Sterile neutrinos (or inert neutrinos) are hypothetical particles (neutral leptons – neutrinos) that are believed to interact only via gravity and not via any of the other fundamental interactions of the Standard Model. The term sterile neutrino is used to distinguish them from the known, ordinary active neutrinos in the Standard Model, which carry an isospin charge of  and engage in the weak interaction. The term typically refers to neutrinos with right-handed chirality (see right-handed neutrino), which may be inserted into the Standard Model. Particles that possess the quantum numbers of sterile neutrinos and masses great enough such that they do not interfere with the current theory of Big Bang nucleosynthesis are often called neutral heavy leptons (NHLs) or heavy neutral leptons (HNLs).

The existence of right-handed neutrinos is theoretically well-motivated, because the known active neutrinos are left-handed and all other known fermions have been observed with both left and right chirality. They could also explain in a natural way the small active neutrino masses inferred from neutrino oscillation. The mass of the right-handed neutrinos themselves is unknown and could have any value between  and less than 1 eV. To comply with theories of leptogenesis and dark matter, there must be at least 3 flavors of sterile neutrinos (if they exist). This is in contrast to the number of active neutrino types required to ensure the electroweak interaction is free of anomalies, which must be exactly 3: the number of charged leptons and quark generations.

The search for sterile neutrinos is an active area of particle physics. If they exist and their mass is smaller than the energies of particles in the experiment, they can be produced in the laboratory, either by mixing between active and sterile neutrinos or in high energy particle collisions. If they are heavier, the only directly observable consequence of their existence would be the observed active neutrino masses. They may, however, be responsible for a number of unexplained phenomena in physical cosmology and astrophysics, including dark matter, baryogenesis or hypothetical dark radiation. In May 2018, physicists of the MiniBooNE experiment reported a stronger neutrino oscillation signal than expected, a possible hint of sterile neutrinos. However, results of the MicroBooNE experiment showed no evidence of sterile neutrinos in October 2021.

Motivation

Experimental results show that all produced and observed neutrinos have left-handed helicities (spin antiparallel to momentum), and all antineutrinos have right-handed helicities, within the margin of error. In the massless limit, it means that only one of two possible chiralities is observed for either particle. These are the only helicities (and chiralities) allowed in the Standard Model of particle interactions; particles with the contrary helicities are explicitly excluded from the formulas.

Recent experiments such as neutrino oscillation, however, have shown that neutrinos have a non-zero mass, which is not predicted by the Standard Model and suggests new, unknown physics. This unexpected mass explains neutrinos with right-handed helicity and antineutrinos with left-handed helicity: Since they do not move at the speed of light, their helicity is not relativistic invariant (it is possible to move faster than them and observe the opposite helicity). Yet all neutrinos have been observed with left-handed chirality, and all antineutrinos right-handed. (See  for the difference.)

Chirality is a fundamental property of particles and is relativistically invariant: It is the same regardless of the particle's speed and mass in every inertial reference frame. However, a particle with mass that starts out with left-handed chirality can develop a right-handed component as it travels – unless it is massless, chirality is not conserved during the propagation of a free particle through space (nominally, through interaction with the Higgs field).

The question, thus, remains: Do neutrinos and antineutrinos differ only in their chirality? Or do exotic right-handed neutrinos and left-handed antineutrinos exist as separate particles from the common left-handed neutrinos and right-handed antineutrinos?

Properties
Such particles would belong to a singlet representation with respect to the strong interaction and the weak interaction, having zero electric charge, zero weak hypercharge, zero weak isospin, and, as with the other leptons, zero color charge, although they are conventionally represented to have a   quantum number of −1. If the Standard Model is embedded in a hypothetical SO(10) grand unified theory, they can be assigned an X charge of −5. The left-handed anti-neutrino has a  of +1 and an X charge of +5.

Due to the lack of electric charge, hypercharge, and color charge, sterile neutrinos would not interact via the electromagnetic, weak, or strong interactions, making them extremely difficult to detect. They have Yukawa interactions with ordinary leptons and Higgs bosons, which via the Higgs mechanism leads to mixing with ordinary neutrinos.

In experiments involving energies larger than their mass, sterile neutrinos would participate in all processes in which ordinary neutrinos take part, but with a quantum mechanical probability that is suppressed by a small mixing angle. That makes it possible to produce them in experiments, if they are light enough to be within the reach of current particle accelerators.

They would also interact gravitationally due to their mass, and if they are heavy enough, could explain cold dark matter or warm dark matter. In some grand unification theories, such as SO(10), they also interact via gauge interactions which are extremely suppressed at ordinary energies because their SO(10)-derived gauge boson is extremely massive. They do not appear at all in some other GUTs, such as the Georgi–Glashow model (i.e., all its SU(5) charges or quantum numbers are zero).

Mass
All particles are initially massless under the Standard Model, since there are no Dirac mass terms in the Standard Model's Lagrangian. The only mass terms are generated by the Higgs mechanism, which produces non-zero Yukawa couplings between the left-handed components of fermions, the Higgs field, and their right-handed components. This occurs when the SU(2) doublet Higgs field  acquires its non-zero vacuum expectation value, , spontaneously breaking its SU(2) × U(1) symmetry, and thus yielding non-zero Yukawa couplings:

Such is the case for charged leptons, like the electron, but within the Standard Model the right-handed neutrino does not exist. So absent the sterile right chiral neutrinos to pair up with the left chiral neutrinos, even with Yukawa coupling the active neutrinos remain massless. In other words, there are no mass-generating terms for neutrinos under the Standard Model: For each generation, the model only contains a left-handed neutrino and its antiparticle, a right-handed antineutrino, each of which is produced in weak eigenstates during weak interactions; the "sterile" neutrinos are omitted. (See neutrino masses in the Standard Model for a detailed explanation.)

In the seesaw mechanism, the model is extended to include the missing right-handed neutrinos and left-handed antineutrinos; one of the eigenvectors of the neutrino mass matrix is then hypothesized to be remarkably heavier than the other.

A sterile (right-chiral) neutrino would have the same weak hypercharge, weak isospin, and electric charge as its antiparticle, because all of these are zero and hence are unaffected by sign reversal.

Dirac and Majorana terms
Sterile neutrinos allow the introduction of a Dirac mass term as usual. This can yield the observed neutrino mass, but it requires that the strength of the Yukawa coupling be much weaker for the electron neutrino than the electron, without explanation. Similar problems (although less severe) are observed in the quark sector, where the top and bottom masses differ by a factor of 40.

Unlike for the left-handed neutrino, a Majorana mass term can be added for a sterile neutrino without violating local symmetries (weak isospin and weak hypercharge) since it has no weak charge. However, this would still violate total lepton number.

It is possible to include both Dirac and Majorana terms: this is done in the seesaw mechanism (below). In addition to satisfying the Majorana equation, if the neutrino were also its own antiparticle, then it would be the first Majorana fermion. In that case, it could annihilate with another neutrino, allowing neutrinoless double beta decay. The other case is that it is a Dirac fermion, which is not its own antiparticle.

To put this in mathematical terms, we have to make use of the transformation properties of particles. For free fields, a Majorana field is defined as an eigenstate of charge conjugation. However, neutrinos interact only via the weak interactions, which are not invariant under charge conjugation (C), so an interacting Majorana neutrino cannot be an eigenstate of C. The generalized definition is: "a Majorana neutrino field is an eigenstate of the CP transformation". Consequently, Majorana and Dirac neutrinos would behave differently under CP transformations (actually Lorentz and CPT transformations). Also, a massive Dirac neutrino would have nonzero magnetic and electric dipole moments, whereas a Majorana neutrino would not. However, the Majorana and Dirac neutrinos are different only if their rest mass is not zero. For Dirac neutrinos, the dipole moments are proportional to mass and would vanish for a massless particle. Both Majorana and Dirac mass terms however can appear in the mass Lagrangian.

Seesaw mechanism

In addition to the left-handed neutrino, which couples to its family charged lepton in weak charged currents, if there is also a right-handed sterile neutrino partner (a weak isosinglet with zero charge) then it is possible to add a Majorana mass term without violating electroweak symmetry.

Both left-handed and right-handed neutrinos could then have mass and handedness which are no longer exactly preserved (thus "left-handed neutrino" would mean that the state is mostly left and  "right-handed neutrino" would mean mostly right-handed). To get the neutrino mass eigenstates, we have to diagonalize the general mass matrix

where  is the neutral heavy lepton's mass, which is big, and  are intermediate-size mass terms, which interconnect the sterile and active neutrino masses. The matrix nominally assigns active neutrinos zero mass, but the  terms provide a route for some small part of the sterile neutrinos' enormous mass,  to "leak into" the active neutrinos.

Apart from empirical evidence, there is also a theoretical justification for the seesaw mechanism in various extensions to the Standard Model. Both Grand Unification Theories (GUTs) and left-right symmetrical models predict the following relation:

According to GUTs and left-right models, the right-handed neutrino is extremely heavy:  while the smaller eigenvalue is approximately given by

This is the seesaw mechanism: As the sterile right-handed neutrino gets heavier, the normal left-handed neutrino gets lighter. The left-handed neutrino is a mixture of two Majorana neutrinos, and this mixing process is how sterile neutrino mass is generated.

Sterile neutrinos as dark matter
For a particle to be considered a dark matter candidate, it must have non-zero mass and no electromagnetic charge. Naturally, neutrinos and neutrino-like particles are of interest in the search for dark matter because they possess both these properties. Observations suggest that there is more cold dark matter (non-relativistic) than hot dark matter (relativistic). The active neutrinos of the Standard Model, having very low mass (and therefore very high speeds) are therefore unlikely to account for all dark matter.

Since no bounds on the mass of sterile neutrinos are known, the possibility that the sterile neutrino is dark matter has not yet been ruled out, as it has for active neutrinos. If dark matter consists of sterile neutrinos then certain constraints can be applied to their properties. Firstly, the mass of the sterile neutrino would need to be on the keV scale, to produce the structure of the universe observed today.
Secondly, while it is not required that dark matter be stable, the lifetime of the particles must be longer than the current age of the universe. This places an upper bound on the strength of the mixing between sterile and active neutrinos in the seesaw mechanism.
From what is known about the particle thus far, the sterile neutrino is a promising dark matter candidate, but as with every other proposed dark matter particle, it has yet to be confirmed to exist.

Detection attempts
The production and decay of sterile neutrinos could happen through the mixing with virtual ("off mass shell") neutrinos. There were several experiments set up to discover or observe NHLs, for example the NuTeV (E815) experiment at Fermilab or LEP-L3 at CERN. They all led to establishing limits to observation, rather than actual observation of those particles. If they are indeed a constituent of dark matter, sensitive X-ray detectors would be needed to observe the radiation emitted by their decays.

Sterile neutrinos may mix with ordinary neutrinos via a Dirac mass after electroweak symmetry breaking, in analogy to quarks and charged leptons. Sterile neutrinos and (in more-complicated models) ordinary neutrinos may also have Majorana masses. In the type 1 seesaw mechanism both Dirac and Majorana masses are used to drive ordinary neutrino masses down and make the sterile neutrinos much heavier than the Standard Model's interacting neutrinos. In GUT scale seesaw models the heavy neutrinos can be as heavy as the GUT scale (). In other models, such as the νMSM model where their masses are in the keV to GeV range, they could be lighter than the weak gauge bosons W and Z. A light (with the mass ) sterile neutrino was suggested as a possible explanation of the results of the Liquid Scintillator Neutrino Detector experiment. On 11 April 2007, researchers at the MiniBooNE experiment at Fermilab announced that they had not found any evidence supporting the existence of such a sterile neutrino. More-recent results and analysis have provided some support for the existence of the sterile neutrino.

Two separate detectors near a nuclear reactor in France found 3% of anti-neutrinos missing. They suggested the existence of a fourth neutrino with a mass of 1.2 eV. Daya Bay has also searched for a light sterile neutrino and excluded some mass regions.
Daya Bay Collaboration measured the anti-neutrino energy spectrum, and found that anti-neutrinos at an energy of around 5 MeV are in excess relative to theoretical expectations. It also recorded 6% missing anti-neutrinos. This could suggest either that sterile neutrinos exist or that our understanding of some other aspect of neutrinos is incomplete.

The number of neutrinos and the masses of the particles can have large-scale effects that shape the appearance of the cosmic microwave background. The total number of neutrino species, for instance, affects the rate at which the cosmos expanded in its earliest epochs: More neutrinos means a faster expansion. The Planck Satellite 2013 data release is compatible with the existence of a sterile neutrino. The implied mass range is from 0–3 eV. In 2016, scientists at the IceCube Neutrino Observatory did not find any evidence for the sterile neutrino. However, in May 2018, physicists of the MiniBooNE experiment reported a stronger neutrino oscillation signal than expected, a possible hint of sterile neutrinos.
Since then, in October 2021, the MicroBooNE experiment's first results showed no hints of sterile neutrinos, rather finding the results aligning with the Standard Model's three neutrino flavours. This result had not found an explanation for MiniBooNE's anomalous results, however.

In June 2022, the BEST experiment released two papers observing a 20–24% deficit in the production of the isotope germanium expected from the reaction . The so called "Gallium anomaly" suggests that a sterile neutrino explanation could be consistent with the data.

In January 2023, the STEREO experiment published its final result, reporting the most precise measurement of the antineutrino energy spectrum associated with the fission of uranium-235. The data is consistent with the Standard Model and rejects the hypothesis of a sterile neutrino.

In 2023 results of searches by the CMS set new limits for sterile neutrinos with masses of 2-3 GeV.

See also
 List of hypothetical particles
 MiniBooNE at Fermilab
 Weakly Interacting Slender Particle

Footnotes

References

Sources

External links

Neutrinos
Hypothetical elementary particles
Dark matter

Sterile neutrino


David Leslie (born 14 April 1952) is a former Scotland international rugby union player.  He usually played at number eight, but occasionally at flanker. He played for Scotland 32 times between 1975 and 1985.

Rugby Union career

Amateur career

Leslie went to school at High School of Dundee and Glenalmond College. He went on to play for Dundee HSFP.

Leslie then played for Gala, which he captained.

Provincial career

Leslie played for North and Midlands. He was part of the North and Midlands side that shared the Scottish Inter-District Championship (with Glasgow District) in 1974–75 season.

Leslie started the trial match of 11 January 1975 in the Scotland Possibles side. A strange match; it was split into 3 thirds of 30 minutes each; and the total playing time went to 100 minutes when summing when each third went dead. The Possibles raced into an early commanding lead but personnel movements saw the Scotland Probables side come back into the match. One of those personnel movements was the promotion of Leslie into the Probables side in the second third, with the Glasgow Herald noting that he had an excellent game throughout. Although the Probables eventually took a one-point lead in the match, the Possibles fought back at the end to win.

International career

Leslie was capped by Scotland 'B' twice in the period 1974-75 while still with Dundee HSFP.

Leslie was first capped against Ireland in 1975, but did not become a regular on the Scotland squad until 1981.

Leslie spent much of his playing time injured, missing the 1977, 1978, 1979 Five Nations, and half of the 1980 season. He broke a leg in 1982, missing the 1982 Scotland rugby union tour of Australia.

Leslie scored Scotland's first try against  in 1984, only his second for Scotland.

Controversially, Leslie was left off the 1983 British Lions tour to New Zealand. In 1984, he was voted Rugby World'''s "Player of the Season", - the only ever Scottish winner - following his performances as an ever-present in the Grand Slam winning team of that year.

Richard Bath writes of him that:
Throughout his career, he was consistently the most focussed and fearless player in a Scottish squad which had more than its fair share of fearless breakaways... for all his intensity, Leslie found it hard to establish himself in the Scottish side until late on in his career.

Allan Massie considered that:
Leslie's first quality is courage. All back-row forwards have to be brave, but Leslie's courage defies reason and probability alike: he reckons any ball on the ground is his to win. The courage is so blinding that one is apt to overlook the skill, judgement and timing with which he launches himself at such balls and attaches himself to them. He is in fact a very skilful educated player (he often played fly-half in his schooldays). He gives and takes a pass better than most of the Scottish three-quarter line. He has acquired the knack of dipping his shoulder into the tackler and slipping the ball at the same moment to a supporting player. He kicks well. Perhaps though his greatest asset with the ball in his hand is his intuitive knowledge of what is right. Jim Telfer has said that he can stop worrying when Leslie has the ball, being 99 per cent sure that he will out it to the best use possible. This is a quality that many of even the best and most spectacular of back-row men never acquire.

References

Sources

 Bath, Richard (ed.) The Complete Book of Rugby (Seven Oaks Ltd, 1997 )
 Massie, Allan A Portrait of Scottish Rugby'' (Polygon, Edinburgh; )

1952 births
Living people
Scottish rugby union players
Scotland international rugby union players
People educated at the High School of Dundee
People educated at Glenalmond College
Gala RFC players
Dundee HSFP players
West of Scotland FC players
North and Midlands players
Rugby union number eights
Rugby union flankers
Rugby union players from Dundee
Scotland Possibles players
Scotland Probables players

David Leslie (rugby union)


Collective consciousness, collective conscience,  or collective conscious () is the set of shared beliefs, ideas, and moral attitudes which operate as a unifying force within society. In general, it does not refer to the specifically moral conscience,  but to a shared understanding of social norms.

The modern concept of what can be considered collective consciousness includes solidarity attitudes, memes, extreme behaviors like group-think and herd behavior, and collectively shared experiences during collective rituals and dance parties. Rather than existing as separate individuals, people come together as dynamic groups to share resources and knowledge. It has also developed as a way of describing how an entire community comes together to share similar values. This has also been termed "hive mind", "group mind", "mass mind", and "social mind".

Historical use of collective consciousness
The term was introduced by the French sociologist Émile Durkheim in his The Division of Labour in Society in 1893. The French word conscience generally means "conscience", "consciousness", "awareness", or "perception". Commentators and translators of Durkheim disagree on which is most appropriate, or whether the translation should depend on the context.  Some prefer to treat the word 'conscience' as an untranslatable foreign word or technical term, without its normal English meaning. As for "collective", Durkheim makes clear that he is not reifying or hypostasizing this concept; for him, it is "collective" simply in the sense that it is common to many individuals; cf. social fact.

Scipio Sighele published 'La Foule Criminele' one year before Durkheim, in which he describes emergent characteristics of crowds that don't appear in the individuals that form the crowd. He doesn't call this collective consciousness, but 'âme de la foule' (soul of the crowd). This term returns in Sigmund Freud's book about mass psychology and essentially overlaps with Durkheims concept of collective consciousness.

Theories of collective consciousness

Durkheim
Durkheim used the term in his books The Division of Labour in Society (1893), The Rules of the Sociological Method (1895), Suicide (1897), and The Elementary Forms of Religious Life (1912). In The Division of Labour, Durkheim argued that in traditional/primitive societies (those based around clan, family or tribal relationships), totemic religion played an important role in uniting members through the creation of a common consciousness (conscience collective in the original French). In societies of this type, the contents of an individual's consciousness are largely shared in common with all other members of their society, creating a mechanical solidarity through mutual likeness.

In Suicide, Durkheim developed the concept of anomie to refer to the social rather than individual causes of suicide. This relates to the concept of collective consciousness, as if there is a lack of integration or solidarity in society then suicide rates will be higher.

Gramsci
Antonio Gramsci states, "A collective consciousness, which is to say a living organism, is formed only after the unification of the multiplicity through friction on the part of the individuals; nor can one say that 'silence' is not a multiplicity." A form of collective consciousness can be formed from Gramsci's conception that the presence of a hegemony can mobilize the collective consciousness of those oppressed by the ruling ideas of society, or the ruling hegemony. Collective consciousness can refer to a multitude of different individual forms of consciousness coalescing into a greater whole. In Gramsci's view, a unified whole is composed of solidarity among its different constituent parts, and therefore, this whole cannot be uniformly the same. The unified whole can embrace different forms of consciousness (or individual experiences of social reality), which coexist to reflect the different experiences of the marginalized peoples in a given society. This agrees with Gramsci's theory of Marxism and class struggle applied to cultural contexts. Cultural Marxism (as distinguished from the right-wing use of the term) embodies the concept of collective consciousness. It incorporates social movements that are based on some sort of collective identity; these identities can include, for instance, gender, sexual orientation, race, and ability, and can be incorporated by collective-based movements into a broader historical material analysis of class struggle.

According to Michelle Filippini, "The nature and workings of collective organisms – not only parties, but also trade unions, associations and intermediate bodies in general – represent a specific sphere of reflection in the Prison Notebooks, particularly in regard to the new relationship between State and society that in Gramsci's view emerged during the age of mass politics." Collective organisms can express collective consciousness. Whether this form of expression finds itself in the realm of the state or the realm of society is up to the direction that the subjects take in expressing their collective consciousness. In Gramsci's Prison Notebooks, the ongoing conflict between civil society, the bureaucracy, and the state necessitates the emergence of a collective consciousness that can often act as an intermediary between these different realms. The public organizations of protest, such as labor unions and anti-war organizations, are vehicles that can unite multiple types of collective consciousness. Although identity-based movements are necessary for the progress of democracy and can generate collective consciousness, they cannot completely do so without a unifying framework. This is why anti-war and labor movements provide an avenue that has united various social movements under the banner of a multiple collective consciousness. This is also why future social movements need to have an ethos of collective consciousness if they are to succeed in the long-term.

Zukerfield
Zukerfield states that "The different disciplines that have studied knowledge share an understanding of it as a product of human subjects – individual, collective, etc." Knowledge in a sociological sense is derived from social conditions and social realities. Collective consciousness also reflects social realities, and sociological knowledge can be gained through the adoption of a collective consciousness. Many different disciplines such as philosophy and literature examine collective consciousness from different lenses. These different disciplines reach a similar understanding of a collective consciousness despite their different approaches to the subject. The inherent humanness in the idea of collective consciousness refers to a shared way of thinking among human beings in the pursuit of knowledge.

Collective consciousness can provide an understanding of the relationship between self and society.  As Zukerfeld states, "Even though it impels us, as a first customary gesture, to analyse the subjective (such as individual consciousness) or intersubjective bearers (such as the values of a given society), in other words those which Marxism and sociology examine, now we can approach them in an entirely different light." "Cognitive materialism" is presented in the work by Zukerfeld as a sort of 'third way' between sociological knowledge and Marxism. Cognitive materialism is based on a kind of collective consciousness of the mind. This consciousness can be used, with cognitive materialism as a guiding force, by human beings in order to critically analyze society and social conditions.

Collective consciousness in society
Society is made up of various collective groups, such as the family, community, organizations, regions, nations which as Burns and Egdahl state "can be considered to possess agential capabilities: to think, judge, decide, act, reform; to conceptualize self and others as well as self's actions and interactions; and to reflect.". It is suggested that these different national behaviors vary according to the different collective consciousness between nations. This illustrates that differences in collective consciousness can have practical significance.

According to a theory, the character of collective consciousness depends on the type of mnemonic encoding used within a group (Tsoukalas, 2007). The specific type of encoding used has a predictable influence on the group's behavior and collective ideology. Informal groups, that meet infrequently and spontaneously, have a tendency to represent significant aspects of their community as episodic memories. This usually leads to strong social cohesion and solidarity, an indulgent atmosphere, an exclusive ethos and a restriction of social networks. Formal groups, that have scheduled and anonymous meetings, tend to represent significant aspects of their community as semantic memories which usually leads to weak social cohesion and solidarity, a more moderate atmosphere, an inclusive ethos and an expansion of social networks.

Literary and oral tradition
In a case study of a Serbian folk story, Wolfgang Ernst examines collective consciousness in terms of forms of media, specifically collective oral and literary traditions. "Current discourse analysis drifts away from the 'culturalist turn' of the last two or three decades and its concern with individual and collective memory as an extended target of historical research". There is still a collective consciousness present in terms of the shared appreciation of folk stories and oral traditions. Folk stories enable the subject and the audiences to come together around a common experience and a shared heritage. In the case of the Serbian folk "gusle", the Serbian people take pride in this musical instrument of epic poetry and oral tradition and play it at social gatherings. Expressions of art and culture are expressions of a collective consciousness or expressions of multiple social realities.

Sporting events
Edmans, Garcia, and Norlia examined national sporting defeats and correlated them with decreases in the value of stocks.  They examined 1,162 football matches in thirty-nine countries and discovered that stock markets of those countries dropped on average forty-nine points after being eliminated from the World Cup, and thirty-one points after being eliminated in other tournaments. Edmans, Garcia, and Norli found similar but smaller effects with international cricket, rugby, ice hockey, and basketball games.

See also

 Abilene paradox
 Agenda 21
 Anonymous (group)
 Antonio Gramsci
 Borg Collective
 Collective effervescence
 Collective identity
 Collective intelligence
 Collective memory
 Collective unconscious
 Communal reinforcement
 Crowd psychology
 Deep social mind
 Práńa Dharma
 Egregor
 Global brain
 Global goals
 Group behaviour
 Group mind
 Groupthink
 Higher consciousness
 Human spirit
 Infodemic
 Materialism
 Noogenesis
 Noosphere
 Paradigm
 Paradigm shift
 Peer pressure
 Presence (telepresence)
 Reality tunnel
 Schema (psychology)
 Social justice
 Social representation
 Superorganism
 Unanimism
 United Nations
 Zeitgeist

Notes

References
Works by Durkheim
 The Division of Labour in Society (1893)
 The Rules of the Sociological Method (1895)
 Suicide (1897)
 The Elementary Forms of Religious Life (1912)

Works by others
 Gad Barzilai, Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities University of Michigan Press, 2003.

Sociological terminology
Collective intelligence
Public opinion
Crowd psychology
Émile Durkheim

de:Kollektiv#Kollektivbewusstsein

Collective consciousness


A football pitch (also known as soccer field) is the playing surface for the game of association football. Its dimensions and markings are defined by Law 1 of the Laws of the Game, "The Field of Play". The pitch is typically made of natural turf or artificial turf, although amateur and recreational teams often play on dirt fields. Artificial surfaces are allowed only to be green in colour.

All line markings on the pitch form part of the area which they define. For example, a ball on or above the touchline is still on the field of play, and a foul committed over the line bounding the penalty area results in a penalty. Therefore, a ball has to completely cross the touchline to be out of play, and a ball has to fully cross the goal line (between the goal posts) in order for a goal to be scored; if any part of the ball is still on or above the line, a goal is not scored and the ball is still in play.

The field descriptions that apply to adult matches are described below. Because of the role of the British football associations in the history of the game, the dimensions of the field of play were originally formulated and expressed in imperial units.  Since 1997, the Laws of the Game have preferred metric units, with imperial equivalents given only in brackets.  Because the actual values have, in general, not changed since the early twentieth century, they tend to be round numbers in imperial units (for example the width of the goal, unchanged since 1863, is 8 yards or 7.32 metres). Use of the imperial values remains common, especially in the United Kingdom.

Pitch boundary

The pitch is rectangular in shape. The longer sides are called touchlines and the shorter sides are called the goal lines. The two goal lines are between  wide and have to be of the same length. The two touchlines are between  long and have to be of the same length. All lines on the ground are equally wide, not to exceed . The corners of the pitch are marked by corner flags.

For international matches the field dimensions are more tightly constrained; the goal lines are between  wide and the touchlines are between  long. The majority of top-level professional football pitches, including those belonging to teams in the English Premier League, measure  long and  wide.

Although the term goal line is often taken to mean only that part of the line between the goalposts, in fact it refers to the complete line at either end of the pitch, from one corner flag to the other. In contrast the term byline (or by-line) is often used to refer to that portion of the goal line outside the goalposts. This term is commonly used in football commentaries and match descriptions, such as this example from a BBC match report: "Udeze gets to the left byline and his looping cross is cleared..."

Goals

Goals are placed at the centre of each goal-line.
These consist of two upright posts placed equidistant from the corner flagposts, joined at the top by a horizontal crossbar. The inner edges of the posts are regulated to be  (wide) apart, and the lower edge of the crossbar is elevated to  above the pitch. As a result, the area that players shoot at is 17.86 sq. metres (192 sq. feet). Nets are usually placed behind the goal, though are not required by the Laws.

Goalposts and crossbars have to be white, and made of wood, metal or other approved material. Rules regarding the shape of goalposts and crossbars are somewhat more lenient, but they have to conform to a shape that does not pose a threat to players. Despite this, injuries due to goalpost collisions are still quite common, and not much research goes into this aspect of player safety.

Recent developments in material science, however, have shown that there are a variety of materials that can be used to coat goalposts to reduce impact on players, hence improving safety. The majority of these materials come from various mixtures of polymers with desirable properties. An example of this would be a mixture made of 63% by weight of methyl methacrylate, 32% by weight of polyethylene glycol, crosslinked with 5% by weight of ethylene glycol dimethacrylate. This has up to a 99% shape recovery rate with very heavy impacts (such as that of a high speed player hitting the post), and deform significantly enough so as to reduce the impact on the player. This significantly improves player safety, while sacrificing very little in terms of function of the goal post.

A goal is scored when the ball fully crosses the goal line between the goal-posts and beneath the crossbar, even if a defending player last touched the ball before it crossed the goal line (see own goal). A goal may, however, be ruled illegal (and void by the referee) if the player who scored or a member of their team commits an offence under any of the laws between the time the ball was previously out of play and the goal being scored. It is also deemed void if a player on the opposing team commits an offence before the ball has passed the line, as in the case of fouls being committed, a penalty awarded but the ball continued on a path that caused it to cross the goal line.

The football goal size for a junior match goal is approximately half the size of an adult sized match goal.

History of football goals and nets
Football goals were first described in England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. In 1584 and 1602 respectively, John Norden and Richard Carew referred to "goals" in Cornish hurling. Carew described how goals were made: "they pitch two bushes in the ground, some eight or ten foote asunder; and directly against them, ten or twelue [twelve] score off, other twayne in like distance, which they terme their Goales". The first reference to scoring a goal is in John Day's play The Blind Beggar of Bethnal Green (performed circa 1600; published 1659). Similarly in a poem in 1613, Michael Drayton refers to "when the Ball to throw, And drive it to the Gole, in squadrons forth they goe". Solid crossbars were first introduced by the Sheffield Rules. Football nets were invented by Liverpool engineer John Brodie in 1891, and they were a necessary help for discussions about whether or not a goal had been scored.

Penalty and goal areas

Two rectangular boxes are marked out on the pitch in front of each goal.

The goal area (colloquially the "six-yard box"), consists of the rectangle formed by the goal-line, two lines starting on the goal-line  from the goalposts and extending  into the pitch from the goal-line, and the line joining these, i.e. they are a rectangle 6yds by 20yds. Goal kicks and any free kick by the defending team may be taken from anywhere in this area. FIFA's laws of the game stipulates that: "All free kicks are taken from the place where the offence occurred, except:
indirect free kicks to the attacking team for an offence inside the opponents' goal area are taken from the nearest point on the goal area line which runs parallel to the goal line, and free kicks to the defending team in their goal area may be taken from anywhere in that area."

The penalty area (colloquially "the 18-yard box" or just "the box") is similarly formed by the goal-line and lines extending from it, but its lines start  from the goalposts and extend  into the field. i.e. this is a rectangle 44yds by 18 yds.  This area has a number of functions, the most prominent being to denote where the goalkeeper may handle the ball and where a foul by a defender, usually punished by a direct free kick, becomes punishable by a penalty kick. Both the goal and penalty areas were formed as semicircles until 1902.

The penalty mark (colloquially "the penalty spot" or just "the spot") is  in front of the very centre of the goal: this is the point from where penalty kicks are taken.

The penalty arc (colloquially "the D") is marked from the outside edge of the penalty area,  from the penalty mark; this, along with the penalty area, marks an exclusion zone for all players other than the penalty kicker and defending goalkeeper during a penalty kick.

Other markings

The centre circle is marked at  from the centre mark. Similar to the penalty arc, this indicates the minimum distance that opposing players have to keep at kick-off; the ball itself is placed on the centre mark. During penalty shootouts all players other than the two goalkeepers and the current kicker are required to remain within this circle.

The half-way line divides the pitch in two. The half which a team defends is commonly referred to as being their half. Players have to be located within their own half at a kick-off and may not be penalised as being offside in their own half. The intersections between the half-way line and the touchline can be indicated with flags like those marking the corners – the laws consider this as an optional feature.

The arcs in the corners denote the area (within 1 yard of the corner) in which the ball has to be placed for corner kicks; opposition players have to be  away during a corner, and there may be optional lines off-pitch 9.15 metres (10 yards) away from the corner arc on the goal- and touch-lines to help gauge these distances.

Turf

Grass is the normal surface of play, although artificial turf may sometimes be used especially in locations where maintenance of grass may be difficult due to inclement weather. This may include areas where it is very wet, causing the grass to deteriorate rapidly; where it is very dry, causing the grass to die; and where the turf is under heavy use. Artificial turf pitches are also increasingly common in the Nordic countries, due to the amount of snow during the winter months. The strain put on grass pitches by the cold climate and subsequent snow clearing has necessitated the installation of artificial turf in the stadia of many top-tier clubs in Norway, Sweden and Finland. The latest artificial surfaces use rubber crumbs, as opposed to the previous system of sand infill. Some leagues and football associations have specifically prohibited artificial surfaces due to injury concerns and require teams' home stadia to have grass pitches. All artificial turf has to be green and also meet the requirements specified in the FIFA Quality Concept for Football Turf.

Football can also be played on a dirt or gravel field. In most parts of the world dirt is used only for casual recreational play.

In the winter the pitch may be used for bandy (similar to ice hockey) by being filled with water which is allowed to freeze.

See also
 Football field (for each football code)
 Turf management
 Groundskeeping

References

Further reading

Pitch
Sports rules and regulations
Sports venues by type
Grass field surfaces

Football pitch


A chicken sandwich is a sandwich that typically consists of boneless, skinless chicken breast or thigh, served between slices of bread, on a bun, or on a roll. Variations on the "chicken sandwich" include the chicken burger, chicken on a bun, chicken on a Kaiser , hot chicken, or chicken salad sandwich.

In American English, a sandwich is any two pieces of bread with filling, including rolls, buns, or even chocolate sliders when it comes to ice-cream sandwiches; in British English (and also some other national English varieties, such as those of Canada, Ireland, Australia and New Zealand), the word sandwich is defined more narrowly, to require the pieces of bread to be sliced from a loaf, and a roll or bun with filling would not generally be called a sandwich. A bun with a cooked chicken breast as filling would generally be called a chicken sandwich in the U.S., but in the UK and other Commonwealth or former colonial countries, such a dish is not considered a sandwich, and would generally be called a chicken burger instead; most Americans would not consider such as dish to count as a burger, since Americans generally consider a burger to require a patty made from ground/minced meat.

Composition
In the United States, the sandwich usually consists of a chicken filet or patty, toppings and bread. The chicken meat can be deep fried, grilled, roasted or boiled, served hot or cold, and white or dark meat chicken can be used. Shredded chicken in one form or another, such as chicken salad, can also be used in chicken sandwiches. Another form is made with cold cuts. Wrap versions of the sandwich can also be made, in which the ingredients are rolled up inside a flatbread, such as a tortilla. Open-faced versions of the sandwich, which feature hot chicken served with gravy on top of bread, are also common variations.

Varieties

Chicken burger

Some establishments serving hamburgers also serve chicken sandwiches, giving customers an alternative to beef. Such a sandwich may also be called "chicken on a bun" or "chicken burger" in many countries, and is served on a hamburger bun with similar condiments and toppings as found on hamburgers. While most chicken sandwiches in this context usually use fried or grilled chicken breasts, a chicken burger may also be made of a grilled or fried patty of ground chicken.

History

Chick-fil-A claims that it invented the fried chicken sandwich in the 1940s. This claim is unsubstantiated, although the Chick-fil-A southern-style chicken sandwich (served with pickles on a steamed roll), introduced on March 21, 1964, was most likely the first chicken sandwich introduced by a fast food restaurant chain. Other notable vendors of chicken sandwiches include KFC and Popeyes Louisiana Kitchen. Today, most major fast food, fast casual and casual dining chains feature some sort of chicken sandwich, even at restaurants where chicken is not a specialty.

Chicken salad sandwich
Chicken salad served between slices of bread is a chicken sandwich variation seen both in North America and elsewhere.

Regional varieties

Ireland
In Ireland, the popular chicken fillet roll is a baguette filled with a spicy or plain Southern-fried breaded chicken fillet and a mayonnaise and/or butter spread.

Canada

The hot chicken sandwich or simply "hot chicken" (French: sandwich chaud au poulet) is a chicken sandwich covered with gravy eaten with utensils. The sandwich is sometimes served with green peas. It is especially popular in Quebec and is often considered one of the province's staple dishes. Since it is so commonly found in eateries of Quebec (Rôtisserie St-Hubert, Valentine, e.g.) and less seen outside the province, many Québécois regard it as a part of Quebec cuisine and believe it to have originated in the province. This combination of chicken, gravy, and peas is known by its own term: galvaude, seen in poutine galvaude.

The sandwich is also found in small diners in the Canadian Maritimes and throughout the Southeastern United States.

The sandwich was a working-class dish already common and well established in North American cuisine by the early 1900s and featured on the food menus of pharmacists and druggists of the time. Due to its ease of preparation and its minimal costs, the sandwich was also widely served in the mess halls and cafeterias of the mid-1900s.

This style of sandwich often makes use of leftovers from a previous meal. Substituting turkey for the chicken would make a hot turkey sandwich and substituting roast beef makes a variety of the roast beef sandwich.

Latin America

The pepito is a sandwich that is prepared with chicken or beef, beans or refried beans and a roll or bun as primary ingredients. It is a common street food in Mexico and Venezuela.

Midwestern United States
Found in Ohio is the shredded chicken sandwich.  The sandwich is also referred to as a hot chicken sandwich in rural Ohio.  The sandwich consists of shredded chicken, one or more types of condensed soup, seasoning and crushed crackers to help thicken and bind the sauce.  This dish can be heated on a stove top or slow cooker.  Invented as a way to use leftover chicken, these sandwiches became popular for covered dish dinners, potlucks, church dinners and tailgate parties. They are also sold in small-town restaurants, drive-ins and bars. The sandwich can also be found at "Ohio" community dinners on the Gulf Coast of Florida held by retirees or snowbirds from Ohio.

See also

Burger King grilled chicken sandwiches
Chicken Sandwich Wars
List of sandwiches
McChicken

References

Further reading
Fuller, Eva Greene (1909).  The Up-to-date Sandwich Book: 400 Ways to Make a Sandwich. A. C. McClurg & Company. pp. 82–88.

External links

American chicken dishes
American sandwiches
Canadian chicken dishes

Chicken sandwich


Darren Timothy Mansaram (born 25 June 1984) is an English former professional footballer who played as a striker.

He notably played as a professional for Grimsby Town where he started his career in 2002 going on to appear for The Mariners in the second, third and fourth tier of English football before his departure in 2005. He has also spent time playing in the League of Ireland Premier League for Sligo Rovers, Bohemians and Dundalk. He has since made his trade in England's Non-League game for Halifax Town, York City, Tamworth, Worksop Town, Leigh Genesis, Retford United, Gainsborough Trinity, Droylsden, Armthorpe Welfare, Brigg Town, Arnold Town and Rainworth Miners Welfare.

Career

Grimsby Town
Mansaram began his career at Grimsby Town progressing through the youth ranks before being promoted to the first team towards the end of the 2001–02 season, whilst Town were competing in what is now the Football League Championship. He came into the squad with a good goal scoring record for both the reserve side and youth sides and it wasn't long before he made his break got his break within the first team. During the 2002–03 season, Town manager Paul Groves had been dealt several blows by the loss of loanee Steve Kabba as well as injuries to other forwards such as Michael Boulding while Phil Jevons was loaned out for financial reasons, this in turn saw Groves forced to select inexperienced youngsters such as Mansaram and David Soames. Despite impressing in the final half of the season, Mansaram was powerless in helping Grimsby avoid relegation from the First Division, however by the end of the season his performances had meant he was now considered as a first team regular. During the summer months he drew interest from Sheffield Wednesday but no concrete offer came in and the young striker nicknamed 'Flash' due to his lightning pace up front, stayed on at Blundell Park. Paul Groves eventually lost his job in February 2004 and was replaced by Nicky Law who in turn chopped and changed the Grimsby squad meaning signings such as Isaiah Rankin meant that Mansaram by the end of that season had found himself only playing a cameo role within the first team. Following a second successive relegation the Grimsby board installed another new manager in Russell Slade, and Mansaram now out of contract was kept on at the club during pre-season on a trial basis but despite being initially told he wasn't going to be offered a new deal he eventually signed on a 6-month deal. During the 2004–05 season, he was loaned out to Conference National side Halifax Town, and eventually moved to the club on a free transfer.

Halifax Town
Mansaram failed to make a break into the first team and found himself loaned out to Halifax Town before signing a permanent deal and joining fellow Mariner Greg Young at The Shay at the same time. Mansaram broke into the Town team but soon his performances became more rare and he was loaned out to, York City and later on Tamworth before also making a brief spell with Worksop Town.

Sligo Rovers and Bohemians
Mansaram was then convinced by Sean Connor who brought him to Ireland where he signed for Sligo Rovers. He went on to be the club's top scorer in the 2006 campaign.

When Connor moved to Bohemians, he made Mansaram one of his first signings. He scored his first goals for the club when scoring twice in the League Cup win over Bray Wanderers on 17 April 2007. Mansaram left Bohemians on 3 July 2008 having failed to play regular football in his second season at Bohs after the arrival of Jason Byrne and made a move back to England.

Leigh Genesis and Retford United
Darren's next port of call was to sign for non-league club Leigh Genesis, who had formed out of the old Conference club Leigh RMI. Mansaram was able to score three times for the club, before
Leigh's wealthy benefactors pulled the plug in late 2009. Darren briefly played for Retford United F.C. before confirming a move back to Ireland.

Dundalk
In January 2009 Mansaram joined up with former manager Sean Connor at newly promoted Dundalk F.C. He spent one season at Oriel Park but scored only five goals. His physical presence and ability to hold the ball quickly made him a fans favourite. Dundalk fans regularly sang his name to the tune Que Sera, Sera. However, when Connor left Dundalk, Mansaram was not offered a new deal. On 4 December 2009 he joined Gainsborough Trinity on trial.

Return to Non-league
Mansaram completed his move to Trinity on 10 December 2009 on a non contract basis. After four games for The Blues, Mansaram was released on 12 February 2010. Mansaram Signed for fellow Conference North side Droylsden, on 26 February 2010, making only a single appearance for the club before being released. Mansaram signed for Armthorpe Welfare in the ninth tier of English football in the summer of 2010. Mansaram finished the 2010–11 season as the club's top scorer, and was the club's top scorer in the 2011–12 season until his departure.

Mansaram joined Brigg Town in February 2012, but was released at the end of the 2011–12 season. He re-signed in September 2012 but moved to return to Armthorpe 2 games later. In November 2012 he joined Arnold Town before making a third return to Armthorpe on 20 December. He later moved back to Armthorpe for a fourth spell after a brief spell with Rainworth Miners Welfare.

References

External links
Darren Mansaram profile at thefishy.co.uk

1984 births
Living people
Footballers from Doncaster
English men's footballers
Grimsby Town F.C. players
Halifax Town A.F.C. players
York City F.C. players
Tamworth F.C. players
Worksop Town F.C. players
Sligo Rovers F.C. players
Bohemian F.C. players
Leigh Genesis F.C. players
Dundalk F.C. players
Gainsborough Trinity F.C. players
Droylsden F.C. players
Armthorpe Welfare F.C. players
Brigg Town F.C. players
Arnold Town F.C. players
English Football League players
National League (English football) players
League of Ireland players
Men's association football forwards
Rainworth Miners Welfare F.C. players

Darren Mansaram


Telavox was a Danish manufacturer of loudspeakers, radios and televisions established in 1924 by Clemen Jørgensen in Copenhagen, Denmark. The company was from 1929 based in Vanløse. It was acquired by To-R in 1952.

The company established a production of clocks during World War II. The clocks were sold under the name Clementa  by a separate company, after 1952.

History
Clemen Jørgensen (1893–1992), a clock-maker from Silkeborg, moved to Copenhagen in 1921. In 1924, he established a production of horn loudspeakers in his own apartment. In 1925, he moved the activities to a backroom on Hostrupsvej. They were sold under the name Element through the wholesaler J. Axel Christensen & Co. at Nørrevoldgade 52. Later in 1925, Jørgensen established a production line in a building in the courtyard at Borgergade 108. His brother, Magnus Jørgensen, a furniture-maker, became a partner in the company. Their loudspeakers were sold under the brand D.N.D. (short for , English: The New Danish).

Jørgensen was an acquaintance of the inventor Peter L. Jensen who had established Magnavox in 1927. Jensen proposed Jørgensen to use the name Telavox.

In 1929, Jørgensen bought a factory at Apollovej 31 in Vanløse. The company had now also established a production of radios. The company was known for its high quality of craftsmanship and was also producing cabinets for other radio manufacturers, including Philips (in 1930). Magnus Jørgensen died in 1932. Clemen and Magnus Jørgensen's younger brother, who was also a furniture-maker and had joined the company in 1927, then took over the position as head of the cabinet division.

The factory was expanded in 1937. It had 250 employees in 1943.
Jørgensen designed and constructed a wind turbine which he placed on the factory roof. The wind turbine, which had a 10 kW maximum output, produced electricity for many years. It was his hope that manufacture of wind turbines would be a future source of income for the company but the prototype was never commercialized.

On 1 April 1952, it was sold to To-R, another Danish radio and television manufacturer.

Clocks
During World War II, radio valves were unavailable in Denmark and Telavox therefore established a production of clocks on their factory in Vanløse. The first clocks were manufactured in 1942. Jørgensen used a bimetallic balance on his Telavox clock design to avoid temperature variations and hence make the clockworks more accurate than other clocks on the market at the time. From 1944 to 1952, Telavox manufactured a total of 150,000 clocks with ten different case designs and four types of movement. When Jørgensen sold the company in 1952, clock production was split off from radio manufacturing under the name Clementa.

References

External links

Loudspeaker manufacturers
Manufacturing companies based in Copenhagen
Danish companies established in 1924
Danish brands
Audio equipment manufacturers of Denmark

Telavox


Kahle v. Gonzales, 487 F.3d 697 (9th Cir. 2007) (previously named Kahle v. Ashcroft) is a First Amendment case that challenges the change in the US copyright law from an opt-in system to an opt-out system.

Four plaintiffs, the Internet Archive along with its founder, Brewster Kahle, and the  Prelinger Archives and its founder Rick Prelinger, brought the suit against the government for changing the copyright regime. In the past, copyright renewal did not happen by default. Creators needed to renew copyrights after their terms expired to retain the exclusive right to reproduce their work. The Copyright Renewal Act of 1992 removed the renewal requirement, so that all copyrights would last the same term. Now, creators must explicitly remove copyright if they do not desire it.

Working from the case law of Eldred v. Ashcroft, which unsuccessfully challenged the extension of copyright, Lawrence Lessig argued that a change in copyright law as drastic as the change from opt-in to opt-out required a review in regard to freedom of speech. The plaintiffs argued that the limitations placed on speech and expression by copyright were drastically expanded and possibly too limiting.

The Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals heard the oral arguments on November 13, 2006. The Ninth Circuit rejected Kahle's arguments in an opinion issued January 22, 2007. An eight-page opinion written by Ninth Circuit Judge Jerome Farris stated: "They (the plaintiffs) make essentially the same argument, in different form, that the Supreme Court rejected in Eldred. It fails here as well." The Ninth Circuit rejected an appeal for en banc rehearing of the case. An amended opinion substituted the original on May 14.

The Supreme Court denied the Plaintiff's petition for writ of certiorari on January 7, 2008.

References

External links

 Reaction from an attorney involved
 Reaction from Lawrence Lessig

United States copyright case law
2006 in United States case law
United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit cases

Kahle v. Gonzales


Fancy Pants is a 1950 American romantic comedy western film directed by George Marshall and starring Bob Hope and Lucille Ball. It is a musical adaptation of Ruggles of Red Gap.

Plot
A British actor attempts to impress two visiting American women, Efflie Floud and her tomboyish daughter, Agatha, by having the cast of his drawing-room comedy pose as his aristocratic family. Effie persuades the 'butler', Humphrey, really a struggling American actor named Arthur Tyler, to accompany them to the United States and help to refine both her husband and daughter. She sends a telegram home, referring to the person she believes is Humphrey as a "gentleman's gentleman", which the rural western townfolk misunderstand as meaning he is an aristocrat and presumably the future husband of Agatha. Arthur must now pretend to the family that he is this British butler while pretending to the rest of the town, and the visiting President Theodore Roosevelt that he is a politically savvy Englishman.

The deception is eventually uncovered, and the actor and the family's daughter gradually fall in love.

