Isadore Borsuk (November 4, 1927 – September 19, 2016), better known as Bobby Breen, was a Canadian-born American actor and singer. He was a popular male child singer during the 1930s and reached major popularity with film and radio appearances.

Early life
Breen was born Isadore Borsuk on November 4, 1927 (according to some sources he was born in 1928) in Montréal, Canada, the son of Hyman (Chaim) and Rebecca Borsuk. His parents were poor Jewish immigrants from present-day Ukraine. They, along with Breen's three older siblings (Gertrude, Sally, and Michael), migrated from Kiev to Montreal, Quebec, Canada, in 1927. Soon after, they relocated to Toronto. His singing talent as a boy soprano was discovered at age three by his sister Sally, herself an aspiring musical student who was several years his senior. While their parents did not show any particular interest, Sally decided to help him achieve stardom. With the assistance from her music teacher, Breen got a chance to perform in front of an audience in a nightclub. Soon, he began winning prizes in theatre competitions, providing significant amount of income to the poor family. Due to his gained popularity, the two siblings decided to look for work and recognition in the United States. Financed by Sally, they traveled to Chicago by bus in 1934, where he began working with people such as Gloria Swanson and Milton Berle in local theater productions. Breen later relocated to New York City. The foreign-sounding last name of Borsuk had been anglicised to Breen prior to their arrival in the United States.

Child star at RKO

Breen went to Hollywood in 1935, where he received singing lessons from a vocal coach. Film producer Sol Lesser, who had discovered Jackie Coogan, signed Breen to RKO Radio Pictures. Around this time, he became a regular performer on Eddie Cantor's weekly radio show in 1936, where his talents as a boy soprano were appreciated by the listeners. Prior to the release of his first motion picture, Let's Sing Again, he was compared to other child stars of the era such as Freