An agent-based model (ABM) is a computational model for simulating the actions and interactions of autonomous agents (both individual or collective entities such as organizations or groups) in order to understand the behavior of a system and what governs its outcomes. It combines elements of game theory, complex systems, emergence, computational sociology, multi-agent systems, and evolutionary programming. Monte Carlo methods are used to understand the stochasticity of these models.  Particularly within ecology, ABMs are also called individual-based models (IBMs). A review of recent literature on individual-based models, agent-based models, and multiagent systems shows that ABMs are used in many scientific domains including biology, ecology and social science. Agent-based modeling is related to, but distinct from, the concept of multi-agent systems or multi-agent simulation in that the goal of ABM is to search for explanatory insight into the collective behavior of agents obeying simple rules, typically in natural systems, rather than in designing agents or solving specific practical or engineering problems.

Agent-based models are a kind of microscale model that simulate the simultaneous operations and interactions of multiple agents in an attempt to re-create and predict the appearance of complex phenomena. The process is one of emergence, which some express as "the whole is greater than the sum of its parts". In other words, higher-level system properties emerge from the interactions of lower-level subsystems. Or, macro-scale state changes emerge from micro-scale agent behaviors. Or, simple behaviors (meaning rules followed by agents) generate complex behaviors (meaning state changes at the whole system level).

Individual agents are typically characterized as boundedly rational, presumed to be acting in what they perceive as their own interests, such as reproduction, economic benefit, or social status, using heuristics or simple decision-making rules. ABM agents may experience "learning", adaptation, and reproduction.

Most agent-based models are composed of: (1) numerous agents specified at various scales (typically referred to as agent-granularity); (2) decision-making heuristics; (3) learning rules or adaptive processes; (4) an interaction topology; and (5) an environment. ABMs are typically implemented as computer simulations, either as custom software, or via ABM toolkits, and this software can be then used to test how changes in individual behaviors will affect the system's emerging overall behavior.

History
The idea of agent-based modeling was developed as a relatively simple concept in the late 1940s. Since it requires computation-intensive procedures, it did not become widespread until the 1990s.

Early developments
The history of the agent-based model can be traced back to the Von Neumann machine, a theoretical machine capable of reproduction. The device von Neumann proposed would follow precisely detailed instructions to fashion a copy of itself. The concept was then built upon by von Neumann's friend Stanislaw Ulam, also a mathematician; Ulam suggested that the machine be built on paper, as a collection of cells on a grid. The idea intrigued von Neumann, who drew it up—creating the first of the devices later termed cellular automata.
Another advance was introduced by the mathematician John Conway.  He constructed the well-known Game of Life. Unlike von Neumann's machine, Conway's Game of Life operated by simple rules in a virtual world in the form of a 2-dimensional checkerboard.

The Simula programming language, developed in the mid 1960s and widely implemented by the early 1970s, was the first framework for automating step-by-step agent simulations.

1970s and 1980s: the first models

One of the earliest agent-based models in concept was Thomas Schelling's segregation model, which was discussed in his paper "Dynamic Models of Segregation" in 1971.  Though Schelling originally used coins and graph paper rather than computers, his models embodied the basic concept of agent-based models as autonomous agents interacting in a shared environment with an observed aggregate, emergent outcome.

In the late 1970s, Paulien Hogeweg and Bruce Hesper began experimenting with individual models of ecology. One of their first results was to show that the social structure of bumble-bee colonies emerged as a result of simple rules that govern the behaviour of individual bees.
They introduced the ToDo principle, referring to the way agents "do what there is to do" at any given time.

In the early 1980s, Robert Axelrod hosted a tournament of Prisoner's Dilemma strategies and had them interact in an agent-based manner to determine a winner.  Axelrod would go on to develop many other agent-based models in the field of political science that examine phenomena from ethnocentrism to the dissemination of culture.
By the late 1980s, Craig Reynolds' work on flocking models contributed to the development of some of the first biological agent-based models that contained social characteristics. He tried to model the reality of lively biological agents, known as artificial life, a term coined by Christopher Langton.

The first use of the word "agent" and a definition as it is currently used today is hard to track down.  One candidate appears to be John Holland and John H. Miller's 1991 paper "Artificial Adaptive Agents in Economic Theory", based on an earlier conference presentation of theirs.

At the same time, during the 1980s, social scientists, mathematicians, operations researchers, and a scattering of people from other disciplines developed Computational and Mathematical Organization Theory (CMOT).  This field grew as a special interest group of The Institute of Management Sciences (TIMS) and its sister society, the Operations Research Society of America (ORSA).

1990s: expansion
The 1990s were especially notable for the expansion of ABM within the social sciences, one notable effort was the large-scale ABM, Sugarscape, developed by
Joshua M. Epstein and Robert Axtell to simulate and explore the role of social phenomena such as seasonal migrations, pollution, sexual reproduction, combat, and transmission of disease and even culture. Other notable 1990s developments included Carnegie Mellon University's Kathleen Carley ABM, to explore the co-evolution of social networks and culture. The Santa Fe Institute (SFI) was important in encouraging the development of the ABM modeling platform Swarm under the leadership of Christopher Langton.  Research conducted through SFI allowed the expansion of ABM techniques to a number of fields including study of the social and spatial dynamics of small-scale human societies and primates. During this 1990s timeframe Nigel Gilbert published the first textbook on Social Simulation: Simulation for the social scientist (1999) and established a journal from the perspective of social sciences: the Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation (JASSS). Other than JASSS, agent-based models of any discipline are within scope of SpringerOpen journal Complex Adaptive Systems Modeling (CASM).

Through the mid-1990s, the social sciences thread of ABM began to focus on such issues as designing effective teams, understanding the communication required for organizational effectiveness, and the behavior of social networks.  CMOT—later renamed Computational Analysis of Social and Organizational Systems (CASOS)—incorporated more and more agent-based modeling.  Samuelson (2000) is a good brief overview of the early history, and Samuelson (2005) and Samuelson and Macal (2006) trace the more recent developments.

In the late 1990s, the merger of TIMS and ORSA to form INFORMS, and the move by INFORMS from two meetings each year to one, helped to spur the CMOT group to form a separate society, the North American Association for Computational Social and Organizational Sciences (NAACSOS).  Kathleen Carley was a major contributor, especially to models of social networks, obtaining National Science Foundation funding for the annual conference and serving as the first President of NAACSOS.  She was succeeded by David Sallach of the University of Chicago and Argonne National Laboratory, and then by Michael Prietula of Emory University. At about the same time NAACSOS began, the European Social Simulation Association (ESSA) and the Pacific Asian Association for Agent-Based Approach in Social Systems Science (PAAA), counterparts of NAACSOS, were organized.  As of 2013, these three organizations collaborate internationally.  The First World Congress on Social Simulation was held under their joint sponsorship in Kyoto, Japan, in August 2006. The Second World Congress was held in the northern Virginia suburbs of Washington, D.C., in July 2008, with George Mason University taking the lead role in local arrangements.

2000s and later

More recently, Ron Sun developed methods for basing agent-based simulation on models of human cognition, known as cognitive social simulation. Bill McKelvey, Suzanne Lohmann, Dario Nardi, Dwight Read and others at UCLA have also made significant contributions in organizational behavior and decision-making.  Since 2001, UCLA has arranged a conference at Lake Arrowhead, California, that has become another major gathering point for practitioners in this field.

Theory
Most computational modeling research describes systems in equilibrium or as moving between equilibria. Agent-based modeling, however, using simple rules, can result in different sorts of complex and interesting behavior.  The three ideas central to agent-based models are agents as objects, emergence, and complexity.

Agent-based models consist of dynamically interacting rule-based agents. The systems within which they interact can create real-world-like complexity.  Typically agents are
situated in space and time and reside in networks or in lattice-like neighborhoods. The location of the agents and their responsive behavior are encoded in algorithmic form in computer programs.  In some cases, though not always, the agents may be considered as intelligent and purposeful.  In ecological ABM (often referred to as "individual-based models" in ecology), agents may, for example, be trees in a forest, and would not be considered intelligent, although they may be "purposeful" in the sense of optimizing access to a resource (such as water).
The modeling process is best described as inductive. The modeler makes those assumptions thought most relevant to the situation at hand and then watches phenomena emerge from the agents' interactions. Sometimes that result is an equilibrium. Sometimes it is an emergent pattern. Sometimes, however, it is an unintelligible mangle.

In some ways, agent-based models complement traditional analytic methods. Where analytic methods enable humans to characterize the equilibria of a system, agent-based models allow the possibility of generating those equilibria. This generative contribution may be the most mainstream of the potential benefits of agent-based modeling. Agent-based models can explain the emergence of higher-order patterns—network structures of terrorist organizations and the Internet, power-law distributions in the sizes of traffic jams, wars, and stock-market crashes, and social segregation that persists despite populations of tolerant people. Agent-based models also can be used to identify lever points, defined as moments in time in which interventions have extreme consequences, and to distinguish among types of path dependency.

Rather than focusing on stable states, many models consider a system's robustness—the ways that complex systems adapt to internal and external pressures so as to maintain their functionalities. The task of harnessing that complexity requires consideration of the agents themselves—their diversity, connectedness, and level of interactions.

Framework
Recent work on the Modeling and simulation of Complex Adaptive Systems has demonstrated the need for combining agent-based and complex network based models. describe a framework consisting of four levels of developing models of complex adaptive systems described using several example multidisciplinary case studies:
 Complex Network Modeling Level for developing models using interaction data of various system components.
 Exploratory Agent-based Modeling Level for developing agent-based models for assessing the feasibility of further research. This can e.g. be useful for developing proof-of-concept models such as for funding applications without requiring an extensive learning curve for the researchers.
 Descriptive Agent-based Modeling (DREAM) for developing descriptions of agent-based models by means of using templates and complex network-based models. Building DREAM models allows model comparison across scientific disciplines.
 Validated agent-based modeling using Virtual Overlay Multiagent system (VOMAS) for the development of verified and validated models in a formal manner.
Other methods of describing agent-based models include code templates and text-based methods such as the ODD (Overview, Design concepts, and Design Details) protocol.

The role of the environment where agents live, both macro and micro, is also becoming an important factor in agent-based modelling and simulation work. Simple environment affords simple agents, but complex environments generate diversity of behavior.

Multi-scale modelling
One strength of agent-based modelling is its ability to mediate information flow between scales. When additional details about an agent are needed, a researcher can integrate it with models describing the extra details. When one is interested in the emergent behaviours demonstrated by the agent population, they can combine the agent-based model with a continuum model describing population dynamics. For example, in a study about CD4+ T cells (a key cell type in the adaptive immune system), the researchers modelled biological phenomena occurring at different spatial (intracellular, cellular, and systemic), temporal, and organizational scales (signal transduction, gene regulation, metabolism, cellular behaviors, and cytokine transport). In the resulting modular model, signal transduction and gene regulation are described by a logical model, metabolism by constraint-based models, cell population dynamics are described by an agent-based model, and systemic cytokine concentrations by ordinary differential equations. In this multi-scale model, the agent-based model occupies the central place and orchestrates every stream of information flow between scales.

Applications

In biology

Agent-based modeling has been used extensively in biology, including the analysis of the spread of epidemics, and the threat of biowarfare, biological applications including population dynamics, stochastic gene expression, plant-animal interactions,  vegetation ecology, migratory ecology, landscape diversity, sociobiology, the growth and decline of ancient civilizations, evolution of ethnocentric behavior, forced displacement/migration, language choice dynamics, cognitive modeling, and biomedical applications including modeling 3D breast tissue formation/morphogenesis, the effects of ionizing radiation on mammary stem cell subpopulation dynamics, inflammation,

and the human immune system. Agent-based models have also been used for developing decision support systems such as for breast cancer. Agent-based models are increasingly being used to model pharmacological systems in early stage and pre-clinical research to aid in drug development and gain insights into biological systems that would not be possible a priori. Military applications have also been evaluated. Moreover, agent-based models have been recently employed to study molecular-level biological systems. Agent-based models have also been written to describe ecological processes at work in ancient systems, such as those in dinosaur environments and more recent ancient systems as well.

In epidemiology
Agent-based models now complement traditional compartmental models, the usual type of epidemiological models. ABMs have been shown to be superior to compartmental models in regard to the accuracy of predictions. Recently, ABMs such as CovidSim by epidemiologist Neil Ferguson, have been used to inform public health (nonpharmaceutical) interventions against the spread of SARS-CoV-2. Epidemiological ABMs have been criticized for simplifying and unrealistic assumptions. Still, they can be useful in informing decisions regarding mitigation and suppression measures in cases when ABMs are accurately calibrated. The ABMs for such simulations are mostly based on synthetic populations, since the data of the actual population is not always available.

In business, technology and network theory

Agent-based models have been used since the mid-1990s to solve a variety of business and technology problems. Examples of applications include marketing, organizational behaviour and cognition, team working, supply chain optimization and logistics, modeling of consumer behavior, including word of mouth, social network effects, distributed computing, workforce management, and portfolio management. They have also been used to analyze traffic congestion.

Recently, agent based modelling and simulation has been applied to various domains such as studying the impact of publication venues by researchers in the computer science domain (journals versus conferences). In addition, ABMs have been used to simulate information delivery in ambient assisted environments. A November 2016 article in arXiv analyzed an agent based simulation of posts spread in Facebook. In the domain of peer-to-peer, ad hoc and other self-organizing and complex networks, the usefulness of agent based modeling and simulation has been shown. The use of a computer science-based formal specification framework coupled with wireless sensor networks and an agent-based simulation has recently been demonstrated.

Agent based evolutionary search or algorithm is a new research topic for solving complex optimization problems.

In economics and social sciences

Prior to, and in the wake of the 2008 financial crisis, interest has grown in ABMs as possible tools for economic analysis. ABMs do not assume the economy can achieve equilibrium and "representative agents" are replaced by agents with diverse, dynamic, and interdependent behavior including herding. ABMs take a "bottom-up" approach and can generate extremely complex and volatile simulated economies. ABMs can represent unstable systems with crashes and booms that develop out of non-linear (disproportionate) responses to proportionally small changes. A July 2010 article in The Economist looked at ABMs as alternatives to DSGE models. The journal Nature also encouraged agent-based modeling with an editorial that suggested ABMs can do a better job of representing financial markets and other economic complexities than standard models along with an essay by J. Doyne Farmer and Duncan Foley that argued ABMs could fulfill both the desires of Keynes to represent a complex economy and of Robert Lucas to construct models based on microfoundations. Farmer and Foley pointed to progress that has been made using ABMs to model parts of an economy, but argued for the creation of a very large model that incorporates low level models. By modeling a complex system of analysts based on three distinct behavioral profiles – imitating, anti-imitating, and indifferent – financial markets were simulated to high accuracy. Results showed a correlation between network morphology and the stock market index. However, the ABM approach has been criticized for its lack of robustness between models, where similar models can yield very different results.

ABMs have been deployed in architecture and urban planning to evaluate design and to simulate pedestrian flow in the urban environment and the examination of public policy applications to land-use. There is also a growing field of socio-economic analysis of infrastructure investment impact using ABM's ability to discern systemic impacts upon a socio-economic network. Heterogeneity and dynamics can be easily built in ABM models to address wealth inequality and social mobility.

In water management
ABMs have also been applied in water resources planning and management, particularly for exploring, simulating, and predicting the performance of infrastructure design and policy decisions, and in assessing the value of cooperation and information exchange in large water resources systems.

Organizational ABM: agent-directed simulation

The agent-directed simulation (ADS) metaphor distinguishes between two categories, namely "Systems for Agents" and "Agents for Systems." Systems for Agents (sometimes referred to as agents systems) are systems implementing agents for the use in engineering, human and social dynamics, military applications, and others. Agents for Systems are divided in two subcategories. Agent-supported systems deal with the use of agents as a support facility to enable computer assistance in problem solving or enhancing cognitive capabilities. Agent-based systems focus on the use of agents for the generation of model behavior in a system evaluation (system studies and analyses).

Self-driving cars
Hallerbach et al. discussed the application of agent-based approaches for the development and validation of automated driving systems via a digital twin of the vehicle-under-test and microscopic traffic simulation based on independent agents. Waymo has created a multi-agent simulation environment Carcraft to test algorithms for self-driving cars. It simulates traffic interactions between human drivers, pedestrians and automated vehicles. People's behavior is imitated by artificial agents based on data of real human behavior. The basic idea of using agent-based modeling to understand self-driving cars was discussed as early as 2003.

Implementation

Many ABM frameworks are designed for serial von-Neumann computer architectures, limiting the speed and scalability of implemented models. Since emergent behavior in large-scale ABMs is dependent of population size, scalability restrictions may hinder model validation. Such limitations have mainly been addressed using distributed computing, with frameworks such as Repast HPC specifically dedicated to these type of implementations. While such approaches map well to cluster and supercomputer architectures, issues related to communication and synchronization, as well as deployment complexity, remain potential obstacles for their widespread adoption.

A recent development is the use of data-parallel algorithms on Graphics Processing Units GPUs for ABM simulation. The extreme memory bandwidth combined with the sheer number crunching power of multi-processor GPUs has enabled simulation of millions of agents at tens of frames per second.

Integration with other modeling forms

Since Agent-Based Modeling is more of a modeling framework than a particular piece of software or platform, it has often been used in conjunction with other modeling forms. For instance, agent-based models have also been combined with Geographic Information Systems (GIS). This provides a useful combination where the ABM serves as a process model and the GIS system can provide a model of pattern. Similarly, Social Network Analysis (SNA) tools and agent-based models are sometimes integrated, where the ABM is used to simulate the dynamics on the network while the SNA tool models and analyzes the network of interactions.

Verification and validation
Verification and validation (V&V) of simulation models is extremely important. Verification involves making sure the implemented model matches the conceptual model, whereas validation ensures that the implemented model has some relationship to the real-world. Face validation, sensitivity analysis, calibration, and statistical validation are different aspects of validation. A discrete-event simulation framework approach for the validation of agent-based systems has been proposed. A comprehensive resource on empirical validation of agent-based models can be found here.

As an example of V&V technique, consider VOMAS (virtual overlay multi-agent system), a software engineering based approach, where a virtual overlay multi-agent system is developed alongside the agent-based model. Muazi et al. also provide an example of using VOMAS for verification and validation of a forest fire simulation model. Another software engineering method, i.e. Test-Driven Development has been adapted to for agent-based model validation. This approach has another advantage that allows an automatic validation using unit test tools.

See also

 Agent-based computational economics
 Agent-based model in biology
 Agent-based social simulation (ABSS)
 Artificial society
 Boids
 Comparison of agent-based modeling software
 Complex system
 Complex adaptive system
 Computational sociology
 Conway's Game of Life
 Dynamic network analysis
 Emergence
 Evolutionary algorithm
 Flocking
 Internet bot
 Kinetic exchange models of markets
 Multi-agent system
 Simulated reality
 Social complexity
 Social simulation
 Sociophysics
 Software agent
 Swarming behaviour
 Web-based simulation
 TOTREP

References

General

  first edition, 1999.

  Available online.

External links

Articles/general information
 Agent-based models of social networks, java applets.
 On-Line Guide for Newcomers to Agent-Based Modeling in the Social Sciences
 Introduction to Agent-based Modeling and Simulation. Argonne National Laboratory, November 29, 2006.
 Agent-based models in Ecology – Using computer models as theoretical tools to analyze complex ecological systems
 Network for Computational Modeling in the Social and Ecological Sciences' Agent Based Modeling FAQ
 Multiagent Information Systems – Article on the convergence of SOA, BPM and Multi-Agent Technology in the domain of the Enterprise Information Systems. Jose Manuel Gomez Alvarez, Artificial Intelligence, Technical University of Madrid – 2006
 Artificial Life Framework
 Article providing methodology for moving real world human behaviors into a simulation model where agent behaviors are represented
 Agent-based Modeling Resources, an information hub for modelers, methods, and philosophy for agent-based modeling
 An Agent-Based Model of the Flash Crash of May 6, 2010, with Policy Implications, Tommi A. Vuorenmaa (Valo Research and Trading), Liang Wang (University of Helsinki - Department of Computer Science), October, 2013

Simulation models
 Multi-agent Meeting Scheduling System Model by Qasim Siddique
 Multi-firm market simulation by Valentino Piana
List of COVID-19 simulation models

Models of computation
Complex systems theory
Methods in sociology
Artificial life

Agent-based model


Jean-Louis de Marillac, comte de Beaumont-le-Roger (1572 – 10 May 1632) was an important French noble and military leader during the reign of Louis XIII. He held the office of Marshal of France, as well as lieutenant-general of Trois-Évêchés and governor of Metz.

Biography

Early life
The Marillacs, the family of Louis de Marillac, were a family of former low and robe nobility. Guillaume de Marillac, Louis's father, was valet of the chamber to Henry II who first appointed him Superintendent of the Finances of Paris, then Superintendent des comptes and finally Controller-General of Finances.

Louis's mother was Geneviève de Boislevêque, the former widow of a Maître des requêtes.

Louis's elder half-brother from his father's first marriage was Michel de Marillac, who went on to become Superintendent of Finances and Keeper of the Seals.

