In the United States, a district attorney (DA), county attorney, county prosecutor, state's attorney, prosecuting attorney, commonwealth's attorney, state attorney or solicitor is the chief prosecutor and/or chief law enforcement officer representing a U.S. state in a local government area, typically a county or a group of counties. The exact and scope of the office varies by state.  Generally, the prosecutor represents the people of the jurisdiction. With the exception of three states (New Jersey, Connecticut, and Alaska, as well as the District of Columbia), district attorneys are elected, unlike similar roles in other common law jurisdictions.

The prosecution is the legal party responsible for presenting the case against an individual suspected of breaking the law, initiating and directing further criminal investigations, guiding and recommending the sentencing of offenders, and are the only attorneys allowed to participate in grand jury proceedings. The prosecutors decide what criminal charges to bring, and when and where a person will answer to those charges. In carrying out their duties, prosecutors have the authority to investigate persons, grant immunity to witnesses and accused criminals, and plea bargain with defendants.

A district attorney (or state attorney) leads a staff of prosecutors, who are most commonly known as assistant district attorneys (ADAs) or deputy district attorneys (DDAs) in states which have state attorneys the staff attorneys are usually referred to as Assistant State Attorneys (ASAs). Most prosecutions will be delegated to ADAs, with the district attorney prosecuting the most important cases and having overall responsibility for their agency and its work. Depending upon the state's law, DAs may be appointed by the chief executive of the jurisdiction or elected by local voters.  Most criminal matters in the United States are handled in state judicial systems, but a comparable office for the United States Federal government is the United States Attorney.

History
This term for a prosecutor originates with the traditional use of the term "district" for multi-county prosecutorial jurisdictions in several U.S. states. For example, New York appointed prosecutors to multi-county districts prior to 1813.  Even after those states broke up such districts and started appointing or electing prosecutors for individual counties, they continued to use the title "district attorney" for the most senior prosecutor in a county rather than switch to "county attorney".

Role
The principal duties of the district attorney are usually mandated by law and include representing the State in all criminal trials for crimes which occurred in the district attorney's geographical jurisdiction.  The geographical jurisdiction of a district attorney may be delineated by the boundaries of a county, judicial circuit, or judicial district.

Their duties generally include charging crimes through informations and/or grand jury indictments.  After levying criminal charges, the state's attorney will then prosecute those charged with a crime.  This includes conducting discovery, plea bargaining, and trial.

In some jurisdictions, the district attorney may act as chief counsel for city police, county police, state police and all state law enforcement agencies within the state's attorney's jurisdiction.

In some jurisdictions, the district attorney oversees the operations of local prosecutors with respect to violations of county ordinances. In other jurisdictions, the district attorney prosecutes traffic matters and/or misdemeanors.  In some states the district attorney prosecutes violations of state laws to the extent that the state permits local prosecution of these. District attorneys do not prosecute federal crimes, which are the jurisdiction of a United States Attorney.

Many district attorneys also bear responsibilities not related to criminal prosecution. These include defending the county against civil suits, occasionally initiating such suits on behalf of the county, preparing or reviewing contracts entered into by the county and providing legal advice and counsel to local government.  In some jurisdictions, the county attorney does not handle any criminal matters at all, but serves only as the legal counsel to the county.

For example, in Arizona, Missouri, Montana, and Minnesota a county attorney represents the county and state within their county, prosecutes all felonies occurring within the county, and prosecutes misdemeanors occurring within unincorporated areas of the county. Minnesota county attorneys also prosecute all juvenile cases, regardless of severity. In Ohio a county prosecutor represents the county and state within their county, prosecutes all crimes within the county, and is legal adviser to the board of county commissioners, board of elections, and all other county officers and boards. On the other hand, county attorneys in Kentucky and Virginia prosecute only certain misdemeanors and sometimes traffic matters and serve as legal counsel for their county, with felony prosecutions and prosecutions of offenses not handled by the county attorney being the responsibility of the commonwealth's attorney for the given county.

Departments
The district attorney usually divides their services into several departments that handle different areas of criminal law.  Each department is staffed by several duly appointed and sworn ASAs.  The departments of a large district attorney's office may include but are not limited to: felony, misdemeanor, domestic violence, traffic, juvenile, charging (or case filing), drug prosecution, forfeitures, civil affairs such as eminent domain, child advocacy, child support, victim assistance, appeals, career criminal prosecution, homicide, investigations, organized crime/gang, and administration.

Nomenclature
The name of the role of local prosecutor may vary by state or jurisdiction based on whether they serve a county or a multi-county district, the responsibility to represent the state or county in addition to prosecution, or local historical customs.

District attorney and assistant district attorney are the most common titles for state prosecutors, and are used by jurisdictions within the United States including California, Georgia, Massachusetts, Nevada, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Texas, and Wisconsin.

State's attorney or state attorney is used in Connecticut, Florida (state attorney), Illinois, Maryland, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Vermont.  In Maryland, the roles of Assistant and Deputy are reversed from those used in "District Attorney" jurisdictions, with Deputy State's Attorney being the primary subordinate to the elected State's Attorney and Assistant State's Attorneys (ASA) being the line-level prosecutors of the office.

In Virginia, the title is commonwealth's attorney. Kentucky splits the role between two officials—by statute, the commonwealth's attorney serves in the Circuit Court (the court of general jurisdiction), and the county attorney serves in the limited-jurisdiction District Court, although the two officials may enter into a written agreement to split their duties as they see fit. Commonwealth's attorneys are elected in their respective jurisdictions in both Virginia and Kentucky for terms of four years and six years, respectively. Kentucky's county attorneys are elected in their jurisdictions to four-year terms.

Solicitor, or more fully a circuit solicitor, is the term South Carolina uses to refers to its prosecutors.  One solicitor is elected for each of the state's 16 judicial circuits, consisting of two to five counties.  Appointed assistants to a circuit solicitor are assistant solicitors.

In St. Louis, Missouri, the title is circuit attorney, while in St. Louis County, Missouri, the title is prosecuting attorney.

Assistant district attorney

The assistant district attorney (assistant DA, ADA), or state prosecutor or assistant state's attorney, is a law enforcement official who represents the state government on behalf of the district attorney in investigating and prosecuting individuals alleged to have committed a crime. In carrying out their duties to enforce state and local laws, ADA have the authority to investigate persons, issue subpoenas, file formal criminal charges, plea bargain with defendants, and grant immunity to witnesses and accused criminals.

Administrative assistant district attorney (admin ADA), executive assistant district attorney (exec ADA), chief assistant district attorney (chief ADA), or first assistant district attorney (First ADA) are some of the titles given to the senior ADA leadership working under the DA. The chief ADA, Executive ADA, or first ADA, depending on the office, is generally considered the second-in-command, and usually reports directly to the DA. The exact roles and job assignments for each title vary with each individual office, but generally include management of the daily activities and supervision of specialized divisions within the office. Often, a senior ADA may oversee or prosecute some of the larger crimes within the jurisdiction. In some offices, the Exec ADA has the responsibility of hiring lawyers and support staff, as well as supervising press-releases and overseeing the work of the office.

The salary of an ADA will be lower than the elected DA. The non-monetary benefits of the job induce many to work as an ADA; these include the opportunity to amass trial experience, perform a public service, and network professionally. Upon leaving employment as an ADA, persons seek employment as a judge, in private law firms, or as U.S. Attorneys.

Appeals
Depending on state law, appeals are moved to appellate courts (also called appeals courts, courts of appeals, superior courts, or supreme courts in some states).  During the appeals process district attorneys, in many cases, hands all relative prosecutorial materials to a state appellate prosecutor who in turn will represent the state in appellate courts with the advice and consent of the district attorney.

District attorney investigators
Some district attorneys maintain their own law enforcement arm whose members are sworn peace officers.  Depending on the jurisdiction, they are referred to as district attorney investigators or county detectives.

Other countries
In England and Wales, the vast majority of criminal prosecutions are prosecuted by the Crown Prosecution Service. The CPS is headed by the Director of Public Prosecutions, who is appointed by the Attorney General for England and Wales. Within the CPS, 14 Chief Crown Prosecutors, answering to the DPP, head regional teams of Crown Prosecutors. With the exception of the AG and Solicitor General for England and Wales, no prosecutors are political officials in England and Wales and no prosecutor in England and Wales is a law enforcement official by virtue of their job.

In Canada, the equivalent position to a district attorney is a crown attorney, crown counsel or crown prosecutor depending on the province, and the equivalent to an assistant district attorney is the assistant crown attorney, assistant crown counsel or assistant crown prosecutor respectively.

See also

 Law and order (politics)
 Rule of law
 List of district attorneys by county

Notes

References

External links

 National District Attorneys Association website
 Prosecuting Attorneys, District Attorneys, Attorneys General & US Attorneys on the Web—indexes prosecutor web sites throughout the US and other countries

County officers in the United States

Lawyers by type
Prosecution
Law of the United States

District attorney


John Ford Coley (born October 13, 1948) is an American singer, classically trained pianist, guitarist, actor, and author most known for his partnership in the musical duo England Dan & John Ford Coley.

Early life
Coley was born John Edward Colley in Dallas, Texas, United States. He grew up listening to the Grand Ole Opry, early rock and roll, singing church hymns and was trained as a classical pianist. At 16, while at W. W. Samuell High School in Dallas, Coley, along with schoolmate Dan Seals, joined the group Theze Few, which later became Southwest F.O.B. and toured the Texas music scene where they had one hit, "The Smell of Incense", which in 1969 rose to number 43 on the charts. This band played on the bill with Led Zeppelin and other acts.

While in the band, Seals and Coley began their own acoustic act, Colley and Wayland. The act was renamed England Dan & John Ford Coley, and the duo was signed by A&M Records. In 1971, the two moved to Los Angeles where they opened for numerous bands. Their first break came in 1972 with the song "Simone". It became a number one hit in Japan and was popular in France. However, "Simone" did not fare as well in the United States, and the two were released from their contract with A&M after three albums.

Signing to Atlantic Records
Two years later, they acquired another record deal from Atlantic Records subsidiary Big Tree Records and released the song "I'd Really Love to See You Tonight". Overall they had four top-ten hits and two top-twenty hits. They were nominated for a Grammy Award, received triple-platinum and gold records and released eight albums; additionally, other recordings were released abroad.

The duo disbanded in 1980.

