Rebellion is a violent uprising against one's government. A rebel is a person who engages in a rebellion.

Classification

An insurrection is an armed rebellion.

A revolt is a rebellion with an aim to replace a government, authority figure, law, or policy.

If a government does not recognize rebels as belligerents then they are insurgents and the revolt is an insurgency. In a larger conflict the rebels may be recognized as belligerents without their government being recognized by the established government, in which case the conflict becomes a civil war.

Civil resistance movements have often aimed at, and brought about, the fall of a government or head of state, and in these cases could be considered a form of rebellion. In many of these cases, the opposition movement saw itself not only as nonviolent, but also as upholding their country's constitutional system against a government that was unlawful, for example, if it had refused to acknowledge its defeat in an election. Thus the term rebel does not always capture the element in some of these movements of acting to defend the rule of law and constitutionalism.

Causes

Macro approach
The following theories broadly build on the Marxist interpretation of rebellion. Rebellion is studied, in Theda Skocpol's words, by analyzing "objective relationships and conflicts among variously situated groups and nations, rather than the interests, outlooks, or ideologies of particular actors in revolutions".

Marxist view
Karl Marx's analysis of revolutions sees such expression of political violence not as anomic, episodic outbursts of discontents but rather the symptomatic expression of a particular set of objective but fundamentally contradicting class-based relations of power. The central tenet of Marxist philosophy, as expressed in , is the analysis of society's mode of production (societal organization of technology and labor) and the relationships between people and their material conditions. Marx writes about "the hidden structure of society" that must be elucidated through an examination of "the direct relationship of the owners of the conditions of production to the direct producers". The conflict that arises from producers being dispossessed of the means of production, and therefore subject to the possessors who may appropriate their products, is at the origin of the revolution. The inner imbalance within these modes of production is derived from the conflicting modes of organization, such as capitalism emerging within feudalism, or more contemporarily socialism arising within capitalism. The dynamics engineered by these class frictions help class consciousness root itself in the collective imaginary. For example, the development of the bourgeoisie class went from an oppressed merchant class to urban independence, eventually gaining enough power to represent the state as a whole. Social movements, thus, are determined by an exogenous set of circumstances. The proletariat must also, according to Marx, go through the same process of self-determination which can only be achieved by friction against the bourgeoisie. In Marx's theory, revolutions are the "locomotives of history" because revolution ultimately leads to the overthrow of a parasitic ruling class and its antiquated mode of production. Later, rebellion attempts to replace it with a new system of political economy, one that is better suited to the new ruling class, thus enabling societal progress. The cycle of revolution, thus, replaces one mode of production with another through the constant class friction.

Ted Gurr: Roots of political violence
In his book Why Men Rebel, Ted Gurr looks at the roots of political violence itself applied to a rebellion framework. He defines political violence as: "all collective attacks within a political community against the political regime, its actors [...] or its policies. The concept represents a set of events, a common property of which is the actual or threatened use of violence". Gurr sees in violence a voice of anger that manifests itself against the established order. More precisely, individuals become angry when they feel what Gurr labels as relative deprivation, meaning the feeling of getting less than one is entitled to. He labels it formally as the "perceived discrepancy between value expectations and value capabilities". Gurr differentiates between three types of relative deprivation:
 Decremental deprivation: one's capacities decrease when expectations remain high. One example of this is the proliferation and thus depreciation of the value of higher education.
 Aspirational Deprivation: one's capacities stay the same when expectations rise. An example would be a first-generation college student lacking the contacts and network to obtain a higher paying job while watching her better-prepared colleagues bypass her.
 Progressive deprivation: expectation and capabilities increase but the former cannot keep up. A good example would be an automotive worker being increasingly marginalized by the automatization of the assembly line.
Anger is thus comparative. One of his key insights is that "The potential for collective violence varies strongly with the intensity and scope of relative deprivation among members of a collectivity". This means that different individuals within society will have different propensities to rebel based on the particular internalization of their situation. As such, Gurr differentiates between three types of political violence:
 Turmoil when only the mass population encounters relative deprivation;
 Conspiracy when the population but especially the elite encounters relative deprivation;
 Internal War, which includes revolution. In this case, the degree of organization is much higher than turmoil, and the revolution is intrinsically spread to all sections of society, unlike the conspiracy.

Charles Tilly: Centrality of collective action
In From Mobilization to Revolution, Charles Tilly argues that political violence is a normal and endogenous reaction to competition for power between different groups within society. "Collective violence", Tilly writes, "is the product of just normal processes of competition among groups in order to obtain the power and implicitly to fulfill their desires". He proposes two models to analyze political violence:
 The polity model takes into account government and groups jockeying for control over power. Thus, both the organizations holding power and the ones challenging them are included. Tilly labels those two groups "members" and "challengers".
 The mobilization model aims to describe the behavior of one single party to the political struggle for power. Tilly further divides the model into two sub-categories, one that deals with the internal dynamics of the group, and the other that is concerned with the "external relations" of the entity with other organizations and/or the government. According to Tilly, the cohesiveness of a group mainly relies on the strength of common interests and the degree of organization. Thus, to answer Gurr, anger alone does not automatically create political violence. Political action is contingent on the capacity to organize and unite. It is far from irrational and spontaneous.
Revolutions are included in this theory, although they remain for Tilly particularly extreme since the challenger(s) aim for nothing less than full control over power. The "revolutionary moment occurs when the population needs to choose to obey either the government or an alternative body who is engaged with the government in a zero-sum game. This is what Tilly calls "multiple sovereignty". The success of a revolutionary movement hinges on "the formation of coalitions between members of the polity and the contenders advancing exclusive alternative claims to control over Government.".

Chalmers Johnson and societal values
For Chalmers Johnson, rebellions are not so much the product of political violence or collective action but in "the analysis of viable, functioning societies". In a quasi-biological manner, Johnson sees revolutions as symptoms of pathologies within the societal fabric. A healthy society, meaning a "value-coordinated social system" does not experience political violence. Johnson's equilibrium is at the intersection between the need for society to adapt to changes but at the same time firmly grounded in selective fundamental values. The legitimacy of political order, he posits, relies exclusively on its compliance with these societal values and in its capacity to integrate and adapt to any change. Rigidity is, in other words, inadmissible. Johnson writes "to make a revolution is to accept violence for the purpose of causing the system to change; more exactly, it is the purposive implementation of a strategy of violence in order to effect a change in social structure". The aim of a revolution is to re-align a political order on new societal values introduced by an externality that the system itself has not been able to process. Rebellions automatically must face a certain amount of coercion because by becoming "de-synchronized", the now illegitimate political order will have to use coercion to maintain its position. A simplified example would be the French Revolution when the Parisian Bourgeoisie did not recognize the core values and outlook of the King as synchronized with its own orientations. More than the King itself, what really sparked the violence was the uncompromising intransigence of the ruling class. Johnson emphasizes "the necessity of investigating a system's value structure and its problems in order to conceptualize the revolutionary situation in any meaningful way".

Theda Skocpol and the autonomy of the state
Skocpol introduces the concept of the social revolution, to be contrasted with a political revolution. While the latter aims to change the polity, the former is "rapid, basic transformations of a society's state and class structures; and they are accompanied and in part carried through by class-based revolts from below". Social revolutions are a grassroots movement by nature because they do more than change the modalities of power, they aim to transform the fundamental social structure of society. As a corollary, this means that some "revolutions" may cosmetically change the organization of the monopoly over power without engineering any true change in the social fabric of society. Her analysis is limited to studying the French, Russian, and Chinese revolutions. Skocpol identifies three stages of the revolution in these cases (which she believes can be extrapolated and generalized), each accordingly accompanied by specific structural factors which in turn influence the social results of the political action:
 The Collapse of the Old-Regime State: this is an automatic consequence of certain structural conditions. She highlights the importance of international military and economic competition as well as the pressure of the misfunctioning of domestic affairs. More precisely, she sees the breakdown of the governing structures of society influenced by two theoretical actors, the "landed upper class" and the "imperial state". Both could be considered as "partners in exploitation" but in reality competed for resources: the state (monarchs) seek to build up military and economic power to ascertain their geopolitical influence. The upper class works in a logic of profit maximization, meaning preventing as much as possible the state to extract resources. All three revolutions occurred, Skocpol argues, because states failed to be able to "mobilize extraordinary resources from the society and implement in the process reforms requiring structural transformations". The apparently contradicting policies were mandated by a unique set of geopolitical competition and modernization. "Revolutionary political crises occurred because of the unsuccessful attempts of the Bourbon, Romanov, and Manchu regimes to cope with foreign pressures." Skocpol further concludes "the upshot was the disintegration of centralized administrative and military machinery that had theretofore provided the solely unified bulwark of social and political order".
 Peasant Uprisings: more than simply a challenge by the landed upper class in a difficult context, the state needs to be challenged by mass peasant uprisings in order to fall. These uprisings must be aimed not at the political structures per se but at the upper class itself so that the political revolution becomes a social one as well. Skocpol quotes Barrington Moore who famously wrote: "peasants [...] provided the dynamite to bring down the old building". Peasant uprisings are more effective depending on two given structural socioeconomic conditions: the level of autonomy (from both an economic and political point of view) peasant communities enjoy, and the degree of direct control the upper class on local politics. In other words, peasants must be able to have some degree of agency in order to be able to rebel. If the coercive structures of the state and/or the landowners keep a very close check on peasant activity, then there is no space to foment dissent.
 Societal Transformation: this is the third and decisive step after the state organization has been seriously weakened and peasant revolts become widespread against landlords. The paradox of the three revolutions Skocpol studies is that stronger centralized and bureaucratic states emerge after the revolts. The exact parameters depend, again, on structural factors as opposed to voluntarist factors: in Russia, the new state found most support in the industrial base, rooting itself in cities. In China, most of the support for the revolt had been in the countryside, thus the new polity was grounded in rural areas. In France, the peasantry was not organized enough, and the urban centers not potent enough so that the new state was not firmly grounded in anything, partially explaining its artificiality.
Here is a summary of the causes and consequences of social revolutions in these three countries, according to Skocpol:

Microfoundational evidence on causes
The following theories are all based on Mancur Olson's work in The Logic of Collective Action, a 1965 book that conceptualizes the inherent problem with an activity that has concentrated costs and diffuse benefits. In this case, the benefits of rebellion are seen as a public good, meaning one that is non-excludable and non-rivalrous.  Indeed, the political benefits are generally shared by all in society if a rebellion is successful, not just the individuals that have partaken in the rebellion itself. Olson thus challenges the assumption that simple interests in common are all that is necessary for collective action. In fact, he argues the "free rider" possibility, a term that means to reap the benefits without paying the price, will deter rational individuals from collective action. That is, unless there is a clear benefit, a rebellion will not happen en masse. Thus, Olson shows that "selective incentives", only made accessible to individuals participating in the collective effort, can solve the free rider problem.

The Rational Peasant

Samuel L. Popkin builds on Olson's argument in The Rational Peasant: The Political Economy of Rural Society in Vietnam. His theory is based on the figure of a hyper rational peasant that bases his decision to join (or not) a rebellion uniquely on a cost-benefit analysis. This formalist view of the collective action problem stresses the importance of individual economic rationality and self-interest: a peasant, according to Popkin, will disregard the ideological dimension of a social movement and focus instead on whether or not it will bring any practical benefit to him. According to Popkin, peasant society is based on a precarious structure of economic instability. Social norms, he writes, are "malleable, renegotiated, and shifting in accord with considerations of power and strategic interaction among individuals" Indeed, the constant insecurity and inherent risk to the peasant condition, due to the peculiar nature of the patron-client relationship that binds the peasant to his landowner, forces the peasant to look inwards when he has a choice to make. Popkin argues that peasants rely on their "private, family investment for their long run security and that they will be interested in short term gain vis-à-vis the village. They will attempt to improve their long-run security by moving to a position with higher income and less variance". Popkin stresses this "investor logic" that one may not expect in agrarian societies, usually seen as pre-capitalist communities where traditional social and power structures prevent the accumulation of capital. Yet, the selfish determinants of collective action are, according to Popkin, a direct product of the inherent instability of peasant life. The goal of a laborer, for example, will be to move to a tenant position, then smallholder, then landlord; where there is less variance and more income. Voluntarism is thus non-existent in such communities.

Popkin singles out four variables that impact individual participation:
 Contribution to the expenditure of resources: collective action has a cost in terms of contribution, and especially if it fails (an important consideration with regards to rebellion)
 Rewards : the direct (more income) and indirect (less oppressive central state) rewards for collective action
 Marginal impact of the peasant's contribution to the success of collective action
 Leadership "viability and trust" : to what extent the resources pooled will be effectively used.
Without any moral commitment to the community, this situation will engineer free riders. Popkin argues that selective incentives are necessary to overcome this problem.

Opportunity cost of rebellion
Political Scientist Christopher Blattman and World Bank economist Laura Ralston identify rebellious activity as an "occupational choice". They draw a parallel between criminal activity and rebellion, arguing that the risks and potential payoffs an individual must calculate when making the decision to join such a movement remains similar between the two activities. In both cases, only a selected few reap important benefits, while most of the members of the group do not receive similar payoffs. The choice to rebel is inherently linked with its opportunity cost, namely what an individual is ready to give up in order to rebel. Thus, the available options beside rebellious or criminal activity matter just as much as the rebellion itself when the individual makes the decision. Blattman and Ralston, however, recognize that "a poor person's best strategy" might be both rebellion illicit and legitimate activities at the same time. Individuals, they argue, can often have a varied "portofolio" of activities, suggesting that they all operate on a rational, profit maximizing logic. The authors conclude that the best way to fight rebellion is to increase its opportunity cost, both by more enforcement but also by minimizing the potential material gains of a rebellion.

Selective incentives based on group membership
The decision to join a rebellion can be based on the prestige and social status associated with membership in the rebellious group. More than material incentives for the individual, rebellions offer their members club goods, public goods that are reserved only for the members inside that group. Economist Eli Berman and Political Scientist David D. Laitin's study of radical religious groups show that the appeal of club goods can help explain individual membership. Berman and Laitin discuss suicide operations, meaning acts that have the highest cost for an individual. They find that in such a framework, the real danger to an organization is not volunteering but preventing defection. Furthermore, the decision to enroll in such high stakes organization can be rationalized. Berman and Laitin show that religious organizations supplant the state when it fails to provide an acceptable quality of public goods such a public safety, basic infrastructure, access to utilities, or schooling. Suicide operations "can be explained as a costly signal of "commitment" to the community". They further note "Groups less adept at extracting signals of commitment (sacrifices) may not be able to consistently enforce incentive compatibility." Thus, rebellious groups can organize themselves to ask of members proof of commitment to the cause. Club goods serve not so much to coax individuals into joining but to prevent defection.

Greed vs grievance model

World Bank economists Paul Collier and Anke Hoeffler compare two dimensions of incentives:
 Greed rebellion: "motivated by predation of the rents from primary commodity exports, subject to an economic calculus of costs and a military survival constraint".
 Grievance rebellion: "motivated by hatreds which might be intrinsic to ethnic and religious differences, or reflected objective resentments such as domination by an ethnic majority, political repression, or economic inequality". The two main sources of grievance are political exclusion and inequality.
Vollier and Hoeffler find that the model based on grievance variables systematically fails to predict past conflicts, while the model based on greed performs well. The authors posit that the high cost of risk to society is not taken into account seriously by the grievance model: individuals are fundamentally risk-averse. However, they allow that conflicts create grievances, which in turn can become risk factors. Contrary to established beliefs, they also find that a multiplicity of ethnic communities make society safer, since individuals will be automatically more cautious, at the opposite of the grievance model predictions. Finally, the authors also note that the grievances expressed by members of the diaspora of a community in turmoil has an important on the continuation of violence. Both greed and grievance thus need to be included in the reflection.

The Moral Economy of the Peasant

Spearheaded by political scientist and anthropologist James C. Scott in his book The Moral Economy of the Peasant, the moral economy school considers moral variables such as social norms, moral values, interpretation of justice, and conception of duty to the community as the prime influencers of the decision to rebel. This perspective still adheres to Olson's framework, but it considers different variables to enter the cost/benefit analysis: the individual is still believed to be rational, albeit not on material but moral grounds.

Early conceptualization: E. P. Thompson and bread riots in England
British historian E.P. Thompson is often cited as being the first to use the term "moral economy", he said in his 1991 publication that the term had been in use since the 18th century. In his 1971 Past & Present journal article, Moral Economy of the English Crowd in the Eighteenth Century, he discussed English bread riots, and other localized form of rebellion by English peasants throughout the 18th century. He said that these events have been routinely dismissed as "riotous", with the connotation of being disorganized, spontaneous, undirected, and undisciplined. He wrote that, on the contrary, such riots involved a coordinated peasant action, from the pillaging of food convoys to the seizure of grain shops. A scholar such as Popkin has argued that peasants were trying to gain material benefits, such as more food. Thompson sees a legitimization factor, meaning "a belief that [the peasants] were defending traditional rights and customs".  Thompson goes on to write: "[the riots were] legitimized by the assumptions of an older moral economy, which taught the immorality of any unfair method of forcing up the price of provisions by profiteering upon the necessities of the people". In 1991, twenty years after his original publication, Thompson said that his, "object of analysis was the mentalité, or, as [he] would prefer, the political culture, the expectations, traditions, and indeed, superstitions of the working population most frequently involved in actions in the market". The opposition between a traditional, paternalist, and the communitarian set of values clashing with the inverse liberal, capitalist, and market-derived ethics is central to explain rebellion.

James C. Scott and the formalization of the moral economy argument
In his 1976 book The Moral Economy of the Peasant: Rebellion and Subsistence in Southeast Asia, James C. Scott looks at the impact of exogenous economic and political shocks on peasant communities in Southeast Asia. Scott finds that peasants are mostly in the business of surviving and producing enough to subsist. Therefore, any extractive regime needs to respect this careful equilibrium. He labels this phenomenon the "subsistence ethic". A landowner operating in such communities is seen to have the moral duty to prioritize the peasant's subsistence over his constant benefit. According to Scott, the powerful colonial state accompanied by market capitalism did not respect this fundamental hidden law in peasant societies. Rebellious movements occurred as the reaction to an emotional grief, a moral outrage.

Other non-material incentives
Blattman and Ralston recognize the importance of immaterial selective incentives, such as anger, outrage, and injustice ("grievance") in the roots of rebellions. These variables, they argue, are far from being irrational, as they are sometimes presented. They identify three main types of grievance arguments:

 Intrinsic incentives holds that "injustice or perceived transgression generates an intrinsic willingness to punish or seek retribution". More than material rewards, individuals are naturally and automatically prompted to fight for justice if they feel they have been wronged. The ultimatum game is an excellent illustration: player one receives $10 and must split it with another player who doesn't get the chance to determine how much he receives, but only if the deal is made or not (if he refuses, everyone loses their money). Rationally, player 2 should take whatever the deal is because it is better in absolute term ($1 more remains $1 more). However, player 2 is most likely unwilling to accept less than 2 or 2 dollars, meaning that they are willing to pay a-$2 for justice to be respected. This game, according to Blattman and Ralston, represents "the expressive pleasure people gain from punishing an injustice".
 Loss aversion holds that "people tend to evaluate their satisfaction relative to a reference point, and that they are 'loss adverse". Individuals prefer not losing over the risky strategy of making gains. There is a substantial subjective part to this, however, as some may realize alone and decide that they are comparatively less well off than a neighbor, for example. To "fix" this gap, individuals will in turn be ready to take great risks so as to not enshrine a loss.
 Frustration-aggression: this model holds that the immediate emotional reactions to highly stressful environments do not obey to any "direct utility benefit but rather a more impulsive and emotional response to a threat". There are limits to this theory: violent action is to a large extent a product of goals by an individual which are in turn determined by a set of preferences. Yet, this approach shows that contextual elements like economic precarity have a non-negligible impact on the conditions of the decisions to rebel at minimum.

Recruitment
Stathis N. Kalyvas, a political science professor at Yale University, argues that political violence is heavily influenced by hyperlocal socio-economic factors, from the mundane traditional family rivalries to repressed grudges. Rebellion, or any sort of political violence, are not binary conflicts but must be understood as interactions between public and private identities and actions. The "convergence of local motives and supralocal imperatives" make studying and theorizing rebellion a very complex affair, at the intersection between the political and the private, the collective and the individual.
Kalyvas argues that we often try to group political conflicts according to two structural paradigms:
 The idea that political violence, and more specifically rebellion, is characterized by a complete breakdown of authority and an anarchic state. This is inspired by Thomas Hobbes' views. The approach sees rebellion as being motivated by greed and loot, using violence to break down the power structures of society.
 The idea that all political violence is inherently motivated by an abstract group of loyalties and beliefs, "whereby the political enemy becomes a private adversary only by virtue of prior collective and impersonal enmity". Violence is thus not a "man to man" affair as much as a "state to state" struggle, if not an "idea vs idea" conflict.
Kalyvas' key insight is that the central vs periphery dynamic is fundamental in political conflicts. Any individual actor, Kalyvas posits, enters into a calculated alliance with the collective. Rebellions thus cannot be analyzed in molar categories, nor should we assume that individuals are automatically in line with the rest of the actors simply by virtue of ideological, religious, ethnic, or class cleavage. The agency is located both within the collective and in the individual, in the universal and the local. Kalyvas writes: "Alliance entails a transaction between supralocal and local actors, whereby the former supply the later with external muscle, thus allowing them to win decisive local advantage, in exchange the former rely on local conflicts to recruit and motivate supporters and obtain local control, resources, and information- even when their ideological agenda is opposed to localism". Individuals will thus aim to use the rebellion in order to gain some sort of local advantage, while the collective actors will aim to gain power. Violence is a mean as opposed to a goal, according to Kalyvas.

The greater takeaway from this central/local analytical lens is that violence is not an anarchic tactic or a manipulation by an ideology, but a conversation between the two. Rebellions are "concatenations of multiple and often disparate local cleavages, more or less loosely arranged around the master cleavage". Any pre-conceived explanation or theory of a conflict must not be placated on a situation, lest one will construct a reality that adapts itself to his pre-conceived idea. Kalyvas thus argues that political conflict is not always political in the sense that they cannot be reduced to a certain discourse, decisions, or ideologies from the "center" of collective action. Instead, the focus must be on "local cleavages and intracommunity dynamics". Furthermore, rebellion is not "a mere mechanism that opens up the floodgates to random and anarchical private violence". Rather, it is the result of a careful and precarious alliance between local motivations and collective vectors to help the individual cause.

See also
 List of revolutions and rebellions
 List of active rebel groups

Footnotes

References

Sources

External links

Causes of war
Peace and conflict studies
Political science theories

Rebellion


William Edward Nicholson  (26 January 1919 – 23 October 2004) was an English football player, coach, manager and scout who had a 55 year association with Tottenham Hotspur. He is considered one of the most important figures in the club's history, winning eight major trophies in his 16-year managerial spell, and most notably guiding the team to their Double-winning season of 1960–61.

Early life
Born in Scarborough, North Riding of Yorkshire, the eighth of nine children, Nicholson was a pupil at the town's Gladstone Road Junior School before attending Scarborough High School for Boys. He worked briefly in a laundry after leaving school, but at the age of 17 he was invited to a trial at Tottenham Hotspur, where he arrived on 16 March 1936 after playing for Young Liberals and Scarborough Working Men's Club in his youth. After a month's trial, he was taken on as a ground-staff boy at £2 a week. He played for Spurs' nursery club Northfleet United and won a Kent Senior Cup winners medal in the final against Dover. He signed as a full professional for Tottenham in August 1938, and played his first Football League game at Ewood Park against Blackburn Rovers on 22 October 1938.

Playing career
Nicholson joined the Durham Light Infantry on the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939. As a professional footballer he was sent on a Physical Education course and was made a sergeant-instructor, training new intakes of troops throughout the war. During the Second World War he was a guest player for several clubs including Newcastle United where he played on 19 occasions. Although the war probably cost him half his playing career, he did not regret it as his experiences taught him the man-management skills which were to have such a great effect later in his career.

In 1946, Nicholson returned to the Spurs first team, playing at centre half for two seasons, then moving to right half for a further six years. He was a vital part of the legendary "push and run" Tottenham team which won the league championship in the 1950–51 season.

He made his full international debut for England on 19 May 1951 against Portugal at Goodison Park, Liverpool, and made an immediate impression by scoring with his first touch of the ball after only 19 seconds. This proved to be his only international appearance due to injuries, his habit of putting his club before his country, and the dominance of Billy Wright. Nicholson is quoted as saying "My duty is to get fit for Tottenham. Well, they pay my wages, don't they?". Of his only appearance he said "Stan Pearson nodded it back and I ran on to let go a first time shot which, from the moment I hit it, I knew was going in. But for the next game they brought back Billy Wright and I accepted that because he was the better player". Nicholson is the only player to have scored for England with his first touch in international football and subsequently never play at that level again.

Managerial career

Nicholson took a Football Association (FA) coaching course and joined the coaching staff at Tottenham upon his retirement as a player. He quickly rose through the ranks of the coaching staff to become first team coach in 1955. He subsequently assisted England manager Walter Winterbottom at the 1958 FIFA World Cup in Sweden.

On 11 October 1958, Nicholson was called to the Tottenham boardroom and appointed manager of the club in succession to Jimmy Anderson. At the time the club was sixth from the bottom of the First Division and there was little indication that the greatest period in the history of the club was about to begin. That afternoon, in the club's first game under Nicholson's management, Tottenham Hotspur beat Everton 10–4 at White Hart Lane. This represented a new club record, surpassed only by their 13–2 (10–1 at half-time) FA Cup replay win over Crewe Alexandra in the 1959–60 season.

Less than two years later Spurs wrote their place in the history books when they won the Football League championship and the FA Cup in the 1960–61 season, the first "double" of the twentieth century. Spurs dominated the opposition that year, winning their first eleven games and scoring 115 goals in 42 games. The following year they won the FA Cup again, and narrowly missed a place in the 1961–62 European Cup Final, losing to Benfica in the semi-final.

In the 1962–63 season, Nicholson again put Spurs in the history books when they became the first British club to win a major European trophy. In Rotterdam on 15 May 1963, Spurs defeated favourites Atlético Madrid 5–1 to win the European Cup Winners Cup.

In 1966–67 Nicholson's Spurs won their third FA Cup in seven years by beating Chelsea in the first-ever all-London final. This was followed by a string of trophies in the early 1970s – the League Cup was won in 1970–71 and 1972–73, and the UEFA Cup in 1971–72.

As the 1970s wore on, Nicholson became increasingly disillusioned with football, in particular the increased player wages and the endemic hooliganism. He was appalled by the hooliganism he witnessed at the UEFA Cup final that Spurs lost to Feyenoord. Nicholson decided to resign after a poor start to the 1974–75 season and losing 4–0 to Middlesbrough in the League Cup in September 1974. Nicholson later said of his resignation: "The simple truth was that I was burned out, I had no more to offer." His tenure ended in acrimony as Nicholson wished to select for his replacement Danny Blanchflower as manager and Johnny Giles as player-coach, but Spurs chairman Sidney Wale was angered that Nicholson had contacted Giles and Blanchflower without his knowledge. Although Nicholson had intended to stay at the club as an advisor, the club chose to sever all ties with a £10,000 payoff and refused Nicholson a testimonial.

Post-managerial career
After quitting the Spurs manager's job, Nicholson spent a year at West Ham United as an advisor and a scout. When Keith Burkinshaw became Spurs' manager in 1976, one of his first requests was that Nicholson be brought back to White Hart Lane as a consultant. His knowledge and experience were invaluable, and he showed that he still had an eye for players by recommending several to Burkinshaw, including Graham Roberts, Tony Galvin, and Gary Mabbutt. Nicholson continued to work as a consultant until 1991, when he was awarded the title of Club President.

Recognition
Nicholson was appointed an OBE in 1975. In 1999 an approach road to White Hart Lane was named Bill Nicholson Way in his honour. On 8 August 2001, the club played a testimonial match in Nicholson's honour against Italian club ACF Fiorentina, following an initial testimonial against West Ham on 21 August 1983. In 2003 Nicholson was inducted into the English Football Hall of Fame in recognition of his impact as a manager. Spurs fans had also campaigned for many years to have Nicholson knighted in recognition of his outstanding achievements and contribution to football but they were unsuccessful. Bill Nicholson died on 23 October 2004 after a long illness.

Bill Nicholson has been credited with saying, 'It is better to fail aiming high than to succeed aiming low. And we of Spurs have set our sights very high, so high in fact that even failure will have in it an echo of glory.' Sports historian, Norman Giller, who has written biographies on both Nicholson and his skipper Danny Blanchflower, traces this quote to Blanchflower. "Bill was a blunt Yorkshireman who just did not use this sort of language," Giller has written in "Danny was the poet of the team and he both said this and wrote it in his newspaper columns when captain of Tottenham. Somehow somebody has put the words into Nicholson's mouth, but it was definitely Danny who said it first."

Honours

As a player
Tottenham Hotspur
 Football League First Division: 1950–51
 Football League Second Division: 1949–50
 FA Charity Shield: 1951

As a manager
Tottenham Hotspur
 Football League First Division: 1960–61
 FA Cup: 1960–61, 1961–62, 1966–67
 Football League Cup: 1970–71, 1972–73
 FA Charity Shield: 1961, 1962, 1967 (shared)
 UEFA Cup: 1971–72, runner up: 1973-74
 European Cup Winners' Cup: 1962–63
 Anglo-Italian League Cup: 1971

See also
 List of UEFA Cup winning managers
 Joy Brook
 List of English football championship winning managers
 List of longest managerial reigns in association football

References

Further reading

External links
Bill Nicholson quotes

1919 births
2004 deaths
People educated at Scarborough High School for Boys
Footballers from Scarborough, North Yorkshire
English men's footballers
Men's association football wing halves
Northfleet United F.C. players
Tottenham Hotspur F.C. players
English Football League players
English Football League representative players
England men's international footballers
1950 FIFA World Cup players
English football managers
Tottenham Hotspur F.C. managers
Tottenham Hotspur F.C. non-playing staff
West Ham United F.C. non-playing staff
English Football League managers
Association football coaches
Association football scouts
UEFA Cup winning managers
English Football Hall of Fame inductees
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
British Army personnel of World War II
Durham Light Infantry soldiers
Military personnel from Scarborough, North Yorkshire

Bill Nicholson (footballer)


The Bad Breed was the professional wrestling tag team of Axl Rotten with his storyline brother/real life protégé Ian Rotten. The team achieved their greatest fame in the Philadelphia professional wrestling promotion Extreme Championship Wrestling but has also competed in the Global Wrestling Federation and Independent Wrestling Association Mid-South.

History

Global Wrestling Federation
The storyline brothers Axl and Ian Rotten first started to team as the Bad Breed in the Global Wrestling Federation (GWF) in 1992. On January 29, 1993 Axl and Ian defeated the Texas Mustangs (Bobby Duncum, Jr. and John Hawk aka. JBL) to win the GWF Tag Team Championship. Their run with the GWF gold did not last long as they were defeated less than a month later by The Ebony Experience (Booker T and Stevie Ray), and they left the promotion soon after.

Extreme Championship Wrestling
In October that same year the Rotten "Brothers" made their debut for a relatively new promotion in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania then known as Eastern Championship Wrestling (ECW) at the event NWA Bloodfest. In their debut they defeated the makeshift team of Chad Austin and Todd Shawn at NWA Bloodfest on October 1, but lost to Badd Company (Pat Tanaka and Paul Diamond) less than two hours later. The next night they main evented the show in a loss to Public Enemy in a "Three Way Steel Cage Match" (third team was Badd Company). A few weeks later Bad Breed unsuccessfully challenged for the ECW Tag Team Championship as they lost to champions Tony Stetson and Johnny Hotbody. Bad Breed gained a measure of revenge by defeating Stetson and Hotbody on November 12 in a non-title match.

In June 1994, Bad Breed started a feud with Public Enemy over the ECW Tag Team Title, but throughout the feud Bad Breed was never able to defeat Public Enemy for the gold. After feuding with Public Enemy the Rottens next targeted The Pitbulls, this feud led to the two teams facing off at November to Remember in a match where the losing team was forced to split up. Bad Breed lost when Pittbull #2 pinned Ian.

Since the brothers both blamed each other for the loss, they began a feud against one another after teaming together for two years. The first match between the two "brothers" was at Double Tables on February 4, 1995 which Ian won. They next clashed in a "Hair vs Hair" match on the April 8 show Three Way Dance. After being shaved bald Ian came looking for revenge at Hostile City Showdown 1995 only a week later, this time in a "Barbedwire Baseball Bat" match, but once again Axl beat his "brother". Their final match took place at Hardcore Heaven in a Taipei Death match.

Reunions
Axl and Ian Rotten would reunite in 2002 where the duo won the IWA Mid-South Tag Team Championship on March 2, but Axl would not be around long enough to see the team lose the belts, which forced Necro Butcher to team with Ian as they lost the titles on April 5.

The Bad Breed reunited at Hardcore Homecoming on June 10, 2005, when they took on the reunion of The Gangstinators in an "ECW fight" (an un-sanctioned match where there are no rules, only a fight until there is one man or team standing). On the heels of their success at Hardcore Homecoming, Bad Breed once again teamed up in IWA Mid-South to win the IWA Mid-South tag team title from Vito and Sal Thomaselli, but were forced to vacate the titles when Ian suffered a concussion and had to take time off.

Championships and accomplishments
Global Wrestling Federation
GWF Tag Team Championship (1 time)
Independent Wrestling Association Mid-South
IWA Mid-South Tag Team Championship (2 times)

References

Extreme Championship Wrestling teams and stables
Independent promotions teams and stables

Bad Breed


Bembridge is a village on the Isle of Wight. It is the village which is farthest to the east on the island. According to the 2001 census of the United Kingdom it had a population of 3,848. The large population (for a village) means that some people have said that it has the biggest population of any village in the United Kingdom. Many of the most rich people who live on the Isle of Wight live in Bembridge.

History

The villages of Bembridge and Yaverland were once a separate island, off the coast of the rest of the Isle of Wight. There was a channel of water called Brading Haven, which separated the two islands. Before the time in which Queen Victoria was the queen of the United Kingdom, the village of Bembridge only had a few huts and farm houses. It was only when a church was built in 1827 that the village started to grow.

Geography

The most old buildings in the village are found close to the church in the north of the village. In this part of the village there are a number of shops, pubs (places to buy and drink alcohol), and restaurants (places to buy food). There is also the village hall (a place for meetings, sales and events).

In the south of the village there is an area which is called 'Lane End'. It is a more modern part of the village and has its own shops. In this part of the village there is a lifeboat station. There are two schools in Bembridge, one is for children of ages 4–8, and the other is for children of ages 9–13.

References

Villages on the Isle of Wight

Bembridge


A floating interest rate, also known as a variable or adjustable rate, refers to any type of debt instrument, such as a loan, bond, mortgage, or credit, that does not have a fixed rate of interest over the life of the instrument.

Floating interest rates typically change based on a reference rate (a benchmark of any financial factor, such as the Consumer Price Index). One of the most common reference rates to use as the basis for applying floating interest rates is the London Inter-bank Offered Rate, or LIBOR (the rates at which large banks lend to each other).

The rate for such debt will usually be referred to as a spread or margin over the base rate: for example, a five-year loan may be priced at the six-month LIBOR + 2.50%. At the end of each six-month period, the rate for the following period will be based on the LIBOR at that point (the reset date), plus the spread. The basis will be agreed between the borrower and lender, but 1, 3, 6 or 12 month money market rates are commonly used for commercial loans.

Typically, floating rate loans will cost less than fixed rate loans, depending in part on the yield curve. In return for paying a lower loan rate, the borrower takes the interest rate risk: the risk that rates will go up in future. In cases where the yield curve is inverted, the cost of borrowing at floating rates may actually be higher; in most cases, however, lenders require higher rates for longer-term fixed-rate loans, because they are bearing the interest rate risk (risking that the rate will go up, and they will get lower interest income than they would otherwise have had).

Certain types of floating rate loans, particularly mortgages, may have other special features such as interest rate caps, or limits on the maximum interest rate or maximum change in the interest rate that is allowable.

Floating rate loan
In business and  finance, a floating rate loan (or a variable or adjustable rate loan) refers to a loan with a floating interest rate. The total rate paid by the customer varies, or "floats", in relation to some base rate, to which a spread or margin is added (or more rarely, subtracted). The term of the loan may be substantially longer than the basis from which the floating rate loan is priced; for example, a 25-year mortgage may be priced off the 6-month prime lending rate.

Floating rate loans are common in the banking industry and for large corporate customers. A floating rate mortgage is a mortgage with a floating rate, as opposed to a fixed rate loan.

In many countries, floating rate loans and mortgages are predominant. They may be referred to by different names, such as an adjustable rate mortgage in the United States. In some countries, there may be no special name for this type of loan or mortgage, as floating rate lending may be the norm. For example, in Canada substantially all mortgages are floating rate mortgages; borrowers may choose to "fix" the interest rate for any period between six months and ten years, although the actual term of the loan may be 25 years or more.

Floating rate loans are sometimes referred to as bullet loans, although they are distinct concepts. In a bullet loan, a large payment (the "bullet" or "balloon") is payable at the end of the loan, as opposed to a capital and interest loan, where the payment pattern incorporates level payments throughout the loan, each containing an element of capital, and no bullet payment at the end. A floating rate loan therefore may or may not incorporate a bullet payment.

Example
A customer borrows $25,000 from a bank; the terms of the loan are (six-month) LIBOR + 3.5%. At the time of issuing the loan, the LIBOR rate is 2.5%. For the first six months, the borrower pays the bank 6% annual interest: in this simplified case $750 for six months. At the end of the first six months, the LIBOR rate has risen to 4%; the client will pay 7.5% (or $937.5) for the second half of the year. At the beginning of the second year, the LIBOR rate has now fallen to 1.5%, and the borrowing costs are $500 for the following six months.

An Interest rate option contract can hedge the floating rate loan - for example, an interest rate cap and floor ensures a borrower's future interest cash flows will not exceed a certain predefined level.

LIBOR was discontinued as the conventional floating interest rate on December 31, 2021.

In the United States, SOFR (Secured Overnight Financing Rate) has been accepted as the industry standard after the cessation of basing floating interest rate spreads on LIBOR. The transition from LIBOR to SOFR has been relatively uneventful, and SOFR has been adapted by many industries as a standard instrument for determining non-fixed interest rates.

See also

 Fixed interest

References

Banking
Interest rates
Loans

Floating interest rate


Twin-lead cable is a two-conductor flat cable used as a balanced transmission line to carry radio frequency (RF) signals.  It is constructed of two stranded or solid copper or copper-clad steel wires, held a precise distance apart by a plastic (usually polyethylene) ribbon.  The uniform spacing of the wires is the key to the cable's function as a transmission line; any abrupt changes in spacing would reflect some of the signal back toward the source. The plastic also covers and insulates the wires.  It is available with several different values of characteristic impedance, the most common type is 300 ohm.

Twin lead is mainly used as an antenna feedline at shortwave and VHF frequencies, to connect radio receivers and transmitters to their antennas.  It can have significantly lower signal loss than miniature flexible coaxial cable, the main alternative type of feedline at these frequencies;  for example, type RG-58 coaxial cable loses 6.6 dB per 100 m at 30 MHz, while 300 ohm twin-lead loses only 0.55 dB.  300 ohm twin lead is widely used to connect FM radios to their antennas, and was previously used to connect television antennas to televisions until it was replaced by coaxial cable.  However, it is more vulnerable to interference; proximity to metal objects will inject signals into twin-lead that would be blocked out by coaxial cable.  It therefore requires spacing around rain gutters, and standoff insulators along metal support masts.

Characteristics and uses
Twin lead and other types of parallel-conductor transmission line are mainly used to connect radio transmitters and receivers to their antennas. Parallel transmission line has the advantage that its losses per unit length are an order of magnitude smaller than that of coaxial cable, the main alternative form of transmission line. Its disadvantages are that it is more vulnerable to interference, and must be kept away from metal objects which can cause power losses.  For this reason, when installed along the outside of buildings and on antenna masts, standoff insulators must be used. It is also common practice to twist the twin lead on long free standing lengths to further reject any induced imbalances to the line.

Twin-lead is supplied in several different sizes, with values of 600, 450, 300, and 75 ohm characteristic impedance. The most common, 300 ohm twin-lead, was once widely used to connect television sets and FM radios to their receiving antennas. 300 ohm twin-lead for television installations has been largely replaced with 75 ohm coaxial cable feedlines. Twin-lead is also used in amateur radio stations as a transmission line for balanced transmission of radio frequency signals.

The characteristic impedance of twin-lead is a function of the wire diameter and its spacing; in 300 ohm twin-lead, the most common type, the wire is usually 20 or 22 gauge (0.52 or 0.33 mm), about 7.5 mm (0.30 inches) apart. This is well matched with the natural impedance of a folded dipole antenna, which is normally around 275 ohms. Twin-lead generally has higher impedance than the other common transmission wiring, coaxial cable (coax). The widely used RG-6 coax has a characteristic impedance of 75 ohms, which requires the use of a balun to match impedance when used with common antenna types.

How it works

Twin lead is a form of parallel-wire balanced transmission line.  The separation between the two wires in twin-lead is small compared to the wavelength of the radio frequency (RF) signal carried on the wire.  The RF current in one wire is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the RF current in the other wire.  Therefore, in the far field region far from the transmission line, the radio waves radiated by one wire are equal in magnitude but opposite in phase (180° out of phase) to the waves radiated by the other wire, so they superpose and cancel each other.  The result is that almost no net radio energy is radiated by the line.

Similarly, any interfering external radio waves will induce equal, in phase RF currents, traveling in the same direction, in the two wires.  Since the load at the destination end is connected across the wires, only differential, oppositely-directed currents in the wires create a current in the load.   Thus the interfering currents are canceled out, so twin lead does not tend to pick up radio noise.

However, if a piece of metal is located sufficiently close to a twin-lead line, within a distance comparable to the wire spacing, it will be significantly closer to one wire than the other.  As a result, the RF current induced in the metal object by one wire will be greater than the opposing current induced by the other wire, so the currents will no longer cancel.  Thus nearby metal objects can cause power losses in twin lead lines, through energy dissipated as heat by induced currents.  Similarly, radio noise originating in cables or metal objects located near the twin-lead line can induce unbalanced currents in the wires, coupling noise into the line.   Therefore the line must be kept at a distance from metal objects such as gutters and masts.

In order to prevent power from being reflected from the load end of the line, causing high SWR and inefficiency, the load must have an impedance which matches the characteristic impedance of the line.  This causes the load to appear electrically identical to a continuation of the line, preventing reflections.   Similarly, to transfer power efficiently into the line, the source must also match the characteristic impedance.  To connect a balanced transmission line to an unbalanced line like coaxial cable, a device called a balun must be used.

Ladder line

Parallel wire line comes in three distinct forms:
 twin lead, or (two wire) ribbon cable,discussed in the section above
 window line
 ladder line or open wire line

Window line is a variation of twin lead which is constructed similarly, except that the polyethylene webbing between the wires which holds them apart has rectangular openings ("windows") cut in it. Among the advantages to cutting "windows" in the ribbon is that the manufacturer can adjust the size of the cuts to make fine adjustments to the feedline's electrical properties. The windows lighten the line, and reduce the amount of surface on which dirt and moisture can accumulate, making window line somewhat less vulnerable to weather-induced changes in its characteristic impedance. The most common type is nominal 450 Ω window line, which has a conductor spacing of about an inch; its actual impedance may be closer to 400 Ω. It is also made in nominal 350 Ω impedance.

Ladder line is an older, simpler form of parallel-wire line, often called open wire line, that can either be commercially manufactured or DIY-made (construction is easy, and originally all radio amateurs made their own open wire line). It consists of two wires (usually either clad in a DC insulator or coated with a durable lacquer) with "rungs" of insulating plastic (formerly treated wood or ceramic) holding the wires at some constant spacing, about two to five inches apart, with a rung about every five to twelve inches. Uniform wire spacing is important, but erratic distances between rung insulators don't matter. The configuration looks like a rope ladder, hence the name.

The ratio of chosen wire spacing to wire diameter determines the line's characteristic impedance – usually 500~600 Ω. It also depends on the wire insulation's relative permittivity and conductive loss in the rung insulators, if significant. For 500 Ω line, two bare wires would be spaced 32× the wire diameter apart; about 4 inches, or 10 cm, for wire diameter  inch, or 3 mm. For 600 Ω the same wire would be  spaced 9 inches, or 24 cm.

Impedance matching

As a transmission line, transmission efficiency will be maximum when the impedance of the antenna, the characteristic impedance of the twin-lead line and the impedance of the equipment are the same. For this reason, when attaching a twin-lead line to a coaxial cable connection, such as the 300 ohm twin-lead from a domestic television antenna to the television's 75 ohm coax antenna input, a balun with a 4:1 ratio is commonly used. Its purpose is double: first, it transforms twin-lead's 300 ohm impedance to match the 75 ohm coaxial cable impedance; and second, it transforms the balanced, symmetric transmission line to the unbalanced coax input. In general, when used as a feedline, twin-lead (especially ladder line versions) has a higher efficiency than coaxial cable when there is an impedance mismatch between the feedline and the source (or sink). For receive-only use this merely implies that the system can communicate under slightly less optimal conditions; for transmit use, this can often result in significantly less energy lost as heat in the transmission line.

Twin-lead also can serve as a convenient material with which to build a simple folded dipole antenna. Such antennas may be fed either by using a 300 ohm twin-lead feeder or by using a 300-to-75-ohm balun and using coaxial feedline and will usually handle moderate power loads without overheating.

Characteristic impedance
The characteristic impedance of a parallel-wire transmission line like twin lead or ladder line depends on its dimensions; the diameter of the wires  and their separation . This is derived below.

The characteristic impedance    of any transmission line is given by

where for twin-lead line the primary line constants are

where  is the wire diameter and  is the separation of the wires measured between their centre-lines,  is the absolute permittivity between the wires, and where the surface resistance of the wires is given by

Neglecting the wire resistance  and the leakage conductance , this gives

where   is the impedance of free space (approximately 376.74 Ω),   is the relative permittivity (which for air is ).

When the separation  is many times greater than the wire diameter  then the   function can be approximately replaced by a natural logarithm (with its argument doubled):

The separation needed to achieve a given characteristic impedance  through two wires is therefore

The dielectric material between the two conductors with either twin-lead or ladder line is not all air. The effect of a "mixed" dielectric, part air and part polyethylene or other plastic, is that the actual impedance will fall somewhere between the value calculated assuming all air or all polyethylene. Published, carefully measured values for  will typically be more accurate than estimates from formulas.

Antennas
Twin-lead can be connected directly to a suitably designed antenna:

 Windom antenna A multiply-resonant antenna whose resonant impedances cluster around .
 folded dipole Double-wire dipole whose characteristic impedance in free space is around .
 dipole Although the center impedance at resonance is approximately  in free space, in actual use it varies between , depending on height above ground, so with high-impedance feedline a T-match or Y-match feed will probably be necessary.
 Yagi-Uda antenna Yagi and the simpler Moxon antenna, and other directional antennas; some special impedance matching arrangement at the feedpoint is necessary for any cabling, since interference between the typically close-spacing of the parallel near-resonant antenna segments causes low feedpoint resistance as well as making the antenna more directional.

References

Signal cables
Antennas (radio)
Transmission lines

Twin-lead


Austevoll Seafood ASA is a major Norwegian seafood company.

Austevoll Seafood trades publicly on the Oslo Stock Exchange. The company is a majority owner of Norwegian seafood company Lerøy. The company is a majority owner of Peruvian seafood company Austral. In July 2010, Austevoll Seafood ASA bought Domstein ASA's shares, and became the largest shareholder. In June 2011, a merger between Austevoll Fisk AS and Norway Pelagic AS was completed to effectively integrate Austevoll's pelagic operations for human consumption, into Norway Pelagic, with compensation through a direct share placement. In 2014, after several holding increase activities, Austevoll Seafood and Kvefi AS agreed to merge respective pelagic activities in Europe establishing seafood and feed company Pelagia. Austevoll Seafood has operations in Storebø, the administrative centre and largest village in Austevoll municipality, Norway. Ole Rasmus Møgster built up Austevoll Seafood (which Ole Rasmus controlled, as a major owner and chairman of the board) with his brother Helge Møgster. They also built DOF ASA (which Helge controlled). In 2008 the brothers were two of the three billionaires who were active in the Norwegian fishing industry. The third billionaire was Kjell Inge Røkke.

References

Seafood companies of Norway
Companies listed on the Oslo Stock Exchange
Companies based in Hordaland
Companies established in 1981

Austevoll Seafood


The Irondequoit Gully, or more commonly known in colloquial terms as simply, The Gully, is a path created by a stream that flows to Irondequoit Bay in New York State, United States. The Gully was once a trolley route. Most of The Gully runs through private backyards.

The sides of the gully are  embankments. There is evidence of the mass transit system with the remnants of bridges, cements posts sticking out of the ground, and as well as building foundations.

