The Canada Southern Railway , also known as CSR, was a railway in southwestern Ontario, Canada, founded on February 28, 1868 as the Erie and Niagara Extension Railway. Its name was changed to Canada Southern Railway on December 24, 1869. The 1868 Act specified that it was to be constructed at a broad gauge of , but that requirement was repealed in the 1869 Act, thus allowing construction at the standard gauge of .

The railway was leased to the Michigan Central Railroad (MCR) for 99 years in 1883; in 1929 it was subleased to the New York Central Railroad (NYC). Its successors Penn Central (formed 1968) and Conrail (formed 1976) later exercised control before being sold to Canadian National Railway/Canadian Pacific Railway in 1985.

History

Background

The line was originally conceived by Kenyon Cox (brother of Jacob Dolson Cox, Governor of Ohio), Daniel Drew, Sidney Dillon and John F. Tracy to connect with the Wabash Railroad and establish a railway network extending from Lake Erie to the Mississippi River.

The Panic of 1873 was responsible for the failure of several large railroads in North America, together with their financial backers. In addition to the CSR, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas Railroad, Northern Pacific Railroad, Chesapeake & Ohio Railroad and New York and Oswego Midland Railroad were also affected.

The CSR's banker, Kenyon, Cox & Co. (of which Drew was general partner) failed, and its bonds were subsequently protested, although some observers felt that the move was unnecessary. CSR subsequently became insolvent, as it was unable to redeem the bonds. Within two years, it was taken over by the railroad magnate Cornelius Vanderbilt at essentially no cost other than taking on the guarantee of them.

When Cornelius died in 1877, his son, William Henry Vanderbilt, became head of the Vanderbilt railroad empire. The younger Vanderbilt took steps to separate the various railroad properties he controlled. On 1 January 1883, the New York Central Railroad (NYC) was able to lease the CSR to another Vanderbilt railroad company, the Michigan Central Railroad (MCR), on a 21-year renewable term. Vanderbilt, who owned all three companies, ensured that each one operated independently, through its own autonomous president and board of directors. In 1929, MCR subleased CSR to NYC, its parent company.

Development of the line

The company was originally authorized to construct a railway line between Fort Erie and Sandwich (Windsor), with a branch line to Amherstburg. A second branch line was authorized in 1869 between St. Thomas and Sombra the following year. Other significant subsequent legislation included:

There was an attempt in 1883 to amalgamate the CSR with the Credit Valley Railway, which was dropped when the CVR opted to merge with the Ontario and Quebec Railway instead.

Corporate headquarters

CSR's headquarters were located in St. Thomas, Ontario. The site was chosen because St Thomas was roughly equal-distance between Windsor and Fort Erie, Ontario and the city offered a $25,000 bonus to the railroad company as an incentive to build within city limits. CSR's main building, the Canada Southern Railway Station, included a passenger station and dining room on the ground floor with the railway's head offices on the upper floor. The extremely long, narrow building was based on Italianate architecture and is the only known train station in Canada to embody this style. The station was the design of Canadian architect Edgar Berryman (1839-1905).

Car shops and locomotive manufacturing

A large car shop, located in the yard, facilitated the manufacture of cars and allowed repairs to be made to locomotives. Steam locomotives were also manufactured for CSR in the car shop, beginning in 1882 and closed sometime after 1905. Types of locomotives made included:

 B-82b Class - Type 0-6-0
 B-82d Class - Type 0-6-0
 B-84  Class - Type 0-6-0
 B-84b Class - Type 0-6-0
 F-81c Class - Type 4-6-0
 F-82f Class - Type 4-6-0
 F-82  Class - Type 4-6-0
 F-82a Class - Type 4-6-0
 G-80e Class - Type 2-8-0

Initially all locomotives were built for use by CASO, but some ended their career with the New York Central Railroad.

Later years

The CSR was never completely controlled by the New York Central (later part of Penn Central) or the Michigan Central, as the two together held only about 107,000 of the 150,000 shares outstanding, and the rest were publicly held. The shareholders had received dividends in every year from 1887, and an extraordinary dividend in 1976 triggered a legal dispute that was not resolved until 1983.

On April 30, 1985, the Canadian National Railway and Canadian Pacific Railway jointly purchased the former CASO from Conrail in order to acquire the Michigan Central Railway Tunnel under the Detroit River and the Michigan Central Railway Bridge at Niagara Falls.

Much of the CASO has been downgraded, abandoned or removed by CN and CP over the years. Operations through Niagara Falls (and over the MCRR bridge) were discontinued with that portion of the line through the city removed in 2001. Unlike the rest of the line, however, the Detroit River tunnel is a key part of freight movements across the Canada-US border and still sees a good number of mainline trains.

The CASO rarely operated its own rolling stock after acquisition, and its reporting mark was abolished in 1977.

See also

 New York Central 1290 and 1291
 Canada Southern Railway Station
 List of Ontario railways
 List of defunct Canadian railways

Notes

References

Further reading

External links

 St Thomas

Railroads transferred to Conrail
Canadian Pacific Railway subsidiaries
Canadian National Railway subsidiaries
Defunct New York (state) railroads
Defunct Michigan railroads
Defunct Ontario railways
Railroads controlled by the Vanderbilt family
Defunct locomotive manufacturers of Canada
Rail transport in Windsor, Ontario
History of rail transport in Essex County, Ontario
Rail transport in Chatham-Kent
History of rail transport in Elgin County
Rail transport in St. Thomas, Ontario
History of rail transport in Oxford County, Ontario
Rail transport in Norfolk County, Ontario
History of Norfolk County, Ontario
Haldimand County
History of rail transport in the Regional Municipality of Niagara
Rail transport in Welland
Transport in Fort Erie, Ontario
Standard gauge railways in Canada

Canada Southern Railway


Lake Eupen is an artificial lake near Eupen in East Belgium, not far from High Fens. The lake is created by a dam which was built on the river Vesdre in 1938 but inaugurated only in 1950 by Prince Charles of Belgium. The area has a German-speaking population who refer to the river Vesdre as Weser, but which is distinct from the Weser river in North Germany.

References

External links
 Hiking route along the Vesdre Dam forming Lake Eupen

REupen
Eupen
Eupen
Eupen
Eupen

Lake Eupen


The Rath (Rajasthani: रथ (Devanagari)  (Perso-Arabic), are a  community, found in the state of Rajasthan in India. They also settled in Punjab and Sindh provinces Pakistan. There is another clan similar to it known as Rathi.

Background

History

Historically, the Rath were a community of pastoral nomads, breeding mainly cows and sheep, as well as cultivating dry crops, and migrating three to nine months of the year. Till about the 1950s, no recognized rights to the land existed. This was in marked contrast to the related Pachhada community, who were found in Hissar and Mahendargarh districts of Haryana, who was forced to settle down by the British authorities in the late 19th century. With the construction of the Indira Gandhi Canal, land was divided up, and a large number granted to settlers. This led to a drastic reduction in the grazing area, and process that has led to the abandoning of the nomadic lifestyle. The community are now only partially nomadic, with some members taking the cattle and sheep to their grazing areas, while the majority remaining in the village.

Culture

Like other North India communities, they have a council of elders which settles intra-community disputes, and punishes the guilty. Each lineage has an informal caste council, known as a biradari panchayat. This acts as an instrument of social control by punishing those who breach community norms such as marrying out of the community etc. The Rath are Sunni Muslims, but incorporate many folk beliefs.

References

Social groups of Pakistan
Social groups of Punjab, Pakistan
Saraiki tribes
Punjabi tribes
Muslim communities of India
Social groups of Rajasthan
Muslim communities of Rajasthan

Rath tribe


The Aluth Sahal Mangalle or new rice festival is an important event of the harvest festival of the Maha kannaya in Sri Lanka. The first batch of new rice after being plucked, threshed and winnowed is offered to the Lord Buddha and deities.

Every January Poya Day, new rice festival commences. Rice and paddy donated to Sri Dalada Maligawa are stored at Kundasale Pallekele in a separate location allocation and distribution of Rice and paddy to Devales relevant, is done. A traditional procession takes place from the Palace to Kundasale headed by Diyawadana Nilame and Basnayakes together with other representatives. This is an annual sacred event, 80 measure of rice will be prepared as a traditional rite and offered to the sacred tooth relic.

Only after the new rice festival at the Sri Dalada Maligawa and offering rice to the sacred tooth relic, can the farmers around the country collect their harvest and commence their own new rice festivals in the respective villages.

The most important new rice festival that happens afterwards is the Aluth Sahal Mangalle at the Sri Maha Bodhi in අනුරාධපුරය.

Festivals in Sri Lanka

අළුත් සහල් මංගල්ලය


Christopher Livingstone Eubank (born 8 August 1966) is a British former professional boxer who competed from 1985 to 1998. He held the WBO middleweight and super-middleweight titles between 1990 and 1995, and is ranked by BoxRec as the third best British super-middleweight boxer of all time.

He reigned as world champion for over five years, was undefeated in his first ten years as a professional, and remained undefeated at middleweight. His world title contests against fellow Britons Nigel Benn and Michael Watson helped British boxing ride a peak of popularity in the 1990s, with Eubank's eccentric personality making him one of the most recognisable celebrities of the period.

In his final two years of boxing he challenged then-up and coming contender Joe Calzaghe in a bid to reclaim his WBO super-middleweight title, with a victorious Calzaghe later claiming that it was the toughest fight of his whole career. Eubank's last two fights were against WBO junior-heavyweight champion Carl Thompson, both of which were brutal encounters. In the rematch, Eubank was stopped for the first and only time in his career.

Eubank is credited for his bravery in the ring, in which he was able to take considerable amounts of punishment from power punchers en route to his victories and defeats, and for this he is said to have a "granite" chin. His son, Chris Eubank Jr., is also a professional boxer.

Early life
Eubank, was born on 8 August 1966, in Dulwich, South London, to Rachel Scollins. From when he was two months old until the age of six, he was raised in Jamaica. On his return to England, he lived in Stoke Newington, Dalston, Hackney and then Peckham, in a largely impoverished environment.

He attended Northwold Primary School in Upper Clapton, Bellenden Junior School, and then Thomas Calton Secondary School in Peckham, from where he was suspended 18 times in one year and then expelled, despite claiming he was gallantly trying to protect other children from bullies. Some time was spent at Orchard Lodge Regional Resource Centre, Anerley, in 1981. When he was 16, his father sent him to New York in the U.S. to live with his mother in the tough South Bronx district.

Boxing career

Eubank made a fresh start in New York, where he trained at the Jerome Boxing Club on Westchester Avenue, following in the footsteps of his elder brothers (twins, Peter and Simon Eubank) back in England. Eubank became obsessed with boxing training and went to the gym every day, working as caretaker to pay his way. He won the 1984 Spanish Golden Gloves Tournament and also got to the semi-final stage of the main Golden Gloves tourney at Madison Square Garden at aged 18.

He writes in his autobiography that his drive to succeed in boxing came through his drive to become an accepted individual, largely caused by subjective bullying from his elder brothers.

He made his professional debut at the Atlantis Hotel and Casino against Tim Brown, shortly after his 19th birthday. Although his next 10 fights went largely unnoticed, in February 1989 he made brief headlines in defeating Jamaican Anthony Logan in an undercard match to a Nigel Benn-headliner. Benn was a rising star at the time and Logan had come close to beating him. Eubank now made Brighton in England his adopted hometown and set his sights on Benn, believing he could beat him.

After a string of stoppage victories following a dominant 10-round decision over American gatekeeper/journeyman Randy Smith, Eubank captured the WBC International title in 1990 against Hugo Corti. Later in the year, he knocked out Renaldo Dos Santos in precisely 20 seconds (including the 10-count).

WBO middleweight champion
Eubank won the WBO middleweight title against Nigel Benn (and the odds) in a classic encounter that was later released on DVD: a gruelling battle which ended when Benn (ahead on points, but only narrowly) was stopped on his feet near the end of round 9. Eubank would defend the title successfully against Dan Sherry (in a fight cut short by a headbutt, for which Eubank was penalised 2 points but still won on points over the 9 completed rounds), fellow Briton Gary Stretch and fellow Briton, Michael Watson, fighting him to a narrow 12-round majority decision in Eubank's favour. This concluded Eubank's career as a middleweight, with a 28–0 record.

WBO super-middleweight champion
A rematch with Watson for the vacant WBO super-middleweight title took place in September 1991, in which Watson suffered a near-fatal injury. Eubank was behind on all scorecards after 10 rounds, and was knocked down 18 seconds from the end of the round. He rose from the canvas (being given only a standing four-count instead of eight) to unleash a devastating uppercut to Watson's jaw right at the end of the round, knocking Watson's head and neck backwards into the ring ropes. The bell sounded to end the round as soon as Watson was up from the count. It was still obvious to all observers – and to Eubank himself – that he needed a knockout to win: and early in the 12th, with Watson still visibly shaken, the fight was stopped with Watson under a flurry of punches from Eubank.  Soon after the fight Watson collapsed in his corner. His condition may have been worsened by delay in receiving medical attention: there was no ambulance or paramedic at the event and after eight minutes on the ring floor, Watson was attended by doctors wearing dinner jackets, arriving late. Following the fight, Eubank contemplated quitting the sport. Commentator Reg Gutteridge said, in the moment, he had, "never seen a more dramatic end to a world title fight". Eubank later reflected on the aftermath: "I lost my finishing instinct in the ring – I couldn't finish fights any more. However, I needed to work and so I carried on and I won most of my fights on decisions. And I blamed myself, after all, it was me who threw the punch."

Eubank was particularly noted for his confidence, concentration, composure, and extravagant behaviour, and antics that included a vault over the top-rope into the ring before each fight. His trademark theme tune was Tina Turner's "Simply the Best". He would often engage in posturing (particularly between rounds of fights). Eubank was by now presented as something of a "man you love to hate" figure in the British tabloid press because of his perceived arrogance and for his singularly unconventional sense of style. In boxing circles he enjoyed even less popularity, having once referred to the sport as a 'mug's game' on national television (This was a selective quote – Eubank had actually been discussing the seedier side of the sport, such as the beatings taken by journeyman fighters for small sums of money, or boxers that were lied to and ripped off by promoters).

Now the holder of a second title, Eubank relinquished his middleweight title and concentrated on defending his new crown at the higher weight of . After the Watson tragedy Eubank never again showed any desire to knock opponents out, preferring to retain his title through points victories. He made successful defences against "Sugarboy" Malinga, the American quartet of John Jarvis, Ron Essett, Tony Thornton and former World Champion Lindell Holmes, as well as Juan Carlos Giminez Ferreyra and a draw with fellow Briton Ray Close.

Eubank vs Benn II
Nigel Benn moved up to super middleweight and became WBC champion. The pair agreed to meet in a WBC/WBO unification rematch. In 1993 the rivals would engage in another contest named 'Judgement Day' and fought an exciting contest – albeit less brutal than their first – to a draw. Don King had negotiated the contracts so that he would own both the winner and the loser of Eubank v Benn 2. Barry Hearn claimed that, as a draw was not written into the contract, Eubank was free to sign a new deal with him instead of King. He did – and Benn also did not sign for King, on the same pretext.

Following the Benn fight, Eubank went on to defeat Graciano Rocchigiani of Germany, the undefeated former IBF super-middleweight title holder. After a split points victory over Ray Close, in the King's Hall Belfast, Eubank signed an eight-fight £10-million deal with Sky Sports for contests in South Africa, Manchester, London and Millstreet. Eubank made five further successful defences, beating British world title contenders Henry Wharton and Sam Storey as well as unbeaten Dan Schommer and Mauricio Amaral Costa.

Eubank vs Collins
In March 1995, however, Eubank lost his title to Irishman Steve Collins, by unanimous decision.

Eubank won an eliminator for his old title against Jose Ignacio Barruetabena, as well as a win over Bruno Ruben Godoy. A rematch with Collins took place in Cork, Ireland, and Eubank lost again by a surprisingly narrow split decision. He announced his retirement from the ring in October 1995. He made a quick comeback in 1996, however, defeating Luis Dionisio Barrera and Camilo Alarcon.

Calzaghe vs Eubank
After Steve Collins withdrew from his WBO super-middleweight title defence against Joe Calzaghe and unexpectedly retired in October 1997, Calzaghe was matched against Eubank for the vacant title with eleven days notice. Eubank had been scheduled to box at light-heavyweight on the undercard. Eubank was knocked down twice and lost on points to Calzaghe, but saw his popularity rise as a result of managing to finish the fight against his more fancied opponent.

Cruiserweight
Eubank then added 20 lbs in weight and challenged Britain's Carl Thompson for the WBO cruiserweight title. Eubank floored Thompson in the fourth round but, as in the first Steve Collins fight, failed to press home his advantage. The fight went the distance, with Thompson's strength and durability eventually telling in the later rounds. Thompson won by unanimous decision, but the closeness of the fight was reflected in the scoring, with two of the three judges giving the fight to Thompson by a single point.

A rematch was quickly arranged for three months later and they again fought for the WBO cruiserweight championship in what turned out to be Eubank's last fight. Eubank had the better of the fight early in the rematch, but the short rest between the bouts came back to haunt him as his left eye that was damaged in the first fight rapidly began to swell. The fight was stopped at the end of the ninth round, when Eubank's left eye closed completely from swelling. At the time he was ahead on the scorecards. It was the only stoppage loss of Eubank's career spanning three weight divisions, 30 pounds and 13 years as professional.

Eubank finished his career with a record of 45 wins (23 KOs), five losses, and two draws.

Career beyond boxing

Throughout his successful years and beyond, Eubank developed a reputation for eccentricity. In a poll published by BBC Homes and Antiques magazine in January 2006, Eubank was voted the second most eccentric star (after Björk). Speaking with a lisp and in affected upper-class tones; dressing as a stereotypically upper-class Englishman (in jodhpurs, bowler hat and riding boots; sporting a monocle) and carrying a silver-tipped cane, such affectations have provoked criticism in tabloid newspapers. However, in 1991 and 1993 he won Britain's Best Dressed Man award, given by the Menswear Association of Great Britain.

His collection of vehicles included a customised Harley-Davidson and a huge American Peterbilt 379 truck cab – the largest lorry in Europe. At one time he owned the only Hummer in Britain.

In the early 1990s, Eubank was caricatured as a puppet on Spitting Image. He featured on the front cover of Esquire for the April 1992 edition. He was mentioned in a scene of I'm Alan Partridge, in which the title character desperately tries to think of ideas for a new television show, one of which is entitled Youth Hosteling with Chris Eubank. He has featured in television advertisements (commercials) for Nescafé, Royal Mail, McDonald's, Jaffa Cakes and Orbit, and has modelled for Vivienne Westwood and Versace.

Eubank purchased the lord of the manor rights in Brighton at auction in 1996 and used the ancient right of this position to appoint a town crier in addition to the town crier employed by the local authority. In 1994 he took over a prime site in the city, which he called 'Buckingham Place'. He knocked down the interior whilst keeping the grade II façade intact and built 69 flats for the homeless, using £1,250,000 of his own money. The building was later sold for redevelopment in 2000.

In 1996, Eubank was the guest presenter on Top of the Pops. In 1999, he launched the Dreamcast and in the same year, he appeared in his truck in the music video for the song "Turn Around" by Phats & Small. He also had his own show on Talk Radio called Eubank's People. Guests included Linford Christie, John Fashanu, Lennox Lewis, and Naseem Hamed.

In 2001, he appeared in the first series of the reality television show Celebrity Big Brother on Channel 4, where he was the first ever celebrity to be evicted from the house.

In 2002, Eubank was the subject of a Louis Theroux documentary entitled When Louis Met...Chris Eubank, in which Theroux and his camera crew accompanied Eubank for a period. In 2003, the Eubanks invited television cameras to follow their lives for nine months; the resulting show, At Home with the Eubanks, was broadcast on Five.

During Michael Watson's recovery from his near-fatal injury during their bout in 1991, Watson and Eubank became friends, with Eubank accompanying Watson for the final mile of the 2003 London Marathon, which Watson – still showing physical damage from the fight and taking more than six days – completed to raise money for charity.

In 2006, Eubank was sacked by his own public relations advisor, Richard Hillgrove, for being "too eccentric".

In 2015, Eubank took part in the 2015 series of I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!. He lasted 17 days and finished in 9th position.

In 2019, Eubank appeared alongside his son Chris Eubank Jr., on Series 1 of Celebrity Gogglebox. They re-appeared in Series 3 in 2021.

In 2021, Eubank appeared as a guest on Piers Morgan's Life Stories.

In April 2023 he was a contestant in the Channel 4 reality television series, Scared of the Dark.

Bankruptcy
In November 2009, Eubank was declared bankrupt, owing £1.3 million in taxes.

Anti-war activism
On 14 October 2003, Eubank was intercepted by police whilst driving around Parliament Square, Westminster, in his truck, which displayed the message "TONY BLAIR! MILITARY OCCUPATION CAUSES TERRORISM". He completed a number of circuits before he was arrested. On 22 February 2007, Eubank was arrested outside Horse Guards Parade in Whitehall for a suspected breach of the peace after driving through central London in his truck, which was emblazoned with a message condemning Tony Blair for sending Prince Harry to Iraq. The banner read "BLAIR – Don't send our young prince to your catastrophic illegal war, to make it look plausible!" On 23 May 2007, he was charged with making an unlawful anti-war protest after parking his seven-ton truck outside Downing Street. On 16 November 2007, he failed to turn up at court, so an arrest warrant was issued, and he was fined.

Ambassadorship
In October 2005, Eubank was appointed as the first ambassador for gambling charity GamCare, to support and encourage responsible gambling.

Tailored suit designer
Known for his unique sense of style, Eubank has won the Britain's Best Dressed Man many times. In 2010, Eubank, once a regular customer, started designing tailored suits for Cad and the Dandy, a Savile Row bespoke tailoring company.

Youth Hostelling with Chris Eubank
On 19 August 2015, a spoof trailer was made available for Youth Hostelling with Chris Eubank in association with Hostelworld, detailing Eubank's journey around Britain in an effort to learn more about youth hostels. The joke originates from the comedy show I'm Alan Partridge, in which the title character pitches a selection of ideas for television shows.