Cast
 Bob Hope as Humphrey  Arthur Tyler
 Lucille Ball as Agatha Floud
 Annette Warren provides the singing voice for Agatha Floud
 Bruce Cabot as Cart Belknap
 Jack Kirkwood as Mike Floud
 Lea Penman as Effie Floud
 Hugh French as George Van Basingwell
 Eric Blore as Sir Wimbley
 Joseph Vitale as Wampum
 John Alexander as Teddy Roosevelt
 Norma Varden as Lady Maude
 Virginia Keiley as Rosalind
 Colin Keith-Johnston as Twombley
 Joe Wong as Wong
 Olaf Hytten as stage manager (uncredited)

See also
 List of American films of 1950

References

External links

1950 films
1950 romantic comedy films
1950s English-language films
1950s historical comedy films
1950s historical romance films
American historical comedy films
American historical romance films
American romantic comedy films
1950s Western (genre) comedy films
Cultural depictions of Theodore Roosevelt
Films based on American novels
Films directed by George Marshall
Films set in the 1900s
Films set in England
Films set in New Mexico
Musical film remakes
Paramount Pictures films
1950s American films

Fancy Pants (film)


Uher was a German brand of electronic equipment currently owned and licensed by Assmann Electronics of Bad Homburg.

The manufacturer Uher Werke was based in Munich, Germany, and is probably best known for its former range of portable reel-to-reel tape recorders which were once widely used by professionals in areas such as reporting and film-making. Since digital equipment has become widespread, these older analogue recording machines are no longer produced. Two parts of the Uher company still exist, one which has focused on informatics, and ATIS Uher focused on IT security.

The Uher model 5000  was a centerpiece in the Nixon White House tapes scandal, when 18.5 minutes of recordings were "inadvertently" erased.

Report series

Report 4000 series
Introduced in 1961, the "Report 4000" series of portables had a neat, compact design, about 11" wide, 10" deep, and 4" thick (28 cm × 25 cm × 10.2 cm).  They used 5" reels of tape, and came in three models:

 Report 4000 - two-track mono, later four-track mono
 Report 4200 - two-track stereo (tape used in one direction), usable also as two-track mono (tape runs in both directions)
 Report 4400 - four-track stereo (tape used in both directions, being turned over in between), usable also as four-track mono

They had four speeds: 7½ inches per second (i.p.s. or in/s), 3¾ i.p.s., 1⅞ i.p.s., and 15/16 i.p.s. [19 cm per second (cm/s), 9.5 cm/s, 4.75 cm/s, and 2.38 cm/s].  With the longest variety of 5" tape (1800 ft. [549 m] long), and using four-track mono at 15/16 i.p.s., it would be possible to get about 24 hours' recording time on one reel of tape, albeit at poor quality suitable only for speech, and 6 hours' continuous recording time would be possible.

About one million Report 4000 were produced. The Report were built until 1999.

Other series
Based upon the mechanical design and chassis of the 4000 series recorders Uher also offered the professional
 Report 1000 (early model Rangertone sync, later Neo-Pilot)
 Report 1200 Synchro (Neo-pilot)

Full-track (one-track Mono) recorders. These ran at a single 15 i.p.s. [38.1 cm/s] speed and provided a sync head for motion picture sound synchronization as well as dedicated record and playback heads. These models were not widely adopted. Even German and European television tended despite outfitting their radio reports with 4000-series machines to adopt Nagra or Stellavox recorders for film production.

The final model of the Report series was the Report 6000 introduced in 1986. They featured a more modern three-motor design and electronic control.

Shared specs
All the Report recorders had small loudspeakers (mono) built into them, at various times either in the front, or on the top near the piano-key-style controls.

They had several sources of power:

 Mains power, using an internal fitting power transformer;
 Internal rechargeable dry-fit battery: both nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd) and gel lead acid (GLA) were available
 Five standard (non-rechargeable) D-sized batteries.
 External power via a range of power adapters for automotive power (models for 6 V, 12 V and 24 V were available).

Royal de Luxe series
The Royal de Luxe series was targeted at the home market. Unlike the report series these tape recorders could only be powered via the mains. Most of them had stereo speakers built in except the Uher Royal de Luxe c which required a separate amplifier and apeakers. All of them used 7"  reels and most of them were in stereo.

Uher Royal de Luxe
 The track system used on this machine and many others is a four-track, two-channel. Exchanging the recording head assembly (containing a total of 4 heads: erasing, recording, playback and "dia-pilot") by removing only two retaining nuts, it could be converted to two-track. The machine can either record in mono or stereo. The machine has four different speeds which are: 7½, 3¾, 1⅞ and 15/16 i.p.s. The machine has a frequency response of 20 Hz to 20 kHz (7½ i.p.s.). The input voltages are: 50  mV (line) and 2 mV (mic). The output is: 0.7757 V (line). This machine includes a feature called Dia-Pilot. This means that it can record a running commentary or music and trigger the change of slides in an automatic slide projector with a relay actuated by an inaudible pulse on the tape.

Small cassette machines

Since 1971 Uher produced very small HiFi cassette machines which can be described as compact Report series: the CR 124, 1974 CR 210, since 1977 the CR 240 with Dolby B.

References

External links

Uher official website

Electronics companies of Germany
German brands

Uher (brand)


A callable bond (also called redeemable bond) is a type of bond (debt security) that allows the issuer of the bond to retain the privilege of redeeming the bond at some point before the bond reaches its date of maturity. In other words, on the call date(s), the issuer has the right, but not the obligation, to buy back the bonds from the bond holders at a defined call price. Technically speaking, the bonds are not really bought and held by the issuer but are instead cancelled immediately.

The call price will usually exceed the par or issue price. In certain cases, mainly in the high-yield debt market, there can be a substantial call premium.

Thus, the issuer has an option which it pays for by offering a higher coupon rate. If interest rates in the market have gone down by the time of the call date, the issuer will be able to refinance its debt at a cheaper level and so will be incentivized to call the bonds it originally issued. Another way to look at this interplay is that, as interest rates go down, the present values of the bonds go up; therefore, it is advantageous to buy the bonds back at par value.

With a callable bond, investors have the benefit of a higher coupon than they would have had with a non-callable bond. On the other hand, if interest rates fall, the bonds will likely be called and they can only invest at the lower rate. This is comparable to selling (writing) an option — the option writer gets a premium up front, but has a downside if the option is exercised.

The largest market for callable bonds is that of issues from government sponsored entities. They own many mortgages and mortgage-backed securities. In the U.S., mortgages are usually fixed rate, and can be prepaid early without cost, in contrast to the norms in other countries. If rates go down, many home owners will refinance at a lower rate. As a consequence, the agencies lose assets. By issuing numerous callable bonds, they have a natural hedge, as they can then call their own issues and refinance at a lower rate.

The price behaviour of a callable bond is the opposite of that of puttable bond. Since call option and put option are not mutually exclusive, a bond may have both options embedded.

Pricing

 price of callable bond = price of straight bond – price of call option;
 Price of a callable bond is always lower than the price of a straight bond because the call option adds value to an issuer.
 Yield on a callable bond is higher than the yield on a straight bond.

References

External links
Bonds 2000
Callable Bond: Definition

Bonds (finance)
Options (finance)
Embedded options

Callable bond


Misty, known as  in Japan, is a fictional character in the Pokémon franchise owned by Nintendo and created by Satoshi Tajiri. She has appeared as a Gym Leader in the Pokémon video games Pokémon Red and Blue, Pokémon Gold and Silver, and their respective remakes. She was a protagonist in the ongoing anime for the first five seasons, travelling alongside Ash Ketchum and Brock / Tracey to become the world's best Water-type Pokémon trainer before departing home to Cerulean City to run the family gym, but made recurring appearances after and eventually resuming her journey after Ash won the rank of World Champion. The character has also appeared in manga like Pokémon Adventures. She specialises in Water Type Pokémon. Her Japanese voice actress is Mayumi Iizuka, while her English voice was supplied by Rachael Lillis and Michele Knotz, while her Korean voice was supplied by Ji Mi-Ae, Lee Chi-Hyeon, Kim Hyeon-Ji and Yeo Minjeong.

Design
Misty's character design was overseen by Ken Sugimori and Atsuko Nishida, and for the anime the design was overseen by Sayuri Ichishi. Her Japanese voice actress, Mayumi Iizuka, stated that during her audition the director asked her to act like herself, and in doing so she landed the role. As a result, she considers Misty to be the one character she has voiced who most represents herself. Mayumi keeps track of her character's promotional appearances in merchandise and other material, additionally providing fans with insights on possible future cameos in the anime series.

Appearances

In the video games
In the video games Pokémon Red, Blue, Yellow, FireRed & LeafGreen, Pokémon Gold, Silver, Crystal, Pokémon HeartGold and SoulSilver, and Pokémon: Let's Go, Pikachu! and Let's Go, Eevee!, Misty is the Gym Leader of Cerulean City. She specializes in Water-type Pokémon. Misty, in her anime form, also appears as a trophy in Super Smash Bros. Melee and as a gym leader in Pokémon Puzzle League. Additionally, she appears on Pokémon Channel on a full Japanese Pichu Bros. Disc. The disc differs from the other Japanese disc, as Misty's (Kasumi) voice actor is the narrator. Misty, as well as most of the gym leaders in Pokémon history, reappear in Pokémon Black 2 and White 2 as part of the Pokémon World Tournament.

In the anime
The anime follows the quest of one of the main characters, Ash Ketchum, as he and his friends travel around the fictitious world of Pokémon along with their Pokémon partners. Misty is a stubborn tomboy who trains Water Pokémon and has three siblings, Daisy, Lily and Violet.  She left the Gym to her three older sisters prior to traveling with Ash in the anime, although she still retained the title of Gym Leader despite this. She first comes across Ash when she accidentally fishes him and his Pikachu out of a river while fishing for water Pokémon. Soon after this incident, Ash "borrows" her bike in an attempt to flee from a flock of wild Spearow. The bike is later charred by an attack from Pikachu. Misty tells Ash she will not leave him alone until he replaces the bike and commits to follow him on his journey, and the two soon become best friends. After retrieving her repaired bike at the end of the Johto League Silver Conference, she returns to the Cerulean Gym and resumes her duties as the Gym Leader.