Career
As many other nobles, Louis was trained in strategy. He had his first assignments under Henry IV: At Amiens, he commanded a company of 100 Cheveau-légers. Due to his splendid service, the king appointed him Gentleman of the Chamber. After Henry IV's death in 1610, Louis remained a prominent person at court.

From 1611 to 1616 he was ambassador to several countries and negotiated the Treaty of Loudun.

In 1617, Louis XIII appointed him Commissioner General of the Camps and Armies.
In 1621, at the Siege of Montauban he was appointed Maréchal de camp.

During the king's war with the Huguenots, Marillac was an important participator.
He participated in every action against the Huguenots in Languedoc till the Peace of Montpellier.

After the reconciliation of Louis XIII with the queen mother in 1620, Louis de Marillac was given many high and honourable positions, including captain of the Queen's guards and lieutenant-general of the Three bishoprics (Trois-Évêchés). This was because of Louis de Marillac standing in high favour of Marie de Medici and Louis XIII seeking for a harmless way of pleasing her. As Louis de Marillac was one of the persons Louis XIII liked too, he did it rather than to other favourites of Marie de Medici.
Due to his dévot position and his support for Marie de Medici and especially Gaston, Duke of Orléans after the Day of Dupes, the king arrested Marillac while he was in Savoy as a military commander at the Mantuan War of Succession.

Despite heavy protests and riots (for Marillac was considered as a very religious and honest man) he was decapitated on 10 May 1632 at the Place de Grève in Paris.

After Louis XIII's death, Louis de Marillac was rehabilitated by the Parlement of Paris.

Coat of arms

In popular culture
Louis de Marillac was the uncle of St. Louise de Marillac, an important saint of 17th century France. However, his elder brother Louis only claimed to be her brother and it is more likely that one of his younger and experienced brothers was her father. So, possibly the younger Louis was her father.

References

Louis XIII
1572 births
1632 deaths
French generals
16th-century French nobility
17th-century French nobility
Marshals of France

Louis de Marillac


David Pescovitz is partner and co-editor of Boing Boing, a technology and culture Web magazine, and vice president of communications and content at ICONIQ Capital, a global investment firm. In 2018 he won a Grammy Award for Best Boxed or Special Limited Edition Package for co-producing The Voyager Golden Record: 40th Anniversary Edition, the first vinyl release of the interstellar message for extraterrestrials.

Pescovitz is co-founder of Ozma Records, a music label and publisher. Pescovitz was a research director at Institute for the Future, a nonprofit think tank in Silicon Valley, and still serves as a research affiliate. Pescovitz co-wrote the book Reality Check, based on his column in Wired magazine.

From 2000 to 2007 Pescovitz was the first ever writer-in-residence at UC Berkeley's College of Engineering. He has also contributed to the New York Times, Los Angeles Times, Scientific American, Bloomberg Businessweek, MTV, and Encyclopædia Britannica. His writings on technology and culture are featured in the books What Are You Optimistic About?: Today's Leading Thinkers on Why Things Are Good and Getting Better, Dissident Futures, The Happy Mutant Handbook, and The 'Zine Reader.

Pescovitz holds a Bachelor of Fine Arts in Electronic Media from the University of Cincinnati and a Master's in Journalism from UC Berkeley.

References

Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
American male journalists
University of California, Berkeley staff
Grammy Award winners

David Pescovitz


The Saskatoon Farmers' Market is a profit, vendor-owned cooperative that operates year-round, twice-weekly Farmers' market in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada. Featuring more than 100 vendors and resolutely supporting local makers, bakers, gatherers, and growers, the Saskatoon Farmers' Market is a true and authentic farmers' market. In addition to its year-round weekend markets at 2600 Koyl Ave.

Early locations for the market
The Saskatoon Farmers' Market Cooperative was originally called the Toad Lane Market. The SFM was established in 1975 (with a $1,000 grant from the Ministry of Agriculture). Prior to moving to 2600 Koyl Avenue, the Saskatoon Farmers' Market operated at several locations:

 Summer Market operated from City Hall Parking Lot (1975–1980), 23rd Street (1980–1993), 23rd Street and City Hall Square.
 Summer Satellite Market (on Thursdays) operated from parking lots at the Westgate Plaza (1978), Confederation Mall Parking Lot (1979–1999), and 51st Street (1999–2007).
 Summer Satellite Market (on Tuesdays) operated from parking lots at the Wildwood Mall (1982–1990), College Park Mall (1990–1999), Elm Church parking lot (1999–2002), Lakewood Civic Centre (2002–2007).
 Winter Markets operated from the Sinclair Centre (1977–1987), Sturdy Stone Centre, and the Adilman Building.
 A city-owned building in Riversdale (2007 to 2019). When the Saskatoon Farmers' Market moved to Riversdale, the cooperative agreed to discontinue market operations at other locations, as desired by the City of Saskatoon to further the goals of the City of Saskatoon related to neighbourhood success. At the time, the location was intended to be the permanent home for the Saskatoon Farmers' Market, but City of Saskatoon planning decisions necessitated a move.

External links
https://www.saskatoonfarmersmarket.com/

Buildings and structures in Saskatoon
Farmers' markets in Canada
Agricultural cooperatives in Canada
Tourist attractions in Saskatoon
1975 establishments in Saskatchewan
Food and drink in Saskatchewan
Culture of Saskatoon

Saskatoon Farmers' Market


Myanmar Institute of Theology (MIT) is a Baptist theological institute in Insein Township, Yangon, Myanmar (Burma). Judson Research Center, Peace Studies Center, and Gender Studies Center are parts of Myanmar Institute of Theology. It is affiliated with the Myanmar Baptist Convention.

History

Myanmar Institute of Theology, originally known as Baptist Divinity School, was founded in June 1927, on Seminary Hill, Insein by the Myanmar Baptist Convention.
With only four students to begin with, the school used the facilities of Karen Theological Seminary currently known as Kayin Baptist Theological Seminary. Shortly after its opening the school became affiliated with Northern Baptist Theological Seminary in Chicago, Illinois. This affiliation lasted until the Second World War. The first president was Dr. W. E. Wiatt, an American missionary who served from 1927 to 1939. The school was renamed in 1939 as the Willis and Orlinda Pierce Divinity School (1939-1949). The second president of the school was Dr. C. F. Chaney who served from 1939 to 1941, when the Japanese occupied Burma.

In 1948, the school reopened with Thra Chit Maung as chairperson of the Curriculum Committee. In 1952, with the arrival of Dr. Paul D. Clasper, Thra Chit Maung was made president and Dr. Clasper, vice-president. The school was renamed in 1949 as the Burma Divinity School (1949-1976). In 1955, it became affiliated with Central Baptist Theological Seminary of Kansas City, Kansas. This affiliation lasted until 1960, when the school became an accredited member of the Association for Theological Education in South East Asia. Since 1960, the school has been conferring degrees on its graduates.

Since 1966, with the departure of American Baptist Missionary Union missionaries from Myanmar, the school has been entirely staffed by nationals. The seminary has faithfully carried out its education mission, adapting and responding to the challenges of the new day.

In 1976, the name was again changed to Burma Institute of Theology (1976-1989). In 1977, on Dr. Chit Maung's retirement, Thramu Esther Lwin was made acting-president and then president from June 1978 to the end of 1983. In January 1984, Rev. Victor San Lone, who had been serving as general secretary of the Burma Baptist Convention, became president and served in that capacity until his sudden death in 1987. Thramu Eh Wah, the vice-president, was made acting-president until March 1988, when she was officially appointed President. The seminary's name was changed to Myanmar Institute of Theology in 1989, when the country changed its name to Myanmar. Dr. Eh Wah retired in 1998. The then vice-principal Dr. Anna May Say Pa was elected the principal. Rev. Dr. Simon Pau Khan En succeeded in 2006, and when he retired in 2010, Rev. Dr. Samuel Ngun Ling became President of MIT (April 2010 - March 2023). Currently, Dr. Naw Eh Tar Gay serves as the 10th President of MIT.

Until 1962, only the ThB program was offered. That year the Bachelor of Religious Education program was introduced and in 1976, the BD program was initiated. In 1996, no new BTh applicants were accepted for the ThB program as the Board of Trustees had decided that the seminary would offer only graduate programs. In 1997, MIT started the MDiv, and MTS degree programs and replaced the BD program. March 1999 saw the last batch of BTh graduates and the first batch of MTS graduates. March 2000 marked the graduation of the first batch of the Master of Divinity class. Year 2000 is a milestone for launching new programs such as Summer School, Summer Seminar and Bachelor of Arts in Religious Studies (BARS).

In 2004, MIT launched the Doctor of Ministry (DMin) program in partnership with the Union Theological Seminary, Manila, the Philippines. The program ended in 2008 when MIT started a new partnership for Doctor of Ministry program with the Central Baptist Theological Seminary, Kansas, USA, to take effect from 2010-2011 academic year.

Master of Ministry (MMin) degree program was inaugurated in 2006.

The year 2010 saw the opening of a new program called Master of Theological Librarianship (MTL) and the termination of the old program called Master of Theological Studies (MTS).

In 2014, MIT launched the PhD degree program in the commemoration of the 200th anniversary of the arrival of the American Baptist missionaries, Adoniram and Ann Judson in the soil of Myanmar.

Programs
MIT offers the following programs of study:
 PhD (Doctor of Philosophy)
 DMin (Doctor of Ministry)
 MTh (Master of Theology: Full-time two-year program)
 MACS (Master of Arts in Christian Studies: Part-time three-year program)
 MDiv (Master of Divinity: Full-time three-year program)
 MTL (Master of Theological Librarianship: Full-time two-year program)
 Liberal Arts Program (BARS—Bachelor of Arts in Religious Studies: Full-time four-year program)
 DipCD and MACD (Two-year full-time programs)
 MAID (Master of Arts in Interfaith Dialogue)
 MAPS (Master of Arts in Peace Studies)
 MAGS (Master of Arts in Gender Studies)

Current Presidents
 Dr. Naw Eh Tar Gay, PhD, President
 Rev. Dr. Marip La Rip, PhD, Vice President

Accreditation
Myanmar Institute of Theology is accredited by the Association for Theological Education in South East Asia (ATESEA).

See also
Karen Baptist Theological Seminary

References

External links
School Website

Universities and colleges established in 1927
Christianity in Yangon
Universities and colleges in Yangon
Universities and colleges in Myanmar
Seminaries and theological colleges in Myanmar
Christian colleges in Myanmar
Association of Christian Universities and Colleges in Asia
1927 establishments in Burma
Baptist seminaries and theological colleges in Myanmar

Myanmar Institute of Theology


Kars is a city in Turkey.