Personal life
Eubank and his first wife, Karron (married 23 December 1990 in Brighton), had four children (Christopher, born on 18 September 1989; Sebastian (18 July 1991– 9 July 2021); Emily, born on 19 April 1994; and Joseph, born on 23 October 1996) and have over the years starred in various television programmes. Eubank also has an elder son, Nathanael Wilson, born August 1988. Eubank is the cousin of English media personality Mica Paris. His son Sebastian, also a professional boxer, died aged 29 on 9 July 2021 in Dubai.

In 1992, Eubank was involved in a fatal collision when he lost control of his car on the London to Brighton road; the car came off the road and killed a building site worker. He was convicted of driving without due care and attention, fined £250 plus £1,450 costs, and had six penalty points added to his driving licence.

In August 2005, Karron petitioned for divorce from Eubank. Also in 2005, Eubank was convicted of taking a vehicle without consent. He had driven a beer lorry which was being unloaded away from a place where he considered it to be causing an unreasonable obstruction. In 2014, Eubank married his manager Claire Geary, but the couple divorced in 2017.

In 2015, Eubank adopted the nickname of his deceased father, "English", to privately perpetuate his memory and to publicly differentiate himself from the budding boxing career of his son Chris Jr.

In 2021, Eubank was prosecuted after he was filmed by CyclingMikey driving through a red light.

Professional boxing record

See also
 News media phone hacking scandal reference lists

References
 The Times, page 22, 2 September 2005.

Notes

External links

1966 births
Black British sportsmen
Boxers from Greater London
British expatriates in Jamaica
Cruiserweight boxers
English autobiographers
English expatriates in the United States
English fashion designers
English male boxers
English people of Jamaican descent
Living people
Lords of the Manor
People from Dulwich
People from Stoke Newington
Sportspeople from Hackney Central
Sportspeople from the London Borough of Hackney
Sportspeople from the London Borough of Southwark
World Boxing Organization champions
World middleweight boxing champions
World super-middleweight boxing champions

Chris Eubank


(German: "Barn Quarter") is a neighborhood of Mitte in the centre of Berlin. It is situated to the north of the medieval Altberlin area, east of the Rosenthaler Straße and Hackescher Markt.

Until the Second World War it was regarded as a slum district and had a substantial Jewish population with a high proportion of migrants from Eastern Europe.

History
The name derives from several barns erected here outside the city walls in 1672 by order of Elector Frederick William of Brandenburg. The barns were used to store hay for use at a large cattle market at nearby Alexanderplatz. In 1737 King Frederick William I of Prussia required Berlin Jews to settle here.

Prior to World War I, the Berlin City Council (Magistrat) redeveloped parts of the area. Since then the core of the neighborhood is the triangular Rosa-Luxemburg-Platz, former Bülowplatz, where on 9 August 1931 the Communist and later Stasi Executive Erich Mielke shot two police officers. Mielke fled to Moscow shortly afterwards and did not face trial for the murders until 1992.

Since German reunification the Scheunenviertel, together with the neighbouring Spandauer Vorstadt, has become a fashionable district popular with younger people.

Note that Scheunenviertel is often mistakenly used as a synonym for Berlin's Jewish quarter. Jewish cultural and commercial life was, however, centered on the neighboring Spandauer Vorstadt, where the New Synagogue and other Jewish establishments are located. The Nazis had applied the term Scheunenviertel to both of the neighborhoods in order to damage the Jewish neighborhood of Spandauer Vorstadt's reputation.

Sights

 Volksbühne theatre at Rosa-Luxemburg-Platz by Oskar Kaufmann and Franz Metzner, 1914
 Karl-Liebknecht-Haus, 1912, former seat of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Germany (Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands), now headquarters of The Left party (Die Linke)
 "Babylon" Cinema by Hans Poelzig, 1929, a location of the annual Berlin International Film Festival
 Old Garrison Cemetery (Alter Garnisonsfriedhof), dedicated about 1706, burial site of lieutenant general Ludwig Adolf Wilhelm von Lützow (1782–1834), writer Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué (1777–1843), field marshal Karl Friedrich von dem Knesebeck (1768–1848) and theologian Emil Frommel (1828–96).
 Museum of Otto Weidt's Workshop. Located in the workshop of Otto Weidt, who, as owner of the workshop, employed deaf and blind Jews during World War II. His employees were protected from deportation thanks to him. He provided them with forged IDs and hid Jewish families in his studio. The atelier, where historical documents and letters are on display, is open to visitors.

See also

History of Berlin

References

1672 establishments in the Holy Roman Empire
Buildings and structures completed in 1672
Zones of Berlin
History of Berlin
Mitte
Historic Jewish communities
Jews and Judaism in Berlin
Frederick William I of Prussia
Neighbourhoods in Germany

Scheunenviertel


Santa Gertrudis is a municipality in the state o Oaxaca.  Its municipal seat is cried Santa Gertrudis an aw. Its territory encompases 21.69km2, representin 0.02% o the total aurie o the state. Its approximate distance tae the caipital ceety o Oaxaca is 41 km.
It is pairt o the Zimatlán Destrict in the wast o the Valles Centrales Region

Its climate is temperate, wi prevailin winds frae the north.

Accordin tae the INEGI 2005 census, the municipality haes a total o 2,661 fowk, wi a total o 689 hoosin units.

Its major economic activities are industries, products an services, agricultur an livestock. Agricultur is the economic basis, wi 80% o the population takkin pairt. The breedin an sale o livestock, sma business activities, bureaucratic functions occupee approximately 20% o the population. The economically active population o the toun amoonts tae 943.

The regional cuisine consists o mole accompaniet wi white rice, beef stew, pork liver wi scrambled egg (for breakfast) an typical drinks as chocolate, chocolate atole, tejate, an mescal.

References
 Enciclopedia de los Municipios de México ESTADO DE OAXACA
 http://www.mapasmexico.net/santa-gertrudis-oaxaca.html

Municipalities o Oaxaca

Santa Gertrudis (municipality)


Nicktoons (or sometimes Nicktoons Network) is a network that had its launch in the late 70s. It was the network to air the first three Nicktoons, (The Ren and Stimpy Show), (Doug) and (Rugrats). It's one of the most famous channels in the UK. Its most famous shows are Hey Arnold, Spongebob SquarePants and The Loud House.

British television channels

Nicktoons (British and Irish TV channel)


Dwyer Hill Road (Ottawa Road #3) is the longest road within the municipal jurisdiction of the city of Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.

The road runs parallel to the city's western border at a distance of about 3-4 kilometres from it. The road runs from the community of Burritts Rapids on the Rideau River north to the city's limits with the town of Arnprior. On its way, it passes through the communities of Dwyer Hill and Panmure. Dwyer Hill Road travels through rural surroundings for its entire length.

North of its crossing point with Highway 7, the road is known as Upper Dwyer Hill Road. South of its junction with Kinburn Sideroad, the road is numbered as Ottawa Road #3. In total, the road is about  long, edging out both the Queensway and Bank Street for the title of longest road in the city.

External links

 Google Maps: Dwyer Hill Road

Sources
MapArt Ontario Road Atlas

Roads in Ottawa

Dwyer Hill Road


"Screw You" is a song recorded by English recording artist Cheryl and British hip hop artist Wretch 32 for the former's third studio album A Million Lights (2012). "Screw You" was produced by Hy-Grade and written by Megan Nicolle Thomaston, Kingsley Brown, Daniel Traynor and Wretch 32 (Jermaine Scott).

Background and composition

In May 2012, it was reported that British rapper Wretch 32 was approached to feature on the song 'Screw You' because Cole was a fan of his album Black and White. In an interview Wretch revealed that he had worked with Cole on her album saying 'We've recorded a record that's very edgy, it's very cool. She smashes it and hopefully I've smashed it too but I can't say that as that would be big-headed of me.
'But yeah. It's a very nice record and I've heard some other bits from her album and it's sounding good. I'm looking forward to getting response from the fans." Cole revealed that she was intoxicated while recording "Screw You", saying "I went in to record it hung over. I never do that. I'm not a big drinker but I was still drunk when I woke up" and revealed that she believed the inspiration for the song came for a picture of Cole giving the middle finger.
"Screw You" is an urban song, produced by Hy-Grade and written by Megan Nicolle Thomaston, Kingsley Brown, Daniel Traynor and Jermaine Scott. It includes the lyrics "It never was enough, I never got your love, I loved you so much but you never gave a fuck."

Commercial performance
Cole announced that "Screw You" would serve as the third single from A Million Lights, following "Call My Name" and "Under the Sun". However, the single release of the track was cancelled to allow Cole to reunite with her Girls Aloud bandmates to celebrate their tenth anniversary and release the compilation album, Ten.

Upon the initial release of its parent album, the song debuted on the UK singles chart at number 100.

Critical reception
Many Critics believed the lyrics of "Screw You" was aimed at Cole's ex-husband Ashley Cole, one critic saying "Maybe Ashley Cole thought he'd got away with cheating on Cheryl Cole but it seems the singer has now made the biggest dig at her ex by writing a song about him in the form of her new single 'Screw You'." However Cole denied that the "Screw You" was written about Ashley Cole saying "I didn't have him in mind. But I can see how it is interpreted that way, of course" Other critics believed that the song was written about Simon Cowell saying "Press Association have reported that when the track listing was released back in March, this is the one track that naturally led many to assume that 'Screw You' was aimed at the singer's former X Factor boss Simon Cowell. Ouch! Back in March, the Girls Aloud star was still fresh from being axed from the U.S version of the X Factor, so the majority have put 2 + 2 together"

Music video and live performances
"Screw You" was performed live for the first time during Cole's T4 special. It was broadcast on Channel 4 on 16 June 2012. "Under the Sun"", "Call My Name" and "Fight For This Love" were also performed. "Screw You" was also performed on the A Million Lights Tour.

Using Instagram, fans have the opportunity to create a visual inspired by any one word in the song. The best visuals will be used to help create a lyrics video for the song. On 27 September 2012 Cole uploaded the lyric video to her official VEVO account, the video consisted text messages, drawings and photographs from her fans.

Charts

References

Cheryl (singer) songs
Wretch 32 songs
2012 songs
Songs written by Wretch 32
Songs written by Grades (producer)

Screw You


Maurice F. Healy BL,  (1887–1943) was an Irish lawyer and author, who is best remembered for his legal memoir The Old Munster Circuit.

He was born in Cork, son of the well-known solicitor Maurice Healy and nephew of Timothy Michael Healy, the first Governor-General of the Irish Free State. His mother was a sister of A.M. Sullivan, who was the last barrister to hold the title Serjeant, and was noted for his unsuccessful defence of Roger Casement. Timothy Sullivan, the second Chief Justice of Ireland, was a cousin of Maurice, as was Kevin O'Higgins, a leading figure in the early Irish Free State Government.

Maurice was educated at Clongowes Wood College and University College Dublin. He was called to the Irish Bar in 1910, and to the English Bar in 1914 and saw action in the First World War on the Western Front and at Gallipoli. He received the MC in 1919 after serving in France and also in Germany during the immediate post-war occupation.