Geography of New York (state)

Irondequoit Gully


Sylvie Courvoisier (born 30 November 1968) is a composer, pianist, and improviser.

Among her many collaborations, she has: led a trio with Drew Gress (bass), Kenny Wollesen (drums); recorded duo and quartet albums with violinist Mark Feldman; and duo albums with Mary Halvorson, Cory Smythe, and Evan Parker.

Courvoisier received numerous awards including the German Jazz Prize, Piano International (2022), and the United States Artist Fellow (2020).

Courvoisier is on faculty at the School of Jazz (The New School).

Career
Courvoisier, originally from Lausanne, Switzerland, has lived in Brooklyn, New York for  years. She has led several groups over the years, recorded 10 albums as a band leader, and appeared in about 50 albums (25 CDs as co-leader and 25 CDs as a side person) for different labels, notably ECM, Tzadik, and Intakt Records.

Sylvie Courvoisier has earned just renown for balancing two distinct worlds: the deep, richly detailed chamber music of her European roots and the grooving, hook-laden sounds of the downtown jazz scene in New York City, her home for more than two decades. Few artists feel truly at ease in both concert halls and jazz clubs, playing improvised or composed music. But Courvoisier – "a pianist of equal parts audacity and poise," according to The New York Times – is as compelling when performing Stravinsky's iconic Rite of Spring in league with flamenco dancer-choreographer Israel Galván as she is when improvising with her own widely acclaimed jazz trio, featuring bassist Drew Gress and drummer Kenny Wollesen. Then there are her ear-opening collaborations with such avant-jazz luminaries as John Zorn, Wadada Leo Smith, Evan Parker, Ikue Mori, Ellery Eskelin, Susie Ibarra, Fred Frith, Andrew Cyrille, Mark Feldman, Ken Vandermark, Nate Wooley and Mary Halvorson. In music as in life, Courvoisier crosses borders with a creative spirit and a free mind; her music-making is as playful as it is intense, as steeped in tradition as it is questing and intrepid. JazzTimes has said: "Courvoisier keeps you on the edge of your seat because it feels like the piano cannot contain her. Her careening solos seem to overwhelm and overflow the keyboard and keep spilling."

Courvoisier's third album with trio mates Gress and Wollesen is Free Hoops,( intakt 2020) was acclaimed best of 2020 in different jazz magazines, Salt Peanuts, etc.The Sylvie Courvoisier Trio's previous album – D'Agala (Intakt) – garnered a four-star review in DownBeat, while JazzTimes declared the record to be "a wonderland of piano-trio surrealism that is nonetheless grounded in rhythmic earthiness." It was ranked as one of the best jazz albums of 2018 by The New York Times and Los Angeles Times, as well as New York City Jazz Record. Courvoisier's first album with Gress and Wollesen, Double Windsor (Tzadik), was another hit with critics, being named one of the best albums of 2014 by both Slate and New York City Jazz Record; it also received the "CHOC" from Jazz Magazine and Jazzman in France. International Piano magazine hailed Double Windsor as "a highly original recording, boldly juxtaposing the freely improvised and the through-composed, and crackling with energy… Courvoisier's trio drives its intricate interactions through every tricky twist and tumble in exhilarating fashion."

Another of Courvoisier's most fruitful artistic relationships is with Israel Galván, the Spanish dancer and choreographer. They have created several projects together over a decade, including La Curva, Arena and the evening-length, improvisation-laced Cast-a-Net. The latter was produced in 2018 at Switzerland's Théâtre du Jorat and Festival Les Jardins Musicaux, with Courvoisier's music performed with the pianist alongside Evan Parker (saxophone), Mark Feldman (violin) and Ikue Mori (electronics). Courvoisier's latest collaboration with Galván is La Consagraciòn de la Primavera: a program that combines a two-piano interpretation of the original score for piano four-hands of Stravinsky's Le Sacre du Printemps (The Rite of Spring) with an original, complementary two-piano score by Courvoisier: Spectro. Courvoisier, alongside piano partner Cory Smythe, premiered the program with Galván in November 2019 at the Théâtre Vidy in Lausanne and in January 2020 at the Théâtre de la Ville in Paris. She has been performing with this project again after the pandemic break.

Among Courvoisier's key duo partners is guitarist Mary Halvorson. They released the album Crop Circles in 2017 via Relative Pitch. Dusted and All About Jazz gave the disc glowing reviews, as did several European publications. And DownBeat set up its four-star review of the album by describing Courvoisier and Halvorson as "two of New York's most distinctive improvisers," going on to praise the music's "deft, interactive intimacy" and the duo's way of "coming together and then drifting apart with unspoken grace… always serving the cumulative sound but remaining very much themselves." Courvoisier and Halvorson's new release Searching for the Disappeared Hour  (2021, Pyroclastic Records) was recognized as best album of 2021 by the NPR and the New York City Jazz Records.

Avant-garde impresario John Zorn has described Courvoisier as "one of the most creative pianists in the downtown scene." In recent years, Courvoisier's duo with violinist Mark Feldman toured Zorn's Bagatelles far and wide; they also recorded two albums of Zorn's music: Malphas (Tzadik, 2006) and Masada Recital (Tzadik, 2004). Courvoisier's discography includes more albums with Feldman, including Live at the Theatre Vidy-Lausanne (Intakt, 2013), Oblivia (Tzadik, 2010) and Music for Violin & Piano (Avan, 1999). Their most recent album – Time Gone Out, released by Intakt in 2019 – earned a rave in JazzTimes, with the review singling out Courvoisier's pianism as "staggering… She draws on both low-end thunder and upper-register lyricism, often simultaneously." DownBeat had further praise, saying that along with the album's poetic intensity and sheer virtuosity, "there is such a playfulness to what they're doing that it's easy to be drawn into the music."

Courvoisier and Feldman also co-led a quartet that toured the world and recorded three albums: Birdies for Lulu (Intakt, 2014, featuring bassist Scott Colley and drummer Billy Mintz), Hotel du Nord (Intakt, 2011, with bassist Thomas Morgan and drummer Gerry Hemingway) and To Fly To Steal (Intakt, 2010, with Morgan and Hemingway). The Guardian described the band as "part contemporary-classical chamber group and part progressive jazz band… Composition and improvisation held in balance by maestros of the game." Courvoisier and Feldman also recorded two fully improvised quartet albums: with saxophonist Ingrid Laubrock and drummer Tom Rainey on TISM (RogueArt, 2019), as well as with Evan Parker and Ikue Mori on Miller's Tale (Intakt, 2016).

With reed player Ned Rothenberg, Courvoisier recorded the fully improvised trio disc In Cahoots (Clean Feed, 2016), a trio with Mark Feldman, and more recently  Lockdown ( Clean Feed, 2021), a trio with Julian Sartorius

For the album Lonelyville (Intakt, 2007), Courvoisier recorded a suite she composed for a quintet with Feldman, Mori, cellist Vincent Courtois, and drummer Gerald Cleaver. All About Jazz hailed the Lonelyville suite as "fantastic and far-reaching." In 2004, ECM released Courvoisier's double CD Abaton, which presented her compositions for a trio with Feldman and cellist Erik Friedlander on one disc and the trio's group improvisations on the other. JazzTimes appreciated the mix of "eloquent silences" and "exotic ornaments" in the composed music, as well as "real, gorgeous melody." About the improvised disc, the review concluded: "It's rare to hear modern classical music forged anew in the heat of improvisation, but that's exactly what Abaton does." Two early albums as a leader saw Courvoisier leading the ensemble Ocre, releasing the albums Y2K (Enja, 2000) and Music for Barrel Organ, Piano, Tuba, and Percussion (Enja, 1997).

Courvoisier has been commissioned to write music for the theater, radio, and concert hall. Her concert works include a Concerto for Electric Guitar and Chamber Orchestra, as well as Balbutiements for vocal quartet and soprano. She has written to commissions from the Theatre Vidy-Lausanne, Pro Helvetia, and Germany's Donaueschingen Musiktage Festival. Courvoisier has been honored with such awards as United States Artist Fellow (2020), the Foundation for Contemporary Arts Grants to Artists (2018), the Swiss Music Prize (2018), and the SUISA Prize for Jazz (2017). She won the Grand Prix de la Fondation Vaudoise Pour la Culture (2010), as well as an award from the New York Foundation for the Arts (2013) and Switzerland's Prix des Jeunes Créateurs (1996). She has also received commissions from The Shifting Foundation (2019) and Chamber Music America's New Jazz Works (2016).

Born in Lausanne in 1968, Courvoisier grew up in the countryside, studying classical music at the Conservatory of Lausanne and jazz at the Conservatory of Montreux. She has since toured the world from Europe and North America to South America, Asia, and Australia. The pianist has worked in concert halls, jazz clubs, and international festivals with such musicians as Wadada Leo Smith, Andrew Cyrille, Fred Frith, Yusef Lateef, Tony Oxley, Tim Berne, Joey Baron, Joëlle Léandre, Herb Robertson, Mark Dresser, Lotte Anker, Michel Godard, Tomasz Stanko, and Butch Morris. Courvoisier has further collaborated on records with the likes of Ken Vandermark, Nate Wooley, Ellery Eskelin, and Jacques Demierre. She recorded two albums as part of the improvising trio collective Mephista with Ikue Mori and drummer Susie Ibarra: Entomological Reflections (Tzadik, 2004) and Black Narcissus (Tzadik, 2002).

Kevin Whitehead of National Public Radio has encapsulated Courvoisier's art in an evocative way: "Some pianists approach the instrument like it's a cathedral. Sylvie Courvoisier treats it like a playground."

Courvoisier received numerous awards including the United States Artist Fellow (2020); the Foundation for Contemporary Arts Grants to Artists (2018); the Swiss Music Prize (2018); Switzerland SUISA's Jazz Prize (2017); and Switzerland's Grand Prix de la Fondation Vaudoise de la Culture (2010). She received commissions to compose new works from The Shifting Foundation (2019, 2021, 2022) and the Chamber Music America's New Jazz Works (2016).

She has been a part-time faculty at the New School in NYC since January 2020, teaching ensembles, and privately . Since 10 years, he taught master classes all over Europe and taught ensembles at the Jazz and contemporary schools in Luzern, Basel, Zurich and Bern.

Selected discography

As leader

As co-leader
With Mary Halvorson
 Crop Circles with Mary Halvorson (Relative Pitch, 2017)
 Searching for the Disappeared Hour with Mary Halvorson (Pyroclastic, 2021)With Mark Feldman
 Music for Violin and Piano with Mark Feldman (Avant, 1999)
 To Fly to Steal – Sylvie Courvoisier-Mark Feldman Quartet with Thomas Morgan and Gerry Hemingway (Intakt 2010)
 Oblivia with Mark Feldman (Tzadik, 2010)
 Hôtel du Nord – Sylvie Courvoisier–Mark Feldman Quartet with Thomas Morgan and Gerry Hemingway (Intakt, 2011)
 Live at Theatre Vidy–Lausanne – Sylvie Courvoisier–Mark Feldman Duo (Intakt, 2013)
 Birdies for Lulu–Sylvie Courvoisier–Mark Feldman Quartet with Scott Colley and Billy Mintz (Intakt, 2014)
 Miller's Tale–Sylvie Courvoisier–Mark Feldman - Evan Parker- Ikue Mori (Intakt, 2016)
 Time Gone Out – Sylvie Courvoisier–Mark Feldman Duo (Intakt, 2019)

 With Mephista (Courvoisier, Ikue Mori and Susie Ibarra)
 Black Narcissus (Tzadik, 2002)
 Entomological Reflections (Tzadik, 2004)

 With others
 Birds of a feather with Mark Nauseef (Unit Records, 1997)
 Lavin with Lucas Niggli (Intakt, 1999)
 Deux Pianos with Jacques Demierre (Intakt, 2000)
 Passaggio with Joelle Leandre, Susie Ibarra (Intakt, 2002)
 Alien Huddle with Ikue Mori, Lotte Anker (Intakt, 2008)
 Every So Often with Ellery Eskelin (Prime Source, 2010)
 As Soon as Possible with Courtois, Eskelin (CAM Jazz, 2010)
 Either Or And with Evan Parker (Relative Pitch Records, 2014)
 Salt Task with Chris Corsano, Nate Wooley (Relative Pitch, 2016)
 In Cahoots with Mark Feldman, Ned Rothenberg (Clean Feed, 2016)
 Noise of our Time with Ken Vandermark,Tom Rainey, Nate Wooley, (Intakt, 2018)
 Tism with Mark Feldman, Ingrid Laubrock, Tom Rainey (Rogueart, 2019)
 Hoodoos with Jacques Demierre (Catalytic , 2019)
 Lockdown with Ned Rothenberg, Julian Sartorius (Clean Feed, 2021)

As sidewoman
With John Zorn
 Cobra: John Zorn's Game Pieces Volume 2 (Tzadik, 2002)
 Masada Recital (Tzadik, 2004)
 Malphas: Book of Angels Volume 3 (Tzadik, 2006)
 Femina (Tzadik, 2009)
 Dictée/Liber Novus (Tzadik, 2010)

With Erik Friedlander
 50 Miniatures for Improvising Quintet (Skipstone, 2010)
 Claws and Wings (Skipstone, 2013)

With Herb Robertson
 Real Aberration (Clean Feed, 2005)
 Elaboration (Clean Feed, 2007)

With Nate Wooley
 Nate Wooley Battle Piece  (Relative Pitch Records, 2015)
 Nate Wooley Battle Piece II (Relative Pitch, 2017)
 Nate Wooley Battle Piece vI (Relative Pitch, 2018)
 Nate Wooley Mutual Aid Music  ( 2021)

References

External links

 Official web site
 List of compositions

Literature
 Rosset, Dominique: Au carrefour des mondes. La compositrice et pianiste lausannoise Sylvie Courvoisier. Zurich 2005.

1968 births
21st-century pianists
21st-century women composers
Avant-garde pianists
ECM Records artists
Enja Records artists
Free improvisation
Intakt Records artists
Living people
Postmodern composers
Swiss jazz composers
Women jazz composers
Tzadik Records artists
Women jazz pianists
20th-century pianists
20th-century women composers
20th-century jazz composers
21st-century jazz composers
20th-century Swiss composers
21st-century Swiss composers
20th-century women pianists
21st-century women pianists

Sylvie Courvoisier


Sandbox video games are a form of video game that implements a "sandbox" design. These games are usually open world games. A few examples of this design concept are Grand Theft Auto and Minecraft, Second Life. There are also games dedicated to sandboxes for scientific purposes.

Video game gameplay

Sandbox video game


The Serie B 1952–53 was the twenty-first tournament of this competition played in Italy since its creation.

Teams
Cagliari had been promoted from Serie C, while Lucchese, Padova and Legnano had been relegated from Serie A.

Events
Relegations were reduced to two teams.

Final classification

Results

Promotion tie-breaker
Played in Florence on July 28

Legnano promoted to Serie A.

See also
 Bruno Ruzza

References and sources
Almanacco Illustrato del Calcio - La Storia 1898-2004, Panini Edizioni, Modena, September 2005

Serie B seasons
2
Italy

1952–53 Serie B


The Kitikmeot Region was part of the Northwest Territories until division in April 1999 when most of the region became part of Nunavut. It consisted of Victoria Island with the adjacent part of the mainland as far as the Boothia Peninsula, together with King William Island and the southern portion of Prince of Wales Island. The regional seat was Cambridge Bay (pop. 1,351 - 1996).

Originally the entire region was part of the Fort Smith Region, Northwest Territories and was later called the "Central Arctic Region". For administrative purposes the region consisted of (all population figures 1996):

Cambridge Bay (1,351)
Coppermine (1,201), now Kugluktuk
Gjoa Haven (879)
Spence Bay (648), now Taloyoak
Pelly Bay (496), now Kugaaruk
Holman (423) now Ulukhaktok
Bay Chimo (51), now Umingmaktok
Bathurst Inlet (18)

However, for NWT election purposes Holman was included in the Nunakput district unlike the rest of the Kitikmeot.

After division Holman remained with the Northwest Territories while the rest of region became Kitikmeot Region.

History of the Northwest Territories

Historical census divisions of Canada
1999 disestablishments in the Northwest Territories

Kitikmeot Region, Northwest Territories


Charles Edward Perugini (1 September 1839 – 22 December 1918), originally Carlo Perugini, was an Italian-born English painter of the Romantic and Victorian era.

Biography
Perugini was born in Naples, but lived with his family in England from the ages of six to 17. He trained in Italy under Giuseppe Bonolis and Giuseppe Mancinelli, and in Paris under Ary Scheffer. He became a protégé of Lord Leighton, who brought him back to England in 1863. Perugini may at first have worked as Leighton's studio assistant. Under Leighton's influence, he began as a painter of classical scenes; then "he turned to the more profitable pastures of portrait painting, and genre pictures of pretty women and children."

In 1874, he married the youngest daughter of novelist Charles Dickens, who as Kate Perugini pursued her own artistic career, sometimes collaborating with her husband. Perugini's 1878 picture A Girl Reading, perhaps his best-known single work, is in the collection of the Manchester Art Gallery. It was bequeathed by James Thomas Blair in 1917.

Perugini's portrait of Sophie Gray, the sister-in-law of Pre-Raphaelite painter Sir John Everett Millais, was for many years mistaken for a work by Millais himself.

Perugini and his wife maintained an active social life in artistic circles of their era. He died in London.

Works
A Girl Reading (1878; Manchester Art Gallery)
Orange Blossoms (1879)
Faithful (1879; Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool)
Tender Cares (1880)
Idle Moments (before 1885)
A Summer Shower (1888; Ferens Art Gallery, Hull)
 'The Highborn Ladye-Moore'  (Untraced)
La Superba (Untraced)
Graziella
A Backward Glance

Gallery (selected)

References

External links

 Perugini's A Backward Glance.
 Silva.
 The portrait of Sophie Grey.
 The Green Lizard - Rehs Galleries' biography and an image of the artist's 1902 Royal Academy painting.

19th-century English painters
English male painters
20th-century English painters
19th-century Italian painters
Italian male painters
20th-century Italian painters
British genre painters
English portrait painters
1839 births
1918 deaths
19th-century Neapolitan people
Italian emigrants to the United Kingdom
English people of Italian descent
Artists' Rifles officers
19th-century Italian male artists
20th-century Italian male artists
20th-century English male artists
19th-century English male artists

Charles Edward Perugini


A light-emitting transistor or LET is a form of transistor that emits light. Higher efficiency than light-emitting diode (LED) is possible.

History
Reported in the January 5, 2004 issue of the journal Applied Physics Letters, Milton Feng and Nick Holonyak, the inventor of the first practical light-emitting diode (LED) and the first semiconductor laser to operate in the visible spectrum, made the world's first light-emitting transistor. This hybrid device, fabricated by Feng's graduate student Walid Hafez, had one electrical input and two outputs (electrical output and optical output) and operated at a frequency of 1 MHz. The device was made of indium gallium phosphide, indium gallium arsenide, and gallium arsenide, and emitted infrared photons from the base layer.

See also
Organic light-emitting transistor

References

Light sources
Optoelectronics

Light-emitting transistor


The Cincinnati and Whitewater Canal Tunnel is a historic yet abandoned canal tunnel in the southwestern corner of the U.S. state of Ohio.  Located within the village of Cleves near Cincinnati, it was constructed in 1837 as part of the Whitewater Canal system.  Since the canal's closure, it has largely been forgotten, but it has been designated a historic site.

After Indiana began building the Whitewater Canal in the 1830s, Ohio businessmen urged the construction of an extension from the canal to Cincinnati.  The resulting Cincinnati and Whitewater Canal was completed in 1843, including a canal tunnel near the village of North Bend, which was finished six years before the canal opened for business.  This tunnel was needed because of a steep ridgeline on the village's northern side, separating it from Cleves, on land owned by retired war hero William Henry Harrison, who as one of the canal's proponents was happy to sell land for its right-of-way and to supply wood and bricks for the tunnel.  After his ascension to the presidency and sudden death, Harrison was buried atop the ridgeline near the tunnel's southern portal.

