The Fenian Brotherhood () was an Irish republican organisation founded in the United States in 1858 by John O'Mahony and Michael Doheny. It was a precursor to Clan na Gael, a sister organisation to the Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB). Members were commonly known as "Fenians". O'Mahony, who was a Gaelic scholar, named his organisation after the Fianna, the legendary band of Irish warriors led by Fionn mac Cumhaill.

Background
The Fenian Brotherhood trace their origins back to 1790s, in the rebellion, seeking an end to British rule in Ireland initially for self-government and then the establishment of an Irish Republic. The rebellion was suppressed, but the principles of the United Irishmen were to have a powerful influence on the course of Irish history.

Following the collapse of the rebellion, the British Prime Minister William Pitt introduced a bill to abolish the Irish parliament and manufactured a Union between Ireland and Britain. Opposition from the Protestant oligarchy that controlled the parliament was countered by the widespread and open use of bribery. The Act of Union was passed and became law on 1 January 1801. The Catholics, who had been excluded from the Irish parliament, were promised emancipation under the Union. This promise was never kept and caused a protracted and bitter struggle for civil liberties. It was not until 1829 that the British government reluctantly conceded Catholic Emancipation. Though leading to general emancipation, this process simultaneously disenfranchised the small tenants, known as 'forty shilling freeholders', who were mainly Catholics.

Daniel O'Connell, who had led the emancipation campaign, then attempted the same methods in his campaign to have the Act of Union with Britain repealed. Despite the use of petitions and public meetings that attracted vast popular support, the government thought the Union was more important than Irish public opinion.

In the early 1840s, the younger members of the repeal movement became impatient with O'Connell's over-cautious policies and began to question his intentions. Later they were what came to be known as the Young Ireland movement.

During the famine, the social class comprising small farmers and laborers was almost wiped out by starvation, disease and emigration. The Great Famine of the 1840s caused the deaths of 1 million Irish people and another million emigrated to escape it, with a further million over following decades. That the people starved while livestock and grain continued to be exported, quite often under military escort, would leave a legacy of bitterness and resentment among the survivors. The waves of emigration also ensured that such feelings would not be confined to Ireland, but spread to England, the United States, Australia and every country where Irish emigrants gathered.

Shocked by the scenes of starvation and greatly influenced by the revolutions then sweeping Europe, the Young Irelanders moved from agitation to armed rebellion in 1848. The attempted rebellion failed after a small skirmish in Ballingary, County Tipperary, coupled with a few minor incidents elsewhere. The revolt's failure was much influenced by the general weakening of the Irish population after three years of famine, mixed with premature promptings to rise up early, resulting in inadequate military preparations in turn contributing to disunity among the rebellion's leaders.

The Government quickly rounded up many of the instigators. Those who could, fled across the seas and their followers dispersed. The last flicker of revolt in 1849, led by amongst others James Fintan Lalor, was equally unsuccessful.

John Mitchel, the most committed advocate of revolution, had been arrested early in 1848 and transported to Australia on the expressly created charge of Treason-felony. He was to be joined by other leaders, such as William Smith O'Brien and Thomas Francis Meagher who had both been arrested after Ballingary escaped to France, as did three of the younger members, James Stephens, John O'Mahony and Michael Doheny.

Founding

After the collapse of the '48 rebellion James Stephens and John O'Mahony went to the Continent to avoid arrest. In Paris, they supported themselves by teaching and translation work and planned the next stage of "the fight to overthrow British rule in Ireland". In 1856 O'Mahony went to America and in 1858 founded the Fenian Brotherhood. Stephens returned to Ireland and in Dublin on St. Patrick's Day 1858, following an organising tour through the length and breadth of the country, founded the Irish counterpart of the American Fenians, the Irish Republican Brotherhood.

In 1863 the Brotherhood adopted a constitution and rules for general government. The First National Congress was organised in Chicago in November 1863. It allowed the organisation to be "reconstituted on the model of the
institutions of the Republic, governing itself on the elective principle". Motions were passed to elect a Head Centre, with a Central Council of five elected members in 1863. This was extended to a Council of ten members at the second congress, held at National Hall in Philadelphia, Missouri in January 1865, also with a President to be elected by the Council. This established a more distinctive republican style of governance with a Central Council or Senate and a Chief of the Senate, as well as a Presidential role with limited powers; O'Mahony was made President. Subsequently, this created a divided camp, as the Senate had powers to out-vote O'Mahony on future decisions.

Fenian raids into Canada

In the United States, O'Mahony's presidency over the Fenian Brotherhood was being increasingly challenged by William R. Roberts. Both Fenian factions raised money by the issue of bonds in the name of the "Irish Republic", which were bought by the faithful in the expectation of their being honoured when Ireland should be "A Nation Once Again". These bonds were to be redeemed "six months after the recognition of the independence of Ireland". Hundreds of thousands of Irish immigrants subscribed.

Large quantities of arms were purchased, and preparations were openly made by the Roberts faction for a coordinated series of raids into Canada, which the United States government took no major steps to prevent. Many in the US administration were not indisposed to the movement because of Britain's actions of what was construed as assisting the Confederacy during the American Civil War, such as CSS Alabama and blockade runners smuggling in weapons. Roberts' "Secretary for War" was General T. W. Sweeny, who was struck off the American army list from January 1866 to November 1866 to allow him to organise the raids. The purpose of these raids was to seize the transportation network of Canada, with the idea that this would force the British to exchange Ireland's freedom for possession of their Province of Canada. Before the invasion, the Fenians had received some intelligence from like-minded supporters within Canada but did not receive support from all Irish Catholics there who saw the invasions as threatening the emerging Canadian sovereignty.

In April 1866, under the command of John O'Mahony, a band of more than 700 members of the Fenian Brotherhood arrived at the Maine shore opposite the island with the intention of seizing Campobello from the British. British warships from Halifax, Nova Scotia were quickly on the scene and a military force dispersed the Fenians. This action served to reinforce the idea of protection for New Brunswick by joining with the British North American colonies of Nova Scotia, Canada East, and Canada West in Confederation to form the Dominion of Canada.