Maurice stood for Parliament in the December 1910 United Kingdom general election as a All-for-Ireland League candidate for West Waterford. After the Irish War of Independence, while several of his close relatives became prominent political figures in the Irish Free State, he chose to practice at the English Bar. While he would have been happy enough to see Ireland gain Home Rule by peaceful means, he had a horror of revolutionary violence (although he also denounced the crimes committed by the Black and Tans) and he seems to have found life in the Irish Free State uncongenial. He was made King's Counsel in 1931. He became Recorder of Coventry in 1941; it was suggested this might be the prelude to a High Court judgeship, but any such hope was cut short by his premature death.

He wrote celebrated books on wine – Claret and the white wines of Bordeaux (1934), and Stay me with Flagons (1940).  He also wrote poetry, mostly light and humorous. His most famous work is The Old Munster Circuit (1939) an affectionate and nostalgic portrait of life at the Irish Bar, especially on the Munster (Southern) Circuit between 1900 and 1920. The book was an instant success; the Spectator called it "Entirely delightful to read" and it has retained its popularity ever since.

With André Simon (who referred to Healy as 'my dearly beloved disciple') and others he founded the Saintsbury Club in 1931, which still meets today, reportedly stating that it should be created `to perpetuate and honour his name' (Professor George Saintsbury).

A legendary wit and conversationalist, Healy also made a number of celebrated BBC broadcasts during the war years.

References

1887 births
1943 deaths
Irish emigrants to the United Kingdom
20th-century Irish lawyers
20th-century Irish memoirists
Irish Queen's Counsel
20th-century Irish poets
20th-century Irish male writers
People educated at Clongowes Wood College
Writers from Cork (city)
Recipients of the Military Cross
Royal Dublin Fusiliers officers
Lawyers from County Cork
Alumni of University College Dublin

Maurice Healy (writer)


Madeline DeFrees (also known as, Sister Mary Gilbert; November 18, 1919 – November 11, 2015) was an American poet, teacher, and Roman Catholic nun.

Biography
Born in Ontario, Oregon, Madeline DeFrees lived in Seattle, Washington. She joined the Sisters of the Holy Names of Jesus and Mary in 1936 and took the name Sister Mary Gilbert. She received her B.A. in English from Marylhurst College (now Marylhurst University) and an M.A. in Journalism from the University of Oregon. She reclaimed her baptismal name in 1967 when she went to teach at the University of Montana. While in Missoula, she requested a dispensation from her vows, which she received in 1973.

She taught at Holy Names College from 1950 to 1967, the University of Montana from 1967 to 1979, and the University of Massachusetts, Amherst from 1979 to 1985.  After her retirement in 1985, DeFrees held residencies at Bucknell University, Eastern Washington University, and Wichita State University. She continued to write and teach until she was almost 90, joining the faculty of the Pacific University low-residency MFA program in Forest Grove, Oregon, and lecturing at the low-residency MFA program of the Northwest Institute of Literary Arts (Whidbey Writers Workshop) in January 2009.

DeFrees was the author of two chapbooks, two memoirs of convent life, and eight poetry collections, including Blue Dusk (Copper Canyon Press, 2001), which won the 2002 Lenore Marshall Poetry Prize and a Washington State Book Award for Poetry. She received a Guggenheim Fellowship in Poetry and a grant from the National Endowment for the Arts. Her final collection was Spectral Waves, (Copper Canyon Press, 2006).  Spectral Waves won a 2007 Washington State Book Award for Poetry.  DeFrees died in Portland, Oregon on November 11, 2015, one week before her 96th birthday.

Bibliography

Poetry
From the Darkroom, 1964
When the Sky Lets Go, 1978
Imaginary Ancestors (chapbook), 1978
Magpie on the Gallows, 1982 (Copper Canyon Press)
The Light Station on Tillamook Rock, 1990
Imaginary Ancestors, 1990
Possible Sibyls, 1991 (Lynx House Press)
Double Dutch (chapbook), 1999
Blue Dusk: New and Selected Poems, 1951-2001, 2001 (Copper Canyon Press)
Spectral Waves, 2006 (Copper Canyon Press)
Where the Horse Takes Wing: The Uncollected Poems of Madeline DeFrees, 2019 (Two Sylvias Press)

Prose
Springs of Silence, 1953
Later Thoughts from the Springs of Silence, 1962
Subjective Geography: A Poet's Thoughts on Life and Craft, 2018 (Lynx House Press)

References

External links
Forging a Path to Oneself interview in Real Change News
Leaving The Convent And Finding Passion Through Poetry interview on KUOW
Madeline DeFrees Papers (University at Buffalo, Lockwood Memorial Library Archival & Manuscript Collections)
Madeline DeFrees Papers (University of Montana, Mansfield Library Archives & Special Collections)
Madeline DeFrees Papers (University of Massachusetts Amherst Libraries, Special Collections & University Archives)

1919 births
2015 deaths
Poets from Oregon
Pacific University faculty
Marylhurst University alumni
University of Oregon alumni
University of Montana faculty
University of Massachusetts Amherst faculty
Writers from Seattle
People from Ontario, Oregon
American women poets
20th-century American poets
21st-century American poets
20th-century American women writers
21st-century American women writers
Poets from Washington (state)
20th-century American Roman Catholic nuns
21st-century American Roman Catholic nuns
American women academics

Madeline DeFrees


Juliana Renée Thiessen-Day (born 1980 in Regina, Saskatchewan) is a Norwegian-Canadian beauty pageant titleholder. She is a former Miss Universe Canada contestant and the Canadian representative to the Miss Universe pageant in 1998.

She married Logan Day, son of former Canadian Alliance leader Stockwell Day, in 1999.

In 2000, Thiessen Day was briefly the source of a minor scandal in Canada. During the CBC television coverage of the federal election, live footage of Thiessen Day at Alliance campaign headquarters was shown. An unidentified CBC producer, who was unaware his words were being broadcast live, made a comment about Thiessen Day's breasts. Since the producer's microphone was on, his comments were unwittingly broadcast to the entire province of British Columbia, until a quick-thinking technician cut the feed. Because the Canadian television networks were using a shared video and audio feed, his comments were broadcast on CTV and Global stations as well. The producer was forced to apologize.

References

1980 births
Canadian people of Norwegian descent
Living people
Miss Universe 1998 contestants
Miss Universe Canada winners
People from Regina, Saskatchewan

Juliana Thiessen-Day


Peter Faber (1506–1546), a French Jesuit co-founder of the Society of Jesus.

 Peter Faber may also refer to:

 Pierre Favre (musician) (born 1937), jazz drummer
 Peter Faber (actor) (born 1943), Dutch film and television actor
 Peter Faber (telegraph specialist) (1810–1877), Danish songwriter, photographer and telegraphy expert

Peter Faber (disambiguation)


The C. N. Yang Institute of Theoretical Physics (YITP) is a research center at Stony Brook University. In 1965, it was the vision of then University President J.S. Toll and Physics Department chair T.A. Pond to create an institute for theoretical physics and invite the famous physicist Chen Ning Yang from Institute for Advanced Study to serve as its director with the Albert Einstein Professorship of Physics. While the center is often referred to as "YITP", this can be confusing as YITP also stands for the Yukawa Institute for Theoretical Physics in Japan.

The active research areas of the institute include: Quantum Field Theory, String Theory, Mathematical Physics and Statistical Mechanics. The YITP is situated on top of the Math Tower, home to the Department of Mathematics which is connected to the Department of Physics and the Simons Center for Geometry and Physics—therefore the physicists enjoy intimate interactions with the mathematicians. This close relationship dates back to the friendship of C.N. Yang and the mathematician James Harris Simons.

Founded in 1967, YITP celebrated its 50th anniversary in 2017. During the time span, the YITP has produced significant results in different areas, most notably was the discovery of Supergravity in 1976 by Peter van Nieuwenhuizen, Daniel Z. Freedman, and Sergio Ferrara, who were all working there at the time.

It houses two Breakthrough Prize in Fundamental Physics laureate, Peter Van Nieuwenhuizen (2019) and Alexander Zamolodchikov (2024).
Chen Ning Yang who was the ex-director is a Nobel Prize in Physics (1957) laureate.

Directors

Chen Ning Yang - first director (1967-1999) and 1957 Nobel Laureate.
Peter van Nieuwenhuizen - second director (1999-2002) and co-discoverer of supergravity.
George Sterman - third director (2002-) and noted field theorist

Notable tenants
Luis Álvarez-Gaumé - String theory
Gerald E. Brown - nuclear physics, theoretical astrophysics
Michael Creutz - lattice gauge theory, computational physics
Michael Douglas - string theory
Vladimir Korepin - Mathematical physics, Quantum Information
Barry M. McCoy - statistical mechanics and conformal field theory
Nikita Nekrasov - mathematical physics
Peter van Nieuwenhuizen - field theory, String Theory,co-discoverer of supergravity.
Martin Roček - mathematical physics, string theory
Warren Siegel - field theory, string theory
George Sterman - field theory, quantum chromodynamics
Alexander Zamolodchikov - Quantum field theory, Statistical Mechanics, Conformal Field Theory
Zohar Komargodski - Conformal Field Theory

See also
 Kavli Institute for Theoretical Physics
 Galileo Galilei Institute for Theoretical Physics
 Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics
 Landau Institute for Theoretical Physics

References

External links
YITP website
 8th Simons Workshop in Mathematics and Physics

Yang Chen-Ning
Physics research institutes
Stony Brook University
Brookhaven, New York
Research institutes in New York (state)
1967 establishments in New York (state)
Theoretical physics institutes

C. N. Yang Institute for Theoretical Physics


Johannes Joachim Degenhardt (31 January 1926 – 25 July 2002) was the Roman Catholic
Archbishop of Paderborn (Germany) from 1974 until his death in 2002. He was named Cardinal in 2001.

Life

Degenhardt grew up in Hagen, where he attended the humanistic Albrecht Dürer Gymnasium. He belonged to the Catholic youth group, Bund Neudeutschland. As a member of this youth organisation, which was banned by the Nazis, he was arrested by the Gestapo in 1941, when he co-organised a demonstration of young people to show loyalty to the new spiritual leader, Lorenz Jaeger, on the day of his consecration as the Bishop of Paderborn.

Degenhardt had already been suspected by the Gestapo for some time, since he had risked his life by secretly circulating the sermons of the Münster Bishop Clemens August Graf von Galen. He was held in solitary confinement for several weeks in the Dortmund Gestapo headquarters, imprisoned in a 3 x 1.5 m cell, beaten by the guards and not released until Christmas of 1941, with the warning that he would be sent to a concentration camp if he said anything about his imprisonment. After his release, he was expelled from the Gymnasium.

During the Second World War, he was conscripted as an aid in the Luftwaffe and was taken as a prisoner of war, from which he was released in 1946. After the War, he completed secondary school and studied philosophy and theology in Paderborn and Munich. On 6 August 1952 he was ordained as a priest by Archbishop Lorenz Jaeger in the Paderborn Cathedral.

He was a curate in Brackwede for five years after that. As of 1957, he was administrator of the priest's office there, and then temporary substitute for the priest until he was appointed as a prefect of the archiepiscopal Collegium Leonium in Paderborn by Archbishop Jaeger.

On 28 January 1964 he received his doctorate degree in theology from Professor Rudolf Schnackenburg, and then worked as an assistant professor at the Ruhr-Universität Bochum.

