unit, not to keep track of each soldier. Confederate military records are much fewer than Union records. When Richmond fell in 1865, records were destroyed, shipped south or left behind. Some of the records were kept by the Union Army and sent to the War Department in Washington, D.C.. The Adjutant General started a bureau for the "collection, safekeeping, and publication of Rebel Archives" in July of 1865. In 1903, the Secretary of War made an appeal to Southern Governors to lend the War Department any Confederate Army records in their possession so they could be copied.

Early death estimates
Since about 1900, historians have quoted the numbers produced by Thomas L. Livermore of 618,222 Confederate and Union deaths during the war. Livermore's number was based on incomplete battle reports. It also made a crude guess as to how many died from disease and other causes. His book was titled Numbers and Losses in the Civil War in America, 1861-65.

Before Livermore, another Civil War veteran, William F. Fox, compiled his estimate the hard way. He went over every muster list, battlefield record and pension record he could find. In 1889 he wrote Regimental Losses in the American Civil War, 1861-1865. Fox came up with the round number of 94,000 dead. In addition to the number, Fox contributed information on the average Union soldier. For example, that he averaged 5 feet 8 ¼ inches tall and weighed 143 ½ pounds.

Interestingly, before Fox or Livermore, the superintendent of the1870 United States Census, Francis A. Walker, had estimated the number of male deaths to be "not less than 850,000." But this was not as widely accepted as the lower numbers. Probably the main reason was that the census itself that year was suspected of being wrong. Walker's estimate was based on calculating a typical growth in population which had been consistent during the nineteenth century, minus the number of males who were missing from the census.

Modern death estimate
Many historians are beginning to accept that the earlier death estimates were probably far too low. A demographic historian from New York's Binghamton University, J. David Hacker, has made a new calculation of Civil War deaths which is about 20% higher. The new estimate is 750,000 deaths and is based on digitized nineteenth century census data. The population of the United States in 1860 was just under 31.5 million. Approximately 2,000,000 men served in the Union forces while about 750,000 served in the Confederacy. About 75% of soldiers were born in America. Of the remaining 25% who were foreign born, many did not appear in any census records prior to the Civil War.

Wounded warriors

Amputation was by far the most common surgery in the Civil War. During the war it is estimated that about 60,000 surgeries were performed. Of these, nearly 75% were amputations. There were several reasons why amputation was the main procedure. Bullet wounds made by the slow moving Minié ball caused major damage. They often shattered bones beyond repair. Another reason was to prevent gangrene and other complications. Men often lay unattended for a day or more before being brought to a surgeon. Perhaps the most important reason was that medics had too many wounded men and very little time to reconstruct damaged body parts. Lastly, if a man was wounded in the head, stomach or chest, he rarely lived long enough to be taken to a field hospital.

Until the war, most American doctors had never seen wounds like these. Most only had experience in lancing boils or pulling teeth. Doctors knew very little about germs and bacteria. Bandages were used over and over again on different men without washing or disinfecting them first. By modern standards the operations were crude, even brutal. Soldiers called medics "butchers" and they feared amputations more than anything else. To avoid losing a limb and the painful operation, some soldiers and officers went so far as to try to treat their wounds themselves.

Where the wound was located on a limb affected the soldier's ability to survive after the Surgery. The closer a wound was to the body the higher the mortality rate. For example, Confederate General John Bell Hood was wounded in the leg at the Battle of Chickamauga. His leg was amputated just over  from his hip. This type of hip operation had an 83% mortality rate. Hood was among the 17% who survived. Arm wounds had a lower mortality rate of 24%. But Stonewall Jackson did not long survive the loss of his arm. The amputation process itself was done quickly. A cut was made around the arm or leg. Then the bone was sawed through. Nerves were pulled out as far as possible then cut off. The bloody stump was often left to heal by itself or a flap of skin was sewn over the stump. The surgeon had to move quickly to keep the patient from losing too much blood or going into shock. A leg amputation at the knee could be done in three minutes. In most cases anesthesia was used.

Men who survived an amputation needed to return to their work after the war. They needed a prosthesis to replace a missing arm or leg. In the case of North Carolina, it was the first of the former Confederate states to provide artificial legs to its veterans who needed them. In 1866, they passed a law providing artificial legs to their veterans. For those who could not use an artificial leg, the veteran amputee was given $70. North Carolina took care of 1,550 veterans who applied for help.

Notes

References

Other websites

casualties

American Civil War casualties


Kurt Adler (March 1, 1907September 21, 1977) was an Austrian classical chorus master, music conductor, author and pianist. He was best known as the chorus master and lead conductor of the Metropolitan Opera in New York City from 1943 to 1973.  He conducted orchestras in Europe, North America, Canada and Mexico.

Early life
Kurt Adler was born in Jindřichův Hradec/Neuhaus, Bohemia (now Czech Republic), during the Austro-Hungarian Empire to a bourgeois Jewish family. He was the only child of Siegfried Adler (born June 26, 1876 in Luka u Jihlavy, Bohemia), a textile factory owner, and Olga (Fürth) Adler (born April 3, 1882 in Sušice/Schüttenhofen, Bohemia (now Czech Republic). Both parents were murdered by the Gestapo during World War II, after they were deported in 1942, from Vienna, Austria, to Izbica concentration camp, which served as a transfer camp, to the Bełżec extermination camp in Poland on May 15, 1942. His paternal grandparents, Jakob and Eveline Adler are buried in Neuhaus (now Jindřichův Hradec), Hebrew Cemetery. His maternal grandparents, Albert and Katherine Fürth are buried in Sušice (Schüttenhofen), Bohemia (now Czech Republic).

During the 1930s many now-famous musicians, including Adler, emigrated to the United States to escape from Nazism. Adler left for the United States on October 9, 1938. He sailed from Rotterdam, Holland in 1938 on the "SS Statendam". He was naturalized on March 21, 1944.

Education
Kurt Adler began studying music at age six under cantor Jacob Fürnberg, Neuhaus), His first public appearance was at age fourteen.

His entire musical education was in Vienna, Austria. Other teachers include Prof. Richard Robert, Fanny Boehm-Kramer, Prof. Alexander Manhart (1875–1936) (piano); Prof. Karl Weigl (1881–1949), Prof. Guido Adler (1855–1941), Prof. Wilhelm Fischer (1886–1962) (theory); Prof. Ferdinand Foll (1867–1929), also Hermann Weigert (1890–1955), Erich Kleiber (1890–1956) (conducting). In 1925, he graduated from the classical Akademisches Gymnasium, Vienna. In 1927, he earned a degree of Musicology from the University of Vienna, corresponding to Master of Arts, Philosophical Faculty of the University of Vienna.

Life in the arts and humanities
Kurt Adler began his professional career in Germany on the musical staff of the Berlin State Opera. He later associated with the famous German Opera Theatre in Prague (where Rudolf, Szell and Schick also served) and with the Municipal Opera House in Berlin. He joined the Metropolitan Opera in 1943, under the management of Edward Johnson then in conjunction with Rudolf Bing, General Manager, from 1945 to 1973.

Maestro Adler's press announcement upon his recruitment as Chorus Master of the Metropolitan Opera in New York City said, "That since Giulio Setti's time, ten years ago, there never has been a single Chorus Master for the entire Italian, French, German, English repertoire and with my appointment, the gradual reorganization and training will again be centralized in one hand."

Languages
English, German, Czech, Russian, French, Italian, Spanish, Latin, Greek, Romanian, Yiddish, Hebrew.

Engagements

 1927–29     Assistant Conductor, Berlin State Opera. First opera conducted, Peer Gynt (Grieg).
 1929–32     Conductor, Prague German Opera Theater.
 1932–33     Conductor, Berlin Municipal Opera House.
 1933–38     Conducting symphony concerts and opera all over Europe.
 1933        Conductor of orchestral concerts, Vienna Grosser Musikvereinssaal.
 1933        Founder of the Unio Opera Company, Vienna.
 1933–35     First Conductor, Academic Opera and Ballet Theater of the USSR, Kiev.
 1935–37     Founder, Musical Director, and first conductor of the Symphonic Orchestra Stalingrad (U.S.S.R.).
 1938–43     U.S.A. Conducting concerts and concertizing as pianist all over U.S. and Canada.
 1938–39     Pianist, three transcontinental tours of the United States.
 1939–41     Musical Director, Friendship House, New York City.
 1943        Assistant Conductor to Leopold Stokowski, Metropolitan Opera, New York City.
 1943–73     Chorus Master, Conductor, Metropolitan Opera, New York City, New York (USA).
 1944–47     Musical Director, Opera Nacional and Opera de Mexico, Mexico City.
 1952        Musical Director, Central City Opera Festival, Central City, Colorado.
 1954        Musical Director of opera performances at Greek Theatre, Hollywood, California.
Conductor of numerous broadcasts and television performances of operatic and symphonic music.

Teaching positions
 1929–32     Organizer and Conductor of the Students Orchestra of the German Academy of Music (Deutsche Akademie für Musik und darstellende Kunst in Prag), Prague, Czechoslovakia.
 1934–35     Conductor, orchestra of the Kiev Conservatory of Music, Kiev (Ukraine).
 1935–37     Professor of the Opera class at the Conservatory of Music, Stalingrad (U.S.S.R.)
 1938–41     Teacher of piano, theory; classes in chamber music; coach; New York City.

Quotes
 Asked, "What do you consider your outstanding achievement?" Response, "Having escaped Hitler, having founded and directed the first Symphonic Orchestra Stalingrad." Asked, "What has helped you most in your career?" Response, "Artistic honesty, sense of humor, treatment of fellow artists (singers, chorus, orchestra) with utmost consideration for their values as human beings." Asked, "What has been your most thrilling musical experience?" Response, "First time when I heard Toscanini conduct with the Scala in 1928." Asked, "If you hadn't chosen your present career what would your second choice be?" Response, "would not have talent for anything else." Asked, "Are most of your friends musicians?" Response, "all kinds of intellectuals."
 "Many instrumentalists and singers insist on putting themselves into the foreground. Yet though they may be strong personalities or have complete mastery of their medium, still I would not call them real artists. A real artist must be humble. Vanity has been the core of many virtuoso careers but it also has been the end of genuine artistic growth. Psychologically, an accompanist and coach must try to search for and understand where the roots of his soloist's artistry lie. These roots are as varied as the individual artists. Faith – religious, metaphysical, or materialistic – is one of the strongest roots; faith in oneself is part of it. Some great artists – Richard Wagner, for instance – were extremely self-centered, compensating for this fault by preaching altruism in their works. This brings us to another root of artistry: compensation for shortcomings in one's makeup – atonement for real or imagined sins and errors. A third very important root is rebellion against family, upbringing, or an adverse fate. Among those who rebel are some of our greatest artists, who have become what they are by surmounting seemingly overwhelming odds. Complacency is not a good stimulus to artistry."
 "In your world of rapidly changing values – welcome changes when they are the results of technical and scientific progress – spiritual, ethical, and artistic values tend likewise to change, but much more slowly, and not always for the better. What the future will bring, no one can say. I should like to venture the opinion that the vistas opening for us will render us more humble, more concerned with inner or spiritual values. Our technological advances should give us more time; we shall need culture and be able to afford it."

Publications
 1943 Adler, K.: Songs of many wars, from the sixteenth to the twentieth century. New York, Howell, Soskin 1943, 221p. Edited and arranged by Kurt Adler. (A collection of fighting songs which oppressed people of all times and nation have sung in their fight against tyranny.)
 1953–1956 Adler, K.: Operatic anthology: celebrated arias selected from operas by old and modern composers, in five volumes / compiled by Kurt Adler. New York, G. Schirmer c1953–1956. Edited and arranged by Kurt Adler.
 1955 Adler, K.: Famous operatic choruses. New York, G. Schirmer c1955, Edited and arranged by Kurt Adler.
 1956 Adler, K.: The Prima donna's album: 42 celebrated arias from famous operas. New York, G. Schirmer c1956, Edited and arranged by Kurt Adler.
 1960 Adler, K.: Songs From Light Operas for soprano. New York, G. Schirmer 1960, Edited and arranged by Kurt Adler.
 1965 Adler, K.: The art of accompanying and coaching. Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press 1965.
 1967Adler, K.: Phonetics and diction in singing: Italian, French, Spanish, German. Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press 1967.
 1968 Adler, K.: Duets from the great operas, for soprano and baritone. New York, G. Schirmer 1968, Edited and arranged by Kurt Adler.
 1968 Adler, K.: Duets from the great operas, for soprano and tenor. New York, G. Schirmer, Edited and arranged by Kurt Adler.
 1971 Adler, K.: The art of accompanying and coaching. New York, Da Capo Press
 1974 Adler, K.: Phonetics and diction in singing: Italian, French, Spanish, German. Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 2nd ed.
 1975–1977 Adler, K.: Operatic anthology: celebrated arias selected from operas by old and modern composers, in five volumes / Edited and arranged by Kurt Adler. Rochester, N.Y., National Braille Association 1975–1977.
 1976 Adler, K.: The art of accompanying and coaching. New York, Da Capo Press
 1980 Adler, K.: The art of accompanying and coaching. New York, Da Capo Press
 1985 Adler, K.: The art of accompanying and coaching. New York, Da Capo Press

Personal life

On March 10, 1948, Adler married Irene Hawthorne (1917–1986) (birth name Irene McNutt), former prima ballerina soloist of the Metropolitan Opera.

On September 16, 1965, Adler married Christiane Tocco. One daughter: Eveline

On September 21, 1977, Adler died at home in his sleep, in Butler, New Jersey, of uremia/chronic glomerulonephritis.

His hobbies included stamp and book collecting.

His athletics included soccer, field hockey (All Austrian 1926), Track and Field, swimming, tennis, and ping-pong.

His instruments were piano, organ, harmonica, harpsichord, and celeste

Bibliography
 2009 Václav Urban: Kurt Adler. Ein leben für die Musik. Aus dem Tschechischen übertragen, herausgegeben und mit Ergänzungen versehen von Hana Pfalzová. ConBrio Verlagsgesellschaft, Regensburg 2009.  (104 p.)
 2007 Václav Urban: Kurt Adler (1907 Neuhaus – 1977 New York). 1. vyd., Jindřichův Hradec, Kostelní Radouň, 2007, 140 p.,
 2000 Baker's Biographical Dictionary of Musicians, Centennial Edition. New York: Schirmer Reference, 2000, p. 21,  (set),  (vol. 1)
 1997 Rudolf M. Wlaschek: Biographia Judaica Bohemiae, 2 vol., Dortmund: Forschungsstelle Ostmitteleuropa, 1997, 75 S.,
 1995 Walter Pass, Gerhard Scheit, Wilhelm Svoboda: Orpheus im Exil – Die Vertreibung der österreichischen Musik von 1938 bis 1945, Wien: Verlag fur Gesellschaftskritik, 1995, 409 p.,
 1989 Alain Pâris: Dictionnaire des interprètes et de l'interprétation musicale au XXe siècle, Paris: Éditions Robert Laffont, 1989. 906 p.,
 1982 John L. Holmes: Conductors on record, London: Victor Gollancz, 1982, 734 p.,
 1979 Index to music necrology: supplement to the 1977 necrology, Notes (Music Library Association), 1979,
 1978 "Kurt Adler – obituary", in: Opera News, Feb 4, 1978, p. 30
 1976 Paul Frank, Burchard Bulling, Florian Noetzel, Helmut Rosner: Kurzgefasstes Tonkünstler Lexikon – Zweiter Teil: Ergänzungen und Erweiterungen seit 1937, 15. Aufl., Wilhelmshaven: Heinrichshofen, volume 1: A-K. 1974. ; Bvolume 2: L-Z. 1976.
 1969 One of the props, in: Opera News, Jan 25, 1969, p. 26–27
 1951 J.T.H. Mize: The international who is who in music, Fifth (Mid-Century) Edition, Chicago: Who is Who in Music, 1951.

References

External links
 Czech home page of Kurt Adler
 E-book about Kurt Adler in Czech (PDF, 29 MB)
 Place a picture of Adler's grandparents tomb stone in Neuhaus, Czech Republic
 METOPERA DATABASE – The Metropolitan Opera Archives Multi-field search – Adler, Kurt
 www.yadvashem.org Search – Adler, Siegfried and Adler, Olga
 Dokumentationsarchiv des österreichischen Widerstandes  Search – Adler, Siegfried and Adler, Olga

1907 births
1977 deaths
Classical accompanists
American classical pianists
American male classical pianists
American male conductors (music)
Austrian classical pianists
Austrian conductors (music)
Male conductors (music)
Austrian Jews
Conductors of the Metropolitan Opera
Czech conductors (music)
Czech Jews
Jewish American classical musicians
Jewish classical pianists
Music directors (opera)
People from Jindřichův Hradec
People from Butler, New Jersey
Jewish emigrants from Austria after the Anschluss to the United States
20th-century classical pianists
American philatelists
20th-century American pianists
20th-century American conductors (music)
20th-century American male musicians
20th-century American Jews

Kurt Adler


Innervision Records was an independent record label distributed by CBS Records. The label was established around 1981 by Mark Dean and Shamsi Ahmed. Perhaps the most recognizable artist associated with Innervision was Wham!, who scored four top-ten hits while signed to the label. Additional Innervision artists included Jimmy The Hoover, who had a top 20 hit with "Tantalise"; and the groups Animal Nightlife, The Promise, Girl Talk, and Space Monkey. Innervision released its last single in 1985, by that time the label's records were being distributed by EMI.

Legal disputes

In 1983, Andrew Ridgeley of Wham! became conscious of legal problems with their initial contract at Innervision. While the legal battle raged, Innervision released a single containing a medley of non-single tracks from the album Fantastic, titled "Club Fantastic Megamix." Wham! publicly denounced the release and urged fans not to buy it. After the legal wrangling, Innervision admitted there were royalty discrepancies with Wham!'s contract and it was nullified as part of a legal compromise with CBS Records. The fall-out from the lawsuit led to the bankruptcy and eventual dissolution of Innervision altogether in 1985.

See also
 List of record labels

References

Record labels established in 1981
Rock record labels
Pop record labels
English record labels
Record labels disestablished in 1985
Defunct record labels of the United Kingdom

Innervision Records


Donald P. Bryk, , was appointed a judge of the Court of Queen's Bench of Manitoba in Dauphin on February 17, 1999. He replaced Mr. Justice Kenneth J. Galanchuck, who resigned.

Mr. Justice Bryk graduated in law from the University of Manitoba in 1969 and was called to the Bar of Manitoba in 1970. Mr. Justice Bryk then joined the firm known today as Myers Weinberg, with which he had been a partner since 1977. During his time in practice, he undertook primarily civil litigation, real estate and wills and estate law matters.

References
 Government of Canada News Release (accessed August 3, 2007)

Judges in Manitoba
University of Manitoba alumni
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)

Donald Bryk


Padshah Sultan Shah Shuja Durrani (Pashto/Dari:  ; November 1785 – 5 April 1842) was ruler of the Durrani Empire from 1803 to 1809. He then ruled from 1839 until his death in 1842. Son of Timur Shah Durrani, Shuja Shah was of the Sadduzai line of the Abdali group of ethnic Pashtuns. He became the fifth King of the Durrani Empire.

King of Afghanistan
Shuja Shah was the governor of Herat and Peshawar from 1798 to 1801. He proclaimed himself as King of Afghanistan in October 1801 (after the deposition of his brother Zaman Shah), but only properly ascended to the throne on July 13, 1803. In Afghanistan, a blind man by tradition cannot be Emir, and so Shah Shuja's step-brother Mahmud Shah had Zaman blinded, however not killed. After coming to power in 1803, Shuja ended the blood feud with the powerful Barakzai family and also forgave them. To create an alliance with them, he married their "sister" Wafa Begum.

In 1809, Shuja allied Afghanistan with  British India, as a means of defending against an invasion of Afghanistan and the Punjab Region by France. In 1809, a British diplomatic mission was sent to Afghanistan, which at the time was to the British a remote and mysterious part of Asia. According to Mountstuart Elphinstone, "The King of Kabul [Shah Shuja] was a handsome man". He also wrote "of an olive complexion with a thick black beard ... his voice clear, his address princely." Shuja wore the Koh-i-Noor ("Mountain of Light") diamond in one of his bracelets when Elphinstone visited him, but rather undiplomatically described Shuja as having a "vulgar nose". William Fraser, who accompanied Elphinstone to meet Shah Shuja was "struck with the dignity of his appearance and the romantic Oriental awe." Fraser also judged him to be "about  tall" and his skin colour was "very fair, but dead...his beard was thick jet black and shortened a little by the obliquely upwards, but turned again at the corners ... The eyelashes and the edges of his eyelids were blackened with antimony." He also described Shuja's voice as "loud and sonorous".

In June 1809, he was overthrown by his predecessor Mahmud Shah in the battle of Nimla, and went into exile in The Punjab, where he was captured by Jahandad Khan Bamizai and imprisoned at Attock (1811–1812) and then taken to Kashmir (1812–1813) by Atta Muhammad Khan. When Mahmud Shah's vizier Fateh Khan invaded Kashmir alongside Ranjit Singh's army, he chose to leave with the Sikh army. He stayed in Lahore from 1813 to 1814. During his time in India, Shuja was imprisoned and forced to give up the Timur Ruby, Koh-i-Noor and the sister diamond dray-i-nur diamond to Ranjit Singh . He escaped from Ranjit's detention at the Mubarek Haveli Lahore for Ludhiana and the East India Company.

From 1818 onward, Shuja who liked to live in a lavish style with his wives and concubines had collected a pension from the East India Company, which thought he might prove useful one day. Shuja stayed first in Ludhiana where he was joined by Zeman Shah in 1821. The place where he stayed in Ludhiana was occupied by the Main Post Office near Mata Rani Chowk and inside it there used to be a white marble stone commemorating his stay there.

Exile

During his time in exile, Shuja indulged his cruelty by removing the noses, ears, tongues, penises, and testicles of his courtiers and slaves when they displeased him in the slightest. When the American adventurer Dr. Josiah Harlan visited Shuja's court in exile, he noted that all of Shuja's courtiers and slaves were missing some part of their bodies as all had in some way displeased their master at some point along the line — and yet they were all slavishly devoted to him — as Harlan noted that there was an "earless assemblage of mutes and eunuchs in the ex-king's service". When Shuja went out for a picnic with his four wives and the wind blew down his tent, Shuja flew into a rage and, much to Harlan's horror, he had the man responsible for putting up his tent, Khwajah Mika—a slave from East Africa who had already had his ears chopped off—to be castrated on the spot. Shuja's grand vizier, Mullah Shakur, had grown his hair long to cover up that both his ears had been chopped off, and he spoke in the distinctive high-pitched voice of a eunuch; Harlan noted he was lucky as the rest of his body was still intact. Despite or perhaps because he was mutilated, Shuja's grand vizier took a great deal of pleasure in mutilating others and was always inciting his master to have somebody mutilated. Harlan commented on "the grace and dignity of His Highness's demeanor", observing the sense of power he projected, but also that "years of disappointment had created in the countenance of the ex-King an appearance of melancholy and resignation." Harlan, a man without much military experience and knowledge of Pashto, offered to lead an invasion of Afghanistan to restore Shuja, an offer that led the former monarch to break "into a poetical effusion in praise of Kabul" and its gardens, its trees laden with fruits, and its music, culminating with "Kabul is called the Crown of the Air. I pray for the possession of those pleasures which my native country alone can afford". When Harlan pressed him on whether he wanted to accept his offer or not, Shuja agreed. Harlan had a tailor sew up an American flag, which Harlan hoisted up in Ludhiana, and started to recruit mercenaries for the invasion of Afghanistan, suggesting that he was working for the U.S. government (which he was not). Harlan ultimately grew disillusioned with Shuja, writing that he did not view him as the "legitimate monarch, the victim of treasonable practices", but rather as "a wayward tyrant, inflexible in moods, vindictive in his enmities, faithless in his attachments, unnatural in his affections. He remembered his misfortunes only to avenge them".

In 1833, Shah Shuja struck a deal with Ranjit Singh of Punjab where he was allowed to march his troops through Punjab, and in return, he would cede Peshawar to the Sikhs if they could manage to take it. In a concerted campaign, the following year, Shuja marched on Kandahar, while the Sikhs commanded by General Hari Singh Nalwa, attacked Peshawar. In July, Shuja Shah was defeated at Kandahar by an alliance between the Qandahar Sardars and Dost Mohammad Khan. Shuja Shah fled. The Sikhs for their part reclaimed Peshawar.

Restoration of power
In 1838, Shah Shuja had gained the support of the British and the Ranjit Singh for wresting power from Dost Mohammad Khan. George Eden, 1st Earl of Auckland, believed that most Afghans would welcome the return of Shuja as their rightful ruler, but in fact, by 1838, most people in Afghanistan could not remember him, and those that did, remembered him as a cruel, tyrannical ruler and absolutely hated him. During the march on Kabul, the main British camp was attacked by a force of Ghazis, of whom 50 were captured. When the prisoners were brought before Shuja, one of them used a knife, hidden in his robes, to stab one of Shuja's ministers to death, causing Shuja to fly into one of his rages and order all 50 prisoners to be beheaded on the spot. The British historian, Sir John William Kaye wrote the "wanton barbarity" of the mass execution as all 50 prisoners were beheaded, strained the campaign, stating the "shrill cry" of the prisoners as they waited to be executed, was the "funeral wail" of the "unholy policy" of attempting to restore Shuja. Shuja was restored to the throne by the British with the help of the Sikhs, on August 7, 1839, 30 years after his deposition, he did not remain in power when the British and Sikhs left. Upon being restored, Shuja announced that he considered his own people "dogs" who needed to be taught, how to be obedient to their master. He spent his time exacting bloody vengeance on those Afghans whom he felt had betrayed him, making him extremely unpopular with his people. He shut himself away in Bala Hissar, Kabul, but on April 5, 1842, when he left the place, he was assassinated by Shuja ud-Daula, at the insistence of his uncle Oosman Khan.

References

Citations

Sources

Further reading
 Divan-i-Shuja (1825)
 Memoirs of Shuja ul-Mulk Shah, King of Afghanistan (1826)

External links

Encyclopædia Britannica – Shah Shoja
The British Library – Afghanistan 1809-1838: Sources in the India Office Records

1785 births
1842 deaths
19th-century Afghan monarchs
19th-century murdered monarchs
Emirs of Afghanistan
Shah Shuja
Pashtun people
People of the First Anglo-Afghan War
1830s in Afghanistan
1840s in Afghanistan
19th-century Afghan politicians
19th-century monarchs in Asia
1842 murders in Asia

Shah Shujah Durrani


Granville Richard Seymour Redmond (March 9, 1871 – May 24, 1935) was an American landscape painter and exponent of Tonalism and California Impressionism. He was also an occasional actor for his friend Charlie Chaplin.

Early years
Redmond was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania on March 9, 1871 to a hearing family. He contracted scarlet fever at around 2½ to the age of 3; when he recovered, he was found to be deaf. This change may have prompted his family's decision to move from the East Coast to San Jose, California: the possibility for his education at the Berkeley School for the Deaf.

Study

Granville attended the California School for the Deaf in Berkeley from 1879 to 1890 where his artistic talents were recognized and encouraged. There his teacher Theophilus d'Estrella taught him painting, drawing and pantomime.

When he graduated from CSD, Redmond enrolled at another CSD: the California School of Design in San Francisco, where he worked for three years with teachers such as Arthur Frank Mathews and Amédée Joullin. He famously won the W.E. Brown Medal of Excellence. He associated with many other artists, including Gottardo Piazzoni and Giuseppe Cadenasso. Piazzoni learned American Sign Language, and he and Redmond became lifelong friends. They lived together in Parkfield, California and Tiburon, California.

In 1893 Redmond won a scholarship from the California School of the Deaf, which made it possible for him to study in Paris at the Académie Julian under teachers Jean-Paul Laurens and Jean-Joseph Benjamin-Constant. He roomed with the sculptor Douglas Tilden, another graduate of the California School for the Deaf. "Tilden was a tremendous help to Redmond, teaching him French and how to get around in Paris; they became best friends for the rest of their lives." In 1895, Redmond's painting Matin d'Hiver was accepted for the Paris Salon.

Back in California
In 1898, he returned to California and settled in Los Angeles. He was married in 1899 to Carrie Ann Jean, a former student of the Illinois School for the Deaf. They had three children.

Working with Chaplin

While living in Los Angeles, he became friends with Charles Chaplin, who admired the natural expressiveness of a deaf person using American Sign Language. Chaplin asked Redmond to help him develop the techniques Chaplin later used in his silent films. Chaplin, impressed with Redmond's skill, gave Redmond a studio on the movie lot, collected his paintings, and sponsored him in silent acting roles, including the sculptor in City Lights. Chaplin told a writer for The Silent Worker of a Redmond painting "I could look at it for hours. It means so many things"  and Chaplin's famous The Dance of the Oceana Rolls was Redmond-inspired.

During this time Redmond did not neglect his painting. Through Chaplin, he met Los Angeles neighbor artists Elmer Wachtel and Norman St. Clair. They showed works at the Spring Exhibition held in San Francisco in 1904. By 1905, Redmond was receiving considerable recognition as a leading landscape painter and bold colorist.

He died on May 24, 1935 in Los Angeles.

Selected paintings

Filmography

Collections
 Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley
 California School for the Deaf, Fremont
 Cantor Arts Center, Stanford
 Crocker Art Museum, Sacramento
 De Young Museum, San Francisco
 Granville Redmond Fine Art, Los Angeles
 Huntington Library, San Marino, California
 Los Angeles County Museum of Art
 K. Nathan Gallery, La Jolla, California
 Museum of the City of New York
 Oakland Museum of California

Awards
 Gold Medal, W. E. Brown Award, California School of Design, 1892
 Medal, Louisiana Purchase Exposition, 1904
 Silver Medal, Alaska-Yukon Pacific Exposition, Seattle, Washington, 1909

References

Bibliography

External links

 Granville Redmond at AskART
 Granville Redmond at Artcyclopedia
 The Silence and Solitude of Granville Redmond at California Plein Air Paintings
 Overlooked No More: Granville Redmond, Painter, Actor, Friend at The New York Times

1871 births
1935 deaths
19th-century American painters
American male painters
20th-century American painters
Tonalism
American Impressionist painters
American landscape painters
Deaf artists
Painters from California
Académie Julian alumni
San Francisco Art Institute alumni
American deaf people
19th-century American male artists
20th-century American male artists
American artists with disabilities

Granville Redmond


Hotepsekhemwy was an early Egyptian king, the first ruler of the Second Dynasty. It is not known how long he ruled. The Turin King List has him ruling for 95 years. The Ancient Egyptian historian Manetho reports that the reign of "Boëthôs" lasted for 38 years. Egyptologists now believe Hotepsekhemwy ruled for either 25 or 29 years.

Name sources

Hotepsekhemwy's name has been found at Saqqara, Giza, Badari and Abydos, on clay seal impressions, stone vessels and bone cylinders. Several stone vessel inscriptions mention Hotepsekhemwy along with the name of his  successor Raneb.

The Horus name of Hotepsekhemwy may give clues to the politics of the time. The Egyptian word "Hotep" means "peaceful", "to be pleased", and also "conciliation" or "to be reconciled". So Hotepsekhemwy's full name may be read as "the two powers are reconciled" or "pleasing in powers". This suggests a significant political meaning. "The two powers" could be Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt as well as to the major deities Horus and Seth.

From the reign of Hotepsekhemwy onward it became a tradition to write the Horus name and the nebty name in the same way. The Horus name has a clearly defined, symbolic meaning in its translation. Horus- and nebty names being the same might also show, that the Horus name was used when becoming king.

Family
The name of Hotepsekhemwy's wife is unknown. There could be a son, Perneb, who had the titles "son of the king" and "priest of Sopdu". The clay seals with Perneb's name and titles were found in a gallery tomb which belonged to two kings equally, Hotepsekhemwy and his successor, Raneb. It is not possible to know which was his father.

Identity

Hotepsekhemwy is known from lists made at the time of Ramesses II. The name Bedjau is found on the Abydos king list, Bedjatau from Giza, Netjer-Bau from the Sakkara king list and the name Bau-hetepju is on the Turin King List. A similar name, Bedjatau, is on a short king list found on a writing board from the mastaba tomb G1001 of the high official Mesdjeru. "Bedjatau" means "the foundryman". This  is thought to be a misreading of the name "Hotepsekhemwy". The hieroglyphic signs used to write "Hotep" are very similar to the signs of a pottery kiln and a chick in hieratic writings. The signs of two Sekhemsceptres were misread as a leg and a drill. This kind of misreading may have happened in the case of King Khasekhemwy, where the two sceptres in the Horus name were misread as two leg-symbols or two drill-signs. The Abydos king list copies this Old Kingdom name form of "Bedjatau". The names "Netjerbau" and "Bau-hetepju" are problematic, since Egyptologists can't find any name source from Hotepsekhemwy's time that could have been used to form them.

Reign
Little is known about Hotepsekhemwy's reign. Evidence shows he may have gained the throne after a period of political strife. During this time there were several kings who only ruled for a very short time, such as Horus "Bird" and Sneferka. Sneferka could be a name used by king Qaa for a short time. The tomb of king Qaa was robbed at the end of First dynasty, and was restored during the reign of Hotepsekhemwy. The robbing of the cemetery and the conciliatory meaning of the name Hotepsekhemwy may be clues of a dynastic struggle. The kings Sneferka and Horus "Bird" were left out of later king lists, perhaps because their struggles for the Egyptian throne led to the collapse of the first dynasty.

A new royal residence called "Horus the shining star" built for Hotepsekhemwy. He also built a temple near Buto for the god Netjer-Achty and founded the "Chapel of the White Crown". The white crown, the hedjet, is a symbol of Upper Egypt. This is a clue to the origin of Hotepsekhemwy's dynasty, and shows a likely source of political power. There is no mention of a Sed festival,which shows that Hotepsekhemwy cannot have ruled longer than 30 years. The Sed festival was celebrated as the anniversary for a reign of 30 years.

The ancient Egyptian historian Manetho reported that during his reign, "a chasm opened near Bubastis and many perished". Although Manetho wrote in the 3rd century BC – over two thousand years later – the story may be based on fact, as the region near Bubastis is known to be seismically active.

Tomb
The location of Hotepsekhemwy's tomb is unknown. Some Egyptologists believe it could be the giant underground Gallery Tomb B beneath the funeral passage of the Unas-necropolis at Saqqara. Many seal impressions of king Hotepsekhemwy have been found in these galleries. Others think that Gallery Tomb B is the burial site of king Raneb. Several seal impressions of this ruler were also found there.

References

Other websites
 Francesco Raffaele: Hotepsekhemwy - Hotep

3rd-millennium BC pharaohs

Hotepsekhemwy


Hiromichi Ishige (石毛 宏典, born September 22, 1956) is a retired Japanese professional baseball player and manager in Japan's Nippon Professional Baseball. He played most of his career for the Seibu Lions.

The 1986 Pacific League Most Valuable Player, Ishige was a seven-time Best Nine Award-winner, and a ten-time Gold Glove winner. A 14-time All-Star, Ishige left a fabulous track record in 16 years as a shortstop and third baseman in the Pacific League.

Ishige was drafted by the Lotte Orions in the third round of the 1974 NPB draft, but went to college instead. He won a Tokyo Metropolitan University League batting title and made six Best Nines in college. He was then picked in the first round of the 1980 NPB draft by the Seibu Lions.

Ishige made the All-Star team as a rookie with Seibu and would make it all 14 seasons he was with them. He hit .311/.380/.531 that first year with 21 homers and 25 steals (in 34 tries). He won a Gold Glove, made his first Best Nine and won Rookie of the Year honors. Ishige's production slipped to a .259/.337/.401 line in 1982 though he stole 22 in 26 tries and won a Gold Glove and Best Nine. He hit .296/.321/.370 in his first Japan Series, to help Seibu take the 1982 Series but was thrown out in two of three steal attempts.

In 1983, Ishige hit .303/.593/.503 with 29 steals in 34 tries, hit 16 homers, scored 86 runs, won another Gold Glove, earned a third Best Nine spot and tied Yutaka Fukumoto and Hiromi Matsunaga for the PL lead with 7 triples. He hit .276/.276/.379 as Seibu won another Japan Series, but was 0 for 1 in steals. The next year, Ishige batted .259/.338/.498 with 91 runs, 26 homers and 26 steals (in 36 tries); Keijiro Yumioka beat him out for the Best Nine that time.

While he only stole 11 bases (in 14 tries) in 1985, Ishige remained a potent offensive force, chipping in at a .280/.386/.508 clip with 96 runs, 27 homers and 88 walks. His 26 doubles led the league and he won another Gold Glove and Best Nine. In the 1985 Japan Series, Hiromichi hit .208/.296/.583 with 3 home runs in a losing effort.

Ishige won his MVP in 1986, when he batted .329/.386/.531, won another Gold Glove at short, scored 91 runs, drove in 89, smacked 27 home runs and stole 19 bases. He set a Nippon Pro Baseball record by leading off eight games with home runs and set a Seibu club record with a 23-game hitting streak. He hit .297/.297/.405 as Seibu won a hard-fought 1986 Japan Series over the Hiroshima Carp.

In '87, Hiromichi hit .269/.331/.370 in an off-year but still won a Gold Glove and made the Best Nine. He batted .348/.423/.652 in the 1987 Japan Series to win his fourth ring. That winter, he assumed chairmanship of the board of directors of the Japan Professional Baseball Players Association, replacing Hiromitsu Ochiai; two years later, Akinobu Okada would take the role.

The 31-year-old had his third and last 20-20 year in 1988 (21 HR, 22 SB in 26 tries; he would never hit 20 homers again) and batted .283/.364/.441 and won his 7th Gold Glove. He had his best Series, the 1989 Japan Series, hitting .389/.389/.944 with 3 HR, 5 runs and 6 RBI in five games to win the Series MVP award. In '89, Ishige stole 28 in 33 tries for his final 20-steal season and batted .270/.395/.428. He drew 98 walks, a career-best and led the PL in that category.

Ishige hit .298/.364/.429 in 1990 and was 7 for 8 in steals. Now a third baseman, he fielded .991, a Pacific League record for the position. He went 1 for 12 in the 1990 Japan Series but drew four walks as his club won a sixth Series. At one point, he had hit in 17 straight games in a Japan Series, a record.

In '91, the veteran still produced at a .269/.331/.424 rate and he hit .280/.333/.440 in the 1991 Japan Series, Seibu's seventh victory in his time with the club. He won his first Gold Glove in three years. In 1992, Ishige batted .297/.359/.413, won a Gold Glove and made his seventh Best Nine, the first in five years. He hit .240/.286/.440 as Seibu took the 1992 Japan Series for their eighth Series win in his 12 seasons, marking it as the greatest Pacific League dynasty ever — other key contributors in the run had included Koji Akiyama, Kimiyasu Kudoh, Hisanobu Watanabe, Orestes Destrade, Kazuhiro Kiyohara, Taigen Kaku, Osamu Higashio, and Tetsuya Shiozaki. Ishige was the captain of the team during the last stretch of Series victories at least. Destrade recalls that Ishige was the team's motivator.

Ishige continued to produce as the 36-year-old put up a .306/.389/.479 batting line in 1993, won his last Gold Glove and made his final Best Nine. He hit .304/.385/.304 in the 1993 Japan Series as Seibu fell in 7 games to the Yakult Swallows to end their dynastic run. In '94, Hiromichi hit .266/.335/.397 and made his last All-Star appearance. He went 1 for 12 with three walks in the 1994 Japan Series.

Leaving Seibu after 14 All-Star seasons and 8 titles in 14 years, Ishige moved on to the Fukuoka Daiei Hawks, where the 38-year-old hit .200/.260/.275 to signal that his glory days were definitely gone. Fellow faded star Matsunaga was the primary third baseman that year. In 1996, Ishige concluded his playing career by going 3 for 23 for Daiei.

Overall, Ishige hit .283/.362/.450 in 7,570 plate appearances, cracked 236 homers and stole 243 in 314 tries. Through 2006, Hiromichi ranks 25th all-time in NPB in runs (1,049, 10 behind Matsunaga), 18th in sacrifice bunts (218; manager Masahiko Mori often had him bunt as he felt Ishige hit into too many double plays in the clutch. Destrade, on the other hand, described him as a timely player who drove in key runs, showing how different perceptions of "clutch play" can be) and 22nd in strikeouts (1,127). With one more year as a regular, he likely would have been in the top 30 in walks as well.

After retiring as a player, Ishige was a minor league manager for Seibu for two years then spent a year as a commentator for NHK in 1999. When manager Akira Ohgi was let go after the 2001 season, the Orix BlueWave hired Ishige to replace him as manager. The club fell from above-.500 in '01 to 50-87-3 and last place. The next year, they started poorly and Ishige lambasted high-strikeout sluggers Fernando Seguignol and Scott Sheldon. After a 7-12-1 start, Ishige was let go and they brought in Leon Lee as the new manager, the first African-American manager in NPB history. Lee fared no better with the sorry lot and they finished last again.

In 2005, Ishige founded the independent Shikoku Island League (now known as Shikoku Island League Plus).

References

1956 births
Living people
People from Asahi, Chiba
Komazawa University alumni
Japanese baseball players
Nippon Professional Baseball infielders
Seibu Lions players
Fukuoka Daiei Hawks players
Nippon Professional Baseball Rookie of the Year Award winners
Nippon Professional Baseball MVP Award winners
Managers of baseball teams in Japan
Orix BlueWave managers
Baseball people from Chiba Prefecture

Hiromichi Ishige


Eye contact occurs when "two people look at each other's eyes at the same time".

Eye contact is a form of nonverbal communication. It is a meaningful sign of social communication, but exactly what it means depends on the situation. The customs and significance of eye contact vary widely between cultures, with religious and social differences often altering its meaning greatly.

Eye contact and facial expressions give social and emotional information. People, perhaps without consciously doing so, probe each other's eyes and faces for positive or negative mood signs. Sometimes, the meeting of eyes arouses strong emotions.

Eye contact is also an important element in flirting, where it may serve to establish and gauge the other's interest in some situations.

Different societies
In traditional societies, the role of women is usually very different from men. So, women lower their eyes, and do not to look directly at a man's face.  Lustful glances at the opposite sex, young or adult, are forbidden.

Another social difference is that of status. Japanese children are taught in school to direct their gaze at the region of their teacher's Adam's apple or tie knot. As adults, Japanese lower their eyes when speaking to a superior as a gesture of respect.

In many cultures, such as East Asia and Nigeria, it is respectful not to look the dominant person in the eye, but in Western culture this can be interpreted as being "shifty-eyed", or untrustworthy.

References

Non-verbal communication

Eye contact


Inge Valdemar Heiberg (11 October 1861 – 1 July 1920) was a Norwegian physician who served as director of medicine in Belgian Congo from 1911 to 1920.

He was born in Christiania as a son of judge Edvard Omsen Heiberg (1829–1884) and Minna Rode (1836–1917). He was a brother of Gunnar and Jakob Vilhelm Rode Heiberg, as well as a first cousin of Eivind and Gustav Adolf Lammers Heiberg and a first cousin once removed of Bernt, Axel and Edvard Heiberg, and uncle of Hans Heiberg.

He took the examen artium in 1879 and enrolled in medicine studies. After leading a social life among the "Kristiania bohême", being engaged to Bokken Lasson for some years, he graduated with the cand.med. degree in 1893. He tried his luck as a general practitioner in Aalesund, but quit after three years. He was hired as a physician in Congo Free State (from 1908: Belgian Congo) in 1897, and remained here until 1920, except for a study leave at the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine (LSTM) in 1902–03.

He assisted an LSTM team that arrived in the Congo Free State on 23 September 1903 to assess public health, and sleeping sickness (African trypanosomiasis) in particular.
The members were Cuthbert Christy, Joseph Everett Dutton and John Lancelot Todd. The team spent nine months in the Lower Congo, then on 30 June 1904 began investigating upstream as far as Kasongo.
In Congo, he lived in Lado and Ibembo before moving to Boma when promoted to Médicin en chef (director of medicine) in 1911. Among his professional endeavors was to fight the "sleeping sickness", but he also believed a certain degree of corporal punishment of the natives to be necessary as a part of disciplining and civilizing.

He was also a benefactor and item collector for the Ethnographic Museum in Norway's capital. He also contributed to a lesser degree to the Zoological Museum. For his contributions, he was decorated as a Knight, First Class of the Order of St. Olav in 1908.

He was unmarried. In 1920 he retired, and moved home to Norway where he died the same year.

References

1861 births
1920 deaths
Norwegian tropical physicians
Norwegian expatriates in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Belgian Congo officials
19th-century Norwegian physicians
20th-century Norwegian physicians
Congo Free State people

Inge Heiberg


WLEV (100.7 FM, "100.7 WLEV") is a commercial radio station licensed to serve Allentown, Pennsylvania. The station is owned by Cumulus Media, Inc., through licensee Radio License Holding CBC LLC, and broadcasts an adult contemporary music format.

The station covers the Lehigh Valley region of Pennsylvania. The station's antenna is located on the WFMZ-TV broadcast tower on South Mountain south of Allentown.

History

100.7 frequency
100.7 FM began operation in 1947 as WFMZ. On November 1, 1947, it moved from 105.1 MHz to 95.9 MHz concurrent with an increase in power to 1 KW.

The station originally played classical and jazz music at various times of the day. In the 1950s, the station began playing blocks of instrumental easy listening music as well. In 1965, the station was sold to a Christian local group called Maranatha Broadcasting. At that point, WFMZ flipped to a religious/easy listening format. For many hours daily, the station sold blocks of time to churches. The rest of the day was filled with only instrumental easy listening music known as beautiful music. The station initially played no vocalists.

In the 1970s, WFMZ began cutting back the religious programming to very early mornings and middays and late evenings, replacing it with more easy listening music. By the mid-1970s, the station added some soft vocals by standard and adult contemporary artists; they began playing one or two per hour. In 1976, Maranatha signed on a television station on channel 69, WFMZ-TV. (A previous owner of the radio station operated an earlier WFMZ-TV on channel 67 in the 1950s.) The television station ran mostly religious shows along with about six hours a day of classic sitcoms and drama shows.

In the 1980s, WFMZ continued with the beautiful music format cutting the religious shows down to a couple hours a day at most. A boost in the ratings occurred when WQQQ dropped easy listening for Top 40 in 1983. WFMZ began gradually mixing in more vocalists and began playing about four an hour by 1987. By 1990, they were about half vocal and half instrumental. In 1991, the station overhauled the format and dropped most of the standards artists and focused on soft hits from popular AC and CHR artists. The station was now mostly vocal with an instrumental each hour. By 1994, WFMZ evolved completely into a soft adult contemporary format.

Maranatha put WFMZ radio up for sale in 1996. Citadel Broadcasting, owner of WLEV (96.1 FM), bought the station late that year. The rumor was they would flip WFMZ to country. Upon closing though, both stations retained their AC formats with WFMZ being softer.

In the summer of 1997, it was determined that Allentown only needed one adult contemporary station. A country station was also needed. So, in July 1997, 96.1 WLEV became a country music station. The call letters were changed to WCTO and they became "Cat Country 96". Half of the WLEV airstaff remained on 96.1 and many new airstaffers were hired to carry out the country format.

100.7 FM had only a couple of air staffers and was mostly automated. The staffers who did not stay on WCTO moved to fill daytime hours on 100.7. The WLEV call letters also moved to 100.7. The intellectual properties of WLEV and WFMZ were combined onto 100.7. The format overall became a straight adult contemporary format. The religious shows were taken off. Delilah's love songs show was added in the 7 p.m. to midnight time slot. Citadel's 1400 WEST was sold to Maranatha Broadcasting.

WLEV intellectual unit
WLEV began in 1947 as WEST-FM on 96.1. For decades the station simulcast WEST's middle of the road music format. In 1973, 96.1 became WLEV and began offering an automated soft rock/adult contemporary format that played the softer rock hits of the 1960s and 1970s along with current product. They were known as "Hit Parade Music" at one point. The station was owned by Sound Media and then by Telemedia Group.

Through the 1970s and into the 1980s, WLEV continued as a straight-ahead adult contemporary station with no dramatic changes. More personalities were added in the late 1980s. By the 1990s, the station bordered on being a hot AC, though the texture of the station remained consistent.

In 1995, the station was sold, along with WEST, to Citadel Broadcasting; the adult contemporary format on 96.1 continued until the consolidation with WFMZ and launch of WCTO's country music format in 1997.

WLEV competes today with WBEB and WODE-FM as adult listening radio stations. Citadel merged with Cumulus Media on September 16, 2011.

Signal note
WLEV is short-spaced to two other Class B stations operating on 100.7 MHz: WZBA 100.7 The Bay (licensed to serve Westminster, Maryland) and WZXL 100.7 ZXL (licensed to serve Wildwood, New Jersey). The distance between WLEV's transmitter and WZBA's transmitter is only , while the distance between WLEV's transmitter and WZXL's transmitter is only , as determined by FCC rules. The minimum distance between two Class B stations operating on the same channel according to current FCC rules is 150 miles.

HD programming and translators
W257DI (Loud 99.3) began broadcasting a Rhythmic CHR format in Reading on August 18, 2017, branding as "Reading's Hip Hop Station." However, on January 17, 2022, Loud 99.3 moved to 98.5 FM.

See also
Media in the Lehigh Valley

References

External links

1947 establishments in Pennsylvania
Cumulus Media radio stations
Mainstream adult contemporary radio stations in the United States
Radio stations established in 1947
LEV

WLEV


Cine-Allianz Tonfilm was a German film production company established in 1932 by Arnold Pressburger and Gregor Rabinovitch. The company specialised in co-productions targeted at international markets, and enjoyed immediate success during the final year of the Weimar Republic. During the Nazi era the company's Jewish owners came under increasing pressure from the government and their property was expropriated. They were forced into exile, while Cine-Allianz continued to produce films under the Nazi regime until its merger with UFA in 1942.

Rabinovitch went into exile in France where he set up a fresh production company also named Cine-Allianz which produced films such as I Was an Adventuress (1938) and Beating Heart (1940).

The 1951 West German film The Lost One was partly financed by money received as post-war compensation for the loss of Cine-Allianz.

Selected filmography
 My Cousin from Warsaw (1931)
 Tell Me Tonight (1932)
 A Song for You (1933)
 So Ended a Great Love (1934)
 Tomfoolery (1936)
 The Impossible Woman (1936)
 Marriage in Small Doses (1939)

References

Bibliography
 Gerd Gemünden. Continental Strangers: German Exile Cinema, 1933-1951. Columbia University Press, 2014.

Film production companies of Germany
Entertainment companies established in 1932
1932 establishments in Germany

Cine-Allianz


Fort Siallum, is a defensive fort in Chin State, Myanmar, built during the British annexation of Chin Hills, Myanmar. The fort was built by the Chin (Sizang) in the year of 1889 and located near Voklak village in Tedim Township, Myanmar.

On 4 May 1889, The Chin (Sizang tribe) warriors and the British's Chin Field Force fought fiercely at this Siallum Fort. A medical officer, Surgeon Captain Ferdinand Le Quesne of the Chin Field Force was awarded the Victoria Cross for his gallantry displayed in the battle.

