Paibok the Power Skrull is a supervillain appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. He is a foe of the Fantastic Four.

Publication history

Paibok's first appearance was in Fantastic Four #358 (November 1991); he was created by Tom DeFalco, Paul Ryan and Danny Bulanadi.

Fictional character biography
Paibok was born on the planet Tarnax IV, in the Tarnax System in the Andromeda Galaxy. His home planet was part of the Skrull Empire, but has since been destroyed. Paibok was trained at the Skrullian military academy, and became a Skrull espionage agent, and a captain in the Skrull armed forces.

Lyja and Alicia
The Skrull Empire seeks a way to defeat the Fantastic Four, who have handed them multiple defeats. Paibok suggests a subtle plan: replacing the Fantastic Four's associate Alicia Masters with Lyja, a Skrull spy and Paibok's former lover. Their relationship had not ended well.

Lyja successfully impersonates Alicia and the real Alicia is held prisoner by Paibok.

Eventually the Fantastic Four realize what had happened and come in search of Alicia. They confront Paibok on 'War World'. Paibok, now calling himself the "Power Skrull" after being augmented in a manner similar to the Super-Skrull, is prepared for the encounter and almost defeats the Fantastic Four and Lyja.

Lyja seemingly sacrifices her life to protect the Human Torch and the Thing finally defeats Paibok. He is left for dead, buried under fallen rubble.

The Fearsome Foursome
Paibok survived the battle and recovered Lyja's body. Seeking revenge on the Fantastic Four, he encountered Devos the Devastator, another alien who had clashed with them, and the two formed an alliance. Devos was able to revive Lyja, and Paibok and Devos altered Lyja's genetic structure, granting her the power of flight and the ability to project lethal energy blasts. Together, the three traveled to Earth to battle the Fantastic Four again.

Arriving on earth, they isolated and attacked the Human Torch in New York City, forcing him to use his Nova Flame against them — a move which then led to his arrest for damage to the surroundings. A second attack confused and aggravated the situation, leaving the Human Torch a fugitive from the police. Alongside Devos and Lyja, Paibok witnessed the battle between the Fantastic Four and an alternate Fantastic Four. Paibok was betrayed by Lyja when she again joined the conflict and abandoned Paibok and sided with the Fantastic Four. Alongside Devos, Paibok attacked the Human Torch during his trial.

Undeterred, Paibok and Devos recruited new allies — Klaw and Huntara — and the quartet continued their attacks on the Fantastic Four, becoming known as the Fearsome Foursome. Eventually they were able to capture their foes (including Lyja) and returned to the Skrull Throneworld to present the captives to the Empress.

Paibok's triumph was short-lived, though — once on Throneworld he discovered that Devos was a wanted criminal, a renegade with a price on his head and an entire world under his command. Devos promptly summoned his troops, took personal command of his flagship (the Death Cruiser) and attempted to destroy Throneworld. The Empress blamed Paibok for this and repaid him by ordering his death.

Seeking to redeem himself, Paibok made his way on board the Death Cruiser and confronted Devos. The ship's stardrive was damaged during their confrontation and the cruiser fell into subspace — Devos and Paibok were both believed lost along with the ship.

Freakshow
Paibok somehow escaped from subspace and struck a deal with Centaurian scientists to enhance his powers. Their treatment succeeded — but also affected his appearance, leaving him in a cadaverous, zombie-like form. Still viewed as a traitor, he fled to Earth and assembled a band of Skrull renegades.

Disguised as Paul Balk, the owner of a traveling freakshow, Paibok located and tried to capture an immature Watcher, a plan that led to clashes with the Thing and a band of Kree. The attempt failed and he was captured by the Kree, who left Earth shortly afterwards with Paibok as their prisoner.

Earthfall
Paibok was next seen as one of the few convicts to survive when the prison transport vessel Dredge 01 crashed on its way to Kyln. The prison ship crashed on Earth, near the town of Coot's Bluff in Alaska, and Paibok immediately took command of the other survivors (Lunatik and the Blood Brothers) in an attempt to salvage the wrecked ship's technology and escape the planet. Paibok's plan also involved taking control of Coot's Bluff and using the terrified population as slave labor — something which brought his renegades into conflict with the only other survivor of the crash, Drax the Destroyer.