In 1965, Degenhardt became university chaplain at the Pädagogische Hochschule Westfalen/Lippe in Paderborn and then in February of the same year, he became diocese representative of the Katholisches Bibelwerk.

On 18 March 1968 Pope Paul VI named Degenhardt as auxiliary bishop in Paderborn and titular bishop of Vicus Pacati. The motto of Degenhardt was Surrexit Dominus vere (The Lord has truly risen, from the Easter liturgy). Cardinal Lorenz Jaeger, Archbishop of Paderborn, had Degenhardt consecrated as bishop on 1 May 1968. The consecrators were Ruhr Bishop Franz Hengsbach and Auxiliary Bishop Paul Nordhues.

Cardinal Jaeger resigned from his office as archbishop at the beginning of 1973. The cathedral chapter of the archdiocese of Paderborn then elected Degenhardt as vicar capitular, and Pope Paul VI named him as the new archbishop of Paderborn in April 1974. In 1999, he celebrated his 25th anniversary in that office at the Liborifest, a traditional Paderborn celebration in honor of St. Liborius of Le Mans.

On 8 October 1991 Archbishop Degenhardt withdrew ecclesiastical teaching authorization from the priest and university teacher, Eugen Drewermann, after he refused to retract certain statements which were not in agreement with Catholic teachings. Among other things, Drewermann had questioned the virgin birth and the bodily resurrection of Jesus. On 26 March 1992 Drewermann was also suspended from the priesthood.

Incardination
Pope John Paul II named Archbishop Degenhardt to be a cardinal, along with Bishop Karl Lehmann of Mainz and five other bishops, on 28 January 2001, after he had just named 37 cardinals one week earlier. Pope John Paul II himself explained his naming only one year later on the occasion of Degenhardt's death in a letter of condolence written from the World Youth Day in Toronto as follows: "With his appointment to cardinal, I wanted to make visible the faithful evidence of the Paderborn spiritual leader for the entire world church."

On 21 February 2001 he received the Paderborn archbishop as a cardinal priest with the titular church of San Liborio into the college of cardinals in the largest consistory of modern church history. Degenhardt held various ecclesiastical offices, including the leadership of the Eccumenical Commission of the German Bishops Conference from 1974 to 1976.

Death and funeral
Degenhardt died suddenly in the early morning of 25 July 2002 in the archiepiscopal palace in Paderborn at the age of 76. The funeral took place on 3 August 2002. In 2003, Hans-Josef Becker became Degenhardt's successor as archbishop of Paderborn.

Honours
Cardinal Degenhardt held numerous high decorations and awards. He was an honorary citizen of the city of Paderborn and bearer of the Great Bundesverdienstkreuz with Star. In accordance with his rank as a cardinal, he was also a Grand Crusader in the Order of the Holy Sepulchre, a papal lay order. In addition, he was an honorary member of the K.D.St.V. Guestfalo-Silesia Paderborn in the CV. Degenhardt was a cousin of the German poet and singer Franz Josef Degenhardt.

References

1926 births
2002 deaths
People from Schwelm
People from the Province of Westphalia
21st-century German cardinals
Knights Commander of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Archbishops of Paderborn
Cardinals created by Pope John Paul II
Cartellverband members
Knights of the Holy Sepulchre
Roman Catholics in the German Resistance
Luftwaffenhelfer
German prisoners of war in World War II
20th-century German Roman Catholic priests

Johannes Joachim Degenhardt


is a type of Japanese arrow used by the samurai class of feudal Japan. Kabura-ya were arrows which whistled when shot and were used in ritual archery exchanges before formal medieval battles.

Like a Wind instrument, the sound was created by a specially carved or perforated bulb of deer horn or wood attached to the tip. In English, these are often called "whistling-bulb arrows", "messenger arrows", or "signal arrows." Kabura literally translates to "turnip", and thus the Japanese term technically means 'turnip[-shaped] arrows'. The Chinese xiangjian (sometimes pronounced and written mingdi) was quite similar, and until the end of the Warlord Era were commonly used by bandits to announce the gang's approach.

In Shinto, the sound made by the kabura-ya arrow in mid-flight is thought to ward-off evil influences, and, like the Hama Ya, Hama Yumi, and the Azusa Yumi, it is used in Shinto cleansing rites of sites, shrine grounds, parks, etc.

Use
In battle, particularly around the time of the Heian period, kabura-ya would be shot before a battle, to alert the enemy. The whistling sound was also believed to chase away evil spirits, and to alert friendly kami to lend their support. It was not uncommon for archery exchanges to be performed for quite some time, and in the 1183 battle of Kurikara, for example, fifteen arrows were shot by each side, then thirty, then fifty, then one hundred, before these hundred samurai on each side actually engaged one another in battle. It was also not uncommon for messages to be tied to these arrows, which could be shot into fortresses, battle camps or the like. This practice of the formal archery exchange likely died out gradually following the end of the Heian period, as war became less and less ritualized.

The arrows would also be sold at Shintō shrines as good luck charms, particularly around New Year's Day; simply carrying a kabura-ya, like a Hama Ya, is meant to serve as a ward against evil spirits.

See also
 Kasagake
 Carnyx
 Dacian Draco

References

Sources
Frederic, Louis (2002). "Japan Encyclopedia." Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
Billingsley, Phil (1988). "Bandits in Republican China" Stanford University Press

External links
Archery Gallery

Samurai weapons and equipment
Archery equipment of Japan
Arrow types
Amulets
Talismans
Shinto in Japan
Exorcism in Shinto
Shinto religious objects
Magic items

Kabura-ya


Clive Hill (born 12 April 1958 in Port Talbot, South Wales) is a British actor. He started acting whilst at school, but did his formal training in dance at the Laban Centre in London.

After graduating, he performed in multi-media theatre and also choreographed and did fight arranging for various productions. In 1984, he choreographed the world premiere of Sue Townsend The Secret Diary of Adrian Mole, Aged 13¾ .

His work as an actor includes West End theatre, radio, television and film. He played the sports teacher Dai Hard Jones in six series of BBC's Grange Hill (1997–2002), has appeared in Casualty for the BBC and was the defence solicitor, Colin Francis in BBC Wales's legal series, The Bench.

He has changed his professional name to that of his married name, Clive Willbond-Hill.

Notes

External links

Welsh male stage actors
People from Port Talbot
Living people
1958 births
Welsh male television actors

Clive Hill


Upakarma (), also called Avani Avittam (, ), Janivarada Hunnime (), Gahma Purnima (), and Jamdhyala Paurnami () is a Vedic ritual practiced by Hindus of the dvija (twice-born) social classes: the male members of the Brahmin, Kshatriya, and the Vaishya varnas. During the ritual, men change their sacred thread and begin to don a new one.

Upakarma is conducted once a year during the Shravana or Dhanishtha nakshatra of the Hindu month of Shravana, when Brahmins change their yajñopavītam thread with Vedic rituals, making offerings to the rishis who composed the Vedic hymns. The day, also called Shravana Purnima ("Full Moon of Shravana") in other parts of India, usually occurs the day after the Shravana nakshatra, which marks Kerala's Onam festival. On the following day, usually coinciding with the Raksha Bandhan festival in North and Central India, the Gayatri Mantra is recited 1,008 times.

Samaveda Brahmins perform upakarma and change their thread on the third day of the month of Bhadra.

Legend
On the full-moon day of the month of Shravana, Vishnu (as Hayagriva) is said to have restored the Vedas stolen from Brahma by the daityas Madhu-Kaitabha. After Vishnu created Brahma from the lotus upon his navel, he created two drops of water upon the water, which were imbued with the attributes of tamas (darkness) and rajas (activity). Madhu and Kaitabha were born from these drops, whereupon they started to worship Mahadevi, acquiring the boon of dying only when they desired. Now haughty, the brothers stole the Vedas from Brahma, hiding themselves in Patala. Helpless, Brahma prayed to Vishnu. The deity confronted the brothers and fought them. Impressed with their prowess, Vishnu offered the brothers a boon of their choice. Drunk with power, the daityas laughed and asked Vishnu to ask a boon from them instead. The deity sought the boon of gaining the ability to slay them. Flabbergasted, the brothers granted him the boon of being able to kill them anywhere but upon the water. Even as they expanded in size, Vishnu caught them, placing them upon his thighs and decapitating them with his celestial discus, the Sudarshana Chakra. Thus, the Vedas were restored to Brahma.

Observance
The day on which the upakarma is performed differs by sect. Students of the Yajurveda observe their upakarma on the full moon of the month of the Shravana month (August–September; Avani in the Tamil calendar). Rigvedic upakarma is observed on the day of Shravana when the waxing moon is in the Shravana lunar station. Rigvedic Brahmins change their sacred thread on this day.

For the observance of Avani Avittam, a Brahmin is prescribed his usual morning rites, which include the following: prayer before bathing, the donning of clean clothes, ritually sipping water thrice in the name of Vishnu, the rite of sandhyavandanam, which comprises meditating on the sun god Surya and reciting the Gayatri Mantra. The Brahmin is to study the Vedas with his guru (preceptor), who sits facing the east while he recites scripture, while the former sits facing the west and repeats the same. This rite resumes until midday, until the entirety of the Vedas is recited. The midday bath is to be performed, which is followed by the worship of one's ancestors. Sesame seeds mixed with water are ritually offered to the ancestors, with the hollow of each hands joined. Oblations of fire with prayer to different deities is to be performed. On this occasion, the kamokarshit prayer is recited 108 times, which affirms that any deviation from prescribed ritual practices originated from passion rather than from one's soul, which remains pure. Brahmins gather in the local waterbody where they chant the sankalpa prayer for the purification of sins. After this ritual, the Brahmin wears a new sacred thread and discards the old one, which symbolically represents the recommencement of sacred studies and renewal of ritual purity.

References

Rituals in Hindu worship
Vedas

Upakarma


This is a list of schools in Surrey, England.

State-funded schools

Primary schools

 All Saints CE Infant School, Tilford
 Ash Grange Primary School, Ash
 Ashford CE Primary School, Ashford
 Ashford Park Primary School, Ashford
 Ashley CE Primary School, Walton-on-Thames
 Audley Primary School, Caterham
 Auriol Junior School, Stoneleigh
 Badshot Lea Village Infant School, Badshot Lea
 Bagshot Infant School, Bagshot
 Banstead Community Junior School, Banstead
 Banstead Infant School, Banstead
 Barnett Wood Infant School, Ashtead
 Barnsbury Primary School, Woking
 Beacon Hill Community Primary School, Hindhead
 Beauclerc Infant School, Sunbury-on-Thames
 Beaufort Primary School, Woking
 Bell Farm Primary School, Hersham
 Bisley CE Primary School, Bisley
 Bletchingley Village Primary School, Bletchingley
 Boxgrove Primary School, Merrow
 Bramley CE Infant School, Bramley
 Broadmere Primary Academy, Sheerwater
 Brookwood Primary School, Brookwood
 Buckland Primary School, Laleham
 Burhill Primary School, Hersham
 Burpham Primary School, Burpham
 Burstow Primary School, Smallfield
 Busbridge CE Junior School, Busbridge
 Busbridge Infant School, Busbridge
 Bushy Hill Junior School, Merrow
 Byfleet Primary School, Byfleet
 Cardinal Newman RC Primary School, Hersham
 The Chandler CE Junior School, Witley
 Chandlers Field Primary School, West Molesey
 Charlwood Village Primary School, Charlwood
 Chennestone Primary School, Sunbury-on-Thames
 Chilworth CE Infant School, Chilworth
 Clandon CE Primary School, West Clandon
 Clarendon Primary School, Ashford
 Claygate Primary School, Claygate
 Cleves School, Weybridge
 Cobham Free School, Cobham
 Connaught Junior School, Bagshot
 Cordwalles Junior School, Camberley
 Cranleigh CE Primary School, Cranleigh
 Cranmere Primary School, Esher
 Crawley Ridge Infant School, Camberley
 Crawley Ridge Junior School, Camberley
 Cross Farm Infant Academy, Frimley Green
 Cuddington Community Primary School, Worcester Park
 Cuddington Croft Primary School, Cheam
 Danetree Primary School, Ewell
 Darley Dene Primary School, Addlestone
 Dormansland Primary School, Dormansland
 Dovers Green School, Reigate
 Earlswood Infant School, Redhill
 Earlswood Junior School, Redhill
 Eastwick Infant School, Great Bookham
 Eastwick Junior School, Great Bookham
 The Echelford Primary School, Ashford
 Epsom Downs Primary School, Epsom Downs
 Epsom Primary School, Epsom
 Esher Church School, Esher
 Ewell Grove Primary School, Ewell
 Ewhurst CE Infant School, Ewhurst
 Farncombe CE Infant School, Farncombe
 Felbridge Primary School, Felbridge
 Fetcham Village Infant School, Fetcham
 Folly Hill Infant Academy, Farnham
 Frimley CE Junior School, Frimley
 Furzefield Primary School, Merstham
 Godalming Junior School, Godalming
 Godstone Primary School, Godstone
 Goldsworth Primary School, Woking
 The Grange Community Infant School, New Haw
 Grayswood CE Primary School, Grayswood
 Great Bookham School, Great Bookham
 The Greville Primary School, Ashtead
 The Grove Primary Academy, Frimley
 Grovelands Primary School, Walton-on-Thames
 Guildford Grove Primary School, Guildford
 Hale Primary Academy, Upper Hale
 Hammond School, Lightwater
 Hamsey Green Primary, Warlingham
 Hatchlands Primary, Redhill
 Hawkedale Primary School, Sunbury-on-Thames
 Heather Ridge Infant School, Camberley
 The Hermitage School, Woking
 Highfield South Farnham School, Farnham
 Hillcroft Primary School, Caterham
 Hinchley Wood Primary School, Hinchley Wood
 Holland Junior School, Hurst Green
 Holly Lodge Primary Academy, Ash Vale
 Holmesdale Community Infant School, Reigate
 Holy Family RC Primary School, Addlestone
 Holy Trinity CE Junior School, Guildford
 Holy Trinity CE Primary School, Woking
 Horley Infant School, Horley
 Horsell CE Junior School, Horsell
 The Horsell Village School, Horsell
 Hurst Green Infant School, Hurst Green
 Hurst Park Primary Academy, West Molesey
 Hythe Primary School, Staines
 Kenyngton Manor Primary School, Sunbury-on-Thames
 Kingfield Primary School, Woking
 Kingswood Primary School, Lower Kingswood
 The Knaphill Lower School, Knaphill
 Knaphill School, Knaphill
 Lakeside Primary Academy, Frimley
 Laleham CE Primary School, Laleham
 Langshott Primary School, Horley
 Leatherhead Trinity School, Leatherhead
 Lightwater Village School, Lightwater
 Lime Tree Primary School, Merstham
 Limpsfield CE Infant School, Limpsfield
 Lingfield Primary School, Lingfield
 Littleton CE Infant School, Shepperton
 Long Ditton Infant School, Long Ditton
 Long Ditton St Mary's CE Junior School, Long Ditton
 Lorraine Infant School, Camberley
 Loseley Fields Primary School, Godalming
 Lyne and Longcross CE Primary School, Lyne
 Manby Lodge Infant School, Weybridge
 Manorcroft Primary School, Egham
 Manorfield Primary School, Horley
 Marden Lodge Primary School, Caterham
 The Marist RC Primary School, West Byfleet
 Maybury Primary School, Woking
 The Mead Infant School, Ewell
 Meadhurst Primary School, Ashford
 Meadow Primary School, Stoneleigh
 Meadowcroft Community Infant School, Chertsey
 Meath Green Infant School, Horley
 Meath Green Junior School, Horley
 Merrow CE Infant School, Merrow
 Merstham Primary School, Merstham
 Milford School, Milford
 Moss Lane School, Godalming
 Mytchett Primary Academy, Mytchett
 New Haw Community Junior School, New Haw
 New Monument Primary Academy, Woking
 Newdigate CE Infant School, Newdigate
 North Downs Primary School, Brockham
 Northmead Junior School, Guildford
 Nutfield Church CE Primary School, South Nutfield
 Oakfield Junior School, Fetcham
 The Oaktree School, Woking
 Oatlands School, Weybridge
 Ongar Place Primary School, Addlestone
 Onslow Infant School, Onslow Village
 The Orchard Infant School, East Molesey
 Ottershaw Christchurch CE Infant School, Ottershaw
 Ottershaw Christchurch CE Junior School, Ottershaw
 Our Lady of the Rosary RC Primary School, Staines
 Park Mead Primary, Cranleigh
 Peaslake Free School, Peaslake
 Pewley Down Infant School, Guildford
 Pine Ridge Infant School, Camberley
 Pirbright Village Primary School, Pirbright
 Polesden Lacey Infant School, Great Bookham
 Potters Gate CE Primary School, Farnham
 Powell Corderoy Primary School, Dorking
 Prior Heath Infant School, Camberley
 Puttenham CE Infant School, Puttenham
 Pyrcroft Grange Primary School, Chertsey
 Pyrford CE Primary School, Pyrford
 Queen Eleanor's CE School, Guildford
 The Raleigh School, West Horsley
 Ravenscote Junior School, Frimley
 Reigate Parish Church Primary School, Reigate
 Reigate Priory Community Junior School, Reigate
 Riverbridge Primary School, Staines-upon-Thames
 Riverview CE Primary School, West Ewell
 The Royal Alexandra and Albert School, Reigate
 The Royal Kent CE Primary School, Oxshott
 St Alban's RC Primary School, East Molesey
 St Andrew's CE Infant School, Farnham
 St Andrew's CE Primary School, Cobham
 St Anne's RC Primary School, Banstead
 St Anne's RC Primary School, Chertsey
 St Ann's Heath Junior School, Virginia Water
 St Augustine's RC Primary School, Frimley
 St Bartholomew's CE Primary School, Haslemere
 St Charles Borromeo RC Primary School, Weybridge
 St Clement's RC Primary School, Ewell
 St Cuthbert Mayne RC Primary School, Cranleigh
 St Cuthbert's RC Primary School, Englefield Green
 St Dunstan's RC Primary School, Woking
 St Edmund's RC Primary School, Godalming
 St Francis RC Primary School, Caterham
 St Giles' CE Infant School, Ashtead
 St Hugh of Lincoln RC Primary School, Woking
 St Ignatius RC Primary School, Sunbury-on-Thames
 St James CE Primary School, Elstead
 St James CE Primary School, Weybridge
 St John's CE Infant School, Churt
 St John's CE Primary School, Caterham
 St John's CE Primary School, Dorking
 St John's Primary School, Knaphill
 St John's Primary School, Redhill
 St Joseph's RC Primary School, Dorking
 St Joseph's RC Primary School, Epsom
 St Joseph's RC Primary School, Guildford
 St Joseph's RC Primary School, Redhill
 St Jude's CE Infant School, Englefield Green
 St Jude's CE Junior School, Englefield Green
 St Lawrence CE Junior School, East Molesey
 St Lawrence CE Primary School, Chobham
 St Lawrence Primary School, Effingham
 St Mark and All Saints CE Primary, Godalming
 St Martin's CE Infant School, Epsom
 St Martin's CE Junior School, Epsom
 St Martin's CE Primary School, Dorking
 St Mary's CE Infant School, Frensham
 St Mary's CE Infant School, Shackleford
 St Mary's CE Primary School, Byfleet
 St Mary's CE Primary School, Chiddingfold
 St Mary's CE Primary School, Oxted
 St Matthew's CE Infant School, Cobham
 St Matthew's CE Primary School, Redhill
 St Michael RC Primary School, Ashford
 St Michael's CE Infant School, Mickleham
 St Nicholas CE Primary School, Shepperton
 St Nicolas CE Infant School, Guildford
 St Paul's CE Infant School, Farnham
 St Paul's CE Primary School, Addlestone
 St Paul's CE Primary School, Dorking
 St Paul's RC Primary School, Thames Ditton
 St Peter and St Paul CE Infant School, Chaldon
 St Peter's CE Infant School, Tandridge
 St Peter's CE Primary School, Wrecclesham
 St Peter's RC Primary School, Leatherhead
 St Polycarp's RC Primary School, Farnham
 St Stephen's CE Primary School, South Godstone
 St Thomas of Canterbury RC Primary School, Merrow
 Salfords Primary School, Salfords
 Sandcross Primary School, Reigate
 Sandfield Primary School, Guildford
 Sandringham Infant Academy, Frimley
 Saxon Primary School, Shepperton
 Sayes Court School, Addlestone
 Scott Broadwood CE Infant School, Capel
 Send CE Primary School, Send
 Shalford Infant School, Shalford
 Shawfield Primary School, Ash
 Shawley Community Primary Academy, Tattenham Corner
 Shere CE Infant School, Shere
 Shottermill Infant School, Shottermill
 Shottermill Junior School, Shottermill
 South Camberley Primary School, Camberley
 South Farnham School, Farnham
 Southfield Park Primary School, Epsom
 Springfield Primary School, Sunbury-on-Thames
 Stamford Green Primary School, Epsom
 Stanwell Fields CE Primary School, Stanwell
 Stepgates Community School, Chertsey
 Stoughton Infant School, Guildford
 Surrey Hills All Saints Primary School, Westcott
 Sythwood Primary School, Horsell
 Tadworth Primary School, Tadworth
 Tatsfield Primary School, Tatsfield
 Thames Ditton Infant School, Thames Ditton
 Thames Ditton Junior School, Thames Ditton
 Thorpe CE Primary School, Thorpe
 Thorpe Lea Primary School, Thorpe Lea
 Tillingbourne Junior School, Chilworth
 Town Farm Primary School, Stanwell
 Trinity Oaks CE Primary School, Horley
 Trumps Green Infant School, Virginia Water
 The Vale Primary School, Epsom
 Valley End CE Infant School, Valley End
 Wallace Fields Infant School, Ewell
 Wallace Fields Junior School, Ewell
 Walsh CE Junior School, Ash
 Walsh Memorial CE Infant School, Ash
 Walton Oak Primary School, Walton-on-Thames
 Walton-on-the-Hill Primary School, Walton-on-the-Hill
 Warlingham Village Primary School, Warlingham
 Warren Mead Infant School, Banstead
 Warren Mead Junior School, Nork
 Waverley Abbey CE Junior School, Tilford
 The Weald CE Primary School, Beare Green
 West Ashtead Primary School, Ashtead
 West Byfleet Infant School, West Byfleet
 West Byfleet Junior School, West Byfleet
 West Ewell Primary School, West Ewell
 Westfield Primary School, Westfield
 Westvale Park Primary Academy, Horley
 Weyfield Academy, Guildford
 Whyteleafe Primary School, Whyteleafe
 William Cobbett Primary School, Farnham
 Windlesham Village Infant School, Windlesham
 Witley CE Infant School, Witley
 Wonersh and Shamley Green CE Primary School, Shamley Green
 Wood Street Infant School, Guildford
 Woodlea Primary School, Woldingham
 Woodmansterne Primary School, Woodmansterne
 Worplesdon Primary School, Worplesdon
 Wray Common Primary School, Reigate
 Wyke Primary School, Normandy
 Yattendon School, Horley