Background

When the British Empire annexed Burma in 1885, Chin Hills did not fall automatically under the British colonial rule. Chin Hills at that time was independent nations and King Thibaw Min did not have the authority over Chin Hills. After the fall of Mandalay, the British then advanced to the Burma's western borders and annexed Kalay valley in 1886. From 1887, the British administration in Upper Burma started communication with the Chin tribal leaders. The British political officer, Captain F.D. Raikes and the Chin tribal leaders held several meetings. The main discussion was about establishing a trade route to link British territories i.e. Myanmar and eastern India through the Chin Hills. The Tashons Chief Pu Con Bik refused to agree to establishing a trade route. Further negotiations failed and the Chin warriors made several raids to Kalay/Kabaw Valley. At the same time, the Tashons who were the most influential and powerful tribe in the northern Chin Hills at that time harbored Prince Shwegyophyu (son of Kanaung Mintha) who was wanted by the British police for killing two British officers, namely Major J.J. Kennedy (Second Infantry Regiment of the Hyderabad Contingent) and Captain H.E. Walter Belville (Assistant Commissioner of Upper Burma) during the Chinbyit Battle.

The British administration in Burma then sent an ultimatum to the Sizang chief to deliver Khai Kam together with the captives whom he carried off. An ultimatum was also sent to the Fahlam Council to deliver the Prince Shwegyophyu and his followers. When the ultimatums were ignored by the Chin, the British force then launched an expedition known as The Chin Lushai Expedition (1888-1889). The British spent the month of November in 1888 preparing for the expedition. Brigadier-General Faunce arrived in Kanpale with a 1200 strong force and Captain Raikes, and proceeded to establish defensive positions along the valley. A levy of Military Police (later 2nd Battalion of Burma Rifle) guarded the Yaw valley against the depredations of the Southern Chins. Capt. Raikes and his assistant Mr. Hall collected intelligence about the Chin, their villages and the routes into the hills. Hills coolies were collected in Assam and sent for the expeditions. The forces for expedition were gathered at Kanpale (Stockade No.1) and Gurkha 42nd Battalion was added to the expedition.

The strategy was to first march against the northern Chin Hills of Sizang (Siyin) valley. There was no road to the hills at that time, therefore, a mule track had to be constructed by the British expeditionary force. By the beginning of December 1888, the mule track was completed, and led until the foot of the hill, where there they established No.2 Stockade i.e. Zawlkin (now Khai Kam Town). The road construction continued towards the hills and reached Phatzang where a rough No.3 stockade was established.

On hearing the news of the British advance, the Sizang (Siyin) council then sent Khai Kam of Khuasak to Tedim to meet Khaw Cin (the chief of Kamhau). The next day a Chin force consisting of 1630 [1,200 (Siyin/Sizang), 400 (Kamhau) and 30 (Sukte) prepared to defend their motherland. The Tashon also gathered warriors from her powerful neighboring tribes. On 7 December 1888, the Sizang started their offensive by attacking the road constructors. On 24 December, the Sizang again attacked the road working party and killed a sepoy. On Christmas day, the combined forces of Sizang/Siyin, Kamhau an Sukte attacked the working party under command of Lt. Butcher of 42 Gurkha Bn. The Sizang/Siyin were in constant co-ordination with the Tashons. On 10 December 1888, the great force of Tashon made a simultaneous attack on the villages of Sihaung, Kyawywa and Kundu. At the same time, 80 Tashons warriors clashed head to head with 42nd Gurkha Light infantry led by Capt. Westmoreland. On the same day, the Sizang/Siyin attacked Indin and a combined force of Sukte and Kamhau attacked the military post at Kangyi (20miles north of Kalemyo). The Chins showed their planning abilities and military capabilities in this simultaneous attack to the various British positions.

The British officers were impressed by the Chin capabilities as "the Chins were in great force, and we now know that Tashons and Siyins (Sizang) were fighting side by side on this occasion. The Chins swooped down from the heights on to the party, which was working on a narrow spur, and attacked them from all four sides, fighting under cover of heavy undergrowth. The collies bolted and the troops fell back after holding their ground some little time. Whilst disputing every stage of our advance into their hills, the Chins showed considerable tactical ability by taking the offensive in the plains and attacking Shan villages and our posts in the rear of advancing column".

Chin – Lushai Expedition (1888 - 1889)
Since the Chin showed their military prowess by inflicting some losses on the invading forces, the British Army took the Chin seriously. General Sir George White Commander-in-Chief of Burma, personally went to supervise the expedition. He arrived in Kanpale (near Kalaymyo) on 30 December 1888 and joined the expedition force. The Chin warriors built a stockade at Leisan Mual (Red Rocky Gate) and stood firm. On 27 January 1889, the Chin warriors attacked the road workers and the British sent their troops to engage the Chin warriors. The Chin warriors gave strong resistance but the superior British fire power forced the Chin warriors to retreat. The Chin warriors then stood firm at Leisen Mual stockade which was the last line of defence. The British couldn't take the stockade initially, so reinforcements were ordered and the British charged the stockade again and the stockade fell. As the last line of defence was breached by the superior British force, the door to the Sizang/Siyin valley was wide open. The British forces marched to Leisang range, from where they could see the villages within Sizang valley. General Sir. George White described his experience of the battles with the Chin as "Enemy yesterday attacked our working 1 party on road above this and held our covering party, 40 British and loo Gurkhas, from 9 till 3, when I arrived and ordered their positions to be charged. We carried all, driving them entirely away, getting off ourselves wonderfully cheaply. Only one Norfolk dangerously wounded. Enemy in considerable numbers, using many rifles and plenty ammunition. They fired at least 1,000  rounds, standing resolutely until actually charged, even trying to outflank us. Their loss probably about eight or ten, but they were carried down the khuds at once. Most difficult enemy to see or hit 1 ever fought".

The battle at Leisen Mual was a serious blow to the Chin and they realized that it was impossible to save their villages. The leader Pu Khai Kam then burned his capital Khuasak before the arrival of the British, then moved to the jungle to start Guerrilla warfare. At the same time, the Chin warriors of the Sizang/Siyin, Kamhau, Sukte and Khuano were assembling at Buanman. The British saw the assembly and they fired their artillery at Buanman. The cannon balls exploded spectacularly, leading the Chin to realise that they fought a far superior force and they lost the heart to resist. By February 1889, the British captured Khuasak, Buanman and Thuklai. A military post Fort White was established in honour of General George White. The British expedition force then burned the whole of Sizang/Siyin villages as Carey & Tuck wrote in the Chin Hills: by 6 March 1889, not a single Sizang village remained in existence. The destruction of Sizang/Siyin villages was accomplished with a good deal of firing, but very little damage to life and limb.

Although the Chin people were beaten by a far superior force and driven out of their villages, they showed no sign of surrender and attacked British posts whenever they had an opportunity.  They ambushed British posts, cut telegraph cables and stole cattle from the British whenever possible. The Sizang resisted the British from the forest for two years.

The Battle of Siallum

The Sizang (Siyin) warriors learned that they were not able to defeat British forces when fighting in the open, or from behind stockades. As they could not withstand the charges of British and Gurkha troops the Sizang warrior tried a different tactic which involved fighting from covered-in trenches. The Sizang warriors built a fort which was basically trenches which were all covered-in by leaves and wood. This fort was built at Siallum. In 1890, Siallum was a settlement of about 30 houses in which about 100 persons of the Buanman clan lived. "Sial" means the head (the toughest part) of a mithun and "Lum" means Fort. The Siallum fort consists of "Kulhpi", "Kulh Peang" and "Nupi Kulh". "Khulhpi" is the main fort where the Sizang warriors took position and fire upon the arrive of the British's Chin Field Force. "Kulhpeang" was built for the spirit agent (or) medium Pu En Khawm and family. "Nupi Kulh" was built for elders, children and women. At the time of the fighting, about 80 women and children were hiding in this Nupi Kulh. The Sizang also built a watch tower known as "Ngalvildum" at a place called Nalum Mual.

The British forces stationed at Fort White started noticing some new huts at the site of Taitan. The British called it Taitan village but it was known by the Sizang/Siyin as Siallum. To destroy this, Brigadier General Faunce assembled a column consisting of 65 rifles of the 2nd Battalion Norfolk Regiment and 60 rifles of the 42nd Gurkha Light Infantry. This column is also known as the Chin Field Force and was led by Captain C. H. Westmoreland of the 42nd Gurkha Light Infantry. The column marched from Fort White – Buanman – Mualsan – Ngumpi – Nalum - Taikhe then began the approach to Siallum (Taitan) village. The approach of the column was first noticed by the Sizang/Siyin dogs (fox-terrier). Pu Zong On who was on duty at the watch tower at Nalum Mual also spotted the British column. He then ran to the village and informed the villagers. The whole village was then evacuated to the fort. The non-combatant families, women, children and elders were then to hide in the fort. The Sizang warriors also took up positions and were readied for the battle. When the British column arrived at Siallum (Taitan) village, the village was empty and quiet. The following is an account of the battle given by Captain Westmoreland of the 42nd Gurkha Light Infantry Battalion:

"The column, consisting of 65 rifles of the 2nd Battalion Norfolk Regiment and 60 rifles of the 42nd Gurkha Light Infantry, occupied the heights above New Tartan [Siallum] without opposition. The main body advanced with the intention of rushing the village, but encountered determined resistance from the Chins, who were strongly posted in two stockades. The upper stockade consisted of a log-hut, the sides and roof of which were bullet-proof. It was connected with a ravine to the east by a trench about 3 feet wide, 5 feet deep, and 20 yards long. The trench was covered with logs and planks flush with the ground. The hut itself was surrounded at a distance of 5 or 6 yards with rows of sharp-pointed stakes about 3 feet high. The second stockade was in the bed of the ravine. It consisted of a hole about 6 or 9 feet square, from which a trench ran down the ravine. Both trench and hole were covered with logs and planks and were bullet-proof. In both stockades there were a few spaces between the logs through which the Chins fired, and the only way in which they could be carried was by pulling away some of the timber. At the lower stockade, early in the action, Second-Lieutenant Michel fell mortally wounded. The troops at first endeavored to turn out the defenders of the upper stockade by firing through the openings between the logs. Before long the covered trench was noticed and pulled open and the Chins in it were shot. After accomplishing this under fire from the Chins in the lower stockade and in the neighbouring jungle, the column retired, burning the village as it went. The Chins, who had suffered heavily, did not follow, being deterred by the loss which they had sustained and kept in check by a small covering party on the heights. In this action our loss was one officer killed and two (Captain Mayne and Surgeon Ferdinand Le Quesne) severely wounded and three men killed and eight wounded. Ferdinand Le Quesne received the Victoria Cross for conspicuous coolness and gallantry displayed whilst dressing Lieutenant Michel's wound".

Captain Westmoreland also reported the details of the battle to Gen. Faunce who in turn reported to the Chief Secretary to the Chief Commissioner of Burma. Gen. Faunce's telegram reads as follows: Begins: 323 C.F., Fort White, May 5th 1889. A new Siyin village near site of Tartan [Siallum], south-east of this, having been seen from Sagyilain by party referred to in my 320C.F., I sent 65 Rifles, Norfolk, 60 Rifles, 42nd, under Major Shepherd, Norfolk, yesterday to destroy new Tartan [Siallum] which consisted of 15 houses. No opposition till after troops entered village, at bottom of which two very strong stockades, flanking each other and connected by covered way with plank-roof. Siyin Chins held their fire till troops were within 50 yards. They stood their ground and fought with great pluck, eight being killed with the bayonet. In the first stockade their loss was 30 killed and many wounded. I regret our loss was heavy

The secretary of the Chief Commissioner then replied "YOUR No. 1283. Chief Commissioner (Sir Charles Crosthwaite, K.C.S.I.) will be glad to know whether it is to be understood that the attack was successful and that both stockades were taken and the village destroyed".

Political officer Major F.D. Raikes then replied to the Chief Secretary to the Chief Commissioner, Burma on 15 May 1889 "New village of Taitan [Siallum] was destroyed, but one stockade was not taken as Officer Commanding Force considered if there were further casualty's column could not return to Fort White that night and no arrangements made for camping out".

The Chin Field Force did not destroy the fort nor defeat the Chin warriors. The Chin warriors did not give up fighting, despite the heavy losses. As the British column had also sustained casualties, Capt. Westmoreland decided to retreat back to Fort White. The Chin warriors did not chase them down as they had also suffered heavy casualties. At the time of the British retreat, at least 40 Chin warriors were still shooting at the retreating column. Capt. Westmoreland then razed the newly built village, Siallum, to ashes on his way back to Fort White. Immediately after the battle of Siallum, Brigadier General Faunce was replaced by General Symons on 9 May 1889.

After the battle on 4 May, the Chin warriors repaired Siallum fort and made ready for another round of assault. Gen. Symons then led a column to the fort on 10 May 1889 and defeated the Chin. The Siallum fort was completely destroyed and burnt. The details of Gen. Symons operation was reported as follows: "Following from General Officer Commanding Chin Field Force. Begins: May 10th. Party 150 Rifles, Norfolk, and 42nd Gurkhas, under Brigadier-General Symons visited TAITAN, scene of fight on 4th May, yesterday. Were unopposed though signal shots were fired. Found many graves and several bodies were buried in enemy's trenches. Siyin Chins repaired stockade which was all completely destroyed and burnt".

Casualties

Casualties for the British force were four killed (one officer and three enlisted men) and ten wounded (two officers and eight enlisted men). The casualties for the Chin were 28 killed. Buanman Chief Pu Lian Kam was also killed in this battle. The casualties are as follows:

1.	Pu Lian Kam (Buanman Chief)
2.	Pu Vum Mang
3.	Pu Tuang Vungh
4.	Pu Pau Suang
5.	Pu Zong On
6.	Pu Siam Pau
7.	Pu Khup Vum
8.	Pu Khai Suak
9.	Pu Lam Khup
10.	Pu Zong Thuam
11.	Pu Za Vum
12.	Pu Thang Hau
13.	Pu Lu Kam
14.	Pu Son Suang
15.	Pu En Kham
16.	Pu Pau Lam
17.	Hang Sing
18.	Pu Tuang Mang
19.	Pi Lian Vung
20.	Pi Kuai Hung
21.	Pi Vung Neam
22.	Pi Uap Huai
23.	Pi Huai Nuam
24.	Pi Lam Ciang
25.	Pi Uap Niang
26.	Pi Niang Ciang
27.	Pi Dim Ngiak
28.	Pi Hoi Nuam

Honour

Pu Pau Thual who was at the battle defending Siallum fort composed the following poem:

Bodies of relatives and enemy
Were heaped like logs on one another
Bodies of relatives served as my fort
And called the heroic names of my clansmen as I killed the enemy

The following poem was composed by the late Rev. T. Hau Go Sukte in honour of the heroines and heroes of the Battle of Siallum. This poem is still in displayed at the site of the fort.

SIALLUM FORTRESS

Mark ye well this honoured spot,
Stained with blood of heroes slain;
They to keep our ancient lot,
Fought a horde from Great Britain.
Mark ye, too th'historic date,
Eighteen eighty nine May fourth;
They their precious blood poured forth;
When for us who born of late,
They their precious blood poured forth;
Sowed the seed of liberty.

References

Resistance movements
British rule in Burma

Siallum Fort


The Freemasons Hotel is a heritage-listed hotel in Bridgetown, Western Australia. It is located at 2 Steere Street, at the corner of Hampton Street (South Western Highway).

History
The first Freemasons Hotel in Bridgetown was originally known as the Warner Hotel, located at the corner of Hampton Street and Phillips Street. A provisional hotel licence for the site was granted to Frederick Stanforth Warner in 1898. It was likely partially built by 1899, when it was listed for sale. The hotel opened in July 1900, with Warner as the proprietor. In November 1901 the Governor Sir Arthur Lawley, visiting for the Nelson Agricultural Show, renamed it the Freemasons Hotel. The hotel was taken over by P. Diprose , followed shortly by Robert Arthur John Crawford in 1902. By 1903 Bunning Bros owned the hotel.

The hotel had low patronage due to its distance from the town centre, and the recently constructed Bridgetown railway station. Robert Bunning  purchased a lot of land at the corner of Hampton Street and Steere Street, in the centre of Bridgetown opposite the Mechanics' Institute.

In 1902, Diprose wanted to transfer the hotel licence to a proposed new building at Hampton Street and Steere Street, but the licence transfer was denied. Plans for the new hotel were available by May 1903, but a licence for the site was also denied in June 1903.

By March 1904 the new hotel was under construction by Bunning Bros. The Freemason Hotel's licence was transferred to the new building in 1904, with the old building left vacant. An opening dinner was held at the new Freemasons Hotel on 4 November, and on 14 March 1905 the hotel was let to Elizabeth Hurst for a ten-year term. Further construction works were completed by late 1906, adding two shop fronts on Steere Street with extra accommodation above them.

In 1939 the hotel was extended down Hampton Street, and renovated throughout. In 1992, there were internal alterations made. Plans by L. M. Whitney show removal and reconfiguration of brick wall, including the removal of a fireplace, as well as upgrade to the kitchen, preparation room, and toilet facilities. Further changes were proposed in 2002 in plans by architect D. Singe, to create a liquor store in the hotel, and to add an alfresco dining area to the existing bar. The hotel closed in January 2004, in preparation for the proposed renovations.

In 2013, a $86,136 grant from the State Heritage Commission was awarded, covering half of the cost of replacing the roof. A section of the verandah's support, balcony timbers, and balustrading were damaged in January 2017 by a truck crash, and were replaced later that year.

References

External links

Hotels in Western Australia
State Register of Heritage Places in the Shire of Bridgetown-Greenbushes
Bridgetown, Western Australia

Freemasons Hotel, Bridgetown