Kars may also refer to:

Geography
 Kars Parish, New Brunswick, a civil parish in Kings County
 Kars, New Brunswick, an unincorporated community in Kars Parish
 Kars, Ontario, a small village of the city in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
 Kars/Rideau Valley Air Park a small airport near Kars, Ontario
 Kars Province, a province of Turkey
 Qars or Kars, a village in the Khizi Rayon of Azerbaijan

History
 Kadirli, formerly Kars, a town and district of Osmaniye Province in the Mediterranean region of Turkey
 Kars Eyalet, Ottoman Empire
 Kars Oblast, Russian Empire
 Kars Republic

Other uses
 Jean-Rodolphe Kars (born 1947), French pianist
 "Kars 1" and "Kars 2 (Wounds of the Centuries)," two songs by Armenian pianist Tigran Hamasyan from his 2015 album Mockroot.
 Kars dog, a breed of livestock guardian dog from eastern Turkey
 Kars, the primary antagonist from the manga JoJo's Bizarre Adventure: Battle Tendency

See also
Battle of Kars (disambiguation)
Cars (disambiguation)
Kar's Nuts, a United States manufacturer of nut and snack items
KARS (disambiguation)

Kars (disambiguation)


The Lithuanian Museum of Ancient Beekeeping (Senovinės bitininkystės muziejus), established in 1984 near Stripeikiai in northeastern Lithuania, displays the history of beekeeping in the area.
The museum, part of Aukštaitija National Park, was founded by the beekeeper Bronius Kazlas.

As of 2006, the museum consisted of six buildings, about 500 displays, and 25 sculptures. In addition to illustrating the history of beekeeping in Lithuania, some of the museum's wooden sculptures themselves contain beehives. The sculptures pay homage to the honeybee's place in worldwide mythology and folklore, including Egyptian and Native American figures as well as the Lithuanian god Babilas and goddess Austėja. They were carved by Teofilis Patiejūnas and Ipolitas Užkurnis.

The displays include glass-sided hives that enable visitors to watch the bees at work, tool collections, and illustrations of the role that bees play in pollination. The wide variety of hives includes many tree trunks, which were used from the 15th century until the beginning of the 20th century.

The Lithuanian Veterinary Academy claims that Lithuanian bees are especially peaceful. They constitute a sub-species of the European honey bee; they are smaller than Italian bees and larger than the Caucasian honey bee.

The honeybee is a symbol of friendship in Lithuania; the word bičiulis is an affectionate form of address. In 2005 Ukrainian President Viktor Yushchenko presented Lithuanian President Valdas Adamkus with three beehives and bees, which were brought to the museum.

The museum is open from May to October. A Honey Harvest festival is held in August, and the museum features a "Honey Bar".

The museum has been under the reconstruction recently. However, it opened anew in the spring of 2015.

General references
 Museum celebrates bonding by beekeeping. The Baltic Times, August 24, 2000. Accessed 2011-04-15
 Museum of Ancient Beekeeping. Association of Lithuanian Museums. Accessed 2011-04-15.
 Ancient Beekeeping Museum. In Your Pocket City Guides. Accessed 2011-04-15.

External links

 About the museum
 "The Beekeeper's Spiritual World in Museum Objects" discusses the museum's sculptures
 President Adamkus receives bees as a gift
  Lithuanian bees

Museums in Utena County
Agriculture museums in Lithuania
Beekeeping
Beekeeping organizations
Beekeeping in Lithuania
Apiaries
Bee museums
Sculpture gardens, trails and parks in Europe
Museums established in 1984
1984 establishments in Lithuania
Agricultural organizations based in Lithuania

Lithuanian Museum of Ancient Beekeeping


Manuae is an uninhabited atoll in the southern group of the Cook Islands, 100 kilometres south-east of Aitutaki. Manuae is not administratively part of Aitutaki, however, it is part of Arutanga-Reureu-Nikaupara Constituency on Aitutaki for electoral purposes only.

Geographic description

Manuae is a true atoll sitting on the peak of a submerged volcano which descends over 4000 meters to the ocean bed. It comprises two horseshoe-shaped islets, Manuae islet to the west and Te Au O Tu islet to the east, with a total area of 6 km2 on either side of a lagoon about 7 km x 4 km. Manuae islet has an area of 2.1 km2, while Te Au O Tu islet is 3.9 km2. The lagoon is 13 km2 in size, shallow and subject to large shifting sand banks. A coral reef surrounds the atoll, and there is no major passage through the reef.

The waters surrounding the island are a marine park and it is an important breeding ground for seabirds and marine turtles in the Central Pacific. The offshore waters of Manuae are good fishing grounds.

History

According to oral tradition, Manuae was discovered by Ruatapu, who named it Manu-enua ("bird-land"). Ruatapu planted coconuts and released birds there, and later sent his second son and his family to settle the island. Another tradition states that the island was first settled by two brothers from Atiu, and that Ruatapu found it already inhabited. Later the island was attacked by Mangaia.

Captain James Cook sighted Manuae on his second voyage on 23 September 1773, but did not land. He visited again on 6 April 1777 during his third voyage, and found the island inhabited and apparently under the control of an Ariki from Atiu. Cook initially named Manuae "Sandwich Island", but changed it to "Hervey Island" in honor of Augustus Hervey, 3rd Earl of Bristol, then a Lord of the Admiralty. This name was later corrupted to Hervey's Island, or Hervey's Isle, and later applied to the entire southern group, as the Hervey Islands.

In July 1823 the island was visited by John Williams of the London Missionary Society, who found it inhabited by sixty people. The island was depopulated shortly afterwards, and by 1852 was home to a single family. In 1888 it was declared to be a British protectorate. In 1900 it was annexed by New Zealand. In 1898 it was leased out as a copra plantation.

In April/May 1965 the population briefly increased to more than a hundred when the island was visited by six expeditions (from Australia, N.Z., Japan, U.K., U.S.A. and U.S.S.R.) to observe the total solar eclipse of 30 May 1965.

Norwegian author Erlend Loe writes humorously about an expedition to Manuae in his 1999 novel "L".

In April 2020 the Cook Islands National Environment Service advertised for two caretakers to live on the island for a year.

The Proprietors of Manuae Incorporated (PMI) were established by court order in 1983. The committee members are elected by the indigenous landowners of Manuae Atoll on a regular basis. In October 2022, the PMI established the not-for-profit Manuae Enua Conservation Trust (MECT) to represent the landowners' interests in managing the island of Manuae for conservation action and sustainable development.

Economy and improvements

The island once supported a copra industry with a settlement established next to the small reef passage less than one kilometer northeast of Turakino, the westernmost point of the atoll.  The passage, at the sea entrance, is less than 4 metres wide and in a swell is exceedingly dangerous without local knowledge.

The island has an airfield (an overgrown coral airstrip barely visible) that has been out of use for several years.

Fishermen from Aitutaki occasionally organise trips to Manuae.

Demography

The population peaked with 32 at the 1956 census, but twenty years later the island was abandoned.

See also

 Desert island
 Lists of islands

References

External links
 Manuae web page

Atolls of the Cook Islands
Uninhabited islands of the Cook Islands
Former populated places in Oceania

Manuae (Cook Islands)


The flag of Norfolk Island is a triband consisting of green, white, and green bands charged with a green Norfolk Island pine in the centre.  Adopted in 1979 when the islands gained limited self-government, it has been the flag of the Territory of Norfolk Island since 6 June of that year.  The pine is native to the territory and is its official tree.

History
Norfolk Island was first sighted by James Cook in 1774 during his second voyage to the southern Pacific Ocean.  Settlers moved to the island in March 1788, when it was claimed by the colony of New South Wales.  Cook surmised that the Norfolk Island pine (Araucaria heterophylla) could be utilised for the masts of ships, but his prediction ultimately did not come to fruition.

The island was initially employed as a penal colony until 1814, and again from 1825 to 1855.  It was then used in 1856 to relocate people from the Pitcairn Islands, which had become overpopulated, and Norfolk Island was consequently designated "a distinct and separate settlement" from mainland Australia on 24 June of the same year.  It later lost its self-governing status in 1897, when the British placed the territory under the administration of the Governor of New South Wales.  The island joined the now-independent Commonwealth of Australia as a territory under the Norfolk Island Act 1913.  However, its exact constitutional relationship with the rest of the commonwealth was not enunciated at the time.

A royal commission was established in 1975 to resolve Norfolk Island's constitutional status.  Four years later, the territory was granted its own legislative assembly, but remained unrepresented in the Federal Parliament.  The bill that became the Norfolk Island Flag and Public Seal Act 1979 was introduced to the Australian Parliament that same year and received royal assent on 17 January 1980.

Design

Description
The flag of Norfolk Island is described in detail in Norfolk Island Flag and Public Seal Act 1979, federal legislation that has been in force from 17 January 1980.  It specifies the flag is to have an aspect ratio of 1:2.  The official colour scheme follows approximately the Pantone Matching System as indicated below.  The colour numbers for the flag's white shade are not specified.

Symbolism
The colours and symbols of the flag carry cultural, political, and regional meanings.  The green symbolises Norfolk Island's plentiful vegetation and fertile land.  The Norfolk Island pine is native to the islands, and is the official tree of the territory.

Similarities

The Norfolk Islander flag bears a likeness to the flag of Canada.  Both banners employ only two colours and feature a regional arboreal symbol in the middle band. Is also similar to the flag of Neuquén Province. Both banners employ only two colours and feature an araucarian tree.  Norfolk Island's flag is also analogous to the flag of Nigeria, which utilises a triband of green and white in a similar fashion.

References
Specific

Bibliography

External links

1979 establishments in Australia
Flags introduced in 1979
Flags of Australia
Flag
Flags of Australian states and territories

Flag of Norfolk Island


Kugombedzera (compel by force of arguement) kushandisa hungwari hwemashoko kana unhari hwekugona kutaura nechinangwa chokuti vanhu vaite zvaunoda kuti zviitwe.

Kurerutsa Mutauro

Kugombedza (1. Intercept. 2. Struggle with another for possession of an object. 3. Weaken especially at knees).
Baba naamai havafaniri kugombedza mwana: mother and father should not vie with each other for the affection of their child. *Uya undigombedze mhuru ndichikama: come and keep the calf away while I am milking.
Heino nhabvu, uyai mugombedzane: here is a ball, try to take it from each other.
Gombedzanwa kana magombedzanwa (Plaything; sport; butt),
Kugomba (Feel need of. Fail to obtain) zvinoreva kushaya.
Munyori akaitwa gombedzanwa nasachigaro nasahomwe: the secretary became the sport of the chairman and urer.
Kugombedzeka (Hint. Complain mildly).
Murwendo akagomberwa mabvi nenzara: the traveller was weak at the knees from hunger.
Gombe, gombwe kana gongwa (influential person, very rich man).
Kugunun'una (to complain).
Sazita kana Sakuwana (Chief Person).