After the 1980s
Coley formed another group that released an album on A&M Records: Leslie, Kelly and John Ford Coley (featuring sisters Leslie and Kelly Bulkin). He acted in teen films in the 1980s, acquired a small ranch in the 1990s, and wrote songs for film and television. He returned to touring in 1996. Coley plays with groups and artists including Ambrosia and Terry Sylvester (formerly of The Hollies), Three Dog Night, Lou Gramm (of Foreigner), Christopher Cross, Poco, Stephen Bishop, Al Stewart, Edgar Winter and others.

In 1996, Coley made a trip south for Tin Pan South and began making trips to Nashville to be part of the music community. He moved his family and horses across country to Tennessee in 1999. While in Tennessee, Coley, once a Bahá'í, converted back to Christianity. Coley continues to perform internationally.

On August 11, 1997, a handyman in Long Island, New York was arrested for impersonating Coley.

Discography

Albums
Smell of Incense - Southwest F.O.B., 1969
England Dan and John Ford Coley - England Dan and John Ford Coley, 1971
Fables - England Dan and John Ford Coley, 1972
I Hear Music - England Dan and John Ford Coley, 1976
Nights Are Forever - England Dan and John Ford Coley, 1976
Dowdy Ferry Road - England Dan and John Ford Coley, 1977
Some Things Don't Come Easy - England Dan and John Ford Coley, 1978
Dr. Heckle and Mr. Jive - England Dan and John Ford Coley, 1979
Just Tell Me You Love Me - England Dan and John Ford Coley, 1980
Leslie, Kelly and John Ford Coley - Leslie, Kelly and John Ford Coley, 1980 (A&M Records)
The Best of England Dan and John Ford Coley - England Dan and John Ford Coley, 1980
Live from the Philippines - John Ford Coley, 2009
Eclectic - John Ford Coley, 2016
Long Way Home (Live in Israel & L.A. - John Ford Coley, 2020

References

External links

1948 births
American country guitarists
American country pianists
American male pianists
American folk guitarists
American male guitarists
American male singer-songwriters
American soft rock musicians
England Dan & John Ford Coley members
Former Bahá'ís
Converts to Christianity
American Christians
Guitarists from Texas
Singers from Dallas
Singer-songwriters from Texas
Living people
20th-century American guitarists
20th-century American pianists
20th-century American male singers
20th-century American singer-songwriters
Big Tree Records artists

John Ford Coley


Fernando de Jesús Canales Clariond (born July 21, 1946, in Monterrey) is a Mexican politician and businessman affiliated with the National Action Party . He succeeded his cousin, Benjamín Clariond as governor of Nuevo León in 1997. He also served as Secretary of Economy and as Secretary of Energy in the cabinet of Vicente Fox.

Fernando Canales is the son of Fernando Canales Salinas and Consuelo Clariond. Consuelo is the daughter of Jacques Antoine Clariond ("Santiago Antonio Clariond), founder of Industrias Monterrey, and his wife María Garza. IMSA is nowadays one of the leading business groups in Latin America.

During his youth he briefly considered the Catholic priesthood  but finally opted-in for a bachelor's degree in law from the Escuela Libre de Derecho. Later on he received an MBA from the Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education (ITESM) and specialized in industrial relations at the Institute of Social Studies of The Hague, in the Netherlands.

In the private sector Canales has served as chief executive officer and vice president of IMSA and as a member of the board in several companies in the United States, Colombia, Venezuela, Argentina, Chile and Mexico.

Politically, he is a member of the right-of-center National Action Party since 1978. He became its 1985 nominee for the Nuevo León governorship but lost against Jorge Treviño of the Revolutionary Institutional Party (PRI). Twelve years later he reattempted it and won, becoming the first governor of the PAN in the history of the state.

As a governor, Canales delivered mixed results. He left the post after being invited to the federal cabinet by President Vicente Fox and was appointed Secretary of Economy on January 15, 2003. His former treasurer, Fernando Elizondo, assumed as interim but Elizondo lost the governorship in the July 2003 elections against Natividad González Parás, Canales' leading opponent six years earlier.

See also
 1997 Nuevo León state election

References

External links

1946 births
Living people
Governors of Nuevo León
Members of the Chamber of Deputies (Mexico)
National Action Party (Mexico) politicians
Mexican chief executives
Politicians from Monterrey
Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education alumni
Mexican people of French descent
20th-century Mexican politicians
21st-century Mexican politicians
Escuela Libre de Derecho alumni

Fernando Canales Clariond


Karl Gerstner (2 July 1930 – 1 January 2017) was a Swiss designer, typographer, author, and artist.

Career
Gerstner attended Allgemeine Gewerbeschule Basel.

From 1944 to 1948, Gerstner apprenticed as a typographer for artist Fritz Bühler's studio, alongside graphic designer Armin Hofmann, in Basel, Switzerland.

His supervisor at Bühler's studio, Max Schmid, later went on to work at the Geigy chemical company. In 1949, Gerstner began freelancing for Geigy after Schmid recruited him.

In 1958, he and Markus Kutter formed Gerstner+Kutter advertising agency in Basel. In 1962, they partnered with Paul Gredinger, and Gerstner+Kutter became GGK (Gerstner, Gredinger + Kutter), a leading Swiss advertising agency.

In 2006 Gerstner donated his entire archive to the Swiss National Library in Bern, and the Karl Gerstner Archive sets out to document his design process from the earliest drafts to the final product.

Gerstner died in Basel University Hospital on 1 January 2017.

Exhibitions
designing programs/programming designs by Karl Gerstner was a solo exhibition on view from February 5 to March 30 1973 at the Museum of Modern Art, New York directed by Emilio Ambasz. The exhibition was based on Gerstner's book Designing Programms.

Typefaces

Gerstner Programm was designed by Karl Gerstner between 1964-67 and first published in Berthold's Diatype filmsetting format. 16 versions of the programme were generated, 8 regular and 8 italic, using the Sinar camera under the expert direction of GGK staff member Werner Richli. Templates were executed by Christian Mengelt. It was successful in the U.S., where it was issued by Aaron Burns, but soon perished with the Diatype system.

A digital restoration by Stephan Müller of Gerstner Programm has been released in 2017.

Bibliography

References

External links
Obituary on form.de
Karl Gerstner Archive
Karl Gerstner Site focused on his graphic design work. Includes articles, bibliography and gallery.

1930 births
2017 deaths
Swiss typographers and type designers
Swiss designers
Swiss contemporary artists

Karl Gerstner


Operation Astute was an Australian-led military deployment to East Timor to quell unrest and return stability in the 2006 East Timor crisis. It was headed by Brigadier Bill Sowry, and commenced on 25 May 2006 under the command of Brigadier Michael Slater. The operation was established at the request of East Timor's government, and continued under an understanding reached between Australia, East Timor, and the United Nations, with the United Nations Integrated Mission in East Timor supporting and helping to develop East Timor's police force. Other countries deploying soldiers to East Timor include Malaysia, New Zealand and East Timor's former colonial power Portugal, operating under independent command.

Initial tasks
The initial tasks of the operation were to:
Allow for the evacuation of foreigners.
Restore stability and confine conflict to secured areas.
Assess and locate the weapons possessed by conflicting groups.
Establish a safe environment for dialogue to resolve the crisis.

Deployment

A forward deployment of approximately 200, including a commando company from the 4th Battalion of the Royal Australian Regiment & C Coy, 2nd Battalion of the Royal Australian Regiment, secured an entry point for follow-on forces centred on Dili Airport. The full deployment consisted of a battalion group of about 1,800 personnel drawn from the 2nd Battalion of the Royal Australian Regiment & 3rd Battalion of the Royal Australian Regiment and other Australian and New Zealand Army units. Evacuations were carried out by C-130 Hercules aircraft from the Royal Australian Air Force, using RAAF Base Darwin as a Forward Operating Base.

Initial assets deployed included the guided-missile frigate HMAS Adelaide, the replenishment vessel HMAS Success and the amphibious landing/hospital ship HMAS Kanimbla. Landing ships HMAS Tobruk and HMAS Manoora were also sent to East Timor with follow-on forces.Operation Astute was established at the request of East Timor's government. Troops from former INTERFET nations including mostly from Malaysia, New Zealand and Portugal have augmented the Australian force. Prior to sending troops, each participating government negotiated a Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA) with the government of East Timor.

Besides Australia, New Zealand and, for a time, the Malaysian Army forces began arriving on 26 May by air and Portugal had also sent troops to East Timor. Initially, over 3,000 soldiers were deployed, but after the United Nations sent an international police mission (UNMIT) at the end of August 2006 and the situation calmed down, troop numbers were reduced. The ISF and UNMIT now jointly maintained law and order and helped rebuild the East Timorese security forces. An important task of both was also to ensure that the presidential and parliamentary elections in 2007 proceeded reasonably peacefully. Australia, however, insisted that the ISF remain under its leadership and not under UN leadership.

The ISF's attempt to capture the fugitive leader of the 2006 rebel soldiers, Alfredo Reinado, was unsuccessful. An attempted seizure in Same failed despite the deployment of an Australian special force and helicopters. Reinado was later killed in an assassination attempt on the East Timorese leadership on 11 February 2008.

In February 2008, following the attack, Australia initially increased its troops from 800 to 1000. By the end of October 2008, the ISF still consisted of a total of about 1000 men. Australia provided soldiers from the ANZAC Battle Group of the 1st Battalion of the Royal Australian Regiment from Townsville. In addition, there were units from the Army Aviation, Logistics, Military Police and Pioneers. In October 2009, the Australian contingent was down to 650 men. New Zealand still provided 155 soldiers in December 2009. These included an Infantry Rifle Company attached to the ANZAC Battle Group and two Iroquois helicopters with 32 members of No 3 Squadron of the Royal New Zealand Air Force.

In 2010, the force was reduced to 400 Australian and 75 New Zealand soldiers. The rebel movement subsequently collapsed in the following weeks. Troops were gradually reduced due to the progress made in stabilising the country, and it was decided to withdraw foreign security forces after the 2012 presidential and parliamentary elections.

Timeline

May 2006
24 May
 21:59 (Canberra) Acting Prime Minister of Australia, Peter Costello, announced in a press conference that East Timor had requested Australia "send defence forces to East Timor to help in maintaining and re-establishing public order".  Australia would send an advance party including the Vice Chief of Defence force to negotiate conditions of the deployment the following morning.