Misty becomes a central character in Pokémon Chronicles, a spin-off to the Pokémon anime, and appears in several specials and episodes. She maintains her friendship with Ash and eventually goes to Hoenn to meet up with him, meeting May and Max, and sees him again when he returns to Pallet following a long stint in Hoenn. She also appeared in an arc composed of at least two episodes of the Sun & Moon series, where she and Brock meet Ash and his friends in Kanto, and later appears in two more episodes of the Sun & Moon series when she reunites with Ash in Alola. Misty made more appearances in Pokémon Ultimate Journeys: The Series as Ash's journey with the show came to end.

In the early episodes, Misty is depicted as having a short temper, stubborn temperament, and little patience. As the series progresses, however, she gradually shows herself to be kind and sensible. Misty becomes the parental guardian of Togepi, caring for it throughout the series. Misty constantly reins in Brock when he becomes enamored with pretty girls, often pulling him away by the ear. She also has the insectophobia of most Bug-type Pokémon. Misty aims to be a world-class Water-type Pokémon trainer despite her sisters' ridicule.

In the manga
The Misty character that appears in the Electric Tale of Pikachu manga series, which is loosely based on the anime, is similar to the Misty in the anime, while the Misty in Pokémon Adventures is similar to the Misty in the video games. She appears throughout Electric Tale of Pikachu, traveling on occasion with Ash. In Pokémon Adventures, When Red, the protagonist of the manga, first meets her, she is trying to recapture her Gyarados with help of her Staryu, which has been brainwashed by Team Rocket. They decide to team up and confront Team Rocket. The next morning, after spending the night resting in Misty's mansion, Misty leads Red to her Gym and reveals herself to be the Gym Leader. They have a battle, and though Misty quickly gained the upper hand and easily defeated Red with her fast and strong Starmie, she is worried that if they do not prepare themselves, Team Rocket will defeat them easily. Red decides that he might actually need training, and agrees to train. At that point, they become close friends.

In Pocket Monsters, Red, the protagonist of the series, is seeking a Moon Stone along with his Pikachu and his Clefairy (one that speaks human language). When they meet Misty, Clefairy notices that she is wearing a Moon Stone as a necklace. Misty declares that they battle her if they wish to have it. While the Clefairy is initially pumped up to battle, he quickly changes his mind when he sees that his opponent is a massive Blastoise. After a while, the battle is won when Clefairy sucks up all the water in a nearby river and releases the water onto Misty's Pokémon, sending it flying into the sky. Just when Misty is about to reward Red's group with the prize they sought, the stone is stolen.

Critical reception
The book The Japanification of Children's Popular Culture described Misty's portrayal in the anime as a mother figure, calling her a "nurturing component" for the original trio of herself, Ash and Brock. It further described her as an "unusually 'complete' girl of the cartoon world", noting both her feminine sentimentality and her "explosive rage". Anime Classics Zettai!: 100 Must-See Japanese Animation Masterpieces praised the character as being "particularly nuanced" and described her as contributing heavily to the series' appeal. Pikachu's Global Adventure: The Rise and Fall of Pokémon stated that though the anime focused on Ash, Misty was a distinctly significant character especially to young female consumers, neither "butch" nor "dizzily feminine", seemingly "carefully constructed to appeal to preadolescent girls". It added that, unlike other aggressive female characters in the series, Misty did not sacrifice her femininity to succeed, making the character further popular with young American women, a contrast to Japanese children who focused more on the individual Pokémon species to identify with.

In studies on the reactions boys and girls had to the concept of Misty as a heroine in the series, girls accepted it and were eager to associate themselves with the character, while boys attempted to belittle her efforts. On the other hand, children of both genders felt the character alongside Brock gave Ash a sense of identity and moral support, which researchers attributed to the concept of group identity. In another study, children were shown to associate the attributes of attractiveness and aggressiveness, while college students described the character as romantic. Pikachu's Global Adventure additionally stated Misty also served as a source of non-threatening sexuality for both older and younger male viewers, though the context of such was presented in a more subtle way for North American localizations of the series.

In 2013, nearing Halloween, Archie Comics illustrator Ryan Jampole utilized Misty as one of the 31 costumes for the character Roll from the Archie Comics adaptation of the Mega Man franchise.

References

External links

 Misty (anime) on Bulbapedia

Female characters in animated series
Television characters introduced in 1997
Animated characters introduced in 1997
Female characters in anime and manga
Female characters in video games
Female characters in film
Nintendo protagonists
Fictional aquatics sportspeople
Orphan characters in anime and manga
Pokémon characters
Video game bosses
Video game characters introduced in 1996
Animated human characters
Anime and manga sidekicks
Child characters in anime and manga
Child characters in film
Child characters in musical theatre
Child characters in television
Child characters in video games

fr:Personnages de Pokémon#Ondine
pt:Misty

Misty (Pokémon)


Harold Joseph Raveché  (born March 18, 1943) was the sixth President of Stevens Institute of Technology in Hoboken, New Jersey. He is the founder and president of Innovation Strategies International, a global education-innovation consulting firm.

Education and early career
Raveché was born in Brooklyn, New York. He earned his Bachelor of Science degree in chemistry at Hofstra University in 1963. He then earned a PhD in physical chemistry and statistical mechanics from the University of California at San Diego, where his research was in statistical mechanics.

Following his PhD work at UCSD, Raveché was awarded a research fellowship working with Melville S. Green at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), and then accepted a research chemist position.  At the NIST, he founded the thermodynamics division and conducted a federal study on supercomputing.

In 1985 Raveché was named Dean of Science at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, where he helped restructure their Science Initiatives Program to advance science education and helped increase the program's federal research grants to $9 million. He also attracted 27 new faculty members from institutions such as the National Academy of Sciences and Duke and Columbia Universities.

Stevens Institute of Technology
In 1988, Raveché was named president of Stevens Institute of Technology to replace Kenneth C. Rogers, who joined the Nuclear Regulatory Commission.  His goals upon accepting the position included: increasing the number of guest lecturers to enhance students' interest in the sciences, improving the university's national reputation, and encouraging students to participate in research projects. Raveché also hoped to improve the students' communication skills with humanities courses and to develop courses in polymer processing and the analysis of coastal lands and the coastal ecology.

At Stevens, Raveché connected the university's research programs with business and government to encourage technology development.  He promoted Stevens' trademarked Technogenesis education process, in which students learn how to commercialize the university's research and ideas.

Raveché also emphasized the importance of a well-rounded student experience at Stevens. He expanded the Scholar-Athlete program and oversaw the renovation of student dormitories and the construction of new buildings, including the Lawrence T. Babbio, Jr. Center for Technology Management and the Rocco Technology Center.

As president of the Stevens Institute of Technology, Raveché led the foundation of a private university in the Dominican Republic, called Stevens Institute of Technology International.

Political prospects
A self-described pro-business moderate Republican, Raveché was mentioned as a possible contender in the Republican primary elections for the New Jersey governor's race as early as 2005, and again in 2009. Also in 2009, he was asked to run for the seat of retiring New Jersey Senior Congressman, and Republican stalwart, H. James Saxton. A resident of Saxton's 3rd Congressional District, Raveché respectfully declined to enter the race in order to continue in his role as president of Stevens.

Allegations by New Jersey Attorney General
On September 17, 2009, New Jersey Attorney General Anne Milgram announced charges against Raveché and the Stevens board of trustees chairman Lawrence T. Babbio, Jr. According to the state's 16-count lawsuit, Stevens' leaders allegedly kept several trustees in the dark about the school's financial condition.

The lawsuit alleged that Raveché and Babbio misrepresented the finances of the school and caused the endowment to fall by $42 million from $157 million in 2000 to $115 million in 2009. The lawsuit also contended that Raveché received below-market loans from the school, at least some of which were forgiven by Stevens, and questioned Raveché's salary compared to the president of Massachusetts Institute of Technology, a larger, better known school.

The school denied the allegations, brought a preemptive lawsuit against the State of New Jersey, and contended that the state attorney general had overstepped her legal authority. The Stevens trustees also sought unsuccessfully to keep the Attorney General's lawsuit confidential. In December 2009, the New York Times ran an editorial calling for the Stevens case to be pursued vigorously after the end of Anne Milgram term of office.

On January 15, 2010, a settlement was reached between the school and the Attorney General's office. The Final Consent Judgment stated in part that "the Parties have reached an amicable agreement resolving the issues in controversy and concluding this action without trial, adjudication, or any admission of liability or unlawful conduct by any Party." As a part of the settlement, Raveché agreed to step down as president at the end of the 2010 school year and agreed to repay the remainder of the mortgage which the school had extended to him. Other terms of the agreement were focused on limiting the influence of the school's president over committees of the board, designed to promote transparency of operation, and to forestall future allegations of perceived misconduct. Raveché was succeeded by Nariman Farvardin.

Innovation Strategies International
After leaving Stevens, Raveché founded Innovation Strategies International, a consulting firm which assists universities, corporations and government agencies with entrepreneurship and innovation. Raveché was the longtime science and technology adviser to President Leonel Fernandez of the Dominican Republic. Raveché also served as entrepreneur-in-residence at the National University of Malaysia, and lectures on innovation in Singapore, Sri Lanka, India, Vietnam, Taiwan  and Korea. Raveché also occasionally writes on topics of geopolitics, technology, military preparedness and national security. In 2014 Raveché was appointed by Beneficial Holdings, Inc., as an independent member of its board of directors. He has been on the board of directors of several electronics, power-generation and financial organizations.

References

Living people
Presidents of Stevens Institute of Technology
University of California, San Diego alumni
1943 births

Harold J. Raveché


Window Connection is a 2014 Bengali psychological thriller film directed by R. K. Gupta. It features actors Aryann Bhowmik and Tanusree Chakraborty in the lead roles. Music of this film has been composed by Anupam Roy.

Plot
Rahul is a college-going boy who has always longed for the attention and love of his parents, which he feels deprived of. When he meets Sohini, his forgets his loneliness and his mind gets obsessed with her thoughts. A new desire to live works within him. But that Rahul loves her remains unknown to Sohini, the results of which were strange or mysterious events occurring in her life. Whether Rahul is able to win the heart of Sohini or not, forms the climax of the story.

Cast
 Aryann Bhowmik as Rahul
 Tanusree Chakraborty as Sohini
 Biswajit Chakraborty
 Kanchan Mullick
 Rajat Ganguly
 Rita Koiral
 Sunil Kumar

Production
Window Connection is the directorial debut of R. K. Gupta. Regarding his first project, he said, "We have already started shooting. It's a triangular love story-turned-psychological thriller. And I must say, both the actors are doing a fine job." Tanusree Chakraborty referred to this film as a "dark film".

Tanusree Chakraborty was signed to play the role of Sohini, who is a cheerful girl who works for an ad agency. On the other hand, Rahul, the character played by Aryann Bhowmik, is a dark character. Rahul is a college-going student from a disturbed family background. This is for the first time that Tanusree is working as a heroine where her hero is younger than her. Regarding her role in the film, Tanusree said, "My character, Sohini, has loads of shades and the film has lots of twists and turns. Initially, it might come across as a love story, but it gradually develops into a thriller."

Music
Anupam Roy roped in to compose the film score for Window Connection.

References

Bengali-language Indian films
2010s Bengali-language films
2014 films
Indian psychological thriller films
Films scored by Anupam Roy

Window Connection


Kyle De'Volle is a British fashion designer, creative director, celebrity stylist, fashion consultant and style commentator.
Born 29 November 1989

De'Volle grew up in  Notting Hill Gate in West London and has worked for Rita Ora as her stylist from 2010-2018

De'Volle has designed a shoe range for JF London  and also two accessories ranges for Charlotte Simone.

Known first and foremost for his work as a celebrity stylist, De'Volle has enjoyed a long creative collaboration with Rita Ora. In addition to Rita, De Volle has worked with Cara Delevingne, Bruno Mars, Leigh-Anne Pinnock, Andreja Pejic.

De'Volle's television and editorial credits include The X Factor UK, The Voice UK, MOBO Awards, Britain's Got Talent, MTV, Vogue, Cosmopolitan, Tatler, Feroce and Mixte magazine.

References

British fashion designers
People from Notting Hill
1989 births
Living people

Kyle De'Volle


Joseph Gibson Hoyt (January 19, 1815 – November 26, 1862) was the first chancellor and a professor of Greek at Washington University in St. Louis (then named Washington Institute in St. Louis) from 1858 to 1862. Born in Dunbarton, New Hampshire in 1815, Hoyt received his undergraduate education at Yale University, where he was a member of Skull and Bones. After Hoyt's graduation from Yale in 1840, he served as an instructor in mathematics and natural philosophy at Phillips Exeter Academy from 1840 to 1858, before taking up his post at Washington University. In 1862, Hoyt died in St. Louis, Missouri at the age of 47.

Hoyt Hall, a dormitory at Phillips Exeter Academy, is named for Hoyt. A large plaque on the building reads, "In memory of Joseph Gibson Hoyt, the great teacher."

External links
Washington University in St. Louis
Biographical entry at Washington University in St. Louis

1815 births
1862 deaths
Chancellors of Washington University in St. Louis
Yale University alumni
Phillips Exeter Academy faculty
People from Dunbarton, New Hampshire
Washington University in St. Louis mathematicians
Washington University in St. Louis faculty
Mathematicians from New Hampshire

Joseph Gibson Hoyt


Professor Bryan Horrigan (born 1962) is an Australian legal academic and the Executive Dean of the Faculty of Law at Monash University in Australia since January 2013. He previously held positions at Monash University as the Louis Waller Chair in Law and Associate Dean (Research). Formerly a senior associate and long-standing consultant with a leading international law firm, he holds a doctorate in law from Oxford University under a Rhodes Scholarship.

Education
Bryan Horrigan was born in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. He was educated at St. Joseph's College, Gregory Terrace (Brisbane) and the University of Queensland (BA, LLB), where he was awarded a Rhodes Scholarship. He was subsequently awarded a D. Phil. in Law from University College, Oxford.

Professional career
Professor Bryan Horrigan is the Executive Dean of the Faculty of Law at Monash University in Australia. Previously holding positions at Monash University as the Louis Waller Chair in Law and Associate Dean (Research) following positions at the Queenland University of Technology and University of Canberra, he became Executive Dean of the Faculty of Law at Monash University in early January 2013, succeeding Emeritus Professor Arie Freiberg as Dean. Formerly a senior associate and long-standing consultant with a leading international law firm, he holds a doctorate in law from Oxford University under a Rhodes Scholarship. He is the longest-serving current law dean in Victoria.

At Monash University, Bryan is a member of the Vice-Chancellor's executive committee and the Monash-Penn State Alliance Steering Committee. He has held board positions on the Cranlana Centre for Ethical Leadership and as a director of Monash South Africa. He has mentored and been referee for numerous students who have won prestigious scholarships (such as Menzies Scholarships, Sir John Monash Scholarships, Schwarzman Scholarships, and Rhodes Scholarships), and many of his former research assistants have gone on to become judges' associates to judges and chief justices, including in the Supreme Court of Victoria, the Federal Court of Australia, and the High Court of Australia.

In 2010, he was appointed to a three-member Australian Government expert panel, charged with investigating the regulation of unconscionable business conduct and problematic franchising behaviours, whose recommendations for reform were accepted by the Australian Government, resulting in the Australian Parliament making changes to three major pieces of national economic regulation. He was also part of the expert reference group for the Finkel Review of Australia's electricity and energy market, as well as for the work by the Centre for Policy Development leading to the publication of landmark legal opinions on the responsibilities and liabilities of companies and their boards for managing climate change risks and disclosures.

Core expertise
Bryan's published research has been cited by the Queensland Court of Appeal and speeches by high-level judges, as well as in public submissions and reports, parliamentary committee and regulatory reports, law reform commission proposals, and other academic work. He has spoken and published internationally in the fields of internationalisation of law, judicial decision-making, public sector governance, corporate social responsibility, unconscionable business conduct, and good faith in commercial transactions.

His book entitled Corporate Social Responsibility in the 21st Century: Debates, Models, and Practices Across Government, Law, and Business was published in 2010 by Edward Elgar Publications, and is frequently cited.

Achievements
In his time as Executive Dean, Professor Horrigan has steered the Faculty towards having:

 new named professorial chairs (in criminal and corporate law)
 the first and only Clinical Guarantee of any Australian law school, under which every commencing law student has the opportunity for a transformational work-situated legal clinical experience, in contributing to access to justice in Victoria and elsewhere;
 a moot court
 a growing cohort of former high-level Victorian and other Australian judges as Law Faculty members; and major initiatives such as:

- joint hosting with the Supreme Court of Victoria of a conference on the Victorian contributions and comparative lessons for human rights jurisprudence on charters and bills of rights

- the Open Justice Project pro bono collaboration with the Victorian Bar;

- the Eleos Justice initiative on capital punishment in partnership with the Capital Punishment Justice Project and with funding from the Australian Government; and

- a state and national commercial law seminar series in partnership with the Victorian Supreme Court, Federal Court of Australia, and peak bodies form the legal profession.

Publications

Contributor
Horrigan has contributed chapters to the following academic and professional texts:
 1994. Enforcing Securities
 1994. Foreign Investment in Australia
 1995. Equity: Issues and Trends
 1996. Interpreting Constitutions
 1997. Commercial Implications of Native Title
 1998. Government Law and Policy: Commercial Aspects (ed., contrib.)
 1999. Corporatisation and Privatisation in Australia
 1999. Guarantees and Solicitors' Certificates
 2001. Human Rights and Commercial Law
 2002. Oxford Companion to the High Court of Australia
 2003. From Bureaucracy to Business Enterprise
 2005. Handbook of Corporate Legal Responsibility

Author
Horrigan's books are:
 2000. Horrors' Hints: Helpful Hints on the Theory and Practice of Legal Research and Analysis for Students, Academics and Practitioners
 Faculty of Law, Kelvin Grove, Qld.: Queensland University of Technology,  (pbk.)
 2003. Adventures in Law and Justice: Exploring Big Legal Questions in Everyday Life
 Law at Large, Sydney: University of New South Wales Press,  (pbk.), "a down-to-earth explanation of topical and newsworthy law-and-justice dilemmas".
 2008. Corporate Social Responsibility in the 21st Century: Debates, Models and Practices Across Government, Law and Business
 Cheltenham, UK & Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar Publishing,  (hbk.),  (pbk.)

References

1962 births
Living people
Australian Rhodes Scholars
20th-century Australian lawyers
Academic staff of Macquarie University
Academic staff of Monash University
People educated at St Joseph's College, Gregory Terrace
University of Queensland alumni
Alumni of University College, Oxford
21st-century Australian lawyers

Bryan Horrigan


The Red Skull is an alias used by several supervillains appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics and its predecessor Timely Comics. He is the archenemy of Captain America and has also served as an enemy to Spider-Man and the Avengers.

The character has been adapted to a variety of other media platforms, including animated television series, video games and live-action feature films.

He was portrayed by actor Scott Paulin in the 1990 direct-to-video film Captain America. In the Marvel Cinematic Universe, Hugo Weaving portrayed the character in Captain America: The First Avenger (2011), and was then replaced by Ross Marquand in Avengers: Infinity War (2018) and Avengers: Endgame (2019), who also voiced an alternate version of the character in the Disney+ animated series What If...? (2021).
Marvel Comics characters

Red Skull