Chirevo

Mugomberi wemhuru unonwa mutuvi: the one who helps to keep the calf from the udder is given the whey.

Mitauro yeBantu

VaVenda vanoti -kombetshedza (v. compel, urge, force, insist) vachireva kugombedzera.

Matare emhosva

Kugombedzera


A simple polygon that is not convex is called concave, non-convex or reentrant. A concave polygon will always have at least one reflex interior angle—that is, an angle with a measure that is between 180 degrees and 360 degrees exclusive.

Polygon
Some lines containing interior points of a concave polygon intersect its boundary at more than two points. Some diagonals of a concave polygon lie partly or wholly outside the polygon. Some sidelines of a concave polygon fail to divide the plane into two half-planes one of which entirely contains the polygon. None of these three statements holds for a convex polygon.

As with any simple polygon, the sum of the internal angles of a concave polygon is ×(n − 2) radians, equivalently 180×(n − 2) degrees (°), where n is the number of sides.

It is always possible to partition a concave polygon into a set of convex polygons. A polynomial-time algorithm for finding a decomposition into as few convex polygons as possible is described by .

A triangle can never be concave, but there exist concave polygons with n sides for any n > 3. An example of a concave quadrilateral is the dart.

At least one interior angle does not contain all other vertices in its edges and interior.

The convex hull of the concave polygon's vertices, and that of its edges, contains points that are exterior to the polygon.

Notes

External links

Types of polygons

Concave polygon


Strathclyde Police Shinty Club was a shinty club based in Glasgow, Scotland, the club represents the Strathclyde Police force and draws its players mostly from serving officers.  The club went into abeyance in 2000 but entered the south leagues in 2007.

History

The club was established in 1963 as the Glasgow Police Shinty Team but regionalization led to the adoption of the present name. the club was the brainchild of Dr John Dugald Murchison, who felt a club made of serving police officers (Glasgow having a tradition of having police officers from the Scottish Highlands) would be an ample replacement for the then recently defunct Glasgow Skye. The club was a fixture in the old South Division One until relegation to the South Division 2 which they then won in 1979-80.

The police won South Division Two in 1996.

In 1998-99 the club played in South Division One but was relegated to the South Division Two.  The following year, team raising difficulties led to the club going into abeyance.  The force re-entered the South leagues in 2007, playing their first game against Edinburgh East Lothian.

The Glasgow Airport Attack on Saturday 30 June 2007 and the perceived increase in security threat meant that the Police team had to withdraw from competition for the remainder of the 2007 season.

It is unlikely that Strathclyde Police will ever retake the field in league shinty, but their old ground of Lochinch is used by Glasgow Gaels Shinty Club,a junior side, who it is hoped will become a senior side.

External links
Strathclyde Police Force
Strathclyde Police Pipe Band
http://www.shinty.com/novnewsletter.doc Strathclyde Police To Return To Shinty]

Defunct shinty teams in Scotland
Sports clubs and teams in Glasgow
1963 establishments in Scotland
Sports clubs and teams established in 1963
Police sports clubs and teams

Strathclyde Police Shinty Club


The Piano Concerto/MGV is the 23rd album by Michael Nyman, released in 1994.  It contains two compositions, The Piano Concerto and MGV.    The first is performed by Kathryn Stott and the Royal Liverpool Philharmonic Orchestra conducted by Michael Nyman, and the second is performed by the Michael Nyman Band and Orchestra with Michael Nyman at the piano.

The album was released on Argo Records, and went out of print when the label folded.  The original recording was reissued with new cover artwork by MN Records, Nyman's own label, on December 1, 2008

The Piano Concerto
The Piano Concerto is a piano concerto based on the music Nyman wrote for The Piano organized into four phases (one movement).  The saxophone is omitted ("Here to There" is given to the piano soloist) and the piano is accompanied by a traditional orchestra.  The work is Nyman's second concerto, having previously written a saxophone concerto, Where the Bee Dances, for John Harle.

The Piano Concerto was first premiered 26 September 1993 at the Festival de Lille, which was also the debut of MGV.  In his liner notes. Nyman cites the definite article as significant, and states the order of composition of the work:  Autumn 1991, piano music for Holly Hunter to play in the film; Summer 1992, orchestral score for the completed film; concerto commissioned by Festival de Lille in Spring 1993.  Jean-Claude Casadesus conducted the premiere of both works.  Stott was the premiere soloist.

Nyman states that the principal goals of this "reconsideration" threefold:  "to create a more coherent structure" for the musical material, elaborates upon the texture for full orchestra (the original was for saxophone and string orchestra), and to make the piano part more virtuoso.

The first phase, in A minor, is derived from the Scottish folk song, "Bonny Winter's noo awa"; the second phase is original and chromatic; the third is in G/D major and based on "Flowers of the Forest" (much faster and cut apart) and "Bonnie Jean" "massively slowed down" on cellos, trumpet, and divisi violins, and a harmonic phrase derived from material in the first phase, followed by reprises of "Bonny Winter's noo awa" and "Flowers of the Forest."

This recording of The Piano Concerto runs 32:28.

The Piano Concerto has been rerecorded, first in 1996 by Peter Lawson with the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra conducted by Jonathan Carney, former violinist and violist of the Michael Nyman Band, and again in 1997, by John Lenehan (who had performed on The Essential Michael Nyman Band in 1992) with the Ulster Orchestra conducted by Takuo Yuasa, and released on Naxos Records with Where the Bee Dances performed by Simon Haram, a relative Michael Nyman Band newcomer at the time who is, as of 2008, still a regular member.  This latter version is slightly faster and clocks in two minutes shorter, and features a very strong and precise brass section.

MGV: Musique à Grand Vitesse

This recording of MGV runs 26:30.  It is the only commercial recording to date.  "5th Region" appears on the promotional compilation Michael Nyman.

Track listing
 The Beach 11:48
 The Woods 6:25
 The Hut 9:06
 The Release 5:09
 1st Region 4:56
 2nd Region 4:06
 3rd Region 8:18
 4th Region 3:48
 5th Region 5:22

Personnel

Musicians

The Piano Concerto
 Kathryn Stott, solo piano
 Royal Liverpool Philharmonic Orchestra
 Michael Nyman, conductor

MGV
The Michael Nyman Band & Orchestra

Michael Nyman Band
 Michael Nyman, piano
 Alexander Balansecu, violin
 Clare Connors, violin
 Anthony Hinnigan, cello
 John Harle, soprano saxophone
 David Roach, soprano/alto saxophone
 Andrew Findon, baritone saxophone/piccolo
 Nigel Barr, bass trombone
 Martin Elliott, bass guitar
 Michael Nyman, conductor

Crew
 Producer: Andrew Cornall
 Engineer (The Piano Concerto): Neil Hutchinson
 Engineer (MGV): Michael J. Dutton
 Tape editor: Tim Bull
 MGV mixed at Kitsch Studios, Brussels
 Publisher: Michael Nyman Ltd/Chester Music Ltd
 Design: Russell Warren-Fischer
 Art direction: David Smart
 Michael Nyman photograph: Nigel Parry
 Kathryn Stott photograph: Hanya Chlala
 Liner notes: Michael Nyman

This album is the earliest reference to a Michael Nyman Orchestra, though unlike the band, its members are not credited.

Short Cuts: Breaking the Sound Barrier
The album has been issued as a double album with Short Cuts: Breaking the Sound Barrier, a sampler compilation of music from other Argo Records albums by Graham Fitkin (2 tracks), Gavin Bryars, Michael Torke, Chris Fitkin, Michael Nyman (2 tracks), Henryk Górecki, Aaron Jay Kernis, Kevin Volans, Stanley Myers, David Byrne, Michael Gordon, Robert Moran, Mark Anthony Turnage, Richard Harris, and Paul Schoenfield.  The booklet is double sized rather than having a separate booklet, and the track listing is on the inner liner tray.  The album is easier to find in the single version.  Short Cuts is produced by Andrew Cornall, with art direction by David Smart and design by Russell Warren-Fischer, consisting of 1/4 page grey squares behind the work descriptions.  Several sales sites have listed Short Cuts sampler separately, but none have yet shown a separate album cover.

References

1994 albums
Michael Nyman albums

The Piano Concerto/MGV


Surgery is the branch of medicine that deals with the physical manipulation of a bodily structure to diagnose, prevent, or cure an ailment. Ambroise Paré, a 16th-century French surgeon, stated that to perform surgery is, "To eliminate that which is superfluous, restore that which has been dislocated, separate that which has been united, join that which has been divided and repair the defects of nature."

Since humans first learned how to make and handle tools, they have employed their talents to develop surgical techniques, each time more sophisticated than the last; however, until the industrial revolution, surgeons were incapable of overcoming the three principal obstacles which had plagued the medical profession from its infancy — bleeding, pain and infection. Advances in these fields have transformed surgery from a risky "art" into a scientific discipline capable of treating many diseases and conditions.

Origins
The first surgical techniques were developed to treat injuries and traumas. A combination of archaeological and anthropological studies offer insight into much earlier techniques for suturing lacerations, amputating unsalvageable limbs, and draining and cauterizing open wounds. Many examples exist: some Asian tribes used a mix of saltpeter and sulfur that was placed onto wounds and lit on fire to cauterize wounds; the Dakota people used the quill of a feather attached to an animal bladder to suck out purulent material; the discovery of needles from the Stone Age seems to suggest they were used in the suturing of cuts (the Maasai used needles of acacia for the same purpose); and tribes in India and South America developed an ingenious method of sealing minor injuries by applying termites or scarabs who bit the edges of the wound and then twisted the insects' neck, leaving their heads rigidly attached like staples.

Trepanation
The oldest operation for which evidence exists is trepanation (also known as trepanning, trephination, trephining or burr hole from Greek τρύπανον and τρυπανισμός), in which a hole is drilled or scraped into the skull for exposing the dura mater to treat health problems related to intracranial pressure and other diseases. In the case of head wounds, surgical intervention was implemented for investigating and diagnosing the nature of the wound and the extent of the impact while bone splinters were removed preferably by scraping followed by post operation procedures and treatments for avoiding infection and aiding in the healing process. Evidence has been found in prehistoric human remains from Proto-Neolithic and Neolithic times, in cave paintings, and the procedure continued in use well into recorded history (being described by ancient Greek writers such as Hippocrates). Out of 120 prehistoric skulls found at one burial site in France dated to 6500 BCE, 40 had trepanation holes. Folke Henschen, a Swedish doctor and historian, asserts that Soviet excavations of the banks of the Dnieper River in the 1970s show the existence of trepanation in Mesolithic times dated to approximately 12000 BCE. The remains suggest a belief that trepanning could cure epileptic seizures, migraines, and certain mental disorders.