Lined with brick, the tunnel includes ashlar stonework portals with wing walls.  Upon completion, the tunnel was  long, and there was  between the ceiling and the underwater bottom of the canal.  Unusually, the tunnel included room for a towpath instead of requiring the use of leggers, but the typical canal boat nevertheless relied on manpower while allowing the beasts of burden to climb the hill.  As the state's first tunnel of its type, the Cincinnati and Whitewater Canal Tunnel has suffered two separate collapse incidents.  The first occurred during the construction process, and six workmen died, while another segment caved in during the 1950s during a project to improve the portion of U.S. Route 50 that travels over the tunnel.

Despite the efforts spent on building the Whitewater Canal, it was abandoned in 1856 after numerous floods had destroyed much of its length.  This resulted in the abandonment of the canal tunnel, a period of stagnation that ended in 1863 when a railroad company began a twenty-five-year period of using it as an ordinary rail tunnel.  Since the rail line was rerouted in 1888, the tunnel has become completely unusable, having silted up almost all the way to the ceiling.  However, the tunnel has not been completely forgotten; the Ohio Historical Society and a group of private organizations placed a historical marker by the tunnel's northern portal in 2000, and it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in mid-2001.  Its historic significance derives from its rarity: only a handful of canal tunnels were ever built in the United States.

References

1837 establishments in Ohio
Tunnels completed in 1837
Canal tunnels in the United States
Canals in Ohio
National Register of Historic Places in Hamilton County, Ohio
Tunnels in Ohio
Water tunnels on the National Register of Historic Places
Transportation buildings and structures on the National Register of Historic Places in Ohio

Cincinnati and Whitewater Canal Tunnel


Unlocked is a 2017 American British French Czech Swiss action thriller movie directed by Michael Apted and starring Noomi Rapace, Orlando Broom, Michael Douglas, John Malkovich, Toni Collette, Tosin Cole, Adelayo Adedayo. It was distributed by Lionsgate.

Other websites

2017 action movies
2017 thriller movies
2010s action thriller movies
British action movies
British thriller movies
American action thriller movies
French action movies
French thriller movies
Czech movies
Swiss action movies
Swiss thriller movies
Movies directed by Michael Apted
Lionsgate movies
Movies about terrorism
Movies set in the Czech Republic

Unlocked (2017 movie)


Super Slap Shot is a traditional five-on-five ice hockey video game for the Super NES/Super Famicom.

Summary

The game itself was endorsed by "Mr. Hockey" Gordie Howe. Although the cover image depicts Cam Neely And Dave Christian in uniforms Neely who play with the Boston Bruins  in number "8" in the place of the letter B on the logo of the jersey) and Dave Christian in the Washington Capitals jersey, no licenses from real-life professional league are used in the game. There are 16 international teams are available to choose from in exhibition and tournament modes. These teams include the United States, Sweden, Russia, and Canada. There are more than ten pages of hockey stats to look up in a typical game. Realistic penalties are given and fighting is given an up-close view.

Besides the national teams, the player can also choose the Cities mode on options and play with teams representing North American franchises, possibly inspired by the NHL. By the time the game was released, all of the cities available had NHL franchises. Some of them bear the same colors of their real-life counterparts. For instance, Los Angeles plays in black and white like the Kings, Calgary wears red like the Flames, Chicago has red and black uniforms like the Blackhawks, Detroit gear is red like Red Wings', Pittsburgh uses a black and white equipment with gold details like the Penguins, the New York team is blue just like the Rangers and Quebec is white and blue like the Nordiques. The Philadelphia team was branded just as Philly while the New Jersey one is called simply N.J.

The game was designed by Ed Ringler, who had previously worked in Mario Lemieux Hockey for Sega Genesis and contributed with several other ice hockey videogames.

Reception
Power Unlimited gave this game an official rating of 75% in their November 1993. issue while German based Total! magazine gave this game a rating of 3.25 out of 6.

References

1993 video games
Altron games
Ice hockey video games
Side-scrolling video games
Super Nintendo Entertainment System games
Super Nintendo Entertainment System-only games
Video games scored by Tommy Tallarico
Video games developed in the United States
Virgin Interactive games
Multiplayer and single-player video games

Super Slap Shot


Richard Dewhurst (May 26, 1826October 13, 1895) was an English American immigrant, lawyer, judge, businessman, and politician. He served in the Wisconsin State Assembly for four non-consecutive terms over four different decades (from the 1850s to the 1880s) under four different political party labels (Republican, Union, Liberal Reform and Independent); and was defeated twice when running for election on the ticket of a fifth party, the Democratic.

Background
Dewhurst was born near Manchester, England, on May 26, 1826; at the age of one year he came to the United States when his parents moved there, settling first in Bristol County, Massachusetts, then moving to Lorain County, Ohio, where they would spend the remainder of their lives, and where three more sons were born to them. Dewhurst spent a part of his boyhood and youth on his parents' farm, received a common school and academic education in Elyria, Ohio, subsequently read the law in the Oberlin, Ohio, office of one P. Bliss. He was admitted to the bar of Ohio, and in 1850 moved to Jo Daviess County, Illinois, where for a while he worked in the lead mines. For a year or two he taught school in Scales Mound, Illinois, then moved about 1852 to Potosi in Grant County, Wisconsin.

Public office and employment; first term in the Assembly; marriage and move; Civil War
By 1854 he was teaching school in Platteville, and in 1856 was admitted to the bar of Wisconsin at White Oak Springs, before moving on to Weston in May of that year. In 1856 he was elected Clark County's county judge, and register of deeds. In 1858, he was first elected a member of the Assembly for a one-year term in the Legislature's 12th (1859) session as a member of the newly organized Republican Party, succeeding fellow Republican Lucius Cannon in the district encompassing Chippewa, Clark, Dunn and Pierce counties. He was succeeded by William P. Bartlett (also a Republican).
On March 29, 1859, he married Maria S. Curtis, who had been born in Ohio on April 9, 1840 (her parents, both natives of Connecticut, were married in Ohio and had settled at Cottage Grove, Wisconsin). After marriage the Dewhursts came to Neillsville, settling on the bank of the creek below the mill. The nearest markets were then at Sparta and La Crosse, and the roads merely trails through the wilderness. They built a frame house, and there they began domestic life. Dewhurst engaged in logging, a widespread occupation in that region in those days. It was later remembered that there were still many American Indians in the area who often came to the Dewhurst home looking for handouts, and "were always given something."

During the American Civil War Dewhurst served in a Wisconsin regiment and served as a deputy U. S. assessor in 1863-4.

Second term in the Assembly
He was elected again in 1864 as a National Union candidate, to a district which now encompassed Clark and Jackson counties, succeeding Calvin R. Johnson (also a National Union candidate), and was assigned to the standing committees on banks and banking, and on school and university lands. His profession is described as land agent in the Wisconsin Blue Book for that term He was succeeded by yet another Union candidate, Leandor Merrill.

After the second term; 1870s and beyond
He was elected again to the Assembly in 1874 as a candidate of the Liberal Reform Party (also called the Democratic Reform or simply Reform Party), a short-lived coalition of Democrats, reform and Liberal Republicans, and Grangers formed in 1873. He was the Reform nominee both for the 32nd Senate District, losing 2097 to 2354 to Republican Robert C. Field; and for his old Assembly district (Clark and Jackson Counties), defeating Republican James Hewett 1210 to 1179. With the Reform coalition starting to break down (Reform Governor William Robert Taylor, the heart of the party, was defeated for re-election), Dewhurst was not a candidate for re-election in 1875, and was succeeded by Republican Hugh B. Mills.

In 1875, he became county school superintendent; and upon the death of incumbent William Hutchinson he filled Hutchinson's unexpired term as county treasurer. In 1877 he once again became county judge, serving until 1879.

During this period he built a colonial home in Neillsville, and a block on the town's Main Street bearing his name. In 1874 Dewhurst travelled to Oregon, Washington and California, and in the late 1870s toured Scotland, Ireland, his native England and the French Exposition.

He ran for the Assembly again in 1884 as a Democrat (Clark County now had its own Assembly district), losing to Republican James O'Neill (the younger) with 1515 votes to O'Neill's 1831. He was elected as a member of the assembly for the fourth and final time in 1886 as an independent candidate, receiving 1,601 votes, against 1,019 votes for Republican T. J. La Flesh and 200 for Prohibitionist George A. Austin (O'Neill was not a candidate). This time, he was assigned to the committee on town and county organizations. He ran for re-election as a Democrat, and was defeated by Republican Merritt Clarke Ring.

Personal life
At the time of his death Dewhurst was president of the Neillsville Bank and held a like position in the German American Bank of Marshfield. He was a Mason and a member of the Universalist Church. He died of apoplexy on October 13, 1895, while visiting the Cotton States and International Exposition in Atlanta, Georgia; He'd left Neillsville for Atlanta on September 30, intending to spend some days at the Exposition and then proceed to his winter home in Florida.

The Town of Dewhurst, Wisconsin, was named after him in 1901.

References

External links
Town of Dewhurst, Wisconsin

American bankers
American loggers
American miners
Schoolteachers from Wisconsin
American Universalists
Businesspeople from Wisconsin
County officials in Wisconsin
English emigrants to the United States
Members of the Wisconsin State Assembly
People from Neillsville, Wisconsin
People of Wisconsin in the American Civil War
Wisconsin Democrats
Wisconsin Independents
Wisconsin state court judges
Wisconsin lawyers
Wisconsin Reformers (19th century)
19th-century American politicians
Wisconsin Republicans
1826 births
1895 deaths
19th-century English people
American lawyers admitted to the practice of law by reading law
19th-century American businesspeople
19th-century American judges
19th-century American lawyers
19th-century American educators

Richard Dewhurst