The command of the expedition in Buffalo, New York, was entrusted by Roberts to Colonel John O'Neill, who crossed the Niagara River (the Niagara is the international border) at the head of at least 800 (O'Neill's figure; usually reported as up to 1,500 in Canadian sources) men on the night and morning of 31 May/1 June 1866, and briefly captured Fort Erie, defeating a Canadian force at Ridgeway. Many of these men, including O'Neill, were battle-hardened veterans of the American Civil War. In the end, the invasion had been broken by the US authorities' subsequent interruption of Fenian supply lines across the Niagara River and the arrests of Fenian reinforcements attempting to cross the river into Canada. It is unlikely that with such a small force they would have ever achieved their goal.

Other Fenian attempts to invade occurred throughout the next week in the St. Lawrence Valley. As many of the weapons had in the meantime been confiscated by the US army, relatively few of these men actually became involved in the fighting. There even was a small Fenian raid on a storage building that successfully got back some weapons that had been seized by the US Army. Many were eventually returned anyway by sympathetic officers.

To get the Fenians out of the area, both in the St. Lawrence and Buffalo, the U.S. government purchased rail tickets for the Fenians to return to their homes if the individuals involved would promise not to invade any more countries from the United States. Many of the arms were returned later if the person claiming them could post bond that they were not going to be used to invade Canada again, although some were possibly used in the raids that followed.

In December 1867, O'Neill became president of the Roberts faction of the Fenian Brotherhood, which in the following year held a great convention in Philadelphia attended by over 400 properly accredited delegates, while 6,000 Fenian soldiers, armed and in uniform, paraded the streets. At this convention, a second invasion of Canada was conceived. The news of the Clerkenwell explosion was a strong incentive to a vigorous policy. At the time, Henri Le Caron, a mole for British Intelligence, held the position of "Inspector-General of the Irish Republican Army". Le Caron later asserted that he distributed fifteen thousand stands of arms and almost three million rounds of ammunition in the care of the many trusted men stationed between Ogdensburg, New York and St. Albans, Vermont, in preparation for the intended raid. It took place in April 1870 and proved a failure just as rapid and complete as the attempt of 1866. The Fenians under O'Neill's command crossed the Canadian frontier near Franklin, Vermont, but were dispersed by a single volley from Canadian volunteers. O'Neill himself was promptly arrested by the United States authorities acting under the orders of President Ulysses S. Grant.

After resigning as president of the Fenian Brotherhood, John O'Neill unsuccessfully attempted an unsanctioned raid in 1871 and joined his remaining Fenian supporters with refugee veterans of the Red River Rebellion. The raiding party crossed the border into Manitoba at Pembina, Dakota Territory and took possession of the Hudson's Bay Company trading post on the Canada side. U.S. soldiers from the fort at Pembina, with permission of Canadian official Gilbert McMicken, crossed into Canada and arrested the Fenian raiders without resistance.

The Fenian threat prompted calls for Canadian confederation. Confederation had been in the works for years but was only implemented in 1867, the year following the first raids. In 1868, a Fenian sympathiser assassinated Irish-Canadian politician Thomas D'Arcy McGee in Ottawa, allegedly in response to his condemnation of the raids.

Fear of Fenian attack plagued the Lower Mainland of British Columbia during the 1880s, as the Fenian Brotherhood was active in both Washington and Oregon, but no raids ever materialized . At the inauguration of the mainline of the Canadian Pacific Railway in 1885, photos taken of the occasion show three large British warships sitting in the harbour just off the railhead and its docks. Their presence was explicitly because of the fear of Fenian invasion or terrorism, as were the large numbers of troops on the first train.

1867 and after

During the latter part of 1866 Stephens endeavoured to raise funds in America for a fresh rising planned for the following year. He issued a bombastic proclamation in America announcing an imminent general rising in Ireland; but he was himself soon afterwards deposed by his confederates, among whom dissension had broken out.

The Fenian Rising proved to be a "doomed rebellion", poorly organised and with minimal public support. Most of the Irish-American officers who landed at Cork, in the expectation of commanding an army against England, were imprisoned; sporadic disturbances around the country were easily suppressed by the police, army and local militias.

After the 1867 rising, IRB headquarters in Manchester opted to support neither of the dueling American factions, promoting instead a new organisation in America, Clan na Gael. The Fenian Brotherhood itself, however, continued to exist until voting to disband in 1880.

In 1881, the submarine Fenian Ram, designed by John Philip Holland for use against the British, was launched by the Delamater Iron Company in New York.

See also
Fenian
Hunters' Lodges
Catalpa rescue
John Boyle O'Reilly
Peter O'Neill Crowley

Notes

Sources
The IRB: The Irish Republican Brotherhood from The Land League to Sinn Féin, Owen McGee, Four Courts Press, 2005,
Fenian Fever: An Anglo-American Delemma, Leon Ó Broin, Chatto & Windus, London, 1971, .
The McGarrity Papers, Sean Cronin, Anvil Books, Ireland, 1972
Fenian Memories, Dr. Mark F. Ryan, Edited by T.F. O'Sullivan, M. H. Gill & Son, LTD, Dublin, 1945
The Fenians, Michael Kenny, The National Museum of Ireland in association with Country House, Dublin, 1994,

Bibliography
Beiner, Guy. "Fenianism and the Martyrdom-Terrorism Nexus in Ireland before Independence" in Martyrdom and Terrorism: Pre-Modern to Contemporary Perspectives, edited by D. Janes and A. Houen (Oxford University Press, 2014), 199–220.
Comerford, R. V. The Fenians in Context: Irish Politics and Society, 1848–82 (Wolfhound Press, 1985)
D'Arcy, William. The Fenian Movement in the United States, 1858–86 (Catholic University of America Press, 1947)
Jenkins, Brian. Fenians and Anglo-American Relations during Reconstruction (Cornell University Press, 1969).
 Jenkins, Brian, The Fenian Problem: Insurgency and Terrorism in a Liberal State, 1858–1874 (Montreal, McGill-Queen's University Press. 2008).
Keogan, William L. Irish Nationalism and Anglo-American Naturalization: The Settlement of the Expatriation Question 1865–1872 (1982)