There is significant evidence of healing of the bones of the skull in prehistoric skeletons, suggesting that many of those that proceeded with the surgery survived their operation. In some studies, the rate of survival surpassed 50%.

Amputation
The oldest known surgical amputation was carried out in Borneo about 31,000 years ago. The operation involved the removal of the distal third of the left lower leg. The person survived the operation and lived for another 6 to 9 years. This is the only known surgical amputation carried out before the Neolithic farming transition. The next oldest known amputation was carried out about 7000 years ago on a farmer in France whose left forearm had been surgically removed.

Setting bones
Examples of healed fractures in prehistoric human bones, suggesting setting and splinting have been found in the archeological record.
Among some treatments used by the Aztecs, according to Spanish texts during the conquest of Mexico, was the reduction of fractured bones: "...the broken bone had to be splinted, extended and adjusted, and if this was not sufficient an incision was made at the end of the bone, and a branch of fir was inserted into the cavity of the medulla..." Modern medicine developed a technique similar to this in the 20th century known as medullary fixation.

Anesthesia

Bloodletting

Bloodletting is one of the oldest medical practices, having been practiced among diverse ancient peoples, including the Mesopotamians, the Egyptians, the Greeks, the Mayans, and the Aztecs. In Greece, bloodletting was in use around the time of Hippocrates, who mentions bloodletting but in general relied on dietary techniques. Erasistratus, however, theorized that many diseases were caused by plethoras, or overabundances, in the blood, and advised that these plethoras be treated, initially, by exercise, sweating, reduced food intake, and vomiting. Herophilus advocated bloodletting. Archagathus, one of the first Greek physicians to practice in Rome, practiced bloodletting extensively. The art of bloodletting became very popular in the West, and during the Renaissance one could find bloodletting calendars that recommended appropriate times to bloodlet during the year and books that claimed bloodletting would cure inflammation, infections, strokes, manic psychosis and more.

Antiquity

Mesopotamia
The Sumerians saw sickness as a divine punishment imposed by different demons when an individual broke a rule. For this reason, to be a physician, one had to learn to identify approximately 6,000 possible demons that might cause health problems. To do this, the Sumerians employed divining techniques based on the flight of birds, position of the stars and the livers of certain animals. In this way, medicine was intimately linked to priests, relegating surgery to a second-class medical specialty.

Nevertheless, the Sumerians developed several important medical techniques: in Ninevah archaeologists have discovered bronze instruments with sharpened obsidian resembling modern day scalpels, knives, trephines, etc. The Code of Hammurabi, one of the earliest Babylonian code of laws, itself contains specific legislation regulating surgeons and medical compensation as well as malpractice and victim's compensation:

Egypt

Around 3100 BCE Egyptian civilization began to flourish when Narmer, the first Pharaoh of Egypt, established the capital of Memphis. Just as cuneiform tablets preserved the knowledge of the ancient Sumerians, hieroglyphics preserved the Egyptians'.

In the first monarchic age (2700 BCE) the first treatise on surgery was written by Imhotep, the vizier of Pharaoh Djoser, priest, astronomer, physician and first notable architect. So much was he famed for his medical skill that he became the Egyptian god of medicine. Other famous physicians from the Ancient Empire (from 2500 to 2100 BCE) were Sachmet, the physician of Pharaoh Sahure and Nesmenau, whose office resembled that of a medical director.

On one of the doorjambs of the entrance to the Temple of Memphis there is the oldest recorded engraving of a medical procedure: circumcision and engravings in Kom Ombo, Egypt depict surgical tools. Still of all the discoveries made in ancient Egypt, the most important discovery relating to ancient Egyptian knowledge of medicine is the Ebers Papyrus, named after its discoverer Georg Ebers.
The Ebers Papyrus, conserved at the University of Leipzig, is considered one of the oldest treaties on medicine and the most important medical papyri. The text is dated to about 1550 BCE and measures 20 meters in length. The text includes recipes, a pharmacopoeia and descriptions of numerous diseases as well as cosmetic treatments. It mentions how to surgically treat crocodile bites and serious burns, recommending the drainage of pus-filled inflammation but warns against certain diseased skin.

Edwin Smith Papyrus

The Edwin Smith Papyrus is a lesser known papyrus dating from the 1600 BCE and only 5 meters in length. It is a manual for performing traumatic surgery and gives 48 case histories. The Smith Papyrus describes a treatment for repairing a broken nose, and the use of sutures to close wounds. Infections were treated with honey. For example, it gives instructions for dealing with a dislocated vertebra:

India

Mehrgarh
Teeth discovered from a Neolithic graveyard in Mehrgarh had shown signs of drilling.
Analysis of the teeth shows prehistoric people might have attempted curing toothache with drills made from flintheads.

Ayurveda
Sushruta (c. 600 BCE) is considered as the "founding father of surgery". His period is usually placed between the period of 1200 BC - 600 BC. One of the earliest known mention of the name is from the Bower Manuscript where Sushruta is listed as one of the ten sages residing in the Himalayas. Texts also suggest that he learned surgery at Kasi from Lord Dhanvantari, the god of medicine in Hindu mythology. He was an early innovator of plastic surgery who taught and practiced surgery on the banks of the Ganges in the area that corresponds to the present day city of Varanasi in Northern India. Much of what is known about Sushruta is in Sanskrit contained in a series of volumes he authored, which are collectively known as the Sushruta Samhita. It is one of the oldest known surgical texts and it describes in detail the examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of numerous ailments, as well as procedures on performing various forms of cosmetic surgery, plastic surgery and rhinoplasty.

Greece and the Hellenized world

Surgeons are now considered to be specialized physicians, whereas in the early ancient Greek world a trained general physician had to use his hands (χείρ in Greek) to carry out all medical and medicinal processes including, for example, the treating of wounds sustained on the battlefield, or the treatment of broken bones (a process called in Greek: χειρουργείν).

In The Iliad Homer  names two doctors, "the two sons of Asklepios, the admirable physicians Podaleirius and Machaon and one acting doctor, Patroclus. Because Machaon is wounded and Podaleirius is in combat Eurypylus asks Patroclus "to cut out this arrow from my thigh, wash off the blood with warm water and spread soothing ointment on the wound."

Hippocrates
The Hippocratic Oath, written in the 5th century BC provides the earliest protocol for professional conduct and ethical behavior a young physician needed to abide by in life and in treating and managing the health and privacy of his patients. The multiple volumes of the Hippocratic corpus and the Hippocratic Oath elevated and separated the standards of proper Hippocratic medical conduct and its fundamental medical and surgical principles from other practitioners of folk medicine often laden with superstitious constructs, and/or of specialists of sorts some of whom would endeavor to carry out invasive body procedures with dubious consequences, such as lithotomy. Works from the Hippocratic corpus include; On the Articulations or On Joints, On Fractures, On the Instruments of Reduction, The Physician's Establishment or Surgery, On Injuries of the Head, On Ulcers, On Fistulae, and On Hemorrhoids.

Celsus and Alexandria
Herophilus of Chalcedon and Erasistratus of Ceos were two great Alexandrians who laid the foundations for the scientific study of anatomy and physiology. Alexandrian surgeons were responsible for developments in ligature (hemostasis), lithotomy, hernia operations, ophthalmic surgery, plastic surgery, methods of reduction of dislocations and fractures, tracheotomy, and mandrake as anesthesia. Most of what we know of them comes from Celsus and Galen of Pergamum (Greek: Γαληνός)

Galen
Galen's On the Natural Faculties, Books I, II, and III, is an excellent paradigm of a very accomplished Greek surgeon and physician of the 2nd century Roman era, who carried out very complex surgical operations and added significantly to the corpus of animal and human physiology and the art of surgery. He was one of the first to use ligatures in his experiments on animals. Galen is also known as "The king of the catgut suture"

China
In China, instruments resembling surgical tools have also been found in the archaeological sites of Bronze Age dating from the Shang dynasty, along with seeds likely used for herbalism.

Hua Tuo

Hua Tuo (140–208) was a famous Chinese physician during the Eastern Han and Three Kingdoms era. He was the first person to perform surgery with the aid of anesthesia, some 1600 years before the practice was adopted by Europeans. Bian Que (Pien Ch'iao) was a "miracle doctor" described by the Chinese historian Sima Qian in his Shiji who was credited with many skills. Another book, Liezi (Lieh Tzu) describes that Bian Que conducted a two way exchange of hearts between people. This account also credited Bian Que with using general anaesthesia which would place it far before Hua Tuo, but the source in Liezi is questioned and the author may have been compiling stories from other works. Nonetheless, it establishes the concept of heart transplantation back to around 300 CE.

Middle Ages
Paul of Aegina's (c. 625 – c. 690 AD) Pragmateia or Compendiem was highly influential. Abulcasis Al-Zahrawi of the Islamic Golden Age later repeated the material, largely verbatim.

Hunayn ibn Ishaq (809–873) was an Arab Nestorian Christian physician who translated many Greek medical and scientific texts, including those of Galen, writing the first systematic treatment of ophthalmology. Egypt-born Jewish physician Isaac Israeli ben Solomon (832–892) also left many medical works written in Arabic that were translated and adopted by European universities in the early 13th century.

The Persian physician Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi (c. 865–925) advanced experimental medicine, pioneering ophthalmology and founding pediatrics. The Persian physician Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi (d. 994) worked at the Al-Adudi Hospital in Baghdad, leaving The Complete Book of the Medical Art, which stressed the need for medical ethics and discussed the anatomy and physiology of the human brain. Persian physician Avicenna (980–1037) wrote The Canon of Medicine, a synthesis of Greek and Arab medicine that dominated European medicine until the mid-17th century.

In the 9th century the Medical School of Salerno in southwest Italy was founded, making use of Arabic texts and flourishing through the 13th century.

Abulcasis (936–1013) (Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi) was an Andalusian-Arab physician and scientist who practised in the Zahra suburb of Cordoba. He is considered to be the greatest medieval surgeon, though he added little to Greek surgical practices. His works on surgery were highly influential.

African-born Italian Benedictine monk (Muslim convert) Constantine the African (died 1099) of Monte Cassino translated many Arabic medical works into Latin.

Spanish Muslim physician Avenzoar (1094–1162) performed the first tracheotomy on a goat, writing Book of Simplification on Therapeutics and Diet, which became popular in Europe. Spanish Muslim physician Averroes (1126–1198) was the first to explain the function of the retina and to recognize acquired immunity with smallpox.