25 May
 07:00 (Canberra) Prime Minister of Australia John Howard arrives back in Canberra from Dublin early, though not officially because of the East Timor crisis.
 12:30 (Darwin) A RAAF 34SQN Challenger 604 (VIP jet) was tasked to fly the Australian Vice Chief of Defence Force from Canberra to Dili via Darwin, to negotiate the rules of engagement of the Australian operation, and other conditions of deployment.  However, on arrival in Darwin the Chief of the Defence Force ordered the aircraft to remain in Darwin, due to a dramatic increase in violence in Dili.
 (Dili) RAAF 37SQN C130J Hercules aircraft arrive at Dili from Darwin with 130 commandos on board, together with 4 Australian Army Black Hawk helicopters.  The Vice Chief of Defence Force was also on board the C130, after being unable to fly to Dili on the RAAF VIP jet.   Dili Airport is now under Australian military control.  However the VCDF is unable to leave the airport due to security concerns.
 (Dili) HMAS Adelaide arrives in Dili Harbour.
 18:43 (Canberra) Prime Minister John Howard announces in a press conference that the deployment will "go ahead without any conditionality" and that 1300 troops would be in place "in a very short order", despite a failure to negotiate conditions of the deployment with the East Timorese Government.  He explains waiting for signatures could lead to significant further bloodshed and the East Timorese Government is desperate for Australian troops to arrive.
 (Darwin) The Royal Australian Air Force commence transporting troops to Dili. A 33SQN Boeing 707 ferries troops between Townsville and Darwin, whilst 36SQN C-130Hs and 37SQN C-130Js transport troops and supplies between Darwin and Dili.  The flights also commence evacuations of civilians on the return legs.  The flights continue throughout the night and the following day to form an air bridge between Darwin and Dili.

26 May
 (Dili) Malaysian Army soldiers begin arrive in Dili.  RAAF aircraft continue to transport troops and equipment.
 United States Fleet Antiterrorism Security Team platoon arrives in Dili to protect the US Embassy.

27 May
 13:30 (Darwin) A Royal New Zealand Air Force C-130H arrives in Darwin from Townsville, ready to deploy New Zealand soldiers to East Timor.

29 May

 The initial deployment of Australian soldiers is completed.
 A platoon of 42 New Zealand soldiers arrives in Dili to secure the New Zealand embassy.

31 May

 Delta Company, 2/1 Battalion, Royal New Zealand Infantry Regiment of 123 New Zealand soldiers arrives in Dili.

June 2006
 2 June
 8 New Zealand military police arrive in Dili.

 3 June
 USAF C-17 Globemaster III aircraft complete their task of ferrying Australian troops and equipment between Townsville and Darwin.

 7 June
 Australian Defence Minister Brendan Nelson and New Zealand Defence Minister Phil Goff and Defence Secretary Graham Fortune visit Dili.

 16 June
 Rebel Timorese soldiers begin handing their weapons over to Australian troops.

 27 June

 It is announced that a New Zealand soldier fired a warning shot during the week of 18–24 June. This is apparently the first shot fired during the intervention.

July 2006
 1 July
 50 soldiers from 2/1 RNZIR and other units fly to Timor Leste to replace members of the initial New Zealand force.

 18 July
 Australian Prime Minister John Howard visits Timor Leste. During his visit he announced that the Australian force in the country will be gradually reduced.

 19 July
 HMAS Kanimbla departs Timor Leste for Australia carrying 250 soldiers and four S-70A Blackhawk helicopters.

August 2006
 3 August
 The Australian Government announces that the ADF has commenced a gradual drawdown of forces in Timor Leste due to the improving security situation. An infantry company, 23 armoured personnel carriers and support personnel are scheduled to depart Timor Leste over the next few weeks.

 7 August
 A Company, 1st Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment returns to Townsville after 71 days in Timor Leste as part of Battle Group Faithful.

 14 August
 G Company, 4th Field Regiment, Royal Australian Artillery returns to Townsville after being deployed since 26 May 2006.

 27 August
 D Company, 2nd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment returns to Townsville after being deployed to Timor Leste. Further soldiers from the 3rd Combat Signal Regiment are scheduled to return later in the week.

 28 August
 It is announced that 44 New Zealand military personnel will return home from Timor Leste on 31 August.

September 2006
 7 September
 It is announced that a rifle company from 1 RAR will be deployed to Timor Leste by 9 September to reinforce the Australian-led force following Alfredo Reinado's escape from prison on 30 August.

 19 September
 The final elements of the Australian Army Battle Group Faithful return to Australia having been replaced by the ANZAC Battle Group led by the 6th Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment.

October 2006
 26 October
 Brigadier Mal Rerden takes command of Joint Task Force 631, replacing Brigadier Mick Slater.

December 2006
 17 December
 Protests against UN troops intensify after they are accused of being responsible for the killing of a rebel gang member during factional clashes.

January 2007
26 January
 Australia, East Timor, and the United Nations sign a memorandum of understanding under which Operation Astute continues and the United Nations Integrated Mission in East Timor supports and helps to develop East Timor's police force.

March 2007
 4 March
 After cornering Reinado at a compound in Same, Australian Special Forces enter the town and conduct an assault. Reinado evades capture but five of his men are killed in the Battle of Same. The Timor Leste government subsequently called off the manhunt, preferring to pursue a dialogue with the rebels instead.

May 2007
9 May
 Australian forces successfully supervise round two elections, with no reports of violence.

10 May
 An unmanned Australian spy plane on operations over East Timor crashes into a house in the densely populated eastern suburb of Becora in Dili. Military helicopters were quickly sent to locate the wreckage, and an investigation was scheduled to begin the next day into whether the crash was due to technical failure or operator error.

August 2007
2 August
Brigadier John Hutcheson takes over command from Brigadier Mal Rerden.

January 2008
31 January

Brigadier James Baker takes over command from Brigadier John Hutcheson.

July 2008

31 July
Brigadier Mark Holmes takes over command.

January 2009
16 January
Brigadier Bill Sowry takes over command from Brigadier Mark Holmes.

Military units involved
Operation Astute is an Australian military operation. While the Malaysian and New Zealand contingents operate under overall Australian command, the Portuguese contingent operates under Portuguese national command. The initial Australian units deployed as part of the operation fell under the operational command of Brigadier Michael Slater, the commander of the Australian 3rd Brigade. The major unit involved in land operations was the 3rd Battalion under its commanding officer, Lieutenant Colonel Mick Mumford. This force was replaced in early September 2006 by a battalion group based around the 6th Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment designated the ANZAC Battle Group.

Australia

Australian Army

Australia currently has approximately 404 personnel deployed to Timor-Leste, the majority of whom are formed into the ANZAC Battle Group, named due to the presence of a rifle company from the New Zealand Army integrated in its structure.
 Headquarters Joint Task Force 631
 Elements, 1st Military Police Battalion
 ANZAC Battle Group: This battle group includes elements of other units:
 Headquarters, 1st Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment
 B Company, 1st Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment
 C Company, 1st Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment
 Victor Company, 1st Battalion, Royal New Zealand Infantry Regiment
 Battery, 16th Air Defence Regiment (operating as infantry)
 Elements, 4th Field Regiment, Royal Australian Artillery
 Elements, 17 Construction Squadron, Royal Australian Engineers
 Elements, B Squadron, 3rd/4th Cavalry Regiment
 Elements, B Squadron, 5th Aviation Regiment
 Troop, 1st Aviation Regiment

The initial Australian Army force consisted of:
 Headquarters elements, 3rd Brigade
 3rd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (3 RAR) battle group ('Battle Group Faithful'). This battle group included the following elements of other units:
 Airborne Combat Team Bravo, 3 RAR
 A Company, 1 RAR
 C and D Companies, 2 RAR
 G (108 Field Battery) Company, 4th Field Regiment, Royal Australian Artillery (operating as infantry)
 B Squadron, 3rd/4th Cavalry Regiment (originally equipped with 33 x M113 armoured personnel carriers)
 16 Combat Engineer Squadron, 3rd Combat Engineer Regiment
 Commando Company Group, 4th Battalion (Commando), Royal Australian Regiment
 Troop, Australian Special Air Service Regiment
 3rd Combat Service Support Group (based around the 3rd Combat Service Support Battalion)
 Aviation element ('Combat Team Vigilance')
 Eight S-70A Blackhawk transport helicopters, drawn from B Squadron, 5th Aviation Regiment and the 171st Aviation Squadron (four helicopters since 19 July)
 Four Kiowa light observation helicopters, 1st Aviation Regiment
 Detachment, Emergency Response Squadron, Incident Response Regiment
 Detachment, 9th Petroleum Platoon, [providing bulk fuel support to aircraft and land vehicles to ensure the mission was achieved.]

Royal Australian Navy

 HMAS Adelaide (until 28 May)
 One S-70B-2 Seahawk helicopter, 816 Squadron RAN (until 28 May)
 HMAS Kanimbla
 HMAS Manoora
 HMAS Tobruk (until approximately 8 June)
 HMAS Balikpapan
 HMAS Tarakan
 HMAS Success (until 28 May)
 Two Sea King helicopters, 817 Squadron RAN

The Royal Australian Navy force committed to Operation Astute is apparently the largest amphibious task force in the Navy's history.

Royal Australian Air Force

 Elements, No. 33 Squadron RAAF (Boeing 707) – Domestic support only
 Elements, No. 36 Squadron RAAF (C-130H)
 Elements, No. 37 Squadron RAAF (C-130J)
 AP-3C Orion aircraft, No. 92 Wing RAAF
 Detachment, No. 2 Airfield Defence Squadron RAAF at Dili airport.
 No. 382 Expeditionary Combat Support Squadron
 RAAF Airload Team at Dili airport.

33SQN are assisting the operation by transporting troops from RAAF Base Townsville to RAAF Base Darwin, however only 36SQN and 37SQN have been flying from Darwin to Dili.

Malaysia

Malaysian Army
 209 parachute soldiers from the 10th Paratrooper Brigade
 Transport aircraft
 Elements, 19th Battalion, Royal Malay Regt (Mechanised)
 Elements from Grup Gerak Khas (Army Special Forces)

Royal Malaysian Navy
 Elements from PASKAL (Naval Special Forces)
 Two warships; KD Mahawangsa and KD Indera Sakti

Royal Malaysia Police
The Malaysian Government currently anticipates replacing the Malaysian military force with Pasukan Gerakan Khas and General Operations Force operators of the Royal Malaysia Police at the end of July.

New Zealand

New Zealand Army
 Delta Company (reinforced), 2/1st Battalion, Royal New Zealand Infantry Regiment (Integrated into ANZAC Battle Group)
 Military police section, 2nd Military Police Platoon

Royal New Zealand Air Force
 One Boeing 757-200, No. 40 Squadron RNZAF
 One C-130H, No. 40 Squadron RNZAF

Royal New Zealand Navy
 HMNZS Endeavour
 HMNZS Canterbury
 HMNZS Te Kaha

Portugal
While the Portuguese forces deployed to East Timor are not operating under Australian command, they are acting in co-operation with the Australian, Malaysian and New Zealand forces which are under Australian command.

 Bravo Detachment of the Republican National Guard (GNR), initially with 120 soldiers and now with about 200
 16 officers from the Special Operations Group (GOE) of the Public Security Police

United States

 Two C-17 Globemaster III transport aircraft from the 15th Airlift Wing
 6 person Combat Mobility Element from the 15th Logistics Readiness Squadron

The two United States aircraft flew transport flights between Australian air bases (mainly RAAF Base Townsville and RAAF Base Darwin) and were not deployed to East Timor. The aircraft did, however, visit the Solomon Islands in order pick up Australian equipment and personnel. The USAF force completed its mission on 3 June.

In addition, a platoon of the United States Marine Corps Fleet Antiterrorism Security Team was flown into Dili by a United States Navy C-40 Clipper on 26 May to secure the US embassy in Dili. This platoon does not appear to have fallen under Australian command as part of Operation Astute.

Cost
The cost of Operation Astute has represented the third largest operation expenditure between 2006 and 2008, and the second largest from 2009. Below is the yearly expenditure on Operation Astute of the Australian Defence Force.

See also
ANZAC Battle Group
INTERFET
Battle of Timor (1942–43)

References

External links

Operation Astute

United Nations operations in East Timor
Military history of East Timor
Astute
Astute
2006 in East Timor
Australia–East Timor relations

Operation Astute


Mordecai Ehrenpreis (25 June 1869 – 26 February 1951) was a Hebrew author, publisher and Zionist activist. From 1914 until his death he served as chief rabbi of Stockholm.

Biography
Mordechai (Marcus) Ehrenpreis was born in Lviv.  As a young man, he wrote in Yiddish. He studied at German universities and the Hochschule für die Wissenschaft des Judentums in Berlin. From 1884 he wrote for the Hebrew newspapers Ha-Maggid and Ha-Meliz. From 1896 to 1900 he was a rabbi in Đakovo, Croatia. Even before Herzl, Ehrenpreis, Nathan Birnbaum and others began to  define the concept of a new national Judaism.

Ehrenpreis died in 1951 in Saltsjöbaden, Sweden.

Zionist activism
Ehrenpreis was an early adherent of Zionism and helped Herzl establish the first  Zionist Congress. He was a member of the Democratic Fraction, an opposition group at the Zionist Congress that lobbied for cultural as opposed to political Zionism. Ehrenpreis ultimately supported both views and wrote "Perhaps victory will go in the end to a third, synthetic view that will unite cultural and political Zionism together." He was an avid supporter of teaching the Hebrew language to all Jewish children.

Rabbinic and literary career
From 1900 to 1914 he was in Sofia as Chief rabbi of Bulgaria and also publisher of several Spaniolic magazines. After 1908 his interest in Zionism and in the Hebrew literature decreased noticeably which earned him some criticism. From 1914 until his death he served as chief rabbi of Stockholm.

In 1928 he founded the Judisk Tidskrift, was engaged as a translator as well as scientific writer for different encyclopedias, since 1935 he became a professor at Stockholm University. During his time in Sweden he published some 20 books in Swedish.

Ehrenpreis emphasized the importance of seeking understanding for Jewish culture in the modern world and sought to create a synthesis between a general culture and the inherited culture of the Jewish minority.

Ehrenpreis was the chairman of  Arbetsutskottet för hjälp åt Polens judar, devoted to sending aid in the form of food, medicine, clothes and money, primarily to Poland but increasingly also to other parts of Nazi-occupied Europe.

Ehrenpreis was also the Chairman of the Swedish Section of World Jewish Congress from its institution in 1944 and was succeeded by historian and pioneering scholar of antisemitism, Hugo Valentin. Ehrenpreis was also involved in planning the attempt by Raoul Wallenberg to rescue Hungarian Jews. Wallenberg visited him at his home on 5 July, the evening before he left for Budapest. Ehrenpreis was consequently one of the last people to see Wallenberg alive in Sweden.

Awards and recognition
In 1935, the King of Sweden conferred on him the title of Professor. Earlier, he was decorated by the King with the Order of Chevalier of the North Star.

References

Further reading

 Lexikon des Judentums, Gütersloh 1971
 Theodor Herzl, Briefe und Tagebücher, Berlin/Frankfurt a. M./Wien 1983-1996
 Svante Hansson, Flykt och överlevnad..., Stockholm: Hillel, 2004, pp. 75-76, 121, 266.
 Stephen Fruitman, Creating a New Heart : Marcus Ehrenpreis on Jewry and Judaism, Umeå 2001.
 Rudberg, Pontus, "'A Record of Infamy': the use and abuse of the image of the Swedish Jewish response to the Holocaust", Scandinavian Journal of History, Volume 36, Issue 5, Special Issue: The Histories and Memories of the Holocaust in Scandinavia (2011).
 Rudberg, Pontus, "The Swedish Jews and the Holocaust", Abingon & New York (2017)

External links
 The personal papers of Mordecai Ehrenpreis are kept at the   Central Zionist Archives in Jerusalem

1869 births
1951 deaths
Rabbis from the Austrian Empire
20th-century Croatian rabbis
Chief rabbis
Rabbis from Galicia (Eastern Europe)
Bulgarian Orthodox rabbis
Swedish Ashkenazi Jews
Swedish rabbis
Zionist activists
Academic staff of Stockholm University
Swedish people of Polish-Jewish descent
Swedish magazine founders
Hochschule für die Wissenschaft des Judentums alumni
Rabbis from Lviv
Swedish Zionists
Yiddish-language writers
Hebrew-language writers
Clergy from Stockholm
20th-century Swedish rabbis

Mordecai Ehrenpreis


Jeffrey Hudson (1619 – circa 1682) was a court dwarf of the English queen Henrietta Maria of France. He was famous as the "Queen's dwarf" and "Lord Minimus" and was considered one of the "wonders of the age" because of his extreme but well-proportioned smallness. He fought with the Royalists in the English Civil War and fled with the Queen to France but was expelled from her court when he killed a man in a duel. He was captured by Barbary pirates and spent 25 years enslaved in North Africa before being ransomed back to England.

Early life and rise to prominence
Hudson was baptised in Oakham in Rutland on 14 June 1619. His parents, three brothers, and a half-sister were all of typical size. Hudson's father, John, was keeper of the baiting bulls for George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham. Hudson's marvellous smallness and normal proportions became apparent in early childhood. Various theories existed for his size, including that his mother choked on a gherkin while pregnant, but he probably had a growth hormone deficiency caused by a pituitary gland disorder.

In 1626, Jeffrey Hudson was presented to the Duchess of Buckingham as a "rarity of nature", and she invited him to join the household. A few months later, the Duke and Duchess entertained King Charles I and his young French wife, Queen Henrietta Maria, in London. The climax of the lavish banquet was the presentation of Jeffrey to the Queen, served in a large pie. When the pie was placed in front of the Queen, Hudson arose from the crust,  tall and dressed in a miniature suit of armour. The Queen was delighted, and the Duke and Duchess of Buckingham offered Hudson to her as an amusing gift.

Hudson at the Queen's court

Hudson moved into Denmark House in London in late 1626, where the Queen maintained her royal household, with its many French attendants and Catholic priests. He was one of several natural curiosities and pets, among whom were a giant Welsh porter named William Evans, two disproportionate dwarves, and a monkey called Pug. He later developed a routine with Evans in which the porter pulled Hudson out of his pocket along with a loaf of bread and proceeded to make a sandwich. As he matured, Hudson learned to amuse and entertain with his wit, courtly behaviour, and appearance. Dwarves were not rare in the courts of Europe, but Hudson's fine proportions and tiny size made him uniquely famous. His size was repeatedly described as 18 or 19 inches, and he is reported to have grown little between 7 and 30 years of age. He was often cast in picturesque roles in the elaborate costumed masques which were staged by Inigo Jones for the amusement of the court.

Hudson rode a horse with the queen and her household. Sidesaddles were provided for ten ladies and three laundry maids, while the "dwarffe" was provided with an elaborate livery saddle of velvet with laces and silver and silk fringes. The court tailor, Gilbert Morrett, made clothes for Hudson. He had "an ash colour barracan suit with sleeves", "a black mourning suit of Flanders say", and scarlet hose to wear under his armour. The Queen's tailor, George Gillin, made clothes for the female dwarf Sarah, or "little Sara", including an Italian gown of scarlet baize. Hudson and Sarah were dressed in the same fabrics as Henrietta Maria's children. Daniel Mytens was commissioned to paint his portrait, "a picture at large of Jeffry the dwarf in a wood or wilderness", for £40 in 1627.

In 1630, Hudson was included in a mission to France at about ten years of age. Although the principal purpose of the mission was to return with a midwife for the Queen's first pregnancy, Hudson was likely sent for the appreciation of the French court. On the return journey across the English Channel, their ship was captured by Dunkirk pirates, who plundered the ship but eventually released them to return to England. Hudson's second trip across the channel occurred in 1637, at age 18, when a group of courtiers travelled to the Netherlands to observe the siege of Breda, as the Dutch were attempting to expel the Spanish army.

Hudson was educated in the Queen's household and learned the manners of the court. He was brought up in the Roman Catholic Church of her household. He learned to ride a horse and shoot a pistol. He was celebrated in a variety of poems and narratives of the day. However, despite his wit and intelligence, the novelty of his shortness was most prized, and all understood that if he had been of average height, he would have had no place at court. This is explicitly acknowledged in one of several adulatory poems.

The coming of the Civil War and the dissolution of the court
By 1640, the relationship between King Charles and the Parliament had deteriorated to plots and attempted arrests. Armed conflict broke out between the Royalists and the Parliamentarians in 1642. As Charles led the Royalist army, the Queen took a small number of her retinue, including Hudson, to the Netherlands to raise money and support for him. By selling articles from her palace, she raised enough to buy some supplies for the Royalist army but was unsuccessful in obtaining official support from the Protestant Dutch government. She returned to England with her courtiers, and they found themselves in the middle of a civil war.

They were able to join Royalist forces at Oxford. The Queen appointed Hudson a "Captain of Horse." It is not known whether he commanded troops or saw combat in one of Prince Rupert's cavalry raids. Still, he considered the appointment an honour rather than a joke and continued to style himself as "Captain Jeffery Hudson" later in life.

As it became apparent that the war was broadening rather than concluding, the Queen fled to France in 1643 with a small group of courtiers and household staff, again including Hudson. Although they were warmly received in France and provided with space in the Louvre Palace, the Queen was ailing after a difficult delivery, and she soon moved her court in exile to the spa at Nevers.

Duel and disaster
Royalist courtiers collected around the Queen, but Hudson had no interest in resuming his role of pet or clown and let it be known he would suffer no more jokes or insults. There is no record of the precise offence offered, but in October 1644, Hudson challenged the brother of William Crofts to a duel. Crofts arrived at the duel brandishing a large water squirt gun, but his flippancy would lead to his death, as Hudson fatally shot him in the forehead. Crofts's death was a disaster for Hudson. Duelling had been outlawed in France, and this could be considered a transgression against hospitality, in addition to the fact that William Crofts was a powerful figure as the Queen's Master of Horse and head of her lifeguard. Hudson was initially sentenced to death, but Henrietta Maria interceded for his life, and he was sent back to England.

Slavery and redemption, poverty and death
Hudson's movements after leaving the Queen's court in late 1644, aged 25 years, are unknown. Within months, he was on a ship captured by the Barbary pirates. Hudson was enslaved in North Africa, where he spent perhaps his next 25 years labouring. The date and circumstances of his rescue or redemption are not known. In the 1660s, several missions were sent from England to Algeria and Tunis to ransom English captives, and his first documented presence back in England was in 1669. No details of his captivity were recorded except one fact: he claimed to have grown to  during this time, doubling his height after 30 years of age, which he attributed to the hardships he had suffered.

The few contemporary records of Hudson's years between 1669 and his death in 1682 consist of a few receipts for grants of money from the Duke of Buckingham and the new King. He did not return to the Queen's court, even after the royal Restoration in 1660 and her return at the invitation of her son, Charles II. She resided in London for only five years, fleeing to France during the London plague of 1665. She died in France in 1669, when Hudson first reappeared in English records.

Hudson lived in Oakham for several years, where he was interviewed and a short record of his life made, by James Wright the antiquarian. In 1676, Hudson returned to London, perhaps to seek a pension from the royal court. He had the misfortune of arriving at a time of turbulent anti-Catholic activity, which included the "Popish Plot" of Titus Oates (also from Oakham) and was imprisoned "for a considerable time" at the Gatehouse Prison. Being a "Roman Catholick" was his only recorded offence, but he was not released until 1680. He died about two years later on an unknown date, in unknown circumstances, buried in an unmarked Catholic paupers' grave. A payment from Charles II in 1681 is the last record of Hudson.

See also
List of slaves
Richard Gibson (painter) – another Stuarts' dwarf

Notes

References

Page, Nick. Lord Minimus: The Extraordinary Life of Britain's Smallest Man (London: HarperCollins, 2002)

1619 births
1682 deaths
Entertainers with dwarfism
English duellists
People captured by pirates
British slaves
Victims of the Popish Plot
People from Oakham
Slaves from the Ottoman Empire
17th-century slaves
Court of Charles I of England
Household of Henrietta Maria
British people with disabilities

Jeffrey Hudson


Zlata Filipović (born ) is a Bosnian-born Irish woman who kept a diary documenting life in Sarajevo, when it was besieged, during the Bosnian War.
Her diary was first published as a book in 1992 under the title Zlata's Diary: A Child's Life in Sarajevo (originally Dnevnik Zlatin: Dječij život u Sarajevu in Bosnian). The diary was republished one year later with more content in 1993.

Thanks to the publication of her diary, the United Nations helped Filipović and her mother leave Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina and move to Paris, France, in December 1993.

Biography
Zlata Filipović was born into a Bosnian family in the city of Sarajevo, Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Yugoslavia (modern-day Bosnia and Herzegovina). Filipović was the only child of an advocate and a chemist. She began writing in her diary in 1991, writing about her daily life. Shortly after Filipović began writing the diary, the Bosnian War broke out, and Sarajevo (the city she and her family lived in) was besieged. She wrote about the daily horrors of her life in Sarajevo, and even wrote (in her diary) about the tragic deaths of some of her friends. In a entry of her diary, she wrote that a girl was walking on a bridge, and while walking she was suddenly shot with a gun by a enemy soldier. She died shortly afterwards as a result of the gunshot wound.

Publication of the diary
The diary was first published as a book in Sarajevo in 1992, by a small press, and consisted of 45 pages. After the first publication of her diary, Filipović continued writing her diary (The diary was republished one year later in 1993 with more content). Thanks to the publication of her diary, Filipović became moderately famous, international journalists visisted the Filipović family's apartment and interviewed Filipović, and also, the United Nations helped Filipović and her mother flee Sarajevo, and go to Paris, France, in December 1993.

Her diary has been adapted into a choral work by Anthony Powers.

Reception of the diary
Critical review of the diary was positive. In The New York Times Book Review, Francine Prose praised the "pure innocence and desperation" which is obvious to be seen in the book, describing Flipović as an everygirl. However, Prose was critical of publishers from North America and Europe considering Filipović's diary as similar to that of the diary of Anne Frank, lamenting the offensive action of "judging the private writing of children in war".

1980 births
Living people
Bosnia and Herzegovina writers
People from Sarajevo

Zlata Filipović


505 Games S.p.A. is an Italian video game publisher based in Milan. It was founded in 2006 as a subsidiary of Milan-based Digital Bros.

History
505 Games was founded in 2006 in Milan as a subsidiary of Digital Bros. The company found its early success through its video games such as Cooking Mama and Zumba Fitness.

In April 2012, 505 Games took over publishing duties from THQ for the fitness game Adidas MiCoach, following a lawsuit between THQ and Adidas. In April 2013, they acquired the license of Drawn To Life series. The purchase included rights to the franchise as a whole. In November 2013, it canceled Ashes Cricket 2013 and issued refunds. In April 2014, 505 Games announced a publishing agreement with Adam Orth's Three One Zero of the game Adrift. The game is described as a first-person experience, where the player controls an astronaut exploring debris of a wrecked station in outer space. In January 2015, 505 Games confirmed the acquisition of the intellectual property (IP) rights to the multi-award-winning Game of the Year 2013, Brothers: A Tale of Two Sons from Starbreeze Studios. In April 2015, 505 Games announced a publishing agreement with Swedish game developer Starbreeze for the game Overkill's The Walking Dead, which released in late 2018. A month later, 505 Games announced a publishing agreement with game developer Overkill Software for the game Payday 2 Crimewave Edition. In August 2016, 505 Games announced it would be publishing Virginia from Variable State.

In March 2015, 505 Games purchased 2.67% stock of Swedish game developer Starbreeze Studios. In January 2016, 505 Games announced that they will shift their focus from publishing games for other developers to developing their own intellectual properties. In October 2016, 505 Games has announced through Koji Igarashi, their collaboration in publishing Bloodstained: Ritual of the Night from Igarashi's own ArtPlay, DICO and Inti Creates, though Inti's involvement has been reduced. At the Sony E3 press conference on 11 June 2018, 505 Games announced a partnership with Remedy Entertainment to publish Control.

505 Games acquired Australia-based Infinity Plus Two, the developers of the Puzzle Quest games in January 2021.

505 Games is working with Rabbit and Bear Studios to publish Eiyuden Chronicle: Hundred Heroes, a spiritual successor to the Suikoden series. The partnership was announced February 2021.

On 27 June 2022 D3 Go! was acquired by 505 Games. The acquisition also included the intellectual property of the Puzzle Quest games.

Games published

Games published by 505 Games include Sniper Elite III, Payday 2, Assetto Corsa, Brothers: A Tale of Two Sons, Terraria, Redout, How to Survive, Defense Grid 2, Deep Black, Abzû, Adrift, Virginia, Dead by Daylight, Control, Unturned, Indivisible, and the PC release of Death Stranding.

Accolades
In April 2015, 505 Games was awarded the title of Best Indie Games Label at the MCV Awards.

References

External links

Companies based in Milan
Italian companies established in 2006
Video game companies established in 2006
Video game companies of Italy
Video game publishers

505 Games


Bryson Djuan Tiller (born January 2, 1993) is an American singer, songwriter, and rapper. Born in Louisville, Kentucky, he began his career in 2011 with a mixtape entitled Killer Instinct Vol. 1. Tiller initially gained mainstream success in 2015 following the release of the single, "Don't," which reached the top 20 on the Billboard Hot 100.

The record's success led to a deal with RCA Records and served as the lead single to his debut studio album, Trapsoul (2015), which reached the top ten on the Billboard 200 and included the single "Exchange," which earned him a Grammy Award nomination. In May 2017, Tiller released his second studio album, True to Self, which debuted at number one on the Billboard 200. That same year, he was also featured alongside Rihanna on the hit single "Wild Thoughts" by DJ Khaled, which reached number two on the Billboard Hot 100.

Tiller has received multiple accolades, including two BET Awards for Best New Artist and Best Male R&B/Pop Artist; and in March 2016, he received the key to the city from Louisville Mayor Greg Fischer.

Early life
Bryson Tiller was born on January 2, 1993, in Louisville, Kentucky. When he was four years old, his mother died and he was subsequently raised by his grandmother. Tiller lived with his cousins, Ryan and Kevon Smekrud, until he was 17 years old. He has three brothers. He attended Iroquois High School and started singing and rapping at the age of 15. In 2011, he recorded a mixtape titled Killer Instinct Vol.1, which included 21 songs. In 2013, Tiller dropped out of school, had a child and took a break from music while working at Papa John's Pizza and UPS to provide for his daughter, Harley.

Career

2014–2016: Breakthrough and Trapsoul

In October 2014, Tiller uploaded his debut single "Don't" to his SoundCloud account, which started receiving some internet attention from music industry insiders. It was officially released on iTunes for digital download in May 2015, becoming the lead single of his debut studio album. "Don't" peaked at number 13 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. It has been remixed by artists like K Camp, Mila J, Sevyn Streeter, DRAM and WSTRN. Early co-signs from record producer Timbaland and rapper Drake led to major-label attention for Tiller, with him eventually choosing to sign a record deal with RCA Records, which was announced on August 25, 2015. Tiller was offered a chance to sign with Drake's OVO Sound record label, but declined the offer. In September 2015, Rolling Stone included Tiller in their list of "10 New Artists You Need to Know".

On October 2, 2015, Tiller released his debut studio album, Trapsoul, which debuted at number 11 on the US Billboard 200 and later reached number eight. The album's second single, "Exchange", peaked at number 26 on the Billboard Hot 100 and earned him a Grammy nomination for Best R&B Song. "Sorry Not Sorry", which was released as the third single from Trapsoul, peaked at number 67 on the Billboard Hot 100. The album was included on a number of 2015 year-end lists, such as Complex's The Best Albums of 2015, The Roots 10 Favorite Albums of 2015, and PopSugar's The 24 Best Albums of 2015. In 2015, he also co-wrote the track "Proof" for singer Chris Brown's seventh studio album Royalty.

In January 2016, Tiller started the Trapsoul Tour for the promotion of the album, with opening act THEY. On March 12, 2016, Louisville Mayor Greg Fischer gave Tiller the key to the city and named March 12 as "Bryson Tiller Day". In May 2016, Tiller made his US television debut, performing "Exchange" on the Late Night with Seth Meyers show. On June 26, 2016, he performed at the BET Awards, where he also received the awards for Best New Artist and Best Male R&B/Pop Artist. In July 2016, DJ Khaled released his ninth studio album, Major Key, which includes the song "Ima Be Alright" featuring Tiller and rapper Future. In September 2016, Tiller also appeared on the track "First Take" by rapper Travis Scott, from Scott's second studio album, Birds in the Trap Sing McKnight.

2017–2018: True to Self
In January 2017, he was included in Forbes magazine's "30 Under 30", a list showcasing entrepreneurs, entertainers, and celebrities who have made a name for themselves before reaching the age of 30. In the same month Tiller announced that his second album will be titled True to Self. On April 12, 2017, Tiller tweeted that work on his second album, True to Self, had been wrapped up. On May 11, 2017, Tiller revealed the album artwork and that True to Self would be released on June 23, 2017. He also released three new songs, titled "Honey", "Somethin Tells Me" and "Get Mine", with the latter featuring rapper Young Thug. On May 26, he released True to Self, a month earlier than the intended release. The album debuted at number one on the Billboard 200, earning 107,000 album-equivalent units, of which 47,000 were pure album sales. It became Tiller's first number one album in the country.

In June 2017, Tiller partnered with Nike, Inc. to provide a new Wyandotte Park for children and teens. In the same month, DJ Khaled released "Wild Thoughts" featuring Tiller and singer Rihanna, which is the fourth single from his tenth studio album, Grateful. The single has peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot 100, as well as reaching number one on the UK Singles Chart. In August 2017, Tiller released a collaborative single with singer Jazmine Sullivan titled "Insecure", which is the title track for the HBO series Insecure. In January 2018, he performed "Wild Thoughts" with Rihanna and DJ Khaled at the 60th Annual Grammy Awards.

2019–present: Anniversary and A Different Christmas
Throughout 2019 and 2020, Tiller was featured on several songs by other artists. In 2019, Tiller said he was waiting for sample clearances to release his album, titled Serenity. In April 2020, he released the song "Slept on You" via SoundCloud. On September 3, 2020, Tiller released "Inhale" and stated on his social media pages that he would release a new album in fall 2020. The second single "Always Forever", was released on September 23, with a deluxe edition of Trapsoul released on September 25, in celebration of his third album, Anniversary, which was released  on October 2, 2020. It marked the fifth anniversary of his debut album and includes a guest feature from Drake. The deluxe Anniversary was released on February 26, 2021, featuring an additional five new tracks and a feature from Big Sean.

On October 8, 2020, Travis Scott premiered an unreleased song with Tiller titled "Blunt Talk" on an episode of Scott and his DJ Chase B's .Wav radio on Apple Music.

On October 31, 2021, Tiller released a mixtape, Killer Instinct Vol. 2, on a private link that he texted to his fans using the community number he had made earlier in 2020.

On November 10, 2021, Tiller announced his first Christmas album, A Different Christmas released on November 19. Tiller said the project was inspired by Ariana Grande and Justin Bieber, the latter of whom features in a song titled "Lonely Christmas". Tiller's daughter Halo also appears on the closing track.

On September 8, 2022, Tiller released a new single titled "Outside," which samples The Ying Yang Twins 2005 hit single "Wait (The Whisper Song)." On October 18, 2022, Tiller released a music video for the single which featured an appearance from The Ying Yang Twins.

Artistry

Influences

Tiller has cited singer Omarion as his mega influence, "[My uncle] put me on Omarion's first album, and that was the first album that made me want to start singing. I started listening to him daily and singing what I heard." Singer The-Dream has inspired him to become a lyricist, "I started listening to The-Dream a lot. That's when I really got into writing songs. I like the way he put lyrics and makes his songs. So I was like, all right, and I just started writing. That's when I started wanting to be a songwriter. I never really wanted to be an artist. I just really wanted to write songs. But of course I can't get placement unless I demo the songs."

His other influences include R. Kelly, Lil Wayne, Chris Brown, and Drake. In addition, Tiller listed Jazmine Sullivan, Usher, Rihanna, Beyoncé, Jay-Z, The Notorious B.I.G., and Mary J. Blige as impactful to his musical socialization.

Musical style
Tiller has described his music as "trap and hip hop-influenced R&B, the perfect marriage between hip hop and R&B." Tiller also raps saying "There are some things I can say rapping that I can't say singing". Critics have compared Tiller's musical style to Drake, Jeremih, PartyNextDoor and Tory Lanez. During the recording of True to Self, Tiller struggled with depression, which according to him can be heard in the music and was the reason of the album's disappointing commercial performance. On his blend of R&B and rap, Tiller explained: "R&B is my first love and it always will be. I fell in love with hip-hop and rap music through Lil Wayne. Don't get me wrong, I love Wayne, but you know, I heard only the radio singles [..] So I said, 'Damn. Let me mix it up a little bit".

Public image

Tiller has stated he will "probably never" do video interviews because he wants to be a "shadowy figure". According to Justin Charity of The Ringer, "Tiller's lack of a full-time public persona is one of the young R&B singer's most endearing qualities".

Personal life
Tiller has two daughters, born in 2013 and 2019. As of 2018, he is in a relationship with Kendra Bailey, the mother of his second child. Tiller graduated high school in June 2020, through Iroquois High School in his hometown of Louisville, Kentucky. He shared on Twitter: "I never thought about going back to school until I started thinking about my goals and how to reach them. Getting my High School diploma was step 1".

Awards and nominations

Discography

Trapsoul (2015)
 True to Self (2017)
 Anniversary (2020)
 Serenity (2023)

Tours
Headlining
 Trapsoul Tour (2016)
 Set It Off Tour (2017)
 Back And I'm Better Tour (2023)
Supporting
Starboy: Legend of the Fall Tour  (2017)

See also
List of awards and nominations received by Bryson Tiller

References

External links

 Offiical Instagram

1993 births
Living people
21st-century African-American male singers
21st-century American rappers
African-American male rappers
American male rappers
African-American male singer-songwriters
American hip hop singers
American contemporary R&B singers
Iroquois High School alumni
Musicians from Louisville, Kentucky
Rappers from Kentucky
RCA Records artists
Singer-songwriters from Kentucky
Southern hip hop musicians
Trap musicians
Twitch (service) streamers

Bryson Tiller


Minha formação (My Formation or My Education) is the autobiography of Joaquim Nabuco, a Brazilian writer, diplomat and abolitionist. First published in 1900, it is often cited as a classic of Brazilian literature.

The autobiography includes an account of the slave-holding society in 19th-century Brazil and of the author's travels in Europe and America, as well as extensive digressions on philosophy, politics and abolitionism. It describes his encounters with Pope Leo XIII, George Sand and Ernest Renan.

References
Araújo, Ricardo Benzaquen de. Através do espelho: subjetividade em Minha formação, de Joaquim Nabuco. (Through the Mirror: Subjectivity in My Formation by Joaquim Nabuco) Revista Brasileira de Ciências Sociais, October 2004, vol.19, no.56, p. 5-13. ISSN 0102-6909 (Abstract in English)
Moriconi, Italo. Um estadista sensitivo. A noção de formação e o papel do literário em Minha formação, de Joaquim Nabuco. (A sensitive statesman. The notion of the intellectual formation and the literary role in the book, My Formation by Joaquim Nabuco) Revista Brasileira de Ciências Sociais, June 2001, vol.16, no.46, p. 161-172. ISSN 0102-6909. (Abstract in English)

External links
 Minha formação, the book

1900 non-fiction books
Brazilian biographies
Literary autobiographies
Political autobiographies
Portuguese-language works

Minha formação


The Pula Cathedral or fully the Cathedral of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary (Croatian: Katedrala uznesenja Blažene Djevice Marije) is a co-cathedral in Pula, Croatia. Along with the Euphrasian Basilica it is one of the two official seats of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Poreč and Pula. The church is located on the south side of the Pula bay at the foot of the hill with the 17th century Venetian fort. The site of the present-day church has been used for religious worship since ancient Roman times and the first Christian churches on the site were built in the late 4th and early 5th century AD. These had gone through a series of enlargements and reconstructions over the ages.

History
It is believed that the site of the present-day church hosted a temple dedicated to Jupiter Conservator in Roman times. Archeological excavations also revealed ruins of Roman thermae on that location, and it is considered likely that during the Diocletianic Persecution local Christians used it for secret gatherings.

In the 4th and 5th centuries a whole complex of ancient Christian buildings was gradually erected on the location. A small church whose width corresponds to the present-day cathedral's central nave was built first, which was followed in the mid 4th century by a single-nave church of St. Thomas next to it. These two were incorporated into an extended hall church in the early 5th century. In the second half of the 5th century it was further transformed into a three-nave basilica which featured architectural elements popular in the northern Adriatic of the time, such as the apse set in the facade and the entirely flat rear side of the church. At around the same time, a baptistery which had a cross-shaped floor plan and a bishop's residence were built in front of the basilica, but they were both later demolished in the 19th century after the diocese seat was moved to Poreč in 1828.

The present-day cathedral came into existence through a series of expansions of these pre-existing 5th-century buildings. The original cathedral was richly decorated with frescoes and floor mosaics. However, only a small section of the original mosaic has survived to present times, bearing the inscription DAMIANUS ET LAVRENTIA, which were the names of the couple which had paid for the mosaic as part of their wedding vows.

In 1860 a grave containing a stone sarcophagus was discovered in the church. The sarcophagus contained a silver box adorned with depictions of St. Hermagoras and St. Fortunatus, bishops of Aquileia. The box contained a smaller golden reliquary which is believed to have held the relics of Thomas the Apostle, the patron saint of Pula and the Pula-Poreč diocese. The relics were probably brought here from Constantinople in the 5th century and are today kept at the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna.

The first bishop whose seat was in Pula was Antonius, whose name is mentioned in the period from 510 to 547. During bishop Handegis' reign (857–862) an additional entrance was constructed in the southern wall. Today this entrance is walled up, but its outline can still be seen on the southern wall. In 1242 the cathedral was heavily damaged in a Venetian raid and the ensuing fire. The damage was fully repaired in the 15th century when the building went through extensive reconstruction and the present-day sacristy was added.

In 1707 the free-standing baroque-style bell tower was added, next to the 5th century baptistery in front of the basilica. The belltower was built using stones taken from the Roman-built Pula Arena. The present-day cathedral's classicist facade was built in 1712, at the time of bishop Bottari, when extensive works on the reconstruction of the basilica and the bell tower were launched and were eventually finished in 1924. The 5th century baptistery was subsequently demolished in 1885. Pietro Kandler, a 19th-century Austrian historian, had made several drawings of the baptistery which survived to this day and which show that it had a hexagonal baptismal font, similar to the one at the Euphrasian Basilica in nearby Poreč.

The cathedral was heavily damaged again during World War II bombings of Pula, but was repaired again by 1947.

Relics
In 1675 five sarcophagi were found beneath the main altar. They were said to hold the bones of several early Christian saints, namely that of Ss. George, Theodore, Demetrius, Basil and Flora, along with the remains of Solomon, King of Hungary who ruled from 1063 to 1074. Along with the relics a document confirming that bishop Ursini had consecrated the cathedral altar in 1487 in honour of these saints was found. However, only the origins of St. Flora (a Christian martyr from Cordoba, d. 857 AD) and Solomon can be confirmed with some certainty.

References

External links

List of bishops at the Diocese of Poreč-Pula website

5th-century churches
Buildings and structures in Pula
Roman Catholic cathedrals in Croatia
Cathedral

Pula Cathedral


A refractory is a material that can stand high temperature. It is used in furnaces, kilns, incinerators and reactors. Materials to make refractory must be chemically and physically stable at high temperature, such as alumina, silica, magnesia and lime.

Types of refractory

Based on material
 Acidic refractory
 Neutral refractory
 Basic refractory

Based on ways to manufacture
 Dry press process
 Fused cast
 Hand molded
 Formed
 Unformed
 Unformed dry vibratable

Based on operating temperature
 Normal refractory
 High refractory
 Super refractory

Materials

Refractory


Cristóbal Halffter Jiménez-Encina (24 March 1930 – 23 May 2021) was a Spanish classical composer and conductor. He was the nephew of two other composers, Rodolfo and Ernesto Halffter. He was seen as the most important Spanish composer of the generation of composers during the Generación del 51. He was born in Madrid.

During the 1960s and 1970s, Halffter composed a number of works relating to human rights, including the 1968 choral work Yes, speak out, yes. He was awarded Spain's highest award for composition, the Premio Nacional de Música, in 1989.

Halffter died on 23 May 2021 in Villafranca del Bierzo, Spain at the age of 91.

References

1930 births
2021 deaths
Spanish composers
Spanish conductors
Writers from Madrid

Cristóbal Halffter


Dead Calm is an American novel that was written in 1963. A 1989 Australian movie was made from it. The movie stars Sam Neill, Nicole Kidman, and Billy Zane.

What happened

In it, a honeymoon couple rescue a young man from a sinking boat who claims to have lost his companions to food poisoning, but the real story is much less innocent.

In this movie, Kidman and Neill plays good guys and Zane plays a bad guy.  This movie was Kidman's first well-known movie, and it helped make her famous. In this movie, Zane's character rapes Kidman's character.

Other websites

1963 books
Crime fiction books
20th-century American novels

Dead Calm


Robert Michael Fomon (January 3, 1925 – May 31, 2000) was an American financier who was Chairman and Chief Executive Officer of E. F. Hutton & Co. from 1970 to 1987, a governor of the New York Stock Exchange, and Chairman of the Board of Governors of the Pacific Stock Exchange.

Born in Chicago, Illinois, after the early death of his mother, Robert Fomon and his older brother Samuel spent their childhood with relatives in Appleton, Wisconsin, where they attended high school. Robert went on to graduate from the University of Southern California and in 1951 went to work in the corporate finance department of the Los Angeles office of E. F. Hutton & Co.

Personal life
Robert Fomon was first married in 1954 to Marilyn Quaintance with whom he had two children. Divorced, he married for a second time in 1975 to Sharon Kay Ritchie,  Miss America of 1956. That marriage too ended in divorce and in 1989 he married Daphne Lewis Ashley Widener, the ex-wife of Widener family member, Peter A. B. Widener III.

While living in California in the 1960s, Robert Fomon became involved in the sport of Thoroughbred horse racing. He notably owned in partnership the colt Inclusive, winner of the 1963 Texas Derby at Sunland Racetrack  in Sunland Park, New Mexico, and the 1964 San Luis Rey Handicap at Santa Anita Park in Arcadia.

Head of E. F. Hutton & Co.
Fomon joined E. F. Hutton in 1951, eventually rising to head of corporate finance.  In 1970, he was named chairman and CEO of Hutton as a compromise candidate and relocated to its headquarters in Manhattan, New York. During his tenure, Fomon oversaw the sale of Hutton shares to the public and listing on the New York Stock exchange, and the creation of its famous advertising slogan, "When E. F. Hutton talks, people listen." The May 6, 1987 New York Times wrote that his leadership "helped build the retail-oriented brokerage house into one of the industry's most successful during a difficult era on Wall Street." Robert Fomon also recognized the potential dangers of mergers in the financial industry and advised the Republican administration of  President Nixon that he believed there was a fundamental conflict of interest in the case of money management firms and brokerage houses and the two should operate as independent entities.

Business scandal and resignation
In 1984 the United States Attorney for the Middle District of Pennsylvania opened a federal criminal probe into an E. F. Hutton check-overdrafting scheme that operated between 1980 and 1982 and which earned the company millions of dollars in illegal gains. As a result, the company's reputation was severely tarnished and it began losing clients which quickly led to financial difficulties. In December 1986, the company pleaded guilty to 2,000 felony counts, but neither Robert Fomon or any Hutton executives were charged. In early 1987, Hutton's Board of Directors forced Robert Fomon to step down as head of the company.

E. F. Hutton & Co. never recovered from the damage the scandal caused and in 1988 it was acquired by Shearson Lehman Brothers .

Robert Fomon died following a heart attack at a Palm Beach, Florida, hospital on May 31, 2000, at age seventy-five.

References

 June 3, 2000 New York Times obituary for Robert M. Fomon
 September 30, 1985 The Miami News article on Robert Fomom

1925 births
2000 deaths
University of Southern California alumni
Stock and commodity market managers
American racehorse owners and breeders
Businesspeople from Chicago
Stockbrokers
20th-century American businesspeople
American chief executives of financial services companies

Robert M. Fomon


The Kastner train consisted of 35 cattle wagons that left Budapest on 30 June 1944, during the German occupation of Hungary, carrying over 1,600 Jews temporarily to Bergen-Belsen and safety in Switzerland after large ransom paid by Swiss Orthodox Jew Yitzchak Sternbuch, Recha Sternbuch's husband. The train was named after Rudolf Kastner (aka Kasztner), a Hungarian-Jewish lawyer and journalist, who was a founding member of the Budapest Aid and Rescue Committee, a group that smuggled Jews out of occupied Europe during the Holocaust. Kastner negotiated with Adolf Eichmann, the German SS officer in charge of deporting Hungary's Jews to Auschwitz in German-occupied Poland, to allow over 1,600 Jews to escape in exchange for gold, diamonds, and cash.

The train was organized during the deportations to Auschwitz in May–July 1944 of 437,000 Hungarian Jews, three-quarters of whom were murdered in the gas chambers. Its passengers were chosen from a wide range of social classes, and included around 273 children, many of them orphaned. The wealthiest 150 passengers paid $1,500 () each to cover their own and the others' escape. After a journey of several weeks, including a diversion to the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp in Germany, 1,670 surviving passengers reached Switzerland in August and December 1944.

Kastner emigrated to Israel in 1947. He was a spokesman for the Minister of Trade and Industry when his negotiations with Eichmann became the subject of controversy. Kastner had been told in April or May 1944 of the mass murder that was taking place inside Auschwitz. Allegations spread after the war that he had done nothing to warn the wider community, but had focused instead on trying to save a smaller number. The inclusion on the train of his family, as well as 388 people from the ghetto in his home town of Kolozsvár, reinforced the view of his critics that his actions had been self-serving.

The allegations culminated in Kastner being accused in a newsletter of having been a Nazi collaborator. The government sued for libel on his behalf, and the defendant's lawyer turned the trial into an indictment of the Mapai (Labour) leadership and its alleged failure to help Europe's Jews. The judge found against the government, ruling that Kastner had "sold his soul to the devil" by negotiating with Eichmann and selecting some Jews to be saved, while failing to alert others. Kastner was assassinated in Tel Aviv in March 1957. Nine months later, the Supreme Court of Israel overturned most of the lower court's ruling, stating in a 4–1 decision that the judge had "erred seriously".

Organizer

Rudolf Kastner (1906–1957), also known as Israel Rezső Kasztner, was born in Kolozsvár, Austria-Hungary. Kastner attended law school, then worked as a journalist for Új Kelet as a sports reporter and political commentator. He also became an assistant to Dr. József Fischer, a member of the Romanian parliament and leading member of the National Jewish Party, and in 1934, he married Fischer's daughter, Erzsébet.