Initially, Paibok and his allies defeated Drax, leaving him for dead. However, Drax somehow recovered — and then hunted down his attackers, killing Lunatik and one of the Blood Brothers. Paibok's escape plan was abandoned and, faced with death at the hands of a vengeful Drax, he activated a distress beacon that he had secretly salvaged from the wreck — summoning another ship and surrendering himself to the authorities who had previously imprisoned him.

Annihilation

Paibok later reappears fighting for Annihilus and his allies, as part of the Annihilation Wave. Following the death of Annihilus, the parasites injected into Paibok to force his obedience cease functioning. He briefly joins forces with Terrax the Tamer and the Delinquent to kill Randau the Space Parasite, a being that had been slaughtering innocents. After the battle, which ends with the destruction of the planet by Terrax, he convinces the addled Delinquent to craft a spaceship. They return to what remains of the Skrull Empire.

All-New, All-Different Marvel
As part of the All-New, All-Different Marvel, Paibok appears as a member of the Maker's New Revengers.<ref>New Avengers vol. 4 #6. Marvel Comics.</ref>

Powers and abilities
As a Skrull, Paibok possesses heightened physical malleability, an innate racial ability to shapeshift. Paibok is a graduate from the Skrull military academy, as well as an expert in all forms of armed and unarmed combat known to his own species. He can access to advanced technology, such as warp drive starships or ranged energy weapons. Paibok has a set of additional powers, thanks to bionic re-engineering by Skrull scientists. He also possesses immense strength, stamina, durability, speed, and agility, supersonic flight, organic metal transformation, cryokinesis, electrokinesis, and hypnotism. Paibok wears body armor of unspecified materials.

In other media
Paibok appears as a mini-boss in the video game Marvel: Ultimate Alliance'', voiced by Khary Payton. He appears during a mission when the player must visit the Skrull homeworld that is under attack by Galactus. Initially, the player can choose either the Super-Skrull or Paibok to act as bodyguards while opening the doors for the Skrull Empress' spaceship to escape. The only exception is if your team is composed of the Fantastic Four in which case they do not trust either Paibok or the Super-Skrull. Afterwards, the Skrull Empress then orders Paibok and the Super-Skrull to kill the heroes while she escapes. A simulation disk has the Human Torch fighting Paibok and a VS simulation disk has the heroes fighting Paibok.

References

External links

 Paibok at Marvel.com

Characters created by Tom DeFalco
Comics characters introduced in 1991
Fictional hypnotists and indoctrinators
Fictional impostors
Fictional characters with electric or magnetic abilities
Fictional characters with ice or cold abilities
Fictional characters with slowed ageing
Marvel Comics characters who can move at superhuman speeds
Marvel Comics characters with superhuman durability or invulnerability
Marvel Comics characters with superhuman strength
Marvel Comics extraterrestrial supervillains
Marvel Comics male supervillains
Marvel Comics military personnel
Marvel Comics mutates
Marvel Comics supervillains
Skrull

Paibok


Russia Dock Woodland is a long narrow park in Rotherhithe, London, created by the infilling of one of the former Surrey Commercial Docks. The former Russia Dock was originally used for the importing of softwood timber from Norway, Russia and Sweden. Known as "deal wood", it was mostly used for newsprint and for manufacturing furniture.
Following the closure of the docks in the early 1970s, the area was redeveloped by the London Docklands Development Corporation (LDDC). Russia Dock Woodland was made up of a number of docks, including Russia Dock, Island Dock and Surrey Basin, which were infilled (save for a thin 'stream' through the woodland) and planted as a  woodland in 1980. The Woodland still contains surviving dock features including the retaining wall capstones, depth gauges, bollards, mooring chains and tracks.

Management
The woodlands were established by the LDDC and were handed over toand are now managed bySouthwark Council with the assistance of the Friends of Russia Dock Woodland. The LDDC established various footbridges (including the Alfred Salter footbridge) and paths (including Waterman's path along the stream) through the woods, which are now maintained by Southwark Council. The Conservation Volunteers (formerly the Trust for Urban Ecology) maintain the neighbouring Stave Hill Ecological Park. Both areas are an excellent resource for residents of and visitors to Rotherhithe.