Secondary schools

All Hallows Catholic School, Weybourne
Ash Manor School, Ash
The Ashcombe School, Dorking
The Beacon School, Banstead
Bishop David Brown School, Woking
The Bishop Wand Church of England School, Sunbury-on-Thames
Blenheim High School, Epsom
Broadwater School, Farncombe
Carrington School, Redhill
Chertsey High School, Addlestone
Christ's College, Guildford
Cobham Free School, Cobham
Collingwood College, Camberley
de Stafford School,  Caterham
Epsom and Ewell High School, Ewell
Esher Church of England High School, Esher
Farnham Heath End School, Farnham
Fullbrook School, New Haw
George Abbot School, Guildford
Glebelands School, Cranleigh
Glyn School, Ewell
Gordon's School, Woking
Guildford County School, Guildford
Heathside School, Weybridge
Heathside Walton-on-Thames, Walton-on-Thames
Hinchley Wood School, Hinchley Wood
Hoe Valley School, Woking
Howard of Effingham School, Effingham
Jubilee High School, Addlestone
King's College, Guildford
Kings International College, Camberley
The Magna Carta School, Staines-upon-Thames
The Matthew Arnold School, Staines-upon-Thames
Merstham Park School, Redhill
Oakwood School, Horley
Oxted School, Oxted
The Priory School, Dorking
Reigate School, Reigate
Rodborough School, Milford
Rosebery School for Girls, Epsom
The Royal Alexandra and Albert School, Reigate
St Andrew's Catholic School, Leatherhead
St Bede's School, Redhill
St John the Baptist School, Woking
St Paul's Catholic College, Sunbury-on-Thames
St Peter's Catholic School, Guildford
Salesian School, Chertsey
Sunbury Manor School, Sunbury-on-Thames
Thamesmead School, Shepperton
Therfield School, Leatherhead
Thomas Knyvett College, Ashford
Three Rivers Academy, Walton-on-Thames
Tomlinscote School, Camberley
Warlingham School, Warlingham
Weydon School, Farnham
The Winston Churchill School, Woking
Woking High School, Woking
Woolmer Hill School, Haslemere

Special and alternative schools

 The Abbey School, Farnham
 Bramley Oak Academy, Bramley
 Brooklands School, Reigate
 Carwarden House Community School, Camberley
 Clifton Hill School, Caterham
 Fordway Centre, Ashford
 Fox Grove School, West Molesey
 Freemantles School, Mayford
 Gosden House School, Bramley
 Grafham Grange School, Grafham
 The Hope Service, Guildford
 Limpsfield Grange School, Oxted
 Linden Bridge School, Worcester Park
 Manor Mead School, Shepperton
 North East Surrey Secondary Short Stay School, Hersham
 North West Surrey Short Stay School, Woking
 The Park School, Woking
 Philip Southcote School, Addlestone
 Pond Meadow School, Guildford
 Portesbery School, Deepcut
 Reigate Valley College, Sidlow
 The Ridgeway School, Farnham
 St Dominic's School, Hambledon
 St Peter's Centre, Englefield Green
 Sunnydown School, Caterham
 The Surrey Teaching Centre, Tadworth
 Unified Academy, Dorking
 Walton Leigh School, Hersham
 West Hill School, Leatherhead
 Wey Valley College, Guildford
 Wishmore Cross Academy, Woking
 Woodfield School, Merstham
 Woodlands School, Leatherhead

Further education

Brooklands College
East Surrey College
Esher College
Farnham College
Godalming College
Guildford College
North East Surrey College of Technology
Reigate College
Strode's College
Woking College

Independent schools

Primary and preparatory schools

Aberdour School, Burgh Heath
Aldro School, Shackleford
Amesbury School, Hindhead
Banstead Preparatory School, Banstead
Barfield School, Runfold
Barrow Hills School, Witley
Bishopsgate School, Englefield Green
Chinthurst School, Tadworth
Cobham Montessori School, Cobham
Copthorne Preparatory School, Copthorne
Coworth-Flexlands School, Valley End
Danes Hill School, Oxshott
The Danesfield Manor School, Walton-on-Thames
Edgeborough School, Farnham
Essendene Lodge School, Caterham
Feltonfleet School, Cobham
Glenesk School, East Horsley
Greenfield School, Woking
Hall Grove School, Bagshot
Halstead St Andrew's School, Horsell/Woking
The Hawthorns School, Bletchingley
Hazelwood School, Limpsfield
Hoe Bridge School, Old Woking
Little Downsend Epsom, Epsom
Little Downsend Leatherhead, Leatherhead
Longacre School, Shamley Green
Lyndhurst School, Camberley
Micklefield School, Reigate
Milbourne Lodge School, Esher
Oakhyrst Grange School, Caterham
Parkside School, Stoke D'abernon
Redehall Preparatory School, Smallfield
Reigate St Mary's School, Reigate
Ripley Court School, Ripley
Rowan Preparatory School, Claygate
Rydes Hill Preparatory School, Guildford
St Christopher's School, Epsom
St Hilary's School, Godalming
St Ives School, Haslemere
St John's Beaumont School, Englefield Green
Shrewsbury House Pre Preparatory School, Esher
Staines Preparatory School, Staines-upon-Thames
Warlingham Park School, Warlingham
Weston Green Preparatory School, Thames Ditton
Westward School, Walton-on-Thames
Woodcote House School, Windlesham

Senior and all-through schools

ACS International Schools, Cobham
ACS International Schools, Egham
Belmont School, Holmbury St Mary
Box Hill School, Mickleham
Caterham School, Caterham
Charterhouse School, Godalming
City of London Freemen's School, Ashtead
Claremont Fan Court School, Esher
Cranleigh School, Cranleigh
Cranmore School, West Horsley
Downsend School, Leatherhead
Duke of Kent School, Ewhurst
Dunottar School, Reigate
Epsom College, Epsom
Ewell Castle School, Ewell
Frensham Heights School, Frensham
Guildford High School, Guildford
Halliford School, Shepperton
Hurtwood House, Holmbury St Mary
King Edward's School, Witley
Kingswood House School, Epsom
Lingfield College, Lingfield
Manor House School, Little Bookham
Notre Dame School, Cobham
OneSchool Global UK, Hindhead
Prior's Field School, Godalming
Reed's School, Cobham
Reigate Grammar School, Reigate
Royal Grammar School, Guildford
The Royal School, Haslemere
St Catherine's School, Bramley
St Edmund's School, Hindhead
St George's College, Weybridge
St James Independent Schools, Ashford
St John's School, Leatherhead
St Teresa's School, Effingham
Sir William Perkins's School, Chertsey
TASIS England, Thorpe
Tormead School, Guildford
Woldingham School, Woldingham
Yehudi Menuhin School, Stoke d'Abernon

Special and alternative schools

Ashley Park School, Walton-on-Thames
Aurora Poppyfield School, Effingham
Aurora Redehall School, Smallfield
The Beech House School, West Molesey
Burstow Park School, Burstow
Castle Garden School, Guildford
The Children's Trust School, Tadworth
Eagle House School, Walton-on-the-Hill
Elysian Farm, Shamley Green
Egham Park School, Egham
Fernways School, Windlesham
Grafham Grange School, Grafham
Jigsaw School, Cranleigh
Knowl Hill School, Pirbright
Maypole School, Sunbury-on-Thames
Meath School, Ottershaw
Merrywood House Independent Special School, Tadworth
Moon Hall School, Leigh
Moor House School & College, Hurst Green
More House School, Frensham
Papillon House, Tadworth
Pathways Education, Farnham
St Joseph's Specialist School, Cranleigh
St Piers School, Lingfield
Undershaw, Hindhead
Unsted Park School, Godalming
Wemms Education Centre, Leatherhead

References

 http://online.surreycc.gov.uk/education/schools.nsf/SchoolsByType?OpenView

Surrey
Schools in Surrey
Lists of buildings and structures in Surrey

List of schools in Surrey


In probability theory and statistics, the characteristic function of any real-valued random variable completely defines its probability distribution. If a random variable admits a probability density function, then the characteristic function is the Fourier transform of the probability density function. Thus it provides an alternative route to analytical results compared with working directly with probability density functions or cumulative distribution functions. There are particularly simple results for the characteristic functions of distributions defined by the weighted sums of random variables.

In addition to univariate distributions, characteristic functions can be defined for vector- or matrix-valued random variables, and can also be extended to more generic cases.

The characteristic function always exists when treated as a function of a real-valued argument, unlike the moment-generating function. There are relations between the behavior of the characteristic function of a distribution and properties of the distribution, such as the existence of moments and the existence of a density function.

Introduction
The characteristic function is a way to describe a random variable.
The characteristic function,

a function of t,
completely determines the behavior and properties of the probability distribution of the random variable X.
The characteristic function is similar to the cumulative distribution function,

(where 1{X ≤ x} is the indicator function — it is equal to 1 when , and zero otherwise), which also completely determines the behavior and properties of the probability distribution of the random variable X. The two approaches are equivalent in the sense that knowing one of the functions it is always possible to find the other, yet they provide different insights for understanding the features of the random variable. Moreover, in particular cases, there can be differences in whether these functions can be represented as expressions involving simple standard functions.

If a random variable admits a density function, then the characteristic function is its Fourier dual, in the sense that each of them is a Fourier transform of the other. If a random variable has a moment-generating function , then the domain of the characteristic function can be extended to the complex plane, and

Note however that the characteristic function of a distribution always exists, even when the probability density function or moment-generating function do not.

The characteristic function approach is particularly useful in analysis of linear combinations of independent random variables: a classical proof of the Central Limit Theorem uses characteristic functions and Lévy's continuity theorem. Another important application is to the theory of the decomposability of random variables.

Definition
For a scalar random variable X the characteristic function is defined as the expected value of eitX, where i is the imaginary unit, and  is the argument of the characteristic function:

Here FX is the cumulative distribution function of X, fX is the corresponding probability density function, QX(p) is the corresponding inverse cumulative distribution function also called the quantile function, and the integrals are of the Riemann–Stieltjes kind. If a random variable X has a probability density function then the characteristic function is its Fourier transform with sign reversal in the complex exponential.  This convention for the constants appearing in the definition of the characteristic function differs from the usual convention for the Fourier transform. For example, some authors define , which is essentially a change of parameter. Other notation may be encountered in the literature:  as the characteristic function for a probability measure p, or  as the characteristic function corresponding to a density f.

Generalizations
The notion of characteristic functions generalizes to multivariate random variables and more complicated random elements. The argument of the characteristic function will always belong to the continuous dual of the space where the random variable X takes its values. For common cases such definitions are listed below:

 If X is a k-dimensional random vector, then for   where  is the transpose of the vector  ,
 If X is a k × p-dimensional random matrix, then for   where  is the trace operator,
 If X is a complex random variable, then for    where  is the complex conjugate of  and  is the real part of the complex number ,
 If X is a k-dimensional complex random vector, then for     where  is the conjugate transpose of the vector  ,
 If X(s) is a stochastic process, then for all functions t(s) such that the integral  converges for almost all realizations of X

Examples

Oberhettinger (1973) provides extensive tables of characteristic functions.

Properties
 The characteristic function of a real-valued random variable always exists, since it is an integral of a bounded continuous function over a space whose measure is finite.
 A characteristic function is uniformly continuous on the entire space.
 It is non-vanishing in a region around zero: φ(0) = 1.
 It is bounded: |φ(t)| ≤ 1.
 It is Hermitian: . In particular, the characteristic function of a symmetric (around the origin) random variable is real-valued and even.
 There is a bijection between probability distributions and characteristic functions. That is, for any two random variables X1, X2, both have the same probability distribution if and only if .
 If a random variable X has moments up to k-th order, then the characteristic function φX is k times continuously differentiable on the entire real line. In this case
 If a characteristic function φX has a k-th derivative at zero, then the random variable X has all moments up to k if k is even, but only up to  if k is odd.
 If X1, ..., Xn are independent random variables, and a1, ..., an are some constants, then the characteristic function of the linear combination of the Xi 's is  One specific case is the sum of two independent random variables X1 and X2 in which case one has
 Let  and  be two random variables with characteristic functions  and .  and  are independent if and only if .
 The tail behavior of the characteristic function determines the smoothness of the corresponding density function.
 Let the random variable  be the linear transformation of a random variable . The characteristic function of  is . For random vectors  and  (where A is a constant matrix and B a constant vector), we have .

Continuity
The bijection stated above between probability distributions and characteristic functions is sequentially continuous. That is, whenever a sequence of distribution functions Fj(x) converges (weakly) to some distribution F(x), the corresponding sequence of characteristic functions φj(t)  will also converge, and the limit φ(t) will correspond to the characteristic function of law F. More formally, this is stated as

 Lévy's continuity theorem: A sequence Xj of n-variate random variables converges in distribution to random variable X if and only if the sequence φXj converges pointwise to a function φ which is continuous at the origin. Where φ is the characteristic function of X.

This theorem can be used to prove the law of large numbers and the central limit theorem.

Inversion formula
There is a one-to-one correspondence between cumulative distribution functions and characteristic functions, so it is possible to find one of these functions if we know the other. The formula in the definition of characteristic function allows us to compute φ when we know the distribution function F (or density f). If, on the other hand, we know the characteristic function φ and want to find the corresponding distribution function, then one of the following inversion theorems can be used.

Theorem. If the characteristic function φX of a random variable X is integrable, then FX is absolutely continuous, and therefore X has a probability density function. In the univariate case (i.e. when X is scalar-valued) the density function is given by

In the multivariate case it is

where  is the dot product.

The density function is the Radon–Nikodym derivative of the distribution μX with respect to the Lebesgue measure λ:

Theorem (Lévy). If φX is characteristic function of distribution function FX, two points a < b are such that  is a continuity set of μX (in the univariate case this condition is equivalent to continuity of FX at points a and b), then
 If X is scalar:  This formula can be re-stated in a form more convenient for numerical computation as  For a random variable bounded from below one can obtain  by taking  such that  Otherwise, if a random variable is not bounded from below, the limit for  gives , but is numerically impractical.
 If X is a vector random variable:

Theorem. If a is (possibly) an atom of X (in the univariate case this means a point of discontinuity of FX ) then
 If X is scalar:
 If X is a vector random variable:

Theorem (Gil-Pelaez). For a univariate random variable X, if x is a continuity point of FX then

where the imaginary part of a complex number  is given by .

And its density function is:

The integral may be not Lebesgue-integrable; for example, when X is the discrete random variable that is always 0, it becomes the Dirichlet integral.

Inversion formulas for multivariate distributions are available.

Criteria for characteristic functions
The set of all characteristic functions is closed under certain operations:
A convex linear combination  (with ) of a finite or a countable number of characteristic functions is also a characteristic function.
 The product of a finite number of characteristic functions is also a characteristic function. The same holds for an infinite product provided that it converges to a function continuous at the origin.
If φ is a characteristic function and α is a real number, then , Re(φ), |φ|2, and φ(αt) are also characteristic functions.

It is well known that any non-decreasing càdlàg function F with limits F(−∞) = 0, F(+∞) = 1 corresponds to a cumulative distribution function of some random variable. There is also interest in finding similar simple criteria for when a given function φ could be the characteristic function of some random variable. The central result here is Bochner's theorem, although its usefulness is limited because the main condition of the theorem, non-negative definiteness, is very hard to verify. Other theorems also exist, such as Khinchine's, Mathias's, or Cramér's, although their application is just as difficult. Pólya's theorem, on the other hand, provides a very simple convexity condition which is sufficient but not necessary. Characteristic functions which satisfy this condition are called Pólya-type.

Bochner's theorem. An arbitrary function φ : Rn → C is the characteristic function of some random variable if and only if φ is positive definite, continuous at the origin, and if φ(0) = 1.

Khinchine's criterion. A complex-valued, absolutely continuous function φ, with φ(0) = 1, is a characteristic function if and only if it admits the representation

Mathias' theorem. A real-valued, even, continuous, absolutely integrable function φ, with φ(0) = 1, is a characteristic function if and only if

for n = 0,1,2,..., and all p > 0. Here H2n denotes the Hermite polynomial of degree 2n.

Pólya's theorem. If  is a real-valued, even, continuous function which satisfies the conditions
 ,
  is convex for ,
 ,
then φ(t) is the characteristic function of an absolutely continuous distribution symmetric about 0.

Uses
Because of the continuity theorem, characteristic functions are used in the most frequently seen proof of the central limit theorem. The main technique involved in making calculations with  a characteristic function is recognizing the function as the characteristic function of a particular distribution.

Basic manipulations of distributions
Characteristic functions are particularly useful for dealing with linear functions of independent random variables. For example, if  is a sequence of independent (and not necessarily identically distributed) random variables, and

where the ai are constants, then the characteristic function for Sn is given by

In particular, .  To see this, write out the definition of characteristic function:

The independence of X and Y is required to establish the equality of the third and fourth expressions.

Another special case of interest for identically distributed random variables is when  and then Sn is the sample mean.  In this case, writing  for the mean,

Moments
Characteristic functions can also be used to find moments of a random variable.  Provided that the nth moment exists, the characteristic function can be differentiated n times:

This can be formally written using the derivatives of the Dirac delta function:which allows a formal solution to the moment problem.
For example, suppose X has a standard Cauchy distribution.  Then .  This is not differentiable at t = 0, showing that the Cauchy distribution has no expectation.  Also, the characteristic function of the sample mean  of n independent observations has characteristic function , using the result from the previous section.  This is the characteristic function of the standard Cauchy distribution: thus, the sample mean has the same distribution as the population itself.

As a further example, suppose X follows a Gaussian distribution i.e. . Then  and

A similar calculation shows  and is easier to carry out than applying the definition of expectation and using integration by parts to evaluate .

The logarithm of a characteristic function is a cumulant generating function, which is useful for finding cumulants; some instead define the cumulant generating function as the logarithm of the moment-generating function, and call the logarithm of the characteristic function the second cumulant generating function.

Data analysis
Characteristic functions can be used as part of procedures for fitting probability distributions to samples of data. Cases where this provides a practicable option compared to other possibilities include fitting the stable distribution since closed form expressions for the density are not available which makes implementation of maximum likelihood estimation difficult.  Estimation procedures are available which match the theoretical characteristic function to the empirical characteristic function, calculated from the data. Paulson et al. (1975) and Heathcote (1977) provide some theoretical background for such an estimation procedure. In addition, Yu (2004) describes applications of empirical characteristic functions to fit time series models where likelihood procedures are impractical. Empirical characteristic functions have also been used by Ansari et al. (2020) and Li et al. (2020) for training generative adversarial networks.

Example
The gamma distribution with scale parameter θ and a shape parameter k has the characteristic function

Now suppose that we have

with X and Y independent from each other, and we wish to know what the distribution of X + Y is. The characteristic functions are

which by independence and the basic properties of characteristic function leads to

This is the characteristic function of the gamma distribution scale parameter θ and shape parameter k1 + k2, and we therefore conclude

The result can be expanded to n independent gamma distributed random variables with the same scale parameter and we get

Entire characteristic functions

As defined above, the argument of the characteristic function is treated as a real number: however, certain aspects of the theory of characteristic functions are advanced by extending the definition into the complex plane by analytical continuation, in cases where this is possible.

Related concepts
Related concepts include the moment-generating function and the probability-generating function. The characteristic function exists for all probability distributions. This is not the case for the moment-generating function.

The characteristic function is closely related to the Fourier transform: the characteristic function of a probability density function p(x) is the complex conjugate of the continuous Fourier transform of p(x) (according to the usual convention; see continuous Fourier transform – other conventions).

where P(t) denotes the continuous Fourier transform of the probability density function p(x). Likewise, p(x) may be recovered from φX(t) through the inverse Fourier transform:

Indeed, even when the random variable does not have a density, the characteristic function may be seen as the Fourier transform of the measure corresponding to the random variable.

Another related concept is the representation of probability distributions as elements of a reproducing kernel Hilbert space via the kernel embedding of distributions.  This framework may be viewed as a generalization of the characteristic function under specific choices of the kernel function.

See also
Subindependence, a weaker condition than independence, that is defined in terms of characteristic functions.
Cumulant, a term of the cumulant generating functions, which are logs of the characteristic functions.

Notes

References

Citations

Sources

External links

Functions related to probability distributions

Characteristic function (probability theory)


Giovanni Padovani (or Paduani) (b. c. 1512) was an Italian mathematician and astronomer.  He lived in Verona and was a student of Pietro Pitati.  He published a number of esteemed treatises on various astronomical and mathematical subjects, the most well-known of which was a treatise on the sundial called Opus de compositione et usu multiformium horologiorum solarium, pro diversis mundi regionibus, idq(ue) ubique locorum tam in superficie plana horizontali quam murali quoruscumqu(ue) exposita sit, pertractans (Venice, 1570).  An expanded and re-written version came out in 1582.

This manual includes instructions for the manufacture and laying out of mural (vertical) and horizontal sundials; contains extensive tables of declinations for various latitudes with both occidental and oriental examples; and provides instructions for the calculation of latitudes.  This last section includes a description of a sundial calibrated for the measurement of unequal hours, such as those used in the ecclesiastic calendar, which foresaw twelve hours of light and twelve of dark, which was subject to severe seasonal variations.

Sources
Papyrus Rare Books
Roger Gaskell Rare Books
Krown & Spellman Booksellers info

16th-century Italian astronomers
16th-century Italian mathematicians
1512 births
Year of death missing

Giovanni Padovani