Kastner gained a reputation as a political fixer, and joined the Ihud party, later known as Mapai, a left-wing Zionist party. He also helped to set up the Aid and Rescue Committee, along with Joel and Hansi Brand, Samuel Springmann, Ottó Komoly, a Budapest engineer, Ernő Szilágyi from the Hashomer Hatzair, and several others.

According to Joel Brand, the group helped 22,000–25,000 Jews in Nazi-occupied Europe reach the relative safety of Hungary between 1941 and March 1944, before the German invasion of that country on 19 March that year.

Passengers

The passengers were chosen by a committee that included Kastner, Ottó Komoly, and Hansi Brand from the Aid and Rescue Committee, as well as Zsigmond Leb, a former president of the Orthodox community in Cluj. Israeli legal scholar Asher Maoz writes that Kastner told the Zionist Congress after the war, in a report he wrote about the actions of the Aid and Rescue Committee, that he saw the train as a "Noah's ark", because it contained a cross-section of the Jewish community, and in particular people who had worked in public service.

According to Jeno Kölb, a passenger who kept a diary, there were 972 female and 712 male passengers in all; the oldest was 82, the youngest was but a few days old. Ladislaus Löb, another passenger (see right), writes that the exact number on board when the train left Budapest remains uncertain, because in the early stages of the journey, several passengers disembarked, fearing that the train would end up in Auschwitz, while others took their places. Several women threw their young children on board at the last minute. What is known is that 1,684 passengers were registered when the train (unexpectedly) reached the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp near Hannover on 9 July.

According to Löb, the passengers included 199 Zionists from Transylvania and 230 from Budapest, and 126 Orthodox and ultra-Orthodox Jews, among them 40 rabbis; one of the rabbis was Joel Teitelbaum, the Satmar rebbe. There were scholars, artists, housewives, peasants, farmers, industrialists, bankers, journalists, teachers, and nurses. The writer Béla Zsolt was on board, as was the psychiatrist Léopold Szondi, the opera singer Dezső Ernster, the artist István Irsai, and Peter Munk, who became a businessman in Canada. There were also 388 people from Kastner's home town of Cluj, including family members. His mother, Helen Kastner, was given a place, as was his brother Ernő, his pregnant wife Bogyó (she gave birth to a daughter, Zsuzsi, in Switzerland in December 1944), along with her father József Fischer, and Bogyó's other relatives. Erno Szilagyi of the Aid and Rescue Committee was on board, as were Joel Brand's mother, sister, and niece Margit, and the daughters of Ottó Komoly and Samuel Stern.

Porter writes that each passenger was allowed to bring two changes of clothing, six sets of underwear, and food for 10 days. Three suitcases of cash, jewels, gold, and shares of stock, amounting to about $1,000 per person (), were paid to SS officer Kurt Becher in ransom.

Journey

Linz, Austria

According to Bauer, the train was stopped at the Hungarian-Austrian border, where it could head west, or east to Auschwitz. The passengers started panicking; he alleges that Joel Teitelbaum and his party sent off messages asking people to save them, and only them.

Hershel Friedman, in his book "Mei'Afeiloo Loir Goodel" (מאפילה לאור גדול) about Teitelbaum, shows documentation that Teitelbaum tried, together with Chiem Roth, to save the whole train. Eichmann decided, for reasons that remain unclear, to divert the train to the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp in northwest Germany, near Hannover.

The train passed through Linz, in Austria, where passengers disembarked and were sent to a military delousing station for medical inspections and showers. They were forced to strip and stand naked for hours waiting to see medical personnel or go into the showers; the women were subjected to intimate examinations by the doctors, supposedly in a search for lice. They also had their heads and pubic regions shaved.

Several passengers believed the showers would turn out to be gas chambers, something that Löb writes one of the SS guards confirmed with a grin.

Bauer cites this fear as evidence that the Hungarian-Jewish community was well aware of the information about the gas chambers inside Auschwitz. Between August 1943 and May 1944, Rudolf Vrba and three other Auschwitz escapees had passed information about the gas chambers to Jewish and other officials; it was this information that Vrba believed Kastner had access to, but did not distribute widely enough.

Bergen-Belsen, Germany

When the train reached Bergen-Belsen on Sunday, 9 July, the passengers were taken to a special section, what would be known as the Ungarnlager (Hungarian camp), where they were held for weeks, and in some cases months. Löb writes that their daily diet consisted of 330 grams of a grey, dense bread, 15 grams of margarine, 25 grams of jam, 1 litre of vegetable (mostly turnip) soup, 1.5 litres of coffee substitute, and sometimes cheese or sausage, with milk and extra rations for children under 14. The group was allowed to organize itself and its activities. As they settled in, the men elected Józef Fischer to be president, and ran daily activities. With so many intellectuals among the passengers, there were regular poetry readings, and lectures in history, philosophy, and religious education. The living arrangements were primitive, with 130–160 people crammed into each room. Ladislaus Löb describes a typical night, based on a diary kept by Szidonia Devecseri, another passenger:

The rabbi's wife tries in vain to stop her children, aged four and eight, fighting in her bunk. Her neighbours, kept awake by the din, swear at them. A woman screams because a mouse has run over her face. Bedbugs drop from the higher bunks onto the lower. Another woman screams because the little boy in the bunk above her has spilled the jam jar he uses as a chamber pot all over her. Somebody has whooping cough. Another little boy begs his mother not to beat him because in his sleep he wet the bunk he shares with her. She does, and he squeals. A former night-club dancer tells dirty stories about her ex-colleagues to the refined Orthodox language teacher, who does not know whether to block her ears or to laugh. A spoilt rich wife has hung her clothes on all available nails, leaving no room for anybody else. The passage ends with: "In 24 out of 24 hours, there is never a minute's silence ..."

Switzerland

The first batch of 318 passengers arrived in Switzerland on 18 August 1944, and the rest in December. It is reported that approximately 1,350 passengers arrived in Switzerland in December 1944. There were several births and deaths, and about 17 continued to be detained in Bergen-Belsen on various pretexts. For example, some of the original passengers who had declared themselves Romanian upon arriving at Bergen-Belsen were forced to stay after King Michael overthrew the pro-Axis government of Ion Antonescu in Romania, aligning the nation with the Allies. The total saved was about 1,670. The group was housed in the Swiss village of Caux, near Montreux, in requisitioned former luxury hotels. The Orthodox Jews were housed in the Regina (formerly the Grand Hotel), and the others in the Hotel Esplanade (formerly Caux Palace).

Kastner trial

The transport played a major role in the Kastner trial in Israel in 1954, in which the government of Israel sued Malchiel Gruenwald, a political pamphleteer, for libel, after he self-published a pamphlet charging Kastner, by then an Israeli government spokesman, with collaboration. A major detail of Gruenwald's allegations was that Kastner had agreed to the rescue in return for remaining silent about the fate of the mass of Hungarian Jews. This accusation was accepted by the court, leading Judge Benjamin Halevi to declare that Kastner had "sold his soul to the devil". Most of the ruling was overturned by the Supreme Court of Israel posthumously, in 1958. The Court upheld Judge Halevi's verdict on the manner in which Kastner offered testimony after the war on behalf of SS officer Kurt Becher.

Kastner was assassinated outside his home in Tel Aviv in March 1957 as a result of the decision and the subsequent publicity.

See also
 Killing Kasztner (2008)
 Transport of concentration camp inmates to Tyrol, a Nazi attempt to move high-profile prisoners from Dachau concentration camp away from the advancing Western Allies, in April 1945

References

Sources

 Bauer, Yehuda (1994). Jews for Sale? Nazi-Jewish Negotiations, 1933–1945. Yale University Press.
 Braham, Randolph (2004). "Rescue Operations in Hungary: Myths and Realities", East European Quarterly, 38(2): pp. 173–203.
 Cohen, Boaz (2010). "The Holocaust in Israel's Public Square", in Peter Hayes and John K. Roth (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Holocaust Studies. Oxford University Press.
 Hilberg, Raul (2003) [1961]. The Destruction of the European Jews. Yale University Press.
 Kárný, Miroslav (1998) [1994]. "The Vrba and Wetzler report", in Michael Berenbaum and Yisrael Gutman (eds.). Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp. Indiana University Press.
 Kastner, Rudolf (1945). Der Bericht des jüdischen Rettungskomitees aus Budapest 1942-1945. Vaadat Ezra Vö-Hazalah Bö-Budapest (translated by Egon Mayer as The Report of the Jewish Rescue Committee 1942-1945, Center for Jewish Studies).
 Löb, Ladislaus (2009). Rezso Kasztner. The Daring Rescue of Hungarian Jews: A Survivor's Account. Random House/Pimlico; first published as Dealing with Satan: Rezso Kasztner's Daring Rescue Mission (2008). Jonathan Cape.
 Maoz, Asher (2000). "Historical Adjudication: Courts of Law, Commissions of Inquiry, and 'Historical Truth'", Law and History Review, Volume 18, Number 3, Fall.
 Porter, Anna (2007). Kastner's Train. Douglas & MacIntyre.
 Reisz, Matthew (28 February 2008). "A tainted saviour?", Times Higher Education.
 Time magazine (11 July 1955). "On Trial"
 Time magazine (27 January 1958). "Exoneration of Dr. Kastner".
 Vrba, Rudolf (2002). I Escaped from Auschwitz. Barricade Books.
 Weitz, Yechiam (1996). "The Holocaust on Trial: The Impact of the Kasztner and Eichmann Trials on Israeli Society", Israel Studies 1(2), pp. 1–26.

Further reading
 Bilsky, Leora (2001). "Judging Evil in the Trial of Kastner", Law and History Review, Vol 19, No. 1, Spring.
 Bilsky, Leora (2004). Transformative Justice: Israeli Identity on Trial. University of Michigan Press.
 Blumenthal, Ralph (21 October 2009). "Once Reviled as Nazi Collaborator, Now a Savior", The New York Times.
 Hecht, Ben (1997) [1961]. Perfidy. Milah Press.
 Mayer, Egon. "Kastner memorial site"
 Segev, Tom (2000). The Seventh Million: The Israelis and the Holocaust. Owl Books.

External links
 List of passengers at the National Library of Israel.

Blood for goods
Jewish emigration from Nazi Germany
Jewish Swiss history
Rescue of Jews during the Holocaust
1944 in Hungary
1944 in Switzerland

Kastner train