Ivana Kobilca (20 December 1861 – 4 December 1926) is the most prominent Slovene female painter and a key figure of Slovene cultural identity. She was a realist painter who studied and worked in Vienna, Munich, Paris, Sarajevo, Berlin, and Ljubljana. She mostly painted oil paintings and pastels, whereas her drawings are few. The themes include still life, portraits, genre works, allegories, and religious scenes. She was a controversial person, criticized for following movements that had not developed further in later periods.

Biography

Ivana Kobilca was born in Ljubljana as a daughter in a wealthy family of a craftsman. Her parents gave great emphasis on education. At first, she learned how to draw, but also French and Italian, in the Ursuline High School in her home town, where her teacher of drawing was Ida Künl. When she was 16, she went with her father to Vienna, where she saw the paintings of old masters that inspired her. From 1879 to 1880, she studied in Vienna, where she copied the paintings at the gallery of the Academy of Arts, and from 1880 to 1881 in Munich. From 1882 to 1889, she continued her studies under Alois Erdtelt. In 1888, she participated for the first time in a public exhibition. At the following exhibition in Munich, her work was spotted and praised by the prominent German art historian Richard Muther. She then returned to Ljubljana. In 1890, she painted in Zagreb. In 1891 and 1892, she painted in Paris in the private school of Henri Gervex. She became an honorary member (membre associée) of Société Nationale des Beaux Arts. In 1892, she also painted in Barbizon. In 1893, she returned to Ljubljana, visited Florence in 1894, and lived in Sarajevo from 1897 to 1905. From 1906 to 1914, she lived in Berlin, and then returned to Ljubljana. At the time of her death in 1926 in Ljubljana, she was described as the greatest Yugoslav female painter.

Works and meanings

Judging by her social origin, way of living, ideals and work, she was an urban artist. She is one of Slovene realists, who created their most important paintings in the 1880s. Kobilca's greatest tribute to Slovenian art was made during the time she lived abroad. Her greatest impact was on figural painting, especially portraits and paintings of typical people's lives in rustic or urban places. Since the time she had spent in Berlin, her most important genre became floral still life. Her early work reflects characteristics of München studio-work. Her focus was on value, chiaroscuro and draftsmanship; only her pastels were light and rosy. From 1889 onwards her painting became lighter with blue nuances, typical for Parisian art at the time.

In the late 1880s many artists were influenced by the Impressionist movement that began in France with Monet, Morisot, Renoir and others. Ivana Kobilca, however stayed true to her academic artistic roots; with strong focus on study of value, draftsmanship and realism in oil painting.

Kobilca's best known paintings are Kofetarica (Coffee Drinker), 1888; Citrarica (Zitherist), Likarice (Women Ironers), 1891; Holandsko dekle (Dutch Girl), Portret sestre Fani (Portrait of Sister Fani), 1889; and Poletje (Summer), 1889.  Her work is on display at all major European galleries.

Commemoration

After Slovenia declared independence from Yugoslavia, Kobilca was portrayed by Rudi Španzel on the 5000 Slovenian tolar banknote. It was in circulation from December 1993 until the introduction of euro in January 2007.

References

External links

 Ivana Kobilca at National Gallery in Ljubljana (in Slovene)

1861 births
1926 deaths
Slovenian realist painters
Slovenian women artists
Carniolan painters
Artists from Ljubljana
19th-century Slovenian painters
20th-century Slovenian painters
19th-century women artists
20th-century women artists
19th-century Slovenian women
20th-century Slovenian women
Painters from Austria-Hungary

Ivana Kobilca


Peter IV  (Spanish: Pedro IV de Aragón; 5 September 1319 – 6 January 1387), called the Ceremonious (Spanish: el Ceremonioso), was from 1336 until his death the king of Aragon, Sardinia-Corsica, and Valencia, and count of Barcelona. In 1344, he deposed James III of Majorca and made himself King of Majorca.

His reign was occupied with attempts to strengthen the crown against the Union of Aragon and other such devices of the nobility, with their near constant revolts, and with foreign wars, in Sardinia, Sicily, the Mezzogiorno, Greece, and the Balearics. His wars in Greece made him Duke of Athens and Neopatria in 1381.

Succession conflicts

Peter was born at Balaguer, the eldest son and heir of Alfons IV, then Count of Urgell, and his first wife, Teresa d'Entença. Peter was designated to inherit all of his father's title save that of Urgell, which went to his younger brother James.

Upon succeeding his father he called a corts in Zaragoza for his coronation. He crowned himself, disappointing the Archbishop of Zaragoza and thus rejecting the surrender Peter II had made to the Papacy, in an otherwise traditional ceremony. According to his own later reports, this act caused him some "distress". He did, however, affirm the liberties and privileges of Aragon. Also while he was at Zaragoza an embassy from Castile had met him and asked that he promise to uphold the donations of land his father had made to his stepmother Eleanor, but he refused to give a clear answer as to the legitimacy of the donations.

After the festivities in Zaragoza, Peter began on his way to Valencia to receive coronation there. En route he stopped at Lleida to affirm the Usatges and Constitutions of Catalonia and receive the homage of his Catalan subjects. This offended Barcelona, at which the ceremony had usually been performed, and the citizens of that city complained to the king, who claimed that Lleida was on his way to Valencia. While in Valencia he decided on the case of his stepmother's inheritance, depriving her of income and outlawing her Castilian protector, Peter Ponce of León and Jérica. However, Jérica had enough supporters within Peter's domains that Peter was unable to maintain his position and in 1338, through papal mediation, Jérica was reconciled to the king and Eleanor received her land and jurisdictional rights. Peter was largely forced to capitulate by a new invasion from Morocco aimed at Castile and Valencia.

In 1338 he married Maria, second daughter of Philip III and Joan II of Navarre. In May 1339 he allied with Alfonso XI of Castile against Morocco, but his contribution of a fleet had no effect at the pivotal Battle of Río Salado (October 1340).

Conquest of Majorca
Early on in his reign, a thorn in Peter's side had been James III of Majorca, his brother-in-law, the husband of his sister Constance. James had twice postponed performing the ceremony of homage to Peter, his feudal overlord, and when he finally performed it in 1339 it was on his terms. The rising economic star of Majorca, whose merchants were establishing independent markets and gaining trading privileges in the western Mediterranean, threatened the supremacy of Barcelona. The gold coinage of Majorca and the diplomatic equality granted it by the powers of France and Italy irked Peter further, while James also allied with Abu Al-Hassan, the king of Morocco and Peter's enemy. Peter's outrage, however, was given no outlet until 1341, when James, threatened with invasion by the French over disputed rights to the Lordship of Montpellier, called on his suzerain Aragon for aid. In order not to offend France nor to support James, Peter summoned the king of Majorca to a cort at Barcelona, to which he knew he would not come, and when James or a representative of his failed to appear, Peter declared himself free from the obligations of an overlord to James.

Peter then opened a legal process against James, with the intent of dispossessing him of his kingdom. He alleged that the circulation of James' coinage in the Counties of Roussillon and Cerdagne to be an infringement on the royal right of monopoly of coinage. This was open to question, considering the ancient customs of Roussillon and Cerdagne, but Peter was prepared to move forward anyway. The interference of Pope Clement VI, however, granted James a hearing in Barcelona in front of papal delegates. Peter, for his part, spread rumours that James was seeking to capture him. James, fearing that Peter would stoop to invading Majorca and seizing it by force, returned to the island to prepare its defence. In February 1343 Peter declared James a contumacious vassal and his kingdom and lands forfeit.

The legal process being terminated, Peter went to war, on the advice that the islanders were burdened by taxes and would readily rise in his support. In May a fleet which had been blockading Algeciras landed at Majorca and quickly defeated James' army at the Battle of Santa Ponça. Peter received the submission of all the Balearics and confirmed the privileges of the islands as they had been under James I. Though James sued for peace and Pope Clement attempted to mediate it, Peter returned to Barcelona prepared to invade Roussillon and Cerdagne. After these were finally conquered in 1344 James surrendered on a safe conduct, only to find himself ignominiously reduced to the status of a petty lord. In March Peter had declared his realm incorporated into the Crown of Aragon in perpetuity and ceremoniously had himself crowned its king.

Military career

By the Pact of Madrid, Peter was constrained to aid Alfonso XI of Castile in his successful attack on Algeciras (1344) and his failed attempt on Gibraltar (1349) by defending against a Moroccan counterattack.

As Peter had no male issue, his brother Count James of Urgell was the presumptive heir to the Aragonese throne. Peter grew to mistrust the intentions of James over time.  Peter decided that he would instead name his daughter Constance as his heir presumptive notwithstanding the precedents established by James I and Alfonso IV to exclude females from the throne. To this end, he demanded that James cede his post as procurator general, a position which, by tradition, was reserved for the second in line to the Aragonese throne. James fled to Zaragoza where he gained the favor of certain nobles who wished to reassert their powers via the monarch. Peter eventually succumbed to the pressure to hold a cortes in Zaragoza where he made numerous concessions of royal authority to quell a rebellion he was not yet in a position to crush. One of such concessions was to revoke his attempt to name Constance as heir, and to restore James as procurator general.  To avert additional damage, Peter dissolved the corts on the premise that he had to address a crisis developing in Sardinia.  Not long thereafter, while Peter was in Catalonia, James suddenly died.  Many suspected Peter of having arranged to have James poisoned.  Deprived of their leader, the Union of Aragon was greatly weakened.

Venturing next to Valencia, Peter encountered the nascent Valencian Union which had taken its cue from its counterpart in Aragon.  At Murviedro (Sagunt), Peter was forced to name his stepbrother Ferran as the new procurator general.  Additional concessions of royal authority were made to appease the Unionists.  This time when he attempted to leave a bad situation, Peter was held under guard in Valencia as a prisoner of the Union.  Suffering perhaps his greatest humility, he and his queen were forced to dance with the common folk to show his subservience.  Ironically, his salvation was the Black Death.  Valencia was felled by this plague in May 1348, enabling Peter to escape amid the confusion.  Assembling an army of increasingly powerful royalists in Aragon, Peter attacked the unionist forces at the Battle of Epila on 21 July 1348.  Peter won a complete victory.  Proceeding to Saragossa, Peter executed only thirteen Union leaders.  By fourteenth century standards, this was a great display of magnanimity.  Not the same can be said for the fate of Valencia.  After being persuaded not to burn the entire city and sow it with salt, many were executed.  Of particular note, he had the bell that the Valencian Union rang to summon its meetings melted down.  The molten metal from the bell was then poured down the throats of the Union leaders so that they "should taste its liquor."

In 1356, he engaged with Peter I of Castile in what was called the "War of the Two Peters". It ended in 1375 with the Treaty of Almazan, without a winner due to the Black Death and several natural disasters.

He conquered Sicily in 1377 but the possession was given to his son Martin.

Throughout his reign, Peter IV had frequent conflicts with the inquisitor general of Aragon, Nicolas Eymerich.

In 1349, James invaded Majorca, but was soundly defeated by Peter's troops at the Battle of Llucmajor, in which he died. After James' death, Peter allowed James IV, his successor, to retain his royal title on purely formal terms until his death in 1375. After that date, Peter assumed the title. Majorca remained one of the component crowns of the Crown of Aragon until the Nova Planta decrees.

Peter died in Barcelona, aged 67.

Generalitat

At a corts celebrated at Barcelona, Vilafranca del Penedès and Cervera in 1358–1359, Peter instituted the Generalitat. Castile had recently invaded Aragon and Valencia and the cortes decided to streamline the government by designating a dozen deputies to oversee the fiscal and material policies of the Crown. The first "President of the Generalitat" was Berenguer de Cruïlles, Bishop of Girona (1359).

Toward the end of his reign (c. 1370) Peter ordered the compilation of the Chronicle of Sant Joan de la Penya to record the historical basis for the authority of the crown.

Relationship with Jews
According to historical record, Peter IV of Aragon and his Jewish physician had a friendly disputation regarding the question of why the Jews were not allowed to drink kosher wine touched by a Christian.  Thereupon the physician had water brought to wash the king's feet, of which he then drank to demonstrate that the fear of impurity was not the reason of the prohibition.

Marriage and children
His first marriage, on 23 July 1338 in Alagón, was to Maria (1329 – 29 April 1347), daughter of Philip III of Navarre and Joan II of Navarre. They had four children:
 Constance (1343 – July 1363), who married King Frederick III of Sicily.
 Joanna (7 November 1344 – 1385), who married Count John of Ampurias.
 Maria (1345/6 – 3 June 1348).
 Peter (born and died 28 April 1347).

His second marriage, on 15 November 1347 in Barcelona, was to Eleanor (1328 – 29 October 1348), daughter of Afonso IV of Portugal. She died one year later of the Black Death.

His third marriage, on 27 August 1349 in Valencia, was to Eleanor (1325 – 20 April 1375), daughter of Peter II of Sicily. They had four children:

 John I (27 December 1350 – 19 May 1396).
 Martin I (1356 – 31 May 1410).
 Eleanor (20 February 1358 – 13 September 1382), who married John I of Castile and was the mother of Ferdinand I of Aragon.
 Alfonso (May or June 1362 – 1364).

His last marriage, on 11 October 1377 in Barcelona, was to Sibila (? – 4 or 24 November 1406), daughter of Bernat of Fortià and widow of Artal of Foces, who was previously his mistress. They had three children:

 Alfonso (1376 – 1377), Legitimized in 1377, Count of Morella.
 Peter (born and died April 1379).
Isabella (1380 – 1424), married Count James II of Urgell and was mother of Isabella of Urgell, Duchess of Coimbra. Through Isabella, Peter and Sibila are ancestors to Joana, Princess of Portugal and John II of Portugal.

Notes

References

Bibliography
Bisson, Thomas N. The Medieval Crown of Aragon: A Short History. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986. .
Chaytor, H. J. A History of Aragon and Catalonia. London: Methuen, 1933.

Setton, Kenneth M. Catalan Domination of Athens 1311–1380. Revised edition. London: Variorum, 1975.

External links

Peter III of Catalonia-Aragon

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1319 births
1387 deaths
14th-century Aragonese monarchs
People from Noguera (comarca)
Monarchs of Majorca
Valencian monarchs
Counts of Barcelona
House of Aragon
Aragonese infantes
Dukes of Athens
Burials at the Poblet Monastery
Sons of kings

Peter IV of Aragon


Sankat Mochan Sangeet Samaroh is an annual music festival held at the Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple in Varanasi, India. It features performances in Indian classical music and dance. The festival is noted for allowing free entry to audiences, and for performers not charging any fees. It is scheduled every year to coincide with the Hindu religious festival of Hanuman Jayanti that celebrates the birth of Hanuman, the presiding deity at the temple.

References

Hindustani classical music festivals
Music festivals in India

Sankat Mochan Sangeet Samaroh


The coat of arms of Australia has two animals; the emu and kangaroo. The animals are each on one side separated by a shield. The shield shows the badge of each six states. The current version was granted by King George V on 19 September 1912

Australia
National symbols of Australia

Coat of arms of Australia


The Simplicity Pattern Company is a manufacturer of sewing pattern guides, under the "Simplicity Pattern", "It's So Easy" and "New Look" brands. The company was founded in 1927 in New York City. During the Great Depression, Simplicity allowed home seamstresses to create fashionable clothing in a reliable manner. The patterns are manufactured in the US but are distributed and sold in Canada, England, and Australia, in some markets by Burda and in Mexico and South Africa by third-party distributors. The company licenses its name to the manufacture of non-textile materials such as sewing machines, doll house kits, and sewing supplies. Simplicity is now owned by CSS Industries.

History
James J. Shapiro (1909–1995) founded the Simplicity Pattern Company in 1927 and was its first president. The company was based on an idea of his father's, Joseph M. Shapiro (1888 Russia – 1968 California), a magazine ad salesman.  The company at one point was considered part of the NYSE Nifty Fifty stocks.

In 1998, the company was acquired by Conso International Corp. Conso subsequently changed its name to Simplicity Creative Group, Inc. Simplicity Creative Group was acquired by Wilton Brands, Inc. in 2013, and sold in November 2017 to CSS Industries. Until 2007, the company had its main plant in Niles, Michigan.

Sewing from patterns
Simplicity Patterns, like most home sewing patterns, consist of tissue paper printed with numerical guides and instructions. The paper is pinned on the fabric, and the sewer then cuts along the printed lines and stitches the cloth together to create the finished clothing. Each Simplicity pattern has step-by-step instructions for cutting, stitching, and assembling of clothes. Simplicity aims to emulate fashion designer clothing, and the company currently produces over 1,600 patterns.

References

External links
The Simplicity Pattern Company home page

Fashion journalism
Sewing
1927 establishments in New York City
Clothing companies of the United States

Simplicity Pattern


TV3CAT was, until 29 May 2009, named Televisió de Catalunya Internacional. It was the international channel of Catalonia,  Televisió de Catalunya. It is part of Corporació Catalana de Mitjans Audiovisuals (CCMA). That channel was beaming to Europe through Astra satellite and America through Hispasat satellite. TV3CAT belonged to a group of channels where it was found programs from TV3, El 33, Super3, Esport3 and 3/24.

It started to beam, Sunday 10 of September 1995. Since 1 May 2012, it stopped broadcasting on satellite television due to political financial cuts. The station claims it will be continue broadcasting via the internet and through cable and ADSL in Spain.

References

External links
Official Website

Televisió de Catalunya
Catalan-language television stations
Television stations in Catalonia
Television channels and stations established in 1995
1995 establishments in Catalonia
International broadcasters

TV3CAT


Henry Paul (born August 25, 1949) is an American musician, singer, and songwriter who was an original recording member of the Southern rock band Outlaws. Paul left to form the Henry Paul Band but then returned to the Outlaws. He also is a founding member of the country band Blackhawk.

Biography

Early life
Henry Paul was born in Kingston, New York, and lived on a farm in nearby Hurley, but when his father and mother divorced, Paul, his sisters Anselma and Helen, and his mother moved to Temple Terrace, a suburb of Tampa, Florida, as a young boy. At the age of 17, he played his first music gigs at High School folk festivals and playing at the 18th String Coffee House and Music Emporium in Tampa, and by 1969, he had moved back north to Greenwich Village, New York, to pursue a career in music. While living in New York, Paul retraced the footsteps of his hero Bob Dylan and played on the streets to make a living while cutting demos for Epic Records. With an invitation to play a concert in his hometown, he returned to Tampa in 1971. There, Paul and Jim Fish formed the country rock group Sienna with future Outlaw members Monte Yoho and Frank O'Keefe.

The Outlaws
In 1972, the group Sienna disbanded and Paul joined the group "The Outlaws" which had been formed in 1967. They started playing clubs around the Tampa area and added Billy Jones. By 1974, they were on the road opening shows for several established Southern rock groups including Lynyrd Skynyrd. Clive Davis of Arista Records discovered them and signed the group to their first record deal; they became the fledgling label's first rock band. Their self-titled debut album quickly went gold on the success of hits like "Green Grass and High Tides," and "There Goes Another Love Song." In 1977, after recording two more albums with the Outlaws, Paul left the band to pursue a solo career.
Following the death of Hughie Thomasson, Paul became the bandleader of The Outlaws in the first lineup to not include Thomasson since the formation of the band. In 2012, the Outlaws released the critically acclaimed album, "It's About Pride". The band still tours extensively throughout the United States with the current lineup which includes Paul, Mike Bailey (drums), Randy Threet (bass guitar), Dave Robbins (keyboards), Jimmy Dormire (lead guitar) and Jeff Aulich(guitars).

Henry Paul Band
Within a year after leaving The Outlaws, Paul founded the Henry Paul Band, debuting in 1979 with the album Grey Ghost. It included songs such as "So Long" and "Grey Ghost", which was dedicated to the memory of Lynyrd Skynyrd's Ronnie Van Zant. He told Songfacts that he wrote "Lonely Dreamer" while visualizing a painting of a girl with the words "Lonely Dreamer" underneath. The band recorded three more albums including Feel The Heat in 1980, which had more of a rock edge and included the title track as well as "Whiskey Talkin'" and "Longshot" that went to #3 on the Billboard Bubbling Under The Hot 100 Singles Chart in 1980. Their third album was released in 1981, Anytime, included the hit "Keeping Our Love Alive" #50 on the Billboard Hot 100 Chart and #23 Billboard Top Tracks(Mainstream Rock Tracks Chart) in 1982 with background vocals by Richard Paige of Mr. Mister & Bill Champlin of Chicago. The album also featured a non-charted single "Living Without Your Love" that was played on some album rock stations, cover version of Van Morrison's "Brown Eyed Girl" #5 Billboard Bubbling Under The Hot 100 Singles Chart in 1982, and a live show highlight "Crazy Eyes". Henry Paul Band's fourth and final self-titled album was released in 1982, featuring the songs "Hold On", Heat Of The Night" and the haunting song "Tragedy" .
During the Henry Paul Band era, Paul also did voice-over work at WYNF-FM (95ynf) in Tampa Bay, Florida .

In 1983, the Henry Paul Band disbanded as Paul reunited with Hughie Thomasson of the Outlaws. Their collaboration led to the 1986 release of The Outlaws' Soldiers of Fortune. Paul remained with the band until 1989, when he left again to start a new career in country music, founding BlackHawk in 1991. Van Stephenson and Dave Robbins joined Paul in BlackHawk to create a new blend of country music, using three-part harmonies and introspective songs.

Blackhawk

BlackHawk's No. 11 debut, "Goodbye Says It All", was heavily promoted on CMT during 1994. Following the platinum success of their self-titled debut album, they developed into a touring band. They have produced five studio albums, BlackHawk, Strong Enough, Love & Gravity, The Sky's the Limit, Spirit Dancer and one compilation album, Greatest Hits. They were nominated for Top New Vocal Group or Duet by the Academy of Country Music in 1994, but lost to Gibson/Miller Band. In 2002, the group left Arista for Columbia Records, with one album — 2002's Spirit Dancer — being released on that label. The 2008 lineup is signed to Radiance Records. In July 2014 BlackHawk released its first studio album in 12 years called "Brothers of the Southland." The title track is a tribute to Southern Rock bands and all those who have passed on.

Discography

with Outlaws
Outlaws (1975)
Lady in Waiting (1976)
Hurry Sundown (1977)
Soldiers of Fortune (1986)

with The Henry Paul Band
Grey Ghost (1979)
Feel the Heat (1980)
Anytime (1981)

Solo
Henry Paul (1982)

with BlackHawk
Blackhawk (1994)
Strong Enough (1995)
Love & Gravity (1997)
The Sky's the Limit (1998)
Spirit Dancer (2002)
Down from the Mountain (2011)
Brothers of the Southland (2014)
Greatest Hits & More (2014)
Blue Highway (2022)

References

External links
 Henry Paul official webpage

American country rock singers
American country singer-songwriters
American male singer-songwriters
American country guitarists
American male guitarists
1949 births
Living people
Singer-songwriters from New York (state)
Musicians from Kingston, New York
Outlaws (band) members
Blackhawk (band) members
Guitarists from New York (state)
C. Leon King High School alumni
Musicians from Tampa, Florida
20th-century American guitarists
Country musicians from New York (state)
Country musicians from Florida
20th-century American male musicians
Singer-songwriters from Florida

Henry Paul (musician)


The Partition of Bengal in 1947, part of the Partition of India, divided the British Indian Bengal Province along the Radcliffe Line between the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan. The Bengali Hindu-majority West Bengal became a state of India, and the Bengali Muslim-majority East Bengal (now Bangladesh) became a province of Pakistan.

On 20 June 1947, the Bengal Legislative Assembly met to decide the future of the Bengal Province, as between being a United Bengal within India or Pakistan or divided into East Bengal and West Bengal as the home lands for the Bengali Muslims and the Bengali Hindus respectively. At the preliminary joint session, the assembly decided by 120-90 that it should remain united if it joined the new Constituent Assembly of Pakistan. Later, a separate meeting of legislators from West Bengal decided by 58-21 that the province should be partitioned and that West Bengal should join the existing Constituent Assembly of India. In another separate meeting of legislators from East Bengal, it was decided by 106-35 that the province should not be partitioned and by 107-34 that East Bengal should join Pakistan in the event of Partition.

On 6 July 1947, the Sylhet referendum decided to sever Sylhet from Assam and merge it into East Bengal.

The partition, with power transferred to Pakistan and India on 14–15 August 1947, was done according to what has come to be known as the 3 June Plan, or the Mountbatten Plan. Indian independence, on 15 August 1947, ended over 150 years of British rule and influence in the Indian subcontinent. East Pakistan became the independent country of Bangladesh after the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War.

Background

In 1905, the First Partition in Bengal was implemented as an administrative preference since governing two provinces, West and East Bengal, would be easier. The partition divides the province between West Bengal, whose majority was Hindu, and East Bengal, whose majority was Muslim, but left considerable minorities of Hindus in East Bengal and Muslims in West Bengal. While the Muslims were in favour of the partition, as they would have their own province, Hindus opposed it. The controversy led to increased violence and protest, and in 1911, the provinces were again united.

However, the disagreements between Hindus and Muslims in Bengal that had sparked the Partition of Bengal in 1905 remained, and laws, including the Second Partition of Bengal in 1947, were implemented to fulfil the political needs of the parties involved.

According to plan, on 20 June 1947, the members of the Bengal Legislative Assembly cast three separate votes on the proposal to partition Bengal:
 In the joint session of the house, composed of all the members of the Assembly, the division of the joint session of the House stood at 126 votes against and 90 votes for partitioning of Bengal and joining the existing Constituent Assembly (India)
 The members of the Muslim-majority areas of Bengal in a separate session then passed a motion by 106–35 against partitioning Bengal and instead joining a new Constituent Assembly (Pakistan) as a whole.
 A separate meeting of the members of the non-Muslim-majority areas of Bengal then decided 58–21 to partition the province.

Under the Mountbatten Plan, a single majority vote in favour of partition by either of the notionally-divided halves of the Assembly would have decided the division of the province and hence the proceedings on 20 June resulted in the decision to partition Bengal. That set the stage for the creation of West Bengal as a province of India and East Bengal as a province of the Dominion of Pakistan.

Also in accordance with the Mountbatten Plan, a referendum held on 6 July saw the electorate of Sylhet vote to join East Bengal. Further, the Boundary Commission, headed by Sir Cyril Radcliffe, decided on the territorial demarcation between the two newly created provinces. Power was transferred to Pakistan and India on 14 and 15 August, respectively, under the Indian Independence Act 1947.

Opposition to partition of India

In Bengal, the Krishak Praja Party's Syed Habib-ul-Rahman said that partitioning India was "absurd" and "chimerical".

Rezaul Karim, a Bengali Muslim leader in the Indian National Congress, was a champion of Hindu-Muslim unity and a united India. He "argued that the idea that Hindus and Muslims are two distinct nations was ahistorical" and held that outside of the subcontinent, Indian Muslims faced discrimination. With respect to Indian civilization, Rezaul Karim declared that "Its Vedas, its Upanishads, its Rama, Sita, its Ramayana, and Mahabharat, its Krishna and Gita, its Asoka and Akbar, its Kalidas and Amir Khusru, its Aurangzeb and Dara, its Rana Pratap and Sitaram—all are our own inheritance." In 1941, Rezaul Karim published a book Pakisthan Examined with the Partition Schemes that firmly rejected the two-nation theory and opposed the division of India. Karim advocated for composite nationalism, with historian Neilesh Bose of the University of Victoria stating that "Rezaul Karim developed a Bengali Muslim composite nationalism that aimed to connect religion, region and nation in the context of a subjunctive, possible future India."

United Bengal plan

After it became apparent that the division of India on the basis of the two-nation theory would almost certainly result in the partition of Bengal along religious lines, the Bengal provincial Muslim League leader Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy came up with a new plan to create an independent Bengal state, which would join neither Pakistan nor India and remain unpartitioned. Suhrawardy realised that if Bengal was partitioned, it would be economically disastrous for East Bengal as all coal mines, all but two jute mills and other industrial plants would certainly go to the western part since they were in overwhelmingly-Hindu areas. Most importantly, Calcutta, the largest city in India and an industrial and commercial hub and the largest port, would also go to the western part. Suhrawardy floated his idea on 24 April 1947 at a press conference in Delhi.

However, the plan ran directly counter to that of the Muslim League, which demanded the creation of a separate Muslim homeland on the basis of the two-nation theory. The Bengal provincial Muslim League leadership opinion was divided. The leader Abul Hashim supported it, but Nurul Amin and Mohammad Akram Khan opposed it. However, Muhammad Ali Jinnah realised the validity of Suhrawardy's argument and gave his tacit support to the plan. After Jinnah's approval, Suhrawardy started gathering support for his plan.

For the Congress, only a handful of leaders agreed to the plan, such as the influential Bengal provincial Congress leader Sarat Chandra Bose, the elder brother of Netaji and Kiran Shankar Roy. However, most other leaders and Congress leaders, including Jawaharlal Nehru and Vallabhbhai Patel, rejected the plan. The nationalist Hindu Mahasabha, under the leadership of Shyama Prasad Mukherjee, vehemently opposed it and considered it nothing but a ploy by Suhrawardy to stop the partition of the state so that its industrial west, including the city of Kolkata, would remain under League control. It also claimed that even if the plan was for a sovereign Bengal state, it would be a virtual Pakistan, and the Hindu minority would always be at the mercy of the Muslim majority.

Although the chance of the proposal seeing light without the Congress central committee's approval was slim, Bose and Suhrawardy continued talks to reach an agreement on the political structure of the proposed state. Like Suhrawardy, Bose also felt that Partition would severely hamper Bengal's economy, and almost half of the Hindus would be left stranded in East Pakistan. The agreement was published on 24 May 1947 but was largely political. The proposal had little support at grassroots level, particularly among Hindus. The Muslim League's continuous propaganda for the two-nation theory during the past six years, as well as the marginalisation of Hindus in the Suhrawardy ministry and the vicious 1946 riots, which many Hindus believed to have been sponsored by the state, left little room for trust by the Bengali Hindus. Soon, Bose and Suhrawardy were divided on the nature of the electorate: separate or joint. Suhrawardy insisted upon maintaining the separate electorates for Muslims and non-Muslims. Bose opposed the idea and withdrew. The lack of any other significant support by the Congress caused the United Bengal plan to be discarded. Still, the relatively-unknown episode marked the last attempt among Bengali Muslim and Hindu leadership to avoid Partition and to live together.

Displacement

1946–1951
Following the partition of Bengal between the Hindu-majority West Bengal and the Muslim-majority East Bengal, there was an influx of Bengali Hindu/Bengali Muslim refugees from both sides. An estimation suggests that before Partition, West Bengal had a population of 21.2 million, of whom only 6.93 million or roughly 33 percent were Muslim minorities, most of them were native Bengali Muslims, whereas East Bengal had 39.1 million people, of whom a staggering 11.4 million or roughly 33 percent were Hindu minorities i.e. predominantly native Bengali Hindus. Nearly 2.16 million Bengali Hindus have left Pakistan's East Bengal for India's West Bengal region, and 1.9 Million Bengali Muslims have left India's West Bengal for Pakistan's East Bengal region immediately after Partition because of violence and rioting resulting from mobs supporting West Bengal and East Bengal, but most Muslims who have left in 1947, have returned soon to India's West Bengal before Liaquat–Nehru Pact, which have been signed in 1950 respectively.

Unlike Punjab, where a full population exchange between Punjabi Muslims and Punjabi Sikhs/Punjabi Hindus during partition happened, the same complete population exchange did not happen in Bengal (their population transfer between Bengali Hindus and Bengali Muslims was gradually slower due to occurrence of less violence); overall it was one-sided i.e. most of the Bengali Hindus left East Bengal, but most of the Bengali Muslims didn't leave West Bengal. During Partition, Hindu Mahasabha leader Shyama Prasad Mukherjee has demanded full exchange of population: that is, an exchange of the Bengali Muslim population of West Bengal with that of Bengali Hindus of East Bengal, but it didn't happen due to lack of interest of Central Government leaders of that time. Presently, only 8 percent of Bangladesh (then East Bengal) is Hindu, whereas West Bengal is still 29 percent Muslim, compared to 33 percent at the time of Partition.

1960
An estimated one million Hindu refugees had entered West Bengal by 1960, and close to 700,000 Muslims left for East Pakistan. The refugee influx in Bengal was also accompanied by the fact that the government was less prepared to rehabilitate them, which resulted in huge housing and sanitation problems for the millions, most of whom were owners of large property back in East Bengal.

1964
During East Pakistan riot of 1964, it is estimated according to Indian authorities, 135,000 Hindu refugees arrived in West Bengal from East Pakistan, and the Muslims started to migrate to East Pakistan from West Bengal. According to Pakistani figures, by early April, 83,000 Muslim refugees had arrived from West Bengal.

1971
In 1971, during the Bangladesh Liberation War against Pakistan, a large group of refugees numbering an estimated 7,235,916 arrived from Bangladesh to India's West Bengal. Nearly 95% of them were Bengali Hindus and, after Independence of Bangladesh, nearly 1,521,912 people belonging to Bengali Hindu refugees decided to stay back in West Bengal. The Bangladeshi Hindus were mainly settled in Nadia, North 24 parganas and South 24 parganas district of West Bengal after 1971.>

Aftermath
Before the official Radcliffe Line was drawn in 1947, these were the religious demographics in Bengal:
Muslim-majority districts: Dinajpur, Rangpur, Malda, Murshidabad, Rajshahi, Bogra, Pabna, Mymensingh, Jessore, Nadia, Faridpur, Dhaka, Tippera, Bakerganj, Noakhali and Chittagong.
Hindu-majority districts: Calcutta, Howrah, Hooghly, Birbhum, Burdwan, Bankura, Midnapore, Jalpaiguri, Darjeeling, 24 Pargan and Khulna
Buddhist-majority district: Chittagong Hill Tract

Final division:
Pakistan: East Dinajpur, Rangpur, Rajshahi, Bogra, Pabna, Mymensingh, Sylhet (except Karimganj), Khulna, Bakerganj, Tippera (plain Tripura), Noakhali, Chittagong, Jessore , East Nadia, Chittagong Hill Tracts.
India: West Dinajpur, Jalpaiguri, Darjeeling, Malda, Murshidabad, West Nadia, Calcutta, 24 Pargana, Burdwan, Birbhum, Midnapore, Howrah, Hooghly and Karimganj district in Assam.
The second partition of Bengal left behind a legacy of violence that has continues ever since. As Bashabi Fraser put it, "There is the reality of the continuous flow of 'economic migrants', 'refugees', 'infiltrators', 'illegal immigrants' who cross over the border and pan out across the sub-continent, looking for work and a new home, setting in metropolitan centres as far off as Delhi and Mumbai, keeping the question of the Partition alive today".

Displacement crisis

A massive population transfer began immediately after partition. Millions of Hindus migrated to India from East Bengal, and most of them settled in West Bengal. A significant number even went to Assam, Tripura and other states. However, the refugee crisis was markedly different from Punjab at India's western border. Punjab had witnessed widespread communal riots immediately before partition. As a result, the population transfer in Punjab happened almost immediately after Partition, as terrified people left their homes from both sides. Within a year, the population exchange had been largely complete between East and West Punjab, but in Bengal, violence was limited to Kolkata and Noakhali. Hence in Bengal, the migration occurred much more gradually and continued over the three decades after partition. Although riots were limited in pre-independence Bengal, the environment was communally charged. Both Hindus in East Bengal and Muslims in West Bengal felt unsafe and had to take a crucial decision on whether to leave for an uncertain future in another country or to stay in subjugation under the other community. Among Hindus in East Bengal, those who were better placed economically left first. Government employees were given a chance to swap their posts between India and Pakistan. The educated urban upper and middle classes, the rural gentry, traders, businessmen and artisans left for India soon after partition. They often had relatives and other connections in West Bengal and settled with less difficulty. Muslims followed a similar pattern. The urban and educated upper and middle classes left for East Bengal first.

However, poorer Hindus in East Bengal, most of whom are Dalits found it much more difficult to migrate. Their only property was immovable land holdings. Many sharecropped had no skills other than farming. As a result, most of them decided to stay in East Bengal. However, the political climate in Pakistan deteriorated soon after partition and communal violence started to rise. In 1950, severe riots occurred in Barisal and other places in East Pakistan, causing a further exodus of Hindus. The situation was vividly described by Jogendra Nath Mandal's resignation letter to Pakistani Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan. Mandal was a dalit leader and despite being a depressed classes, he supported the Muslim League as a protest to the subjugation of lower-castes by their higher-caste coreligionists. He fled to India and resigned from his cabinet minister's post. For the next two decades, Hindus left East Bengal whenever communal tensions flared up or relationship between India and Pakistan deteriorated as in 1964. The situation of the Hindu minority in East Bengal reached its worst in the months preceding and during the Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971, when the Pakistani Army systematically targeted ethnic Bengalis, regardless of religious background, as part of Operation Searchlight.

In independent Bangladesh, state-sponsored discrimination of Hindus largely stopped. However, like India, the two communities' relationship remains tense and occasional communal violence occurred, such as in the aftermath of Babri Mosque demolition. Illegal immigration to India has continued but is now mostly economic and is not limited to Hindus alone.

Though Muslims in post-independence West Bengal faced some discrimination, it was unlike the state-sponsored discrimination faced by the Hindus in East Bengal. Most Hindus fled from East Bengal, but Muslims largely stayed on in West Bengal. Over the years, however, the community became ghettoised and was socially and economically segregated from the majority community. West Bengali Muslims are highly marginalised, as can be seen from social indicators like literacy and per capita income.

Apart from West Bengal, thousands of Bihari Muslims also settled in East Bengal. They had suffered terribly in severe riots before partition. However, they supported West Pakistan during the Liberation War and were subsequently denied citizenship in independent Bangladesh. Most of the Bihari refugees have remained stateless.

Statistics
The 1951 census in India recorded 2.523 million refugees from East Bengal, 2.061 million of whom settled in West Bengal. The rest went to Assam, Tripura and other states. By 1973 their number reached over 6 million. The following table shows the major waves of refugee influx and the incident that caused it.

The 1951 census in Pakistan recorded 671,000 refugees in East Bengal, the majority of which came from West Bengal. The rest were from Bihar. By 1961 the numbers reached 850,000. Crude estimates suggest that about 1.5 million Muslims migrated from West Bengal and Bihar to East Bengal in two decades after partition.

Government response
In Punjab, the Indian government anticipated a population transfer and was ready to take proactive measures. Land plots that were evacuated by Muslims were allotted to incoming Hindu and Sikh refugees. The government allocated substantial resources for the rehabilitation of refugees in Punjab. In contrast, there was no such planning in the eastern part of the country. Neither the central nor the West Bengal state governments anticipated any large-scale population exchange, and no co-ordinated policy was in place to rehabilitate millions of homeless people. The newly independent country had few resources, and the central government was exhausted in resettling 7 million refugees in Punjab. Instead of providing rehabilitation, the Indian government tried to stop and even to reverse the refugee influx from East Bengal. India and Pakistan signed the Liaquat–Nehru Pact in 1950 to stop any further population exchange between West and East Bengal. Even after it became clear that refugees were determined not to be sent back, the central government failed to provide any significant assistance. The government policy of East Bengal refugee rehabilitation mostly consisted of sending them to empty areas, mostly outside of West Bengal. One of the most controversial schemes was the government's decision to settle the refugees by force in Dandakaranya, a barren plot of land in Central India.

Social impact
Without the government's assistance, the refugees often settled themselves. Some found jobs in factories. Many took small businesses and hawking. Numerous refugee colonies sprang up in Nadia, 24 Paraganas and Kolkata's suburbs. It has been argued recently that the refugees facilitated an incremental urbanization without accumulation, in the frontiers of Calcutta. The process has been termed as 'urbanization with de-accumulation'.

Tripura's tribal insurgency

The princely state of Tripura had a predominantly-tribal population, but educated Bengalis were welcomed by the King and were prominent in the state's administration in pre-independence India. However, after partition, thousands of Bengali Hindus migrated to Tripura, which changed the state's demography completely. Tripura's tribes became a minority in their own homeland and lost their land holdings. As a result, a tribal insurgency began caused violent riots among tribes and Bengalis in 1980. A low-scale insurgency has continued ever since.

Many Bengalis migrated from East Bengal side during Partition and the Liberation War, but half of the Bengali community of Tripura has lived in Tripura for hundreds of years, according to the 1901 census report, which clearly stated that Bengali and Tripura had numbers that were almost equal.

Economic impact

West Bengal
Radcliffe's line split Bengal, which had always historically been always a single economic, cultural and ethnic (Bengali-Hindu or Bengali-Muslim) zone, into two halves. Both halves were intricately connected. The fertile East produced food and raw materials which the West consumed and the industrialised West produced manufactured goods which were consumed by the East. According to the POV, this was either considered an exploitative or a mutually-beneficial trade and exchange. This was naturally, severely disrupted by Partition. Rail, road and water communication routes were severed between them.

After Partition, West Bengal suffered from a substantial food shortage as the fertile rice-producing districts went to East Bengal. The shortage continued into the 1950s and the 1960s. By 1959, West Bengal faced an annual food shortage of 950,000 tones. Hunger marches became a common sight in Kolkata.

Jute was the largest industry in Bengal at Partition. The Radcliffe Line left every single jute mill in West Bengal but four fifths of the jute-producing land in East Bengal. The best quality fibre yielding breeds of jute were cultivated mostly in East Bengal. India and Pakistan initially agreed to a trade agreement to import raw jute from East Bengal for West Bengal's mills. However, Pakistan had plans to set up its own mills and put restrictions on raw jute export to India. West Bengal's mills faced acute shortage, and the industry faced a crisis. On the other hand, jute farmers in East Bengal were now without a market to sell their produce. Exporting jute to West Bengal suddenly became an anti-national act for Pakistan. Smuggling of raw jute shot up across the border, but West Bengal rapidly increased jute production and in the mid-to-late 1950s became largely self-sufficient in jute. West Bengal's mills became less dependent on East Bengal for raw materials. Pakistan also set up new factories to process its local produce instead of exporting to India. The following table shows jute production details in both countries in 1961:

West Bengal's paper and leather industry faced similar problems. The paper mills used East Bengal's bamboo, and the tanneries consumed leather, which were also mainly produced in East Bengal. Like jute, the lack of raw material pushed both industries into decline.

The pressure of millions of refugees, food shortages and industrial decline after independence put West Bengal in a severe crisis. Dr. B. C. Roy's government tried to cope with the situation by initiating several projects. The government built irrigation schemes such as the Mayurakshi project and undertook construction of the Durgapur Steel Plant, but they failed to arrest West Bengal's decline. Poverty rose, and West Bengal lost its top place and lagged well behind other Indian states in industrial development. Massive political unrest, strikes and violence crippled the state for the three decades after Partition.

North East India
Rail and road links connecting North East India to the rest of the country passed through East Bengal territory. The lines connecting Siliguri in North Bengal to Kolkata and Assam to Chittagong were severed. The whole Assam Railway was cut off from the rest of the Indian system. Those lines carried almost all freight traffic from those regions. The most important commodities were tea and timber. The tea industry in Assam depended on the Chittagong Port to export its produce and import raw materials for the industry such as coal, which was used as the fuel to dry the tea leaves. The industry was severely hit, as Chittagong went to Pakistan. Initially, India and Pakistan reached an agreement to allow cross-border transit traffic, but India now had to pay a tariff. By 1950, India had reconnected Assam to the rest of the country's rail network by building a 229 km meter gauge rail link through the Siliguri Corridor, but now the Tea chests from Assam's gardens would have to be carried over a much longer distance to reach the Port of Kolkata. Exporting tea via the nearby Chittagong port was still an option, but after the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, all transit traffic was switched off by Pakistan.

East Pakistan became independent Bangladesh in 1971 but cross-border railway traffic did not resume until 2003. By the 1990s, India upgraded the Assam rail link to  broad gauge up to Dibrugarh, thereby easing the traffic problem in Brahmaputra Valley region, but the southern section of the area, which comprises Tripura, Mizoram, Manipur and Barak valley of Assam, still faces serious connectivity problems. Talks between both countries are underway to allow transit traffic between the area and Mainland India through Bangladesh.

East Bengal

At Partition, East Bengal had no large industry. There were few mineral resources in this region. Its economy was completely agrarian. The main produce was food grains and other crops, jute, bamboo, leather and fish. The raw materials were consumed by factories in and around Kolkata. Kolkata was the centre of Bengal's economic and social development for both Hindus and Muslims. All large industries, military bases and government offices and most of the institutions of higher education were in Kolkata. Without Kolkata, East Bengal was decapitated. It lost its traditional market for agricultural products. It also lost Kolkata, the most important port of the country. East Bengal had to begin from nothing. Dhaka was then only a district headquarters. Government offices had to be placed inside makeshift buildings. Dhaka also faced a severe human resource crisis. The majority of high-ranking officers in British Indian administration were Hindu and migrated to West Bengal. Often, the posts had to be filled up by West Pakistani officers. Desperately poor, East Bengal soon became politically dominated by West Pakistan. Economic disparities and subjugation of Bengalis by the Punjabi elite eventually led to a struggle for separation in 1971.

In popular culture

Chinnamul (The Uprooted) a 1950 Bengali film directed by Nemai Ghosh, first dealt with the theme of partition of Bengal. This was followed by Ritwik Ghatak's trilogy, Meghe Dhaka Tara (Cloud-covered stars) (1960), Komal Gandhar (1961), and Subarnarekha (1962), all dealing with the aftermath of the partition. Deepa Mehta's (2012) film adaptation of Salman Rushdie's (1981) novel Midnight's Children captures the uncertainty of partition in both the Punjab and Bengal context, subsequent violence, the transition of independent India and Pakistan stripped of British rule, and the liberation of Bangladesh in 1971 from West Pakistan. The film Rajkahini (2015) directed by Srijit Mukherji is based on the theme of partition of Bengal in 1947. Tanvir Mokammel's (2017) documentary Seemantorekha (The Borderline) "documents the journey of four individuals to their erstwhile homes in Bangladesh and West Bengal".

There are other contemporary films as well that captures the aftermath of partition, however, mostly set in the context of Punjab and other parts of the subcontinent. Notably, Chandraprakash Dwivedi's (2003) period drama titled Pinjar, based on the Punjabi novel of the same name by Amrita Pritam, portrays the horrors of partition, communal violence, and the predicament of women during the years preceding and succeeding 1947. The film Manto (2018) directed by Nandita Das on the life of the Urdu writer Saadat Hasan Manto portrayed the impact of partition, mass displacement, and communal violence in the northern and western parts of the Indian subcontinent. The web series Jubliee (2023) created by Vikramaditya Motwane and Soumik Sen, featuring Prosenjit Chatterjee, Aparshakti Kurana, and Aditi Rao Hydari depicted the partition of India and its impact on cities like Lucknow and Bombay with communal riots and mass frenzy.

See also
 East Pakistan
 Greater Bengal
 Bangladesh Liberation War
 The Partition Museum, Amritsar
 The 1947 Partition Archive
 Bengali Hindu Homeland Movement

Notes

Bengali Hindus in Assam

References

Sources

 S. M. Ikram Indian Muslims and Partition of India. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers and Distributors, 1992.
 Hashim S. Raza Mountbatten and the partition of India. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers and Distributors, 1989.

 Gyanendra Pandey Remembering Partition: Violence, Nationalism, and History in India. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
 Mookerjea-Leonard, Debali. (2017). Literature, Gender, and the Trauma of Partition: The Paradox of Independence London and New York: Routledge.

20th century in Kolkata
History of Bengal
History of East Pakistan
Bengal
Partition (politics)
1947 in India

Partition of Bengal (1947)


John M. McCollum (February 21, 1922 – October 30, 2015) was an American tenor who had an active singing career in operas, concerts, and recitals during the 1950s through the 1970s. As an opera singer he performed with companies throughout North America, mostly working with second tier opera houses. He was much more successful as a singer of oratorios and other works from the concert repertoire, and enjoyed a particularly productive and lengthy relationship with the Boston Symphony Orchestra. As a concert singer he sang a wide repertoire but drew particular acclaim for his performances in the works of Johann Sebastian Bach and George Frideric Handel.

Early life and career
Born in Coalinga, California, McCollum first worked as a journalist and magazine publisher before deciding to pursue a singing career. He began studying voice with Mynard Jones in Oakland, California and then moved to New York City in the early 1950s where he became a pupil of Edgar Schofield. He also studied at the Tanglewood Music Center under Boris Goldovsky.

McCollum made his first concert appearance in New York City as the tenor soloist in a production of Felix Mendelssohn's Elijah at the Church of the Ascension in November 1951 with soprano Beverly Wolff and bass-baritone Paul King. In 1952 he tied for first place in the American Theatre Wing's singing contest with soprano Helen Clayton. That same year he made his Carnegie Hall debut singing Prince Vasiliy Ivanovich Shuysky in a concert version of Modest Mussorgsky's Boris Godunov with conductor Dimitri Mitropoulos and the New York Philharmonic. In 1953 he made his first appearance in a staged opera as Fenton in Giuseppe Verdi's Falstaff with Goldovsky's New England Opera Theatre. That same year he made his first appearance with the Boston Symphony Orchestra as the tenor soloist in Hector Berlioz's Roméo et Juliette with soprano Jennie Tourel.

During the mid-1950s McCollum was highly busy performing as a concert soloist and performed with some frequency in operas with the New England Opera Theatre (NEOT). He sang frequently with the Boston Symphony Orchestra under conductor Charles Munch, often at the Tanglewood Music Festival, performing works like the role of the evangelist in Bach's Johannes Passion (1956). He was also a regular performer with the Dessoff Choirs under conductor Paul Boepple, performing as a tenor soloist in oratorios like Handel's Messiah (1956) and Handel's Israel in Egypt (1957). One work which he performed with frequency during these years was J.S. Bach's Mass in B Minor, which he first performed in February 1955 with the Chicago Symphony Orchestra under conductor Margaret Hillis. He later performed the work with the Boston Symphony Orchestra at Tanglewood in the summer of 1955 and with the Philadelphia Orchestra at the Bethlehem Bach Festival in 1956. In March 1955 he sang Helenus in a lauded production of Berlioz's Les Troyens with the New England Opera Theater opposite Eunice Alberts as Cassandre, Marriquita Moll as Dido, and Arthur Schoep as Aeneas.

The year 1958 proved to be a banner year for McCollum. In April of that year he was the tenor soloist in Haydn's The Creation with sopranos Adele Addison and Louise Natale, baritone Mack Harrell, the New York Philharmonic, and conductor Robert Shaw. Later that month he sang Ferrando in Mozart's Così fan tutte with the Washington Opera Society in Washington, D.C. The following June he made his European debut at the very first Festival dei Due Mondi as Reuel in the world premiere of Lee Hoiby's chamber opera The Scarf with Patricia Neway and Richard Cross. In August he performed the title role in Gioacchino Rossini's Le comte Ory at Tanglewood and in October he performed in Thomas Arne's rarely heard opera Comus with The Little Orchestra Society. In 1959 McCollum performed Handel's Ode for St. Cecilia's Day with the New York Philharmonic under conductor Leonard Bernstein. He also returned to Tanglewood to perform with the Boston Symphony Orchestra in Berlioz's Requiem.

Later life and career
Up to this point in his career, McCollum had mainly been busy performing as a concert singer and had not spent the majority of his time performing in operas. This began to change in early 1960s when he began to perform much more frequently in operas, although his concert career remained active. He performed with companies across North America during the 1960s, including the Opera Company of Boston, the Canadian Opera Company, the Cincinnati Opera, the Seattle Opera, the Washington National Opera, and Vancouver Opera among others. He sang four roles with the Santa Fe Opera during the 1962 summer season: Ferrando, the second tenor in Igor Stravinsky's Renard, The Fisherman in Stravinsky's The Nightingale, and Alfredo in La traviata. He remained active with the Boston Symphony Orchestra during the 1960s, performing in concerts of Berlioz's La damnation de Faust and Beethoven's Symphony No. 9 among others.

The year 1963 was an important year for McCollum's opera life. He began the year singing Licinius in Gaspare Spontini's rarely heard opera La Vestale for his debut with the American Opera Society at Carnegie Hall. This was followed by an offer from Julius Rudel, then director of the New York City Opera, to join the roster of principal tenors at his company. McCollum accepted and made his debut with the company in October 1963 as Don Ottavio in Mozart's Don Giovanni. Then in December he recorded the role of King Kaspar in Gian Carlo Menotti's Amahl and the Night Visitors in a television production made by the NBC Opera Theatre. He returned for one more opera with the New York City Opera in 1964, the world premiere of Lee Hoiby's Natalia Petrovna.

After the 1960s McCollum's career began to slow down. He appeared mostly in concerts during the early 1970s and did not perform much after the mid-1970s. He taught for many years on the voice faculty of the University of Michigan. He died in October 2015 at the age of 93.

References

1922 births
2015 deaths
American operatic tenors
University of Michigan faculty
People from Coalinga, California
Singers from California
Classical musicians from California

John McCollum


Eoin G. Harty (born November 23, 1962, in Dublin, Ireland) is a Thoroughbred racehorse trainer in the United States. From a family of horsemen, Eoin (pronounced Owen) Harty is the fourth generation to be involved in racing. At age sixteen he went to work at the Irish National Stud then a year later moved to the United States, working in the business in California where he still makes his home.

Harty worked for notable stables such as that of Allen E. Paulson and eventually became an assistant to trainers John Russell and then Bob Baffert. In 2000, he took charge of the training of two-year-olds for the North American division of Sheikh Mohammed's Godolphin Racing. In 2001, Eoin Harty got his big break as he conditioned Godolphin's Tempera who won the Breeders' Cup Juvenile Fillies and earned American Champion Two-Year-Old Filly honors.

In 2007, Eoin Harty began conditioning horses for WinStar Farm and has met with considerable success, notably winning the 2008 Travers Stakes with Colonel John and the  2009 Dubai World Cup with Well Armed.

References
 Eoin Harty's personal racing website
 Eoin Harty at the NTRA

1962 births
Living people
American horse trainers
Irish racehorse trainers
Equestrians from County Dublin

Eoin G. Harty


Bath salts or Epsom salt are things that people add to the water when they take a bath.  Some bath salts have things to make the water smell good.  Some bath salts have medicines in them. Epsom salt, or magnesium sulfate, is made of magnesium, oxygen and sulfur.  It is named after the town in England where people first learned to use it.  Sometimes people call things that are not Epsom salt "bath salts" too, if they are meant to be thrown into a bath to make the water feel or smell good.

History
People have put herbs and perfumes in their bathwater for a very long time.  Epsom salts were discovered in Epsom in England, a spa town, in the 1600s.  Doctor and botanist Nehemiah Grew studied the salts in the water and tried to patent the salt.  He got into a fight with apothecaries about it.

Health

There is anecdotal evidence that bath salts improve human health.  This means that many people take salt baths and then say they feel better, but not in a scientific way.

When bath salts mix with the water, they dissolve in the water.  Then they give off ions of magnesium and sulfur.  The idea is that the person will absorb magnesium through his or her skin.  Having enough magnesium in the body can help with sleep problems, digestion problems, and other problems.  Some people say it can help with sore muscles after exercise and other types of pain.

Scientists have not found proof that human bodies can really take in magnesium through the skin.  When doctors treat people with low magnesium, they give them magnesium to eat or drink through their mouths.

References

Hygiene

Epsom salt


Ename Abbey (1063–1795) was a Benedictine monastery in the village of Ename, now a suburb of Oudenaarde. It was founded by Adele of France, wife of Baldwin V, Count of Flanders, and was confiscated during the French Revolutionary Wars. It was then sold and dismantled.

The archaeological development of the site began with the work of Adelbert Van de Walle in the 1940s. Since 1998 it has been part of the Provincial Archaeological Park attached to the provincial archaeological museum (PAM Ename).

History

During the first half of the 11th century the tension between the Holy Roman Empire and the county of Flanders grew, especially in border territories. Ename was a stronghold on the river Scheldt that marked the border of the Empire. In 1033 Baldwin V took possession of the keep and destroyed it; in 1047 the territory of Ename was definitively under his control. In order to demilitarise the area, in 1063 Adele of France founded the Abbey of Our Lady that received the village of Ename and other properties to provide financial income. The Benedictine abbey was established in the former Ottonian palace building, directed by a monk from the Saint Vedastus abbey in Arras. It was under the direct control of the Pope and through all its history it maintained a close relation with the counts of Flanders.

The construction of the abbey complex started immediately around the Saint Salvator church, formerly part of the village. Around 1070 the new abbey was finished and was founded a second time with the dedication to Saint Salvator. The previous palace building became then a chapel dedicated to Our Lady.

In 1139 the Ottonian church of Saint Salvator was replaced by a bigger Romanesque church, inspired by the Benedictine abbeys of Cluny, Hirschau and Affligem. The abbey was flourishing as it had acquired many properties that provided a steady income. Around 1165 the abbey buildings were replaced by larger and more decorated buildings in the new Gothic style.

In the second half of the 13th century the abbey was extended with a hospital, and an infirmary for sick monks.

The woods around Ename had been intensively exploited. For this reason during the 13th century the abbey started a programme of forestry by planting trees and harvesting the wood. This action seems to be the oldest record of reforestation in Europe.

During the 16th century, Europe and Flanders were shaken by revolts and civil wars provoked by an economic crisis and the diffusion of the Protestantism. Many religious buildings, including the abbey of Ename, were destroyed. Minor damage occurred during the 1566 Iconoclastic Fury, while the occupation of Oudenaarde by the Protestant troops of the city of Ghent in 1578 was disastrous for the abbey. The monks had to flee, the abbey buildings were plundered. Their ruins were used as a stone quarry until the return of the monks. In 1596 they started the rebuilding of the abbey. At the end of this period, more than half of the population of Ename had left their houses. With the return of the monks, the abbey reclaimed its property in the village and influence on the lives of the inhabitants of Ename. To emphasise this, a cross and a pillory were erected on the rectangular square of the village.

During the 17th century the abbey was very rich and its buildings were majestic. In 1657 abbot Antoon de Loose enlarged the abbot's quarters and also asked Pieter Hemony, a famous Dutch bell-founder, to cast the bells and the chimes for the carillon tower that he wanted at the entrance of the abbey. Abbot de Loose was a skilled manager of the abbey properties. Thanks to his accurate register, several details of everyday life are known today.

Abbots were involved in the political life of the county as members of the States of Flanders. As it was forbidden to discuss political matters inside the walls of the abbey, a large, modern French garden with fountains and pavilions was built in front of the abbey. There it was possible for the abbots to meet other politicians and discuss affairs of state with them.

The abbey was dismantled in 1795, when the French Revolution arrived in Flanders. Today it is possible to visit the remains of the foundations in the Provincial archaeological park of Ename.

Archaeology

The archaeological excavations on the site of the abbey turned up several objects that today are on display in the Provincial Archaeological Museum (pam) in Ename. All the data collected by archaeological analysis, landscape archaeology, and historical research have been used to create 3D reconstructions showing the development of the site of the abbey over time. They are on display in the TimeScope application, which is open to the public on the archaeological site from April to November. The daily life of monks in the abbey during the 13th century can be experienced in the Provincial Heritage Centre through an interactive game and walkthrough 3D reconstruction.

Beer

Brewery Roman, a sponsor of the museum, brews a range of beers under the name Ename Abbey Beer.

References

External links
 Website of PAM Ename, accessed 21 January 2015.
 Website of the Provincial Heritage Centre, accessed 18 March 2016.
 Visualisation of the Benedictine abbey of Ename, accessed 21 March 2016
 3D models on Europeana

Christian monasteries in East Flanders
1060s establishments in the Holy Roman Empire
1063 establishments in Europe
1795 disestablishments in France
1795 disestablishments in Europe
18th-century disestablishments in the Southern Netherlands
Ruined abbeys and monasteries
Benedictine monasteries in Belgium
Christian monasteries established in the 11th century
Oudenaarde
Archaeological sites in Belgium

Ename Abbey


Transport Tycoon is a city-based pixel video game designed and programmed by Chris Sawyer, and published by MicroProse on 15 November 1994 for DOS. It is a business simulation game, presented in an isometric view in 2D with graphics by Simon Foster, in which the player acts as an entrepreneur in control of a transport company, and can compete against rival companies to make as much profit as possible by transporting passengers and various goods by road, rail, sea and air.

Transport Tycoon Deluxe is an expanded and improved version of the original game, released in 1995. A version for Android and iOS was released on 3 October 2013 based on the sequel, Chris Sawyer's Locomotion. A fan-made game engine recreation OpenTTD is also available.

Gameplay
To start building a transport empire, the player must construct transport routes, consisting of stations near industries or towns, and in the case of trains or road vehicles, near physical routes. One transport route can utilize several different forms of transport, e.g. truck→ship→train. The player's company and the individual stations each have ratings that depend largely on their efficiency at moving goods from one stations to the other. A station with high ratings may attract more goods.

The game begins in 1930, and ends in 2030. The player starts out by borrowing money to finance construction of transport facilities, and is charged interest until the loan is repaid.  As the user plays the game and earns revenues, they have the choice of expanding service along existing routes, or expanding their transportation network.  The game features a progression of technology: in any particular year of the game generally only contemporary types of technology are available.  For example, railroad signals which allow more than one train to use a section of track are initially semaphores. Later, they are replaced by red and green traffic-light signals. Similarly, in the beginning there are only steam engines, but later diesel and electric engines are introduced.  In the game year 1999, monorails become available.  These require a separate track system from railroads.  If the player remains in business until 2030, the game announces that they have won, allows them to post their name on the "hall of fame" and then continues.  At this point, the year stays 2030 and never goes any higher, although the game can continue indefinitely.  Playing the entire 100-year campaign takes about 40 hours. The game allows the player to save at any time, and multiple saves of a particular game at any point are possible.

Vehicles in the game must be constructed at corresponding depots, which must be connected to the road or rail networks. Towns and cities have their own road networks, but extra roads may be needed to connect them to other towns, or to various resources.

The player earns revenue by picking up resources or passengers at a certain station, and delivering them to another station where there is a demand for them.  Demand is determined by the area which surrounds the station; for example stations close to towns will demand passengers.  The revenues will depend on the delivery time, distance, and quantity delivered.  The influence of these factors on revenue varies according to the type of goods being delivered. For example, mail will rapidly fall in value, meaning that it can only be delivered profitably over short distances, or over long distances very fast.  On the other hand, coal loses value very slowly, so it can be transported in bulk over long distances whilst remaining profitable.

At times, subsidies are offered to the first company to move a particular resource from one place to another. This encourages the player to create a larger more complex transport network, rather than focusing on previously profitable routes.

The game features a system of Local Authority. Each city has a rating for every transport company based on the impact of their transport network.  When the rating falls too low, the player will no longer be able to demolish buildings or construct new stations. The rating depends on, among others, the level of service and the deforestation caused by the company.

In the course of a game cities develop and expand according to various economic factors, and new industries (demand) or other resource sites (supply) may appear.  Some natural resources may also eventually be exhausted and industries without adequate transport service may shut down. Also, new models of vehicles are introduced and eventually come to replace older models.  At introduction such a new model will likely have improved characteristics, but may suffer from reliability issues.

Music
The music in Transport Tycoon are original compositions by John Broomhall. It features old-style blues and jazz tunes including parts of Herbie Hancock's Cantaloupe Island.

Reception

A reviewer for Next Generation gave the DOS version four out of five stars, commenting, "The best economic sim since Civilization, Microprose's new Transport Tycoon has all the features of Sid Meier's Railroad Tycoon mixed with the look and ease of Maxis' SimCity 2000 and a host of new features ... that give the game a feel that is all its own." He further lauded the game for its graphics, "pleasant" music, sound effects, addictive play, and realistic simulation of the growth of cities and towns.

Next Generation reviewed the Transport Tycoon Scenario, rating it three stars out of five, and stated that "A solid upgrade for a great game."

Related titles
A "World Editor" expansion pack was also released for the original Transport Tycoon, but was overshadowed by the Deluxe version released shortly afterward. It featured an alternative, Martian set of graphics, which did not appear in TTD.

Transport Tycoon Deluxe
Transport Tycoon Deluxe is an expanded and improved version of the original game.  It included many significant changes, such as:

 3 new gameplay environments alongside the original Temperate climate. These are: Tropical, Arctic, and Toyland. The new environments introduced different industries and challenges. For example, towns in the Arctic environment do not grow without regular deliveries of food, while those in the Tropical environment require access to fresh water before they will grow.
 World Editor included - Allowing the creation of custom maps and scenarios.
 Network play, allowing multiplayer games.
 Improved railway signals. The original Transport Tycoon only included bi-directional signals, permitting trains to pass in either direction, while the Deluxe version introduced uni-directional signals, to restrict trains to a single direction of travel. This has significant effects on gameplay, as the original bi-directional signals could result in trains trying to travel towards each other on the same section of track. While this would not result in crashes on a properly signalled route, it did require either building extra track, to allow the trains to pass each other, or building a great many tracks in parallel, to avoid the problem. The new uni-directional signals enabled building one-way track systems, giving the player greater control over the operation of their rail network, enabling far more efficient routes, and preventing trains from trying to travel the "wrong way" on a section of track. By utilising both uni- and bi-directional signals, the player could now build effective switching yards, junctions, and other useful designs. It also enabled the building of continental-length railroad systems, by incorporating one-way tracks in both directions, as well as the option to merge other rails with the main line. This became a very popular strategy, allowing for transportation across entire game maps, resulting in larger profits.
 Maglev trains and track.
 Buy/Sell Shares and take-over rival companies.
 Heliports.
 Ability to re-fit aircraft and ships to carry alternative cargo types.
 Games now begin in 1950 and end in 2050, while the original game covered 1930 to 2030. Accordingly, the Deluxe version loses many of the earlier vehicles from the original game, while adding several new types later on.  Moreover, the vehicle names in the original game were based on real-life models, but were replaced with fictional ones in Transport Tycoon Deluxe, due to trademark issues.
 The Deluxe version also allowed players to rename their vehicles, stations and towns in-game; this can be useful for identifying services in a network and adding a personal touch.
 Remixed music theme for the main menu.

Chris Sawyer's Locomotion

After the success of Transport Tycoon Deluxe, Chris Sawyer turned his attention towards a sequel, but during development he changed his mind and produced RollerCoaster Tycoon, which turned out to be a runaway hit.  After RollerCoaster Tycoon 2 was done, work on the third version was left to another development team, and Sawyer returned to work on a Transport Tycoon sequel, Chris Sawyer's Locomotion. It was released in September 2004 and was described by Sawyer as the "spiritual successor to Transport Tycoon".

It received poor reviews and was deemed a commercial failure on release, but sales through the digital rereleases are unknown. Regardless, there is an active Locomotion community that continues to produce modifications.

iOS and Android version
On 15 July 2013, Sawyer's 31X Ltd and Origin8 Technologies announced that they were working on a mobile version of Transport Tycoon. Sawyer was originally focusing on funding for the game, but ended up overseeing the design and helped with the debugging. The game was released for iOS and Android on 3 October 2013. The game is single player and is primarily based on Chris Sawyer's Locomotion.

Third-party creations

Several development teams are currently working to improve Transport Tycoon. TTDPatch provides gameplay enhancements and numerous bugfixes to TTD by patching the original binary.

OpenTTD is an open source complete recreation of Transport Tycoon Deluxe, achieved by reverse engineering the original game. It delivers many bug fixes and general enhancements to the game, like making it possible to run TTD on multiple platforms, including Mac, Linux, PSP, and Android. While both games allow new graphic sets for vehicles and terrain to be used, at present, TTDPatch still requires the original TTD graphics, sounds, binary and music files to run. While OpenTTD can still use the original TTD graphics and sounds, it does not need any of the TTD files to run as it has free graphics and sounds.

See also
 Pizza Tycoon
 Railroad Tycoon
 SimCity 4: Rush Hour
 Simutrans

References

External links
Official website

1994 video games
Android (operating system) games
Assembly language software
Business simulation games
DOS games
IOS games
MicroProse games
PlayStation (console) games
Sega Saturn games
Railroad business simulation video games
Transport business simulation games

Video games developed in the United Kingdom
Video games scored by John Broomhall
Video games with isometric graphics
Video games with tile-based graphics

Transport Tycoon


Meddler (1890–1916) was a British Thoroughbred racehorse who was a leading two-year-old in England, when he won all three starts including the Dewhurst Plate. He was then sold to America where he became the leading sire in  1904 and 1906.

Background
Bred and raced by George Baird, his sire, St. Gatien, dead heated for the win in the 1884 Epsom Derby and won the 1885 Ascot Gold Cup. His dam was Baird's brilliant racing mare, Busybody, winner of the 1884 Epsom Oaks and 1000 Guineas Stakes.

Racing career
Meddler won all three starts at age two and was regarded as second only to Isinglass among the colts of his generation. The last of his wins came in the Dewhurst Stakes at Newmarket on October 27 when he led all the way to beat Raeburn by half a length. According to rules governing the sport of British horse racing in effect at the time, when his owner George Alexander Baird died, all of Meddler's future race bookings were void. As such, Meddler could not race in the British Classic Races at age three and was sold for $76,000 to American William H. Forbes of Readville, Massachusetts who brought him to the United States in 1893 to stand at his Neponset Stud. On Forbes' death in 1894, Meddler was purchased by William Collins Whitney of New York city who sent him to stand at stud at his La Belle Stud at Lexington, Kentucky.

Stud record
Among Meddler's offspring, his son Royal Tourist won a 1908 American Classic, the Preakness Stakes, and set a World Record time on dirt in winning the Winters Handicap at Emeryville Race Track in Oakland, California. In 1905 Meddler's daughter, Tanya, became the second filly to ever win the Belmont Stakes.
In 1906 his son Go Between's wins included the extremely important Suburban Handicap and was the retrospective American Champion Older Male Horse.

Through his daughter, Mineola, Meddler was the dam sire of Johren, the 1918 American Horse of the Year, and, from Miss Minnie, he was the damsire of 1921 American Horse of the Year and U.S. Racing Hall of Fame inductee, Grey Lag.

Clarence Mackay bought Meddler for $51,000 at the dispersal sale of William Collins Whitney's horses. MacKay stood him at William S. Fanshawe's Silverbrook Farm in New Jersey, then at Kingston Farm run by Foxhall A. Daingerfield near Lexington, Kentucky. Meddler was eventually sent to a breeding operation in France where he died at age twenty-six on April 17, 1916.

Pedigree

References

External links
 Full profile of The Meddler at Thoroughbred Heritage

1890 racehorse births
1916 racehorse deaths
Racehorses bred in the United Kingdom
Racehorses trained in the United Kingdom
United States Champion Thoroughbred Sires
Byerley Turk sire line
Whitney racehorses
Thoroughbred family 1-w

Meddler (horse)


Helsingborg (, , , ) is a city and the seat of Helsingborg Municipality, Scania (Skåne), Sweden. It is the second-largest city in Scania (after Malmö) and ninth-largest in Sweden, with a population of 113,816 (2020). Helsingborg is the central urban area of northwestern Scania and Sweden's closest point to Denmark: the Danish city Helsingør is clearly visible about  to the west on the other side of the Øresund. The HH Ferry route across the sound has more than 70 car ferry departures from each harbour every day.

Historic Helsingborg, with its many old buildings, is a scenic coastal city. The buildings are a blend of old-style stone-built churches and a 600-year-old medieval fortress (Kärnan) in the city centre, and more modern commercial buildings. The streets vary from wide avenues to small alley-ways. Kullagatan, the main pedestrian shopping street in the city, was the first pedestrian shopping street in Sweden.

History
Helsingborg is one of the oldest cities of what is now Sweden. It has been the site of permanent settlement officially since 21 May 1085. Helsingborg's geographical position at the narrowest part of Øresund made it very important for Denmark, at that time controlling both sides of that strait. From 1429 Eric of Pomerania introduced the Sound Dues, a levy on all trading vessels passing through the sound between Helsingør and Helsingborg. This was one of the main sources of income for the Danish Crown. Crossing traffic, like fishermen, were not subject to the tax, which was initially directed against the Hanseatic League.

Following the Dano-Swedish War (1657–1658) and the Treaty of Roskilde Denmark had to give up all territory on the southern Scandinavian peninsula, and Helsingborg became part of Sweden. King Charles X Gustav of Sweden landed here on 5 March 1658 to take personal possession of the Scanian lands and was met by a delegation led by the bishop of the Diocese of Lund, Peder Winstrup. At that time the town had a population of barely 1,000 people.

Its situation on a conflict-ridden border caused problems for Helsingborg. Denmark recaptured Scania twice, but could not hold it. The last Danish attempt to regain Scania was in 1710, when 14,000 men landed on the shores near Helsingborg. The Battle of Helsingborg was fought on 10 March just outside the city, which was badly affected. It took a long time to recover; even in 1770 the city had only 1,321 inhabitants and was still growing slowly.

On 20 October 1811 Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte, Marshal of France and crown prince-elect of Sweden (later king Charles XIV John) took his first step on Swedish soil in Helsingborg on his journey from Paris to Stockholm.

From the middle of the 19th century onwards, Helsingborg was one of the fastest-growing cities of Sweden, increasing its population from 4,000 in 1850 to 20,000 in 1890 and 56,000 in 1930 due to industrialization. From 1892 a train ferry was put in service, connecting Helsingborg with its Danish sister city Helsingør. A tramway network was inaugurated in 1903 and closed down in 1967.

Following the Swedish orthography reform of 1906, the spelling of many place names in Sweden was modernized. In 1912, it was decided to use the form Hälsingborg. In preparation for the local government reform in 1971, Hälsingborg city council proposed that the new, enlarged municipality should be spelled Helsingborg; this form was adopted by the government of Sweden from 1 January 1971.

In World War II, Helsingborg was among the most important drop-off points for the rescue of Denmark's Jewish population during the Holocaust. Adolf Hitler had ordered that all Danish Jews were to be arrested and deported to the concentration camps on Rosh HaShanah, the Jewish New Year which fell on 2 October 1943. When Georg Ferdinand Duckwitz, a German maritime attaché received word of the order on 28 September 1943, he shared it with political and Jewish community leaders. Using the name Elsinore Sewing Club (Danish: Helsingør Syklub) as a cover for messages, the Danish population formed an underground railroad of sorts, moving Jews away from the closely watched Copenhagen docks to spots farther away, especially Helsingør, just two miles across the Øresund from Helsingborg. Hundreds of civilians hid their fellow Danish citizens—Jews—in their houses, farm lofts and churches until they could board them onto Danish fishing boats, personal pleasure boats and ferry boats. In the span of three nights, Danes had smuggled over 7200 Jews and 680 non-Jews (gentile family members of Jews or political activists) across the Øresund, to safety in Sweden, with one of the main destinations at Helsingborg.

Climate
Helsingborg has an oceanic climate (Cfb) typical of southern Sweden, although its winters are very mild for a location at such a high latitude. Although the temperature differences between seasons are significant, Helsingborg often lacks a meteorological winter with both January and February averaging just above the freezing point in terms of mean temperatures. Summers are warm and comparatively long by Swedish standards, with summer arriving earlier and fall later than virtually all areas of Sweden, aside from other parts of Skåne. Helsingborg & nearby surroundings also have a history with being hit by tornadoes. On 8 August 1947, a High-end F1/T3 Tornado hit the Ramlösa district of helsingborg, causing moderate damage to a farm. Greenhouses were damaged or destroyed, a stall sustained deroofing, a shed were blown away & a tree were snapped. On 16 August 2007, downtown helsingborg were impacted by an F1 Tornado, damaging a school & snapping trees. On 22 June 2014, a Waterspout was observed outside helsingborg. On 27 August 2018, the Eskilsminne district of helsingborg were hit by an F0 Tornado. Some roofs sustained minor damage.

Demographics
113,816 live in the city of Helsingborg as of 2020, up from 104,250 inhabitants in 2015. 149,280 live in the municipality, with the city being by far the most populated one. Helsingborg is the second-largest city in Scania (after Malmö) and ninth-largest in Sweden.

Subdivisions
The City of Helsingborg is subdivided into 31 districts.

Economy

Industry
Helsingborg is a major regional centre of trade, transport and business. In 2001 Campus Helsingborg, a branch of University of Lund, opened in the former Tretorn rubber factory buildings, founded by Henry Dunker.
Three ferry companies take people and cargo to and from Denmark around the clock. The route is popular with day-trippers going to Helsingør or Copenhagen, or simply enjoying the views from the ferries.
IKEA, the retailer of furniture and home interiors, has its international corporate headquarters in Helsingborg.
Nicorette, the nicotine chewing gum, has a manufacturing plant there. Ramlösa is a mineral water from Ramlösa Brunn, a southern suburb of the city. Mobile phone developer Spectronic is also situated in Helsingborg. The online custom clothing retailer Tailor Store Sweden AB has its offices in Helsingborg. Zoégas, a major coffee company, has been located here since the 1800s.

Sports
The following sports clubs are located in Helsingborg:

The Professional Bowlers Association (PBA) and World Bowling Tour (WBT) have jointly hosted a ten-pin bowling event in Sweden since 2017 called the Lucky Larsen Masters. Olympia Bowling in Helsingborg hosted the event in 2019, and is scheduled to host again in September 2023.

Notable people

Sights

See also
European route E4

Sofiero, a nearby castle

References

External links

Helsingborg Municipality

Municipal seats of Skåne County
Swedish municipal seats
Populated places in Helsingborg Municipality
Populated places in Skåne County
Port cities in Sweden
Port cities and towns of the Øresund
Denmark–Sweden border crossings
Coastal cities and towns in Sweden
1085 establishments in Europe
11th-century establishments in Skåne County
Cities in Skåne County

Helsingborg