Moody, T. W. (ed.) The Fenian Movement (Mercier Press, 1968)
Eoin Neeson, Myths from Easter 1916, Aubane Historical Society, Cork, 2007,
O'Brien, William and Desmond Ryan (eds.) Devoy's Post Bag 2 Vols. (Fallon, 1948, 1953)
O'Broin, Leon. Revolutionary Underground: The Story of the Irish Republican Brotherhood, 1858–1924 (Gill and Macmillan, 1976)
Owen, David. The Year of the Fenians. Buffalo: Western New York Heritage Institute, 1990.
Ryan, Desmond. The Fenian Chief: A Biography of James Stephens, Hely Thom LTD, Dublin, 1967
Senior, Hereward. Canadian Battle Series No. 10: The Battles of Ridgeway and Fort Erie, 1866. Toronto: Balmuir Book Publishing, 1993.
Vronsky, Peter. Ridgeway: The American Fenian Invasion and the 1866 Battle That Made Canada. Toronto: Alan Lane/Penguin Books, 2011.
_. The Fenians and Canada. Toronto: MacMillan, 1978.
_. The Last Invasion of Canada. Toronto and Oxford: Dundurn Press, 1991.
Whelehan, Niall. The Dynamiters: Irish Nationalism and Political Violence in the Wider World, 1867–1900 Cambridge, 2012.

External links
Fenians.org
Fenian Brotherhood Collection
Fenian Brotherhood Collection at the American Catholic Historical Society, digitized by Villanova University's Digital Library
"Torn Between Brothers: A Look at the Internal Divisions that Weakened the Fenian Brotherhood" – Jean Turner for Villanova University's Digital Library

Irish-American history
Irish Republican Brotherhood
Irish republican militant groups
1858 establishments in the United States
1858 in American politics
Irish secret societies

Fenian Brotherhood


Hamlet is a 1908 French silent film adaptation of the classic William Shakespeare play, Hamlet. The film was one of the earliest film adaptations of this play, and starred Jacques Grétillat and Colanna Romano. It was directed by Henri Desfontaines, and was one of twelve renditions of the play produced during the silent film era.

References

External links

Films based on Hamlet
1908 films
French silent short films
French black-and-white films
Films directed by Henri Desfontaines
1900s French films

Hamlet (1908 film)


A détournement (), meaning "rerouting, hijacking" in French, is a technique developed in the 1950s by the Letterist International, and later adapted by the Situationist International (SI), that was defined in the SI's inaugural 1958 journal as "[t]he integration of present or past artistic productions into a superior construction of a milieu. In this sense there can be no situationist painting or music, but only a situationist use of those means. In a more elementary sense, détournement within the old cultural spheres is a method of propaganda, a method which reveals the wearing out and loss of importance of those spheres."

It has been defined elsewhere as "turning expressions of the capitalist system and its media culture against itself"—as when slogans and logos are turned against their advertisers or the political status quo.

Détournement was prominently used to set up subversive political pranks, an influential tactic called situationist prank that was reprised by the punk movement in the late 1970s and inspired the culture jamming movement in the late 1980s.

Its opposite is recuperation, in which radical ideas or the social image of people who are viewed negatively are twisted, commodified, and absorbed in a more socially acceptable context.

Definition
In general it can be defined as a variation on previous work, in which the newly created work has a meaning that is antagonistic or antithetical to the original. The original media work that is détourned must be somewhat familiar to the target audience, so that it can appreciate the opposition of the new message. The artist or commentator making the variation can reuse only some of the characteristic elements of the originating work.

Détournement is similar to satirical parody, but employs more direct reuse or faithful mimicry of the original works rather than constructing a new work which merely alludes strongly to the original.  It may be contrasted with recuperation, in which originally subversive works and ideas are themselves appropriated by mainstream media.

One could view détournement as forming the opposite side of the coin to "recuperation" (where radical ideas and images become safe and commodified), in that images produced by the spectacle get altered and subverted so that rather than supporting the status quo, their meaning becomes changed in order to put across a more radical or oppositional message.

Guy Debord and Gil J. Wolman categorized détourned elements into two types: minor détournements and deceptive détournements. Minor détournements are détournements of elements that in themselves are of no real importance such as a snapshot, a press clipping, an everyday object which draw all their meaning from being placed in a new context. Deceptive détournements are when already significant elements such as a major political or philosophical text, great artwork or work of literature take on new meanings or scope by being placed in a new context.

Examples after the Situationist International
In the United States, Frank Discussion is widely known for his use of détournement in his works dating from the late 1970s through the present, particularly with the Feederz. The use of détournement by Barbara Kruger familiarised many with the technique, and it was extensively and effectively used as part of the early HIV/AIDS activism of the late 1980s and early 1990s. Examples of contemporary detournement include Adbusters' "subvertisements" and other instances of culture jamming, as well as poems composed collaboratively by Marlene Mountain, Paul Conneally, and others, in which quotations from such famous sources as the Ten Commandments and quotations by United States President George W. Bush are combined with haiku-like phrases to produce a larger work intended to subvert the original source.  The comic artist Brad Neely's reinterpretation of Harry Potter, Wizard People, took Warner Bros.' first Harry Potter film, The Sorcerer's Stone, and substituted the original soundtrack with a narration that casts the hero as a Nietzschean superman.

The concept of détournement has had a popular influence amongst contemporary radicals, and the technique can be seen in action in the present day when looking at the work of Culture Jammers including the Cacophony Society, Billboard Liberation Front, monochrom, Occupy Movements and Adbusters, whose "subvertisements" "detourn" Nike adverts, for example. In this case, the original advertisement's imagery is altered in order to draw attention to said company's policy of shifting their production base to cheap-labour third-world "free trade zones". However, the line between "recuperation" and "détournement" can become thin (or at least very fuzzy) at times, as Naomi Klein points out in her book No Logo. Here she details how corporations such as Nike, Pepsi or Diesel have approached Culture Jammers and Adbusters and offered them lucrative contracts in return for partaking in "ironic" promotional campaigns. She points out further irony by drawing attention to merchandising produced in order to promote Adbusters' Buy Nothing Day, an example of the recuperation of détournement if ever there was one.

Klein's arguments about irony reifying rather than breaking down power structures are echoed by Slavoj Žižek. Žižek argues that the kind of distance opened up by détournement is the condition of possibility for ideology to operate: by attacking and distancing oneself from the sign-systems of capital, the subject creates a fantasy of transgression that "covers up" their actual complicity with capitalism as an overarching system. In contrast, scholars are very fond of pointing out the differences between hypergraphics, "detournement", the postmodern idea of appropriation and the Neoist use of plagiarism as the use of different and similar techniques used for different and similar means, effects and causes.

The Neue Slowenische Kunst has a long history of aggressive détournement of extreme political ideologies, as do several industrial music groups, such as Die Krupps, Nitzer Ebb, KMFDM, and Front 242.

Chris Morris uses détournement and culture jamming extensively in his work, particularly in the British television series The Day Today and Brass Eye.

The Istanbul-based platform InEnArt, on the occasion of the 13th Istanbul Biennial 2013, launched a forum titled Urban Voices focusing on phenomena that are turning expressions of the system and its media culture against itself. The authors of InEnArt regularly publish different phenomena of détournement and invite the online community to participate by uploading similar examples.

See also
 Anti-art
 Culture jamming
 Comic strip switcheroo
 Doppelgänger brand image
 Dumb Starbucks
 Recuperation (politics)
 Scratch video
 Subvertising
 YouTube Poop
Brandalism

References

Further reading

External links

Protest tactics
Anti-corporate activism
Humour
Psychogeography
Situationist International
Culture jamming techniques
Literary terminology
Derivative works

Détournement


Chamaraja Wodeyar III (29 September 1492 – 17 February 1553) was fifth raja of the Kingdom of Mysore and the last one to rule as feudal king under the Vijayanagara Empire. He reigned after his father's demise in 1513 until his death in 1553.

Reign under Krishnadevaraya
Chamaraja Wodeyar III ruled under four Vijayanagara emperors of the Tuluva dynasty. He began his kingship under Emperor Krishnadevaraya. Krishnadevaraya's rajaguru was Sri Vyasatirtha, a Mysore-born guru and philosopher. Further, the growing rebel against Vijayanagara was suspended by Chamaraja Wodeyar III's father, Chamaraja Wodeyar II in order to understand Krishnadevaraya first. Krishnadevaraya proved to be an extremely efficient ruler. He was inordinately knowledgeable. His reign focussed on all aspects of livelihood: arts and literature, culture, politics and business, and whatnot. Besides, his rule was justified by its benevolence, and hence none under him rose against him. He also defeated Yusuf Adil Khan's offspring Yusuf Adil Khan of the Bijapur Sultanate and annexed many Bahamani holdings.

After Krishnadevaraya
During the last days of Krishnadevaraya and after his time, his brother Achyuta Deva Raya took over, continuing in his brother's footsteps. He was succeeded by his son Venkata Raya. However, Venkata Raya's maternal uncle, Salakaraju Chinna Tirumala, had all claimants to the throne assassinated and usurped to power. He even went on to place the Bijapur Sultan Ibrahim Adil Shah I in his place for seven days in defiance of Venkata Raya's supporters. This was too much for Vijayanagara's nobles to tolerate. This was also the apple of discord for all subordinate Hindu rulers, including Chamaraja Wodeyar III. After diplomatically convincing, Salakaraju Chinna Tirumala returned. But Venkata Raya's followers assassinated Salakaraju Chinna Tirumala and installed Achyuta Raya's nephew, Sadasiva Raya, with Krishnadevaraya's son-in-law Rama Raya as royal adviser, who played de facto emperor, and was strategically mediating among the Deccan Sultanates with the long-term intention of breaking them apart. During this period, Chamaraja Wodeyar came to begin questioning the authenticity of the Vijayanagara ruling family and what had become of it from the Sangama dynasty to the Tuluva family. He was queasy about bowing before the centre in Vijayanagara and had unofficially begun to undermine the centre's authority. He thought that it was not necessary any more for Mysore Kingdom to act as feudal lords but as allied friends. But before he could take a political stand, Chamaraja Wodeyar III died.

The Palace Fort
Chamaraja Wodeyar III constructed the fort of Mysore on the site of what was a village called Puragiri, whereupon today stands Mysore Palace. The place was named as 'Mysore Nagara'. This fort defined for the first time the seat and palace of the monarch of the Kingdom of Mysore. The fort has been built and rebuilt multiple times, like the palace itself it abuts, with the most recent in 1940, commissioned by Maharaja Jayachamaraja Wadiyar during the beginning of his reign.

Chamaraja Wodeyar III died on 17 February 1553.

See also
Wodeyar dynasty
Mysore Palace

References

1492 births
1553 deaths
Kings of Mysore
Chamaraja III

Chamaraja Wodeyar III


In France, the training of the Technicien supérieur de l'aviation (civilian) (TSA civilian, in English Advanced Technician in Aviation non civil servant) is performed by the École nationale de l'aviation civile (French civil aviation university).

History
The TSA civilian training is created in addition to the one of Technicien supérieur des études et de l'exploitation de l'aviation civile available since 1962.

Application
The competitive examination is organized each year for students holder of a Baccalauréat. 5 seats are available. After the application process, students are trained during two years at the École nationale de l'aviation civile (French civil aviation university) of Toulouse.

Job
The TSA civilians can have different jobs in airports, airlines or manufacturers including:
 Operational activities,
 Operation of the airport area (use of airport runways, aircraft operating conditions),
 Work in an operational department (weight and balance, flight planning, route calculation, fuel calculation), or a ground handling (passengers, cargo, etc..).

Training
The initial training of the Technicien supérieur des études et de l'exploitation de l'aviation civile was reformed in 2011. It is now called TSA for Technicien supérieur de l'aviation and include, since 2011, two curriculum:
 TSA civilian training: students are admitted after a competitive examination or by Validation des Acquis de l'Experience for a two-years training.
 TSEEAC: after being admitted with the same competitive examination as the TSA civilian, they attend the same two years course before a one year complementary training (in a dual education system) at the Directorate General for Civil Aviation.

Bibliography
 Ariane Gilotte, Jean-Philippe Husson and Cyril Lazerge, 50 ans d'Énac au service de l'aviation, Édition S.E.E.P.P, 1999

See also
 Technicien supérieur de l'aviation
 Technicien supérieur des études et de l'exploitation de l'aviation civile

References

External links
 TSA on ENAC website

Occupations in aviation
Technicians
École nationale de l'aviation civile
Aviation licenses and certifications


Pathi ( - "The place where God is") is the name of the primary centres of congregational worship for the South Indian religious system of Ayyavazhi, having a relatively large structure like that of a temple. They are seven in number.

The Pathis obtain their significance from the fact that Ayya Vaikundar and his religious activities were historically associated with them. There are seven Pathis, ("Seven places where God is") which appeared during the time of Ayya Vaikundar. According to Akilattirattu Ammanai the source of Ayyavazhi mythology, these Pathis are the places where Ayya Vaikundar performed the Avatara Ekanai (a means of divine revelation). These are the sacred places for the people of Ayyavazhi. These five Pathis are collectively called as Panchappathis. Sometimes Vakaippathi and Avatharappathi is added to this list.

Architecture and structure

Generally Pathis were structurally different from Nizhal Thangals. Unlike Nizhal Thangals the Pathis were not only considered as mere worship centers but also as holy places. Also each Pathis have their own significance due to the different activities of Vaikundar at each Pathis. In addition to the panividais at Palliyarai and Sivayi Medai, in  each Pathis there are different Panividais performed at the exact spots where Ayya performed the religious activities. Also these particular places were considered sacred too.

Also in addition all Pathis will have a Pal Purai where the Nithya pal is consecrated every day for Ayya. Also all pathis has a Flag mast and a number of vahanas which are used to carry Ayya as processions during the festivals. And at present Swamithoppe and Ambalappathi has temple cars.

The Palliyarai designing in Pathis were different from that of Nizhal Thangals. No chairs or any other wooden structure are used but instead strictly raised pedestals in which a saffron cloth is wrapped. Above it there will be an armour-shaped brass structure which is called as Nama Vel is erected and a saffron or silk cloth wrapped around it forming the shape of an asana in which it is believed that, "The invisible God is seated". In all other Pathis except Ambalappathi, saffron cloth is used. The Sivaye Medai in Pathis are similar to that of Nizhal Thangals.

All Pathis has an inner corridor around the Palliyarai and outer corridor surrounding the whole Pathi. The outer corridor is called a  Santhana Veethi.

Administration

Since Ayyavazhi is not an organised religion the Swamithope pathi though considered as religious headquarters, it officially does not control the rest of the religious centers. And hence all the Pathis are independently managed by different formed committees or by organisations. Some Pathis are maintained by the native Ayyavazhi followers of that particular area after the period of Vaikundar.

Rituals and prayers

In all the Pathis three-time worship is conducted as per the Ayyavazhi scriptures. Ukappadippu in the Morning and Evening and the Ucchippadippu conducted for seven times at noon. Vhanam Eduppu is conducted twice a day in Swamithope pathi, once in a week in Ambalappathi on Tuesdays and at least once in a month in other pathis.

The main form of ritual Nithya pal (Pal vaippu) is conducted and consecrated to Ayya  every day on every pathis. Thiru-Eadu Vasippu is also conducted frequently in all Pathis.

Festivals

The important festivals in Pathis are Kodiyettru Thirunal for eleven days, the Thiru Eadu Vasippu for seventeen days and the Vaikunda Avathara Dinam, the celebration for a couple of days during Ayya Vaikunda Avataram. The first two festivals are conducted in Pathis at different times once in a year while the Vaikunda Avatharam is celebrated simultaneously at all Pathis during Ayya Vaikunda Avataram.

But only in Swamithoppe the Kodiyetru Thirunal is conducted thrice in a year during the Tamil months of Avani (August/September), Thai (January/February) and Vaikasi (May/June) and each last for eleven days. Also, during every Sundays special prayers are conducted in all Pathis. The first Sundays of every Tamil month are considered sacred and special prayers are conducted in Swamithope Pathi.

During the Ayya Vaikunda Avataram people use to go on pilgrimage to all holy places of Ayyavazhi, mainly the Panchappathis.  Different processions are conducted from different places to the pathis, especially to Swamithoppe and Ambalappathi.  In this the procession from Tiruchendur and Thiruvananthapuram to Swamithoppe is associated with the scriptures.

Accreditation-Pathi

For a long period of time this term "pathi" has been discussed.  Generally, the Pathi status is given for a site based on the scriptures and seeking, how much the site is important in the incarnation of Vaikundar.  Another way of understanding this pathis is also prevalent, by seeking direct reference for a site as pathi in Akilam or Arul Nool.  Anyway, commonly, a site which is not directly associated historically with any of the religious activities of Vaikundar is not accepted as a Pathi.

Avatharappathi, the place at which Vaikundar incarnated from the sea is considered as a Pathi by Akilam.  Akilam call this Chenthur Pathi. But as some of the followers believe that the place at which the present temple is located is not the exact place where Ayya Vaikundar incarnated from the sea, they disagree with the rest of the devotees. The list of Pathis announced by the headquarters of Ayyavazhi does not include Avatharappathi. Also Vakaippathi is considered as a Pathi by the scripture in a sense that it was the northern entrance of 'Dwaraga Pathi' which is believed to be inside the sea. This site have another yet importance. It was here, the historical Thuvayal Thavasu conducted following the instructions of Vaikundar.

Another common listing is prevalent in which the Swamithope is replaced by Vakaippathi in Panchappathis and considering Swamithoppe as the head of these Panchappathis. Regarding Marunthuvazh Malai, an attempt is made there to kill Vaikundar by adding poison to milk. More over, he is said to be penanced here. So the Vaikunda Pathi is also considered as a Pathi. These three sites are not included in the list of Pathis released by the religious headquarters, Swamithoppe too.  Except these, all other Pathis are accepted as so by the followers unanimously.

The Panchappathis
Swamithoppepathi - Where Vaikundar performed the great Tavam; the religious headquarters.
Ambalappathi - Where Vaikundar unified six of the Seven Deities into him.
Muttappathi - Where Vaikundar was given the Second and Third Vinchais.
Tamaraikulampathi - Where the Akilattirattu Ammanai is written down, headquarters of the Panchappathis.
Pooppathi - Where Ayya unified Poomadanthai into himself through symbolic marriage.

Other Pathis
 Vakaippathi - Where the Thuvayal Thavasu is conducted; also the northern entrance of Dwaraga Pathi.
 Avatharappathi - where Ayya Vaikundar incarnated from the sea.
 Vakaippathi, is sometimes included in the list of Pancha pathi.

Other usages
There is also the OscarPathi in France. It is brown and white and worshipped by exiles. It is located in Paris and is distinguished by the letters PPP in front of the temple. The high priest is a deep spiritual man who never talks and suffers from strabism.

Burmese Muslims are also called Pathi in Burma. The Chinese pathis worship the PrincePathi. See Islam in Burma.

See also
 List of Ayyavazhi-related articles

Citations

References
 G.Patrick's, Religion and Subaltern Agency, 2003, University of Madras.
 Tha. Krishna Nathan's, Ayya Vaikundarin Vazvum Sinthanaiyum, 2000.
 Dr. R.Ponnu's, Sri Vaikunda Swamigal and the Struggle for Social Equality in South India, 2000.

External links

Pathi


A conveyor bridge is a piece of mining equipment used in strip mining for the removal of overburden and for dumping it on the inner spoil bank of the open-cut mine. It is used together with multibucket excavators, frequently bucket chain excavators, that remove the overburden which is moved to the bridge by connecting conveyors. Conveyor bridges are used in working horizontally layered deposits with soft overburden rock in areas where mean annual temperatures are above freezing. They are frequently used in lignite mining.

Setup

A conveyor bridge consists of girders resting on two or three supports mounted on rails, or sometimes on crawler tracks.  The bridge is set across the pit and moves along the mining face at a few metres per minute. If it runs on rails, the tracks are shifted in accordance with the progress of the mining. The rock is moved from the excavator to the bridge by connecting conveyors. The dumping support of a conveyor bridge may rest on the soil of the seam or on a dumping mound specially poured and packed by the bridge itself, depending on the stability of the rock.

History and examples

The first conveyor bridge was built in Plessa lignite mine, Agnes according to plans of mine director Friedrich von Delius. It was scrapped in 1959 after exposure of clay beds made mining in the pit unsafe.

A large conveyor bridge with 200 m span and 50 m height, fed by a bucket-wheel excavator, was completed in 1930 in the Böhlen lignite mine. After it was toppled by a storm in 1937, a replacement went into service in 1939.

The conveyor bridge of Espenhain lignite mine with a total length of 545 m, which started operation in 1944, could remove an overburden of 45 m thickness.

Between 1969 and 1991, TAKRAF built five very large conveyor bridges of the type F60 of which four are still in operation in lignite mines in Lower Lusatia, and one has been preserved as a visitor attraction. These were constructed for removing overburden up to 60 m thick, are 502 m long and span 204 m. They could move originally up to 23000 m3/h, with additional excavators up to 34600 m3/h.

References

Mining equipment
Engineering vehicles
Surface mining

Conveyor bridge


Narahari Tirtha ( 1243 -   1333) was a Dvaita philosopher, scholar, statesman and one of the disciples of Madhvacharya. He is considered to be the progenitor of the Haridasa movement along with Sripadaraja. Though only two of his scholarly works are extant, they are characterised by their verbosity and lack of digressions. A few songs of his survive under the pen name Raghukulatilaka. As a minister of considerable influence to the Eastern Ganga rulers and later as the pontiff of Madhvacharya mutt, Narahari converted the Simhachalam temple into an educational establishment of renown and a religious centre for Vaishnavism.

Life
Nothing is known about his early life except that he served as a minister in the Eastern Ganga Kingdom in Kalinga (modern day Odisha) and later as a regent in the stead of Narasimha Deva II before his ordination as a monk. Information about his life is derived from a hagiography called Narahariyatistotra, Narayana Pandita's Madhva Vijaya and inscriptions from the Srikurmam and Simhachalam temples, all of which attest to his regency. The inscriptions also allude to his expertise in scriptures and swordsmanship. Sharma conjectures from the presence and contents of the inscriptions that post 1281 C.E., he was "the virtual overlord of the country". At the height of his power, he built the Yogananda Narasimha Temple in Srikurmam and defended the city from attacks of vandals.  There is also evidence that he was patronised by Bhanudeva I and his ward Narasimha Deva II and also that he disseminated the philosophy of Madhva throughout Kalinga. His mortal remains rest at Charkratirtha near Hampi.

Works and legacy
Narahari's treatise on the Gita Bhashya of Madhva called Bhavaprakashika is considered to be an important work in the Dvaita canon, being referenced by Jayatirtha and Raghavendra Tirtha. Sharma notes that Narahari expands upon the obscure passages in the source text and directs polemical barbs against the commentaries by Sankara and Ramanuja. Though presumably not of Kannada origin, many of his works were in that language although only three of his compositions in Kannada survive. Narahari and Sripadaraja are considered to be the forerunners of the Haridasa movement by penning songs and hymns, mostly containing the teachings of Madhva in simplified terms and set to music in the vernacular Kannada language. Traditionally, Narahari is also considered to be the founder of Yakshagana and Bayalaata, a dance form which still flourishes in parts of Karnataka and Kasargod in present-day Kerala.

Notes
1. The songs are yanthu marulade nanenthu and hariye idu sariye.

References

Bibliography

External links
 Biography of Narahari Tirtha

History of Karnataka
Kannada literature
Dvaitin philosophers
Dvaita Vedanta
Uttaradi Math
13th-century Indian people
Madhva religious leaders
People from Odisha

Narahari Tirtha


Britski's catfish  (Corydoras britskii) is a tropical freshwater fish belonging to the subfamily Corydoradinae of the family Callichthyidae native to South America where it is found in the upper Paraguay River basin in Brazil. This species was formerly classified as Brochis britskii.

The fish has a high number of dorsal fin rays (15–18) when compared with other Corydoras species. It has a shorter snout than C. splendens, a larger eye, grows to a larger size, and has its head covered ventrally by a large shield extending beyond the tip of the mental barbels. It will grow in length up to .

It lives in a tropical climate in water with a temperature range of . It feeds on worms, benthic crustaceans, insects, and plant matter. It lays eggs in dense vegetation and adults do not guard the eggs.

The fish is named  in honor of Heraldo A. Britski, the Curator of Fishes at the Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo (Brazil), who brought the species to the describers attention and allowed them to scientifically describe it.

See also
List of freshwater aquarium fish species

References

http://badmanstropicalfish.com/stats/stats_catfish_Brochis_britskii.html

Corydoras
Fish of South America
Fish of Brazil
Taxa named by Han Nijssen
Taxa named by Isaäc J. H. Isbrücker
Fish described in 1983

Britski's catfish


The Edinburgh Courant was a broadsheet newspaper from the 18th century. It was published out of Edinburgh, Midlothian, Scotland. Its first issue was dated February 14–19, 1705 and was sold for a penny. It was Scotland's first regional newspaper and it was produced twice weekly for five years, thereafter continuing as the Scots Courant until April 1720.

History
The paper was first printed in 1705 by James Watson printer but only 55 copies were issued. In 1706 it briefly continued under the name "Scots Courant" before becoming dormant.

In 1718, the Edinburgh Evening Courant began publication, as an evening newspaper, being first printed by James MacEwan,  or McQueen or McEwen on the High street section of the Royal Mile, published three times per week as a Whig publication in opposition to the Jacobite paper the Caledonian Mercury. passing to his protege, Alexander Kincaid in 1735. It survived until the Edinburgh Evening News came into existence in 1873.

It was founded by James Watson (who had also published the Edinburgh Gazette from 1700) and had its main printing office was at Craigs Close at 170 High Street on the Royal Mile, the premises generally being known as the King's Printing House.

In 1725, during the time of the Scottish Malt Tax riots, rival political factions used – or at least attempted to use – newspapers including the Edinburgh Evening Courant and the Caledonian Mercury as their "mouthpieces", as a letter from the then book trade apprentice Andrew Millar indicates. Millar was apprenticed to James McEuen, who had been printer, editor, and principal bookseller of The Edinburgh Evening Courant since 1718.

Like other Scottish newspapers of the period, the Edinburgh Evening Courant published advertisements offering rewards for the return of runaway slaves that had been brought to Scotland, since slavery was still assumed to be legal on Scottish soil. An advertisement placed in the Edinburgh Evening Courant on February 13, 1727 stated that:

Run away on the 7th instant from Dr Gustavus Brown's Lodgings in Glasgow, a Negro Woman, named Ann, being about 18 Years of Age, with a green Gown and a Brass Collar about her Neck, on which are engraved these words ["Gustavus Brown in Dalkieth his Negro, 1726."] Whoever apprehends her, so as she may be recovered, shall have two Guineas Reward, and necessary Charges allowed by Laurence Dinwiddie Junior Merchant in Glasgow, or by James Mitchelson Jeweller in Edinburgh.

Editors
Daniel Defoe, author of the 1719 novel Robinson Crusoe, and then based at Moubray House, was its editor in the early 18th century.
James Hannay, Naval History writer, was its editor from 1860 to 1864.

Archives
Images of the newspaper for two years (1750 and 1884) have been digitalized and can be viewed through Find my Past and Ancestry.com, respectively with a subscription. Microfiche copies of all surviving copies are available for inspection free of charge at the Edinburgh City Library (by appointment).

References

External links
Concise History of British Newspapers
The Word of the Street
Ancestry.com
The Scotsman
The Hannays of Knock and Garrarie

1705 establishments in Scotland
1873 disestablishments in Scotland
Publications established in 1705
Publications disestablished in 1873
Defunct newspapers published in the United Kingdom
Mass media in Edinburgh
History of Edinburgh

Edinburgh Courant


USS Industry (AMc-86) was an Accentor-class coastal minesweeper acquired by the U.S. Navy for the dangerous task of removing mines from minefields laid in the water to prevent ships from passing.

Industry was laid down 11 May 1941 by Fulton Shipyard, Antioch, California; launched 6 September 1941; sponsored by Miss June Marken; and placed in service 19 December 1941.

World War II service

Following shakedown training, the wooden-hulled minesweeper sailed for Hawaii, arriving Pearl Harbor 11 March 1942. For more than 2 years the ship swept the channels of Pearl Harbor and Honolulu Harbor. As the Pacific Ocean war neared its climax in late 1944, the need for mine locator vessels became acute, and Industry's sweeping equipment was replaced by sound gear and diving equipment for underwater locator work. She commissioned 15 December 1944 and began training in company with .

Pacific Ocean operations

Industry and two other converted minesweepers departed Pearl Harbor 1 May 1945 and, after stops at Eniwetok, Guam and Saipan, arrived off Okinawa 4 July. There she located and raised mines and sunken Japanese midget submarines during the months that followed.

Fighting off air attacks and typhoons

The ship fought off enemy air raids in July and August, and in September endured a major typhoon. The ship was scheduled to depart for Japan in early October, but her departure was delayed by another typhoon, this one ranking with the most powerful in the recent history of Okinawa.

Wrecked in a typhoon

In the violent storm in Buckner Bay 9 October, Industry drove ashore on a reef. Her crew kept her afloat until rescue came next morning.

Decommissioning

The battered minesweeper was finally stripped and decommissioned 22 December 1945. The remaining hulk was sunk.

References

External links
 NavSource Online: Mine Warfare Vessel Photo Archive - Industry (AMc 86)

Accentor-class minesweepers
Ships built in Antioch, California
1941 ships
World War II minesweepers of the United States
Maritime incidents in October 1945
Maritime incidents in December 1945
Shipwrecks in the Pacific Ocean

USS Industry


Joost van Trappen Banckert (c.1597 – 12 September 1647) was a Dutch Vice Admiral who worked most of his sailing life for the admiralty of Zeeland.

He was born in Vlissingen in 1597 or 1599. Early in his career he was active against the Dunkirkers and was promoted to captain in 1624. That year he took service for the Zeeland Chamber of the Dutch West India Company (WIC), remaining there until 1636. He defeated four Spanish Galleons in 1626 when commander of a squadron of three ships taking or sinking three of them, he also repeatedly defeated the Dunkirk corsairs Banckert often fought together with Piet Hein with whom he attacked and captured the Portuguese settlement Salvador on the coast of Brazil in 1624 and as a Vice Admiral helped capture the Spanish treasure fleet in the Bay of Matanzas in 1628. Thanks to these and other feats he earned the nicknames "Scourge of the Marranos" (the latter word then being used as a pejorative nickname for the Spanish in general) and "Terror of the Portuguese".

Having rejoined the navy he was promoted to Rear-Admiral on 3 May 1637, being a Vice-Admiral in the WIC not entailing an equivalent rank in the navy. From 1 October 1637 to 11 January 1638 he was a temporary Vice-Admiral. In 1639, again Rear-Admiral, he served under Lieutenant-Admiral Maarten Tromp and was present at the first skirmish (the action of 18 September 1639) against a large Spanish fleet in the English Channel and the subsequent Battle of the Downs. He again came into the service of the WIC from 1645 until his death. He again attained the navy rank of temporary Vice-Admiral on 10 December 1646. In 1647 he once again set sail for the coast of Brazil and on the return voyage suddenly fell ill and died at sea. He was married to Adriana Janssen. One of his sons was the later famous Lieutenant-Admiral Adriaen Banckert, another captain Joost Banckert de Jonge who was killed at the Battle of Portland, a third captain Jan Banckert who was killed on the Delft in the Battle of Lowestoft.

References

1590s births
1647 deaths
17th-century Dutch military personnel
Admirals of the navy of the Dutch Republic
Naval commanders of the Eighty Years' War
Sailors on ships of the Dutch West India Company
People from Vlissingen

Joost Banckert


Alan Ford (born 23 February 1938) is an English actor. He is best known for his roles in Guy Ritchie gangster movies Snatch and Lock, Stock and Two Smoking Barrels, and from appearing as separate characters in eight different episodes of The Bill.

Early life
Ford was born on 23 February 1938 in Camberwell, South London, the eldest son of a seamstress and a taxi driver, and grew up in Elephant and Castle. He left school at the age of 15 and took on various jobs, ending with two years of national service in the Royal Army Ordnance Corps.

Studies and training
François Truffaut cast Ford as one of the firemen in his Fahrenheit 451. Next, Ford secured a place at East 15 Acting School. For three years he studied drama in all its forms: Shakespeare, Chekhov, restoration, commedia dell'arte, pantomime, music, dance, fencing, Stanislavski and improvisation. One of his tutors there at that time was the then unknown Mike Leigh.

Acting career
Ford has appeared on stage at the National Theatre, Royal Court Theatre, the Theatre Royal Stratford East and many repertory theatres.

Ford appeared in Exorcist: The Beginning and, much earlier, as Roosta in the original radio version of The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, along with a small speaking role in The Long Good Friday.

Ford played Clifford Harding in G.F. Newman's Law & Order in 1978, then had a brief role in the film An American Werewolf in London, where he plays the taxi driver who says the line, "It puts you in mind of the days of the old demon barber of Fleet Street, doesn't it?" in response to the recent wave of murders around London. He has also proven himself a comic actor. He was involved in the Armando Iannucci production Knowing Me, Knowing You with Alan Partridge, playing a boxing promoter called Terry Norton; and he worked again with Iannucci playing the 'East End Thug' in The Armando Iannucci Shows. He later appeared as a priest in every episode of Snuff Box. In 2015, he played former Thotch band manager 'Big' Basil Steel in Brian Pern: 45 Years of Prog & Roll.

In 1998, Ford narrated and appeared in the Guy Ritchie directed crime comedy Lock, Stock and Two Smoking Barrels, and, in 2000, he appeared as the crime boss 'Brick Top' in Ritchie's film Snatch.

In 2003, Ford provided the voice of Goliath in the British version of JoJo's Circus.

Ford was featured in the 2010 music video "For He's a Jolly Good Felon" by The Lostprophets.

In 2011 he starred as crime boss 'Carter' in the film noir Jack Falls alongside his Lock, Stock co-stars Jason Flemyng and Dexter Fletcher, while in 2014, he was cast in the crime thriller Two Days in the Smoke alongside fellow Lock, Stock actor Stephen Marcus.

In 2013 Ford had a guest role in the Norwegian-American TV show Lilyhammer as crime family boss 'Uncle Terry'.

In 2018, Ford appeared in a primary supporting role as Dale Jacobs in the psychological thriller Winter Ridge.

Writer
In 2006, Ford published his novel Thin Ice. He said the book "evolved from a collection of anecdotes and actors' tales."

In music
Ford's voice is featured in the dubstep song "Cockney Thug" by Rusko, "Well 'Ard" by Caspa and The Others, "Crunch" by Flux Pavilion and Datsik, "Damien" by Modestep & Funtcase, the death metal song "A Child Is Missing" from the Illdisposed album The Prestige and the hip-hop song "Sinister" by Aesop Rock, Vast Aire and Yeshua from the 2001 Centrifugal Phorce compilation Euphony.

Personal life
Ford is married and a father, and lives in Primrose Hill, North London. He has been a vegetarian since 1973.

Filmography

Films

Television

References

External links

1938 births
Living people
20th-century English male actors
21st-century English male actors
Alumni of East 15 Acting School
English male film actors
English male soap opera actors
Male actors from London
Actors from Camberwell
People from Elephant and Castle
Royal Army Ordnance Corps soldiers
Military personnel from London

Alan Ford (actor)


ROF Fazakerley was a Royal Ordnance Factory rifle manufacturing plant in Fazakerley, Liverpool, which manufactured small arms such as the Sten and Sterling submachine guns and Lee–Enfield rifle during and after World War II.

ROF Fazakerley and ROF Maltby were established before World War II to increase arms production facilities in areas less vulnerable to aerial attack. The main Royal Small Arms Factory for rifle manufacture was in Enfield, London.

References

Buildings and structures in Liverpool
Military history of Lancashire
Royal Ordnance Factories in England
Engineering ROF
1930s in Liverpool
1940s in Liverpool

ROF Fazakerley


Ardozyga prisca is a species of moth in the family Gelechiidae. It was described by Edward Meyrick in 1904. It is found in Australia, where it has been recorded from New South Wales.

The wingspan is . The forewings are fuscous, very finely irrorated with whitish. The stigmata are faintly darker or quite obsolete, with the plical rather beyond the first discal. The hindwings are pale grey, somewhat darker posteriorly.

References

Ardozyga
Moths described in 1904
Taxa named by Edward Meyrick
Moths of Australia

Ardozyga prisca