Stave Hill

Stave Hill itself is a  high artificial mound in the shape of a truncated cone, with a viewing platform and relief map of the former docks in cast bronze by Michael Rizzello at the top. It provides views over Canary Wharf, the City of London, and much of south and central London; on clear days the view stretches as far as Wembley Stadium.

It was created in 1985 by the LDDC, using waste material and rubble from the works to fill and landscape the former commercial docks.

References

External links

Russia Dock Woodland on the Woodland Trust website

Forests and woodlands of London
Parks and open spaces in the London Borough of Southwark
London docks
Redeveloped ports and waterfronts in London
Rotherhithe

Russia Dock Woodland


Frogs are amphibians and vertebrates of the order Anura. There is not much difference between frogs and toads, and they are not classified separately. This is because the toad lifestyle, with its dry, rough, skin, is an adaptation to living in drier habitats. The toad form has evolved a number of times independently, an example of convergent evolution.

Frogs can live on land and in fresh water. They cannot survive in salt water. Their development is by metamorphosis. They usually hatch as tadpoles  from eggs, which are laid by a female frog. The eggs are called frogspawn. Tadpoles have tails and gills. The next stage, the "froglet," develops lungs to breathe air instead of gills, but still have tails. The fully grown frog has long legs and no tail.

Adult frogs can jump with their legs. They have long tongues that they use to catch bugs. They make a sound called a croak. Some species live in trees, and some types of frog are protected by being poisonous. Frogs live all over the world. If a foreign species of frogs is introduced to another country, the local ecosystem might be affected.

Frog legs are sometimes eaten as food in France, China, and the Midwest of the United States.  The killing of frogs might have an effect on the ecosystem. For example, frogs eat mosquitoes. If frogs are killed, then there are fewer frogs to eat mosquitoes, so more and more mosquitoes are born. Therefore, in these areas, there are more diseases that mosquitoes carry, because there are more mosquitoes. However, for this to apply, frogs would have to be a major predator of mosquitoes. This would only rarely be the case.

Frogs are members of the class Lissamphibia, the only class of amphibia which has survived to the present day.

Characteristics
Frogs are cold blooded animals. This means that they need heat to keep up their body temperature. If the temperature outside is cold, amphibians will not be active. Amphibians can get heat from the sun, usually indirectly: whereas reptiles can bask in the sun, amphibia usually do not, because it dries their skin. Some frogs aestivate during winter or during droughts. They usually look for underground place to aestivate. These include burrowing in muds and holes. They survive by getting oxygen through their skin. They come out when the weather outside is favourable.

Frogs have skin with no scales or hair. They can take in oxygen from either water or air. Mucus that helps their skin to stay wet and slippery. Many amphibians have toxic skin. They have secretions which makes their skin poisonous.

Many frogs are semi-aquatic. They may live on both land and in water, and in any event prefer damp places. These include ponds, swamps, rivers and lakes. Most adults live where they grew up. Most amphibians lay their eggs in foam nests.

Toads
A toad is a large type of frog. It is not a scientific term, but a popular one. The reason it is not used in taxonomy is that the toad life-style has evolved a number of separate times in various groups of frogs.

All toads are frogs, but not all frogs are toads. Toads mainly evolved in dry climates, so many toads have rougher, browner skin.  Many toads also burrow, though that depends on the environment that the toad evolved in. Toads lay eggs in strings attached to rocks, unlike true frogs which lay eggs in a jelly-like mass. Also, toads generally have shorter legs and fatter bodies. Toads have paratoid glands behind their eyes which are used to make poison.

Development

Even though it is true that most frogs develop from tadpoles, and tadpoles develop from eggs laid in water, there are exceptions. Normally the eggs are fertilised after they are laid, that is, outside the body. However, some use internal fertilisation, though how the males do it is not known. When they are fertilised internally, they also lay eggs, but this time the eggs are already fertilised.

However, a new species has been discovered in Sulawasi, Indonesia, which gives birth to live tadpoles. The frog is now known as Limnonectes larvaepartus. The Limnonectes family are known as 'fanged frogs' because of twin projections on their lower jaws that are used in fighting. Sulawesi is an island which is rapidly losing its forests. The tropical forest is where this frog lives.

Distribution and habitats
Despite these limitations, frogs are widespread, and have adapted to many climates, even deserts. They rely on specific adaptations to survive. Members of the genus Cyclorana live in the Australian central desert. They bury themselves underground where they create a waterproof cocoon in which to aestivate during dry periods. Once it rains, they come out, find a temporary pool, and breed. Egg and tadpole development is very fast in comparison to those of most other frogs, so breeding can be completed before the pond dries up.

Some frog species are adapted to a cold environment. The wood frog (Rana sylvatica), whose habitat extends into the Arctic Circle, buries itself in the ground during winter. Although much of its body freezes during this time, its high concentration of glucose in its vital organs protects them from damage.

There are a number of tiny tree frogs which develop from eggs laid in water pools on tropical leaves many meters above the ground. Most of these species do not come to the ground except to mate. Tree frogs have evolved a number of times, but they all have almost identical adaptations. Many millions of years of convergent evolution have resulted in almost identical morphology and habits.

Overall, frogs are a successful and widespread group. There are about 4,800 recorded species, which is over 85% of living amphibian species. They are one of the five most diverse vertebrate orders.

Largest, smallest
The largest frog is the African Goliath frog (Conraua goliath). The maximum recorded weight is 3.8 kg (8.4 lb), and a snout-to-vent length of 39 cm (15 in).
Paedophryne amauensis is not just the smallest frog, but the smallest vertebrate, 7.7 millimetres (0.30 in) long.

References

Frog


Robert Richardson (died 1578) was a Scottish Prior of St Mary's Isle and royal administrator.

Biography
He was the son of Robert Richardson, burgess of Jedburgh (died ca. 1556). His great grandfather arrived in Scotland in 1424 in the reign of James I. The historian George Crawfurd asserts that he was descended of a stock of ancient and opulent burgesses of Edinburgh, but there is little to connect him with the city before 1553, when he was made a burgess at the request of the fourth earl of Huntly.

He matriculated at St Salvator's College, St Andrews, in 1531, and graduated MA in 1532. Nothing is known of his early career except that in April 1544 he was involved with the Earl of Lennox in armed opposition to the Regent Arran at the battle of Glasgow, for which he later received remission. He was presented to the vicarage of Dunsyre in 1549 and held the vicarage of Eckford by 1552. In that year he was provided by the Pope to the archdeaconry of Teviotdale, which he held until 1565 along with the appropriated parsonage of Morebattle. In 1558 he obtained crown presentation to the priory of St Mary's Isle, near Kirkcudbright, which he also resigned in 1565, retaining the usufruct.

Richardson's career as a royal official began around 1549 when he was comptroller clerk. In November 1552 he was an auditor of the treasurer's account. Gilbert Kennedy, 3rd Earl of Cassilis, appointed lord treasurer in April 1554, delegated the entire conduct of business to Richardson as treasurer clerk. After Cassillis's death in November 1558 Richardson continued as treasurer clerk and acting treasurer.

Scottish Reformation
As acting treasurer, it was probably in this capacity, rather than as "Maister of the Cunze-house", that he held the coining irons of the mint at Holyroodhouse. In July 1559 the Protestant Lords of the Congregation who occupied Edinburgh seized these, along with great sums of money, claiming that they had done so to stop corruption of the coinage. The irons were returned to him according to the terms of the Articles of Leith between the lords and Mary of Guise.

After the siege of Leith, Richardson sat as a prelate at the Reformation Parliament of 1560 and was listed by Knox among those "that had renunceit Papistrie and oppinlie profest Jesus Chryst with us.". Finally appointed Lord Treasurer on 5 March 1561, he was a member of the privy council from 1561 to 1576. In 1562 he was named as one of the commissioners for receiving rentals of benefices and in October of that year was granted a pension of £1000 Scots from the thirds of benefices pending provision to a benefice of equal or greater value.

The Reformation gave him further opportunities to add to the landed estate he had been acquiring since 1552, mainly in East Lothian and Midlothian. Three charters by the commendator and convent of Dunfermline on 28 July 1563 conveyed to him extensive lands, mainly in Haddingtonshire, Edinburghshire, and Fife, amounting to no fewer than seventy-seven farms and scattered holdings. From September 1565 onwards he disposed of a large part of this property to the tenants, no doubt profitably. He retained lands and coal mines around Musselburgh, including Smeaton, where either he or his son built what in 1577 was described as a new house. He also acquired some small properties belonging to Jedburgh Abbey. Crawfurd wrote of Richardson:

He appears to have been a very wise moderate man; for so far as I can observe from the history of these times, he kept himself more in a neutrality, and was less a party-man than any other that held any great office about the court. He was never violent against the Queen, tho' he complied with the Government under the young King.