Universities such as Montpellier, Padua and Bologna were particularly renowned.

In the late 12th century Rogerius Salernitanus composed his Chirurgia, laying the foundation for modern Western surgical manuals. Roland of Parma and Surgery of the Four Masters  were responsible for spreading Roger's work to Italy, France, and England.  Roger seems to have been influenced more by the 6th-century Aëtius and Alexander of Tralles, and the 7th-century Paul of Aegina, than by the Arabs. Hugh of Lucca (1150−1257) founded the Bologna School and rejected the theory of "laudable pus".

In the 13th century in Europe skilled town craftsmen called barber-surgeons performed amputations and set broken bones while suffering lower status than university educated doctors.  By 1308 the Worshipful Company of Barbers in London was flourishing.  With little or no formal training, they generally had a bad reputation that was not to improve until the development of academic surgery as a specialty of medicine rather than an accessory field in the 18th-century Age of Enlightenment.

Guy de Chauliac (1298–1368) was one of the most eminent surgeons of the Middle Ages. His Chirurgia Magna or Great Surgery (1363) was a standard text for surgeons until well into the seventeenth century."

Early modern Europe
There were some important advances to the art of surgery during this period. Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564),  professor of anatomy at the University of Padua was a pivotal figure in the Renaissance transition from classical medicine and anatomy based on the works of Galen, to an empirical approach of 'hands-on' dissection.  His anatomic treatise De humani corporis fabrica exposed many anatomical errors in Galen and advocated that all surgeons should train by engaging in practical dissections themselves.

The second figure of importance in this era was Ambroise Paré (sometimes spelled "Ambrose" (c. 1510 – 1590)), a French army surgeon from the 1530s until his death in 1590.  The practice for cauterizing gunshot wounds on the battlefield had been to use boiling oil, an extremely dangerous and painful procedure.  Paré began to employ a less irritating emollient, made of egg yolk, rose oil and turpentine.  He also described more efficient techniques for the effective ligation of the blood vessels during an amputation. In the same century, Eleno de Céspedes became perhaps the first female, transgender, or intersex surgeon in Spain, and perhaps in Europe.

Another important early figure was German surgeon Wilhelm Fabry (1540–1634), "the Father of German Surgery", who was the first to recommend amputation above the gangrenous area, and to describe a windlass (twisting stick) tourniquet. His Swiss wife and assistant Marie Colinet (1560–1640) improved the techniques for Caesarean Section, introducing the use of heat for dilating and stimulating the uterus during labor. In 1624 she became the first to use a magnet to remove metal from a patient's eye, although he received the credit.

Modern surgery

Scientific surgery
The discipline of surgery was put on a sound, scientific footing during the Age of Enlightenment in Europe (1715–89).  An important figure in this regard was the Scottish surgical scientist (in London) John Hunter (1728–1793), generally regarded as the father of modern scientific surgery. He brought an empirical and experimental approach to the science and was renowned around Europe for the quality of his research and his written works. Hunter reconstructed surgical knowledge from scratch; refusing to rely on the testimonies of others he conducted his own surgical experiments to determine the truth of the matter. To aid comparative analysis, he built up a collection of over 13,000 specimens of separate organ systems, from the simplest plants and animals to humans.

Hunter greatly advanced knowledge of venereal disease and introduced many new techniques of surgery, including new methods for repairing damage to the Achilles tendon and a more effective method for applying ligature of the arteries in case of an aneurysm. He was also one of the first to understand the importance of pathology, the danger of the spread of infection and how the problem of inflammation of the wound, bone lesions and even tuberculosis often undid any benefit that was gained from the intervention. He consequently adopted the position that all surgical procedures should be used only as a last resort.

Hunter's student Benjamin Bell (1749–1806) became the first scientific surgeon in Scotland, advocating the routine use of opium in post-operative recovery, and counseling surgeons to "save skin" to speed healing; his great-grandson Joseph Bell (1837–1911) became the inspiration for Arthur Conan Doyle's literary hero Sherlock Holmes.

Other important 18th- and early 19th-century surgeons included Percival Pott (1714–1788), who first described tuberculosis of the spine and first demonstrated that a cancer may be caused by an environmental carcinogen after he noticed a connection between chimney sweep's exposure to soot and their high incidence of scrotal cancer. Astley Paston Cooper (1768–1841) first performed a successful ligation of the abdominal aorta. James Syme (1799–1870) pioneered the Symes Amputation for the ankle joint and successfully carried out the first hip disarticulation.  Dutch surgeon Antonius Mathijsen invented the Plaster of Paris cast in 1851.

Anesthesia

Beginning in the 1840s, European surgery began to change dramatically in character with the discovery of effective and practical anesthetic chemicals such as ether, first used by the American surgeon Crawford Long (1815–1878), and chloroform, discovered by James Young Simpson (1811–1870) and later pioneered in England by John Snow (1813–1858), physician to Queen Victoria, who in 1853 administered chloroform to her during childbirth, and in 1854 disproved the miasma theory of contagion by tracing a cholera outbreak in London to an infected water pump. In addition to relieving patient suffering, anaesthesia allowed more intricate operations in the internal regions of the human body.  In addition, the discovery of muscle relaxants such as curare allowed for safer applications.  American surgeon J. Marion Sims (1813–83) received credit for helping found Gynecology, but later was criticized for failing to use anesthesia on enslaved Black test subjects.

Antiseptic surgery
The introduction of anesthetics encouraged more surgery, which inadvertently caused more dangerous patient post-operative infections.  The concept of infection was mostly unknown in Europe until relatively modern times. British medical student, Robert Felkin however learned and later brought knowledge from the 16th century Bunyoro-Kitara kingdoms' medical disinfection practices to Europe, however, due to the prejudices against Africans and their knowledge those medical practices were largely ignored thus resulting in the death of thousands of Europeans. Filkins's travel through the Bunyoro kingdom led him to also witness physicians cleaning women's abdomens with banana alcohol as well as thoroughly washing their hands and tools with the same solution before the surgeries thus showing these African surgeons' knowledge about bacterial infections. The first progress in combating infection in Europe was made in 1847 by the Hungarian doctor Ignaz Semmelweis who noticed that medical students fresh from the dissecting room were causing excess maternal death compared to midwives. Semmelweis, despite ridicule and opposition, introduced compulsory handwashing for everyone entering the maternal wards and was rewarded with a plunge in maternal and fetal deaths, however the Royal Society dismissed his advice.
Until the pioneering work of British surgeon Joseph Lister in the 1860s, most medical men in Europe believed that chemical damage from exposures to bad air (see "miasma") was responsible for infections in wounds, and facilities for washing hands or a patient's wounds were not available. Lister became aware of the work of French chemist and microbiology pioneer, Louis Pasteur, who showed that rotting and fermentation could occur under anaerobic conditions if micro-organisms were present.  Pasteur suggested three methods to eliminate the micro-organisms responsible for gangrene: filtration, exposure to heat, or exposure to chemical solutions. Lister confirmed Pasteur's conclusions with his own experiments and decided to use his findings to develop antiseptic techniques for wounds.  As the first two methods suggested by Pasteur were inappropriate for the treatment of human tissue, Lister experimented with the third, spraying carbolic acid on his instruments. He found that this remarkably reduced the incidence of gangrene and he published his results in The Lancet. Later, on 9 August 1867, he read a paper before the British Medical Association in Dublin,  on the Antiseptic Principle of the Practice of Surgery,  which was reprinted in the British Medical Journal. His work was groundbreaking and laid the foundations for a rapid advance in infection control that saw modern antiseptic operating theatres widely used within 50 years.

Lister continued to develop improved methods of antisepsis and asepsis when he realised that infection could be better avoided by preventing bacteria from getting into wounds in the first place. This led to the rise of sterile surgery. Lister instructed surgeons under his responsibility to wear clean gloves and wash their hands in 5% carbolic solution before and after operations, and had surgical instruments washed in the same solution. He also introduced the steam steriliser to sterilize equipment. His discoveries paved the way for a dramatic expansion to the capabilities of the surgeon; for his contributions he is often regarded as the father of modern surgery. These three crucial advances - the adoption of a scientific methodology toward surgical operations, the use of anaesthetic and the introduction of sterilised equipment - laid the groundwork for the modern invasive surgical techniques of today.

In the late 19th century William Stewart Halstead (1852–1922) laid out basic surgical principles for asepsis known as Halsteads principles. Halsted also introduced the latex medical glove. After one of his nurses suffered skin damage due to having to sterilize her hands with carbolic acid, Halsted had a rubber glove that could be dipped in carbolic acid designed.

X-rays

The use of X-rays as an important medical diagnostic tool began with their discovery in 1895 by German physicist Wilhelm Röntgen. He noticed that these rays could penetrate the skin, allowing the skeletal structure to be captured on a specially treated photographic plate.

Modern technologies
In the past century, a number of technologies have had a significant impact on surgical practice. These include Electrosurgery in the early 20th century, practical Endoscopy beginning in the 1960s, and Laser surgery, Computer-assisted surgery and Robotic surgery, developed in the 1980s.

Timeline of surgery and surgical procedures
 c. 31,000 years ago first known amputation. Lived on for another 6-9 yrs.
 c. 5000 BCE. Second known practice of Trepanation in Ensisheim in France.
 c. 3300 BCE. Trepanation, broken bones, wounds in Indus Valley civilization.
 c. 2613–2494 BCE. A jaw found in an Egyptian Fourth Dynasty tomb shows the marks of an operation to drain a pus-filled abscess under the first molar.
 1754 BCE. The Code of Hammurabi.
 1600 BCE. The Edwin Smith Papyrus from Egypt described 48 cases of injuries, fractures, wounds, dislocations, and tumors, with treatment and prognosis including closing wounds with sutures, using honey and moldy bread as antiseptics, stopping bleeding with raw meat, and immobilization for head and spinal cord injuries, reserving magic as a last resort; it contained detailed anatomical observations but showed no understanding of organ functions, along with the earliest known reference to breast cancer.
 1550 BCE. The Ebers Papyrus from Egypt listed over 800 drugs and prescriptions.
 1250 BCE. Asklepios and his sons Podaleirius and Machaon were reported by Homer as battlefield surgeons. He also reported arrowheads cut out; styptics; administration of sedatives and bandaging of wounds with wool.
 600 BCE. Sushruta of India.
 5th century BCE. Medical schools at Cnidos and Cos.
 400 BCE. About this year Hippocrates of Cos (460 BCE to 370 BCE) became "the Founder of Western Medicine", insisting on the use of scientific methods in medicine, proposing that diseases have natural causes along with the Four temperaments theory of disease, and leaving the Hippocratic Oath.  He "taught that wounds should be washed in water that had been boiled or filtered, and that a doctor's hands should be kept clean, his nails clipped short."  He became the first to distinguish benign from malignant breast tumors, advocating withholding treatment for "hidden" cancers, claiming that surgical intervention causes "a speedy death, but to omit treatment is to prolong life."
 50 CE. About this time Roman physician-surgeon Aulus Cornelius Celsus died, leaving De Medicina, which described the "dilated tortuous veins" surrounding a breast cancer, causing Galen to later give cancer (Latin for crab) its name.  He advised against radical mastectomy involving the pectoral muscles, and warned that surgery should only be attempted in the benign stage (first of four).
 1st/2nd century CE. Soranus of Ephesus wrote a 4-volume treatise on gynaecology.
 200 CE. About this year Galen died after pioneering the use of catgut for suturing while clinging to Hippocrates Four Temperaments theory, viewing pus as beneficial, and viewing cancer as a result of melancholia caused by an excess of black bile, proven by its frequent occurrence in postmenopausal females, recommending surgical excision of a cancerous breast through healthy tissue to make sure that not "a single root" is left behind, while discouraging ligatures and cautery to allow drainage of black bile.
 200 CE. About this year Leonidas of Alexandria began advocating the excision of breast cancer via a wide cut through normal tissues like Galen, but recommended alternate incision and cautery, which became the standard for the next 15 centuries.  He provided the first detailed description of a mastectomy, which included the first description of nipple retraction as a clinical sign of breast cancer.
 208 CE. Hua Tuo began using wine and cannabis as an anesthetic during surgery.
 476 CE. The Fall of Rome ended the advance of scientific medical-surgical knowledge in Europe.
 1162. The Council of Tours banned the "barbarous practice" of surgery for breast cancers.
 1180. Rogerius published The Practice of Surgery.
 1214. Hugh of Lucca discovered that wine disinfects wounds.
 1250. Theodoric Borgognoni, student of Hugh of Lucca broke with Galen and fought pus with dry wound technique (wound cleansing and sutures).
 1275. William of Salicet broke with Galen's love of pus and promoted a surgical knife over cauterization.
 1308. The Worshipful Company of Barbers in London was first mentioned.
 1350. About this time the Black Death devastated Europe.
 1453. The Fall of Constantinople caused many scholars to flee to Europe bringing medical-surgical manuscripts with them.
 1536. Ambroise Pare discovered that cold poultices are better than hot oil.
 1543. Andreas Vesalius published The Fabric of the Human Body.
 1721. Lady Mary Wortley Montagu brought the Ottoman practice of inoculation to England using live smallpox virus.
 1735. Claudius Amyand performed the first successful appendectomy.
 1773. Bernard Peyrilhe treated breast cancer by radical mastectomy which included both the pectoral muscle and axillary lymph nodes.
 1775. Percivall Pott discovered that soot caused scrotal cancer in chimneysweeps.
 1776. John Hunter pioneered artificial insemination.
 1796. Edward Jenner pioneered smallpox inoculation with cowpox virus.
 1800. The Royal College of Surgeons of England was founded.
 1805. Astley Cooper pioneered ligation of arteries.
 1842. Crawford Williamson Long pioneered ether for anesthesia.
 1844. Horace Wells pioneered nitrous oxide for anesthesia.
 1848. James Young Simpson pioneered chloroform for anesthesia.
 1851. Antonius Mathijsen invented the Plaster of paris cast.
 1852. J. Marion Sims successfully repaired a vesicovaginal fistula.
 1854. John Snow disproved the miasma theory of contagion.
 1879. After becoming the first to diagnose the location based on neurological findings alone, Scottish surgeon William Macewen (1848–1924) performed the first successful non-primary (trephined) brain tumor removal, pioneering brain surgery.
 1880. German surgeon Ludwig Rehn performed the first thyroidectomy.
 1882. William Stewart Halsted of Johns Hopkins Hospital performed the first complete radical mastectomy in the U.S., which became the standard treatment.
 1883. Lawson Tait performed the first successful salpingectomy.
 1884. After English physician Alexander Hughes Bennett (1848–1901) diagnosed the location based on neurological findings alone, English surgeon Rickman Godlee (1849–1925) completed the first primary (exposed) brain tumor removal.
 1884. Austrian ophthalmologist Karl Koller first used cocaine as a local anesthetic for eye surgery.
 1890. German surgeon Themistocles Glück pioneered arthroplasty with a knee replacement and hip replacement using ivory.
 1891. St. Louis, Missouri surgeon Henry C. Dalton performed the first successful pericardial sac repair operation.
 1893. African-American surgeon Daniel Hale Williams of Chicago performed the second successful pericardial sac repair operation.
 1895. Wilhelm Röntgen discovered X-rays.
 1895. The first successful cardiac surgery was performed by Norwegian surgeon Axel Cappelen. The patient later died of complications, though the autopsy found it was for other reasons, as the wound had been satisfactorily closed.
 1896. The first successful cardiac surgery without any complications was performed by German surgeon Ludwig Rehn.
 1900. About this time the Cargile membrane was introduced into surgery.
 1900. About this time Harvey Cushing began pioneering brain surgery.
 1901. German surgeon Georg Kelling performed the first Laparoscopic surgery on dogs.
 1901. Austrian physician Karl Landsteiner discovered the basic A-B-AB-O blood types.
 1903. Dutch physician Willem Einthoven invented the Electrocardiograph.
 1905. Novocaine was first used as a local anesthetic.
 1907. Austrian surgeon Hermann Schloffer became the first to successfully remove a pituitary tumor.
 1910. Swedish physician Hans Christian Jacobaeus performed the first Laparoscopic surgery on humans.
 1914. Blood transfusion was pioneered.
 1916. Austrian surgeon Hermann Schloffer performed the first splenectomy operation.
 1917. Kiwi surgeon Harold Gillies pioneered modern plastic surgery for wounded British World War I soldiers.
 1925. The first open heart surgery by English surgeon Henry Souttar.
 1929. Werner Forssmann performed the first cardiac catheterization, on himself.
 1931. The first sex reassignment surgery.
 1940. The first successful metallic hip replacement surgery.
 1948. The first successful open heart surgery operations since 1925.
 1952. The first successful open heart surgery using hypothermia.
 1953. The first carotid endarterectomy.
 1954. The first kidney transplant.
 1955. The first artificial cardiac pacemaker.
 1955. The first separation operation for conjoined twins.
 1961. The cochlear implant was invented by William F. House.
 1961. American surgeon Thomas J. Fogarty invented the Fogarty embolectomy catheter.
 1962. The first hip replacement surgery via Low Frictional Torque Arthroplasty (LFA) by Sir John Charnley.
 1963. The first liver transplant was performed by Thomas Starzl et al.
 1964. The laser scalpel was invented.
 1967: The first successful heart transplant by Christiaan Barnard.
 1967. The first successful coronary artery bypass surgery.
 1972. The CT scan was perfected.
 1974. The first Tommy John surgery.
 1974. The first blunt tunneling (cannula-assisted) Liposuction.
 1982. The Jarvik-7 artificial heart was successfully installed.
 1983. Robot-assisted surgery began with Arthrobot in Vancouver.
 1985. The first laparoscopic cholecystectomy by German surgeon Erich Mühe.
 1985. Positron emission tomography was invented.
 1987. The first successful heart-lung transplant.
 1995. Use of adult stem cells in neoregeneration of abdominal wall apponeurosis, used in surgical treatment of incisional hernia. Indian surgeon B.G. Matapurkar.
 1998. The first Stem Cell Therapy.
 2000. The da Vinci Surgical System was approved by the FDA.
 2001. The first self-contained artificial heart, AbioCor.
 2001. The first remote surgery, using the ZEUS robotic surgical system.
 2005. The first partial face transplant by French surgeon Jean-Michel Dubernard et al.
 2008. The first full face transplant by French surgeon Laurent Lantieri et al.
 2008. The first HIV-to-HIV liver transplant at Groote Schuur Hospital in Cape Town, South Africa.
 2011. The first successful double leg transplant by Spanish surgeon Pedro Cavadas et al.
 2012. The first successful mother-daughter womb transplant.
 2012. The first human hand transplant by surgeons in Leeds, England.
 2012. The first double arm transplant by surgeons at Johns Hopkins University.
 2013. The first virtual surgery using Google Glass by surgeons at the University of Alabama, which they call Virtual Interactive Presence in Augmented Reality (VIPAAR).
 2013. The first growing of a replacement nose on a patient's forehead by surgeons at Imperial College in Fuzhou, China.
 2014. The first penis transplant by surgeons at Tygerberg Hospital in South Africa.
 2015. The first skull and scalp transplant by surgeons at MD Anderson Cancer Center and Houston Methodist Hospital in Texas.
 2016. The first penis transplant (in the United States) by surgeons at Massachusetts General Hospital.
 2016. The first uterus transplant in the U.S. at Cleveland Clinic.

Notable individuals in the development of surgery

 Sushruta (1200–600 BCE)
 Theodoric Borgognoni (1205–1296)
 William of Saliceto (−1277)
 Henri de Mondeville (c.1260–1316)
 Mondino de Luzzi (1275−1326)
 Guy de Chauliac (c.1300–1368))
 John of Arderne (1306−1390)
 Antonio Benivieni (1443–1502)
 Paracelsus (1493–1541)
 Ambroise Pare (1510–1590)
 Hieronymus Fabricius (1537–1619)
 William Clowes (1540–1604)
 Peter Lowe (1550–1612)
 Richard Wiseman (1621–1676)
 William Cheselden (1688–1752)
 Lorenz Heister (1683–1758)
 Percivall Pott (1714–1789)
 John Hunter (1728–1793)
 Pierre-Joseph Desault (1744–1795)
 Dominique Jean Larrey (1766–1842)
 Antonio Scarpa (1752–1832)
 Astley Cooper (1768–1843)
 Benjamin Bell (1749–1806)
Charles Bell (1774–1842)
John Bell (1763–1820)
 Baron Guillaume Dupuytren (1777–1835)
 James Marion Sims (1813–1883)
 Joseph Lister (1827–1912)
Erich Mühe (1938–2005)

See also
History of anatomy
History of medicine
Timeline of medicine and medical technology
History of trauma and orthopaedics
History of intersex surgery
Genital reconstructive surgery (disambiguation)
American Board of Surgery

References

Further reading
 F. Gonzalez-Crussi, The Rise of Surgery, in: A Short History of Medicine, New York: The Modern Library 2008

External links

 The portrayal of surgery by various artists throughout history
 A Manual of Military Surgery, by Samuel D. Gross, MD (1861)
 The Historyscoper

History of surgery