King's man and Lord High Treasurer
Richardson supported the overthrow of Mary, Queen of Scots. He attended the coronation of the infant James VI in 1567, and was present at Mary's defeat at the battle of Langside in May 1568 on the side of her half-brother and opponent, James Stuart, 1st Earl of Moray.  In 1569 he voted to refuse Mary, Queen of Scots' divorce from Bothwell. His support for the new regime is also evidenced by a loan of £5,000 Scots to the Earl of Moray, now the Regent of Scotland, on 17 September 1567, secured on a pledge of a selection of the queen's jewels. He raised money for Regent Moray by pawning more of the personal jewellery of Mary, Queen of Scots, including a gold chain belt of pearl knots and a hair garnishing with 57 diamonds which his son James Richardson returned to Holyrood Palace on 18 March 1580. In 1570, as he was "greitlie superexpendit as treasurer and unable to pay his creditors" Regent Moray gave him the revenue arising from wards and marriages and vacant benefices. In January 1571 the lease of the mint, which he had held since 1566, was renewed for three years, with half the profits to pay off his superexpenses as treasurer.

According to a contemporary source, John Cunningham of Drumquhassle had been made "half thesaurer, with Mr Robert Ritchartsone that wes thesaurer of befoir" in July 1570, but Richardson remained in sole charge until 24 June 1571, when he was replaced by William, Lord Ruthven. He retained control of the mint until March 1573, his share of the profits amounting to more than £5400 Scots. Thereafter he continued to receive money from the mint to redeem the royal jewels that had been pledged to him, further payments being made to his sons after his death, which probably took place between May and November 1578.

Family
Richardson was unmarried but his four children, James, Robert, Stephen, and Janet were legitimated in 1552; another child (Katherine) may have been born in December 1563, when Randolph reported to Cecil that Richardson was to do public penance in St Giles for getting a woman with child and Knox was to "mayke the sermonde.". James Richardson of Smeaton, the eldest of Richardson's children, received most of his father's lands; he married Elizabeth Douglas, and their second son, Sir Robert Richardson of Pencaitland, was created a baronet in 1630.

Notes

Attribution

External links
 Letter from Mary, Queen of Scots, to the Laird of Smeaton, 25 June 1568, with audio: NMS

16th-century births
1578 deaths
Alumni of the University of St Andrews
Members of the pre-1707 Parliament of Scotland
Members of the Privy Council of Scotland
Scottish priors
Privy Council of Mary, Queen of Scots
16th-century Protestant religious leaders
Lord High Treasurers of Scotland

Robert Richardson (Lord Treasurer)


Luis Fernando Montoya Soto (born 2 May 1957) is a former Colombian football manager, best known for leading Once Caldas to winning  2004 Copa Libertadores. He was shot during a robbery in December 2004. Since then he has been struggling with a tetraplegia.

Career
He started his career as a technical manager in Caldas, where he stood out as a good contributor then he began his physical training at the Jaime Izasa Cadavid Polytechnic at Medellín, although this was hidden from his father, who he did not want to share his studies where he focussed on his passion of sports.

Years after he went to different Antioquia leagues, where he got several titles, which led him to direct Colombian teams in minor football soccer divisions.

He made an excellent career in the minor divisions of the National Athletic professional soccer team gaining champion titles in different categories.  He led Atlético Nacional to the Colombian Professional Football Championship getting the subchampionship in 2002 into the second semester.

Montoya coached Once Caldas leading the team to win the Mustang Cup for the first time in their history (apart from 1950 win) and the Copa Libertadores de América in 2004, those achievements made Montoya the South American Coach of the Year in that year.

Now, he writes for popular Colombian newspapers like El Tiempo and La Patria and teaches sport journalism in several Colombian Universities.

Personal life
He was born in the town of Caldas, Colombia. He married Adriana Herrera in 1998 and had a child in 2001 named José Fernando Montoya who has been a symbol of Luis Fernando's life spirit. In December 2004, Montoya was left paralyzed after he got shot during an attempted robbery in Caldas near Medellín.  Since then he had been under experimental stem cell treatment to help him get better. A practicing Catholic and full of tenacity, he has become an example of permanent hope against paralysis to Colombians and has been called The Champion of Life. Nowadays, he lives in Medellín with his son and his wife.

References

1961 births
Living people
Colombian football managers
Atlético Nacional managers
Once Caldas managers

Luis Fernando Montoya


An étude (; ) or study is an instrumental musical composition, usually short, designed to provide practice material for perfecting a particular musical skill. The tradition of writing études emerged in the early 19th century with the rapidly growing popularity of the piano. Of the vast number of études from that era some are still used as teaching material (particularly pieces by Carl Czerny and Muzio Clementi), and a few, by major composers such as Frédéric Chopin, Franz Liszt and Claude Debussy, achieved a place in today's concert repertory. Études written in the 20th century include those related to traditional ones (György Ligeti) and those that require wholly unorthodox technique (John Cage).

19th century

Piano
Studies, lessons, and other didactic instrumental pieces composed before the 19th century are extremely varied, without any established genres. Domenico Scarlatti's 30 Essercizi per gravicembalo ("30 Exercises for harpsichord", 1738) do not differ in scope from his other keyboard works, and J.S. Bach's four volumes of Clavier-Übung ("keyboard practice") contain everything from simple organ duets to the extensive and difficult Goldberg Variations.

The situation changed in the early 19th century. Instruction books with exercises became very common. Of particular importance were collections of "studies" by Johann Baptist Cramer (published between 1804 and 1810), early parts of Muzio Clementi's Gradus ad Parnassum (1817–26), numerous works by Carl Czerny, Maria Szymanowska's Vingt exercises et préludes (c. 1820), and Ignaz Moscheles' Studien Op. 70 (1825–26). However, with the late parts of Clementi's collection and Moscheles' Charakteristische Studien Op. 95 (1836–37) the situation began to change, with both composers striving to create music that would both please the audiences in concert and serve as a good teaching tool. Such a combination of didactic and musical value in a study is sometimes referred to as a concert study.

The technique required to play Chopin's Études, Op. 10 (1833) and Op. 25 (1837) was extremely novel at the time of their publication; the first performer who succeeded at mastering the pieces was the renowned virtuoso composer Franz Liszt (to whom Chopin dedicated the Op. 10). Liszt himself composed a number of études that were more extensive and even more complex than Chopin's. Among these, the most well-known is the collection Études d'Execution Transcendante (final version published in 1852). These did not retain the didactic aspect of Chopin's work, however, since the difficulty and the technique used varies within a given piece. Each of the études has a different character, designated by its name: Preludio; Molto Vivace; Paysage [Landscape]; Mazeppa; Feux Follets [Irrlichter/ Will-o'-the-wisp]; Vision; Eroica; Wilde Jagd [Wild Hunt]; Ricordanza; Allegro Molto Agitato; Harmonies du Soir [Evening Harmonies]; and Chasse-neige [Snow-whirls].

Cello
Although a specific date of composition is not known, cellist and composer Friedrich Dotzauer composed a set of 113 études during the 19th century, 113 Studies for Cello Solo. Dotzauer composed many different forms of music, ranging from opera and symphonies to chamber pieces. Most of his music has been long forgotten, with the exception of his 113 studies. The first two volumes (studies 1-62) are for intermediate players while the last two volumes (studies 63-113) are for advanced players.

Friedrich Grützmacher composed several works for smaller instrumental groups as well as a book of études for solo cello, 24 Etudes for Cello. The book is divided into two volumes, each with 12 études. The first volume is generally for intermediate players as it does not involve the use of thumb position, while the second volume, which includes the use of thumb position as well as other advanced technique, is for more advances players. The later études in this book are mostly as a showcase for virtuosity, such as double artificial harmonics and off-hand pizzicato.

Grützmacher also composed a set of 12 études titled Elite-Etüden. Each étude in this book was composed in the style of a famous cellist, usually highlighting some technique that the cellist was famous for or their unique playing style. Some of these cellists include Bernhard Romberg, Luigi Boccherini, and Jean-Louis Duport.

Sebastian Lee was a cellist and composed various works for the cello. In 1842, he composed his own book of études: Forty Melodic and Progressive Etudes for Violoncello. Sebastian Lee was mostly known as a virtuosic player and less so of a teacher; he did not directly teach anyone the études from this book. Lee advised against keeping the hand in a strict blocked position when playing using the thumb and suggested keeping the thumb mobile and free, which is how cellists regularly play today.

Lee was a fairly prolific composer of cello études. Aside from his Forty Melodic and Progressive Etudes for Violoncello as mentioned above, he also composed 50 Etüden für den Anfang (First Steps in Violoncello Playing), 40 leichte Etüden in der ersten Lage (40 Easy Etudes for Cello), 12 Études mélodiques (12 Melodic Etudes), among other smaller sets of études.

Other Instruments
The 19th century also saw a number of étude and study collections for instruments other than the piano. Guitarist composer Fernando Sor published his 12 Studies, op. 6 for guitar in London as early as 1815. These works all conform to the standard definition of 19th-century étude in that they are short compositions, each exploiting a single facet of technique. Collections of studies for flute were published during the second half of the 19th century by Ernesto Köhler, Wilhelm Popp and Adolf Terschak.

20th century

The early 20th century saw the publication of a number of important collections of études. Claude Debussy's Études for piano (1915) conform to the "one facet of technique per piece" rule, but exhibit unorthodox structures with many sharp contrasts, and many concentrate on sonorities and timbres peculiar to the piano, rather than technical points. Leopold Godowsky's 53 Studies on the Chopin Études (1894–1914) are built on Chopin's études: Godowsky's additions and changes elevated Chopin's music to new, hitherto unknown levels of difficulty. Other important études of this period include Heitor Villa-Lobos' virtuoso 12 Études for guitar (1929) and pieces by Russian composers: Sergei Rachmaninoff's Études-Tableaux (1911, 1917) and several collections by Alexander Scriabin (all for piano).

By mid-century the old étude tradition was largely abandoned. Olivier Messiaen's Quatre études de rythme ("Four studies in rhythm", 1949–50) were not didactic compositions, but experiments with scales of durations, as well as with dynamics, figurations, coloration, and pitches. John Cage's études—Études Australes (1974–75) for piano, Études Boreales (1978) for cello and/or piano and Freeman Études (1977–80, 1989–90) for violin—are indeterminate pieces based on star charts, and some of the most difficult works in the repertory. The three books of Études by György Ligeti (1985, 1988–94, 1995) are perhaps closest to the old tradition in that they too concentrate each on a particular technique. Kaikhosru Shapurji Sorabji's 100 Transcendental Studies (1940–44), which take Godowsky and Liszt as their starting point, frequently focus on particular technical elements, as well as various rhythmical difficulties. William Bolcom was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for his Twelve New Etudes for Piano in 1988.

Cello
Out of all of the cello études ever made, the set of 40 etudes, Hohe Schule des Violoncello-Spiels ("High School of Cello Playing"), written by cellist and composer David Popper are arguably the most well known and widely used. Popper met with many of the famous composers at the time, such as Wagner, Berlioz, and Liszt in order to make studies that would help cellists play not only soloistic material, but orchestral material as well. The 19th étude, for example, is subtitled the "Lohengrin Etude", as it is written using music from Act Three, Scene Three of Wagner's Lohengrin (opera).

Following the creation of his High School of Cello Playing book, Popper created two more sets of études directed at more novice and intermediate audiences. The first, Zehn mittelschwere grosse Etüden; Als Vorstudien zur "Hohen Schule des Violoncellspieles" (10 Studies Preparatory to the "High School of Cello Playing"), was published a year later. This set of 10 études was aimed at intermediate players to study before working on the more advanced High School of Cello Playing book. Approximately five years later, Popper published his final set of études, 15 Leichte Etüden in der ersten Lage (15 Easy Etudes in the First Position). As the title states, this set of études was written so that the player could stay in first position, which makes it this set much more approachable to beginners.

See also
 List of étude composers
 Music written in all 24 major and minor keys
 Invention (musical composition)

References

Further reading

Music education
Classical music styles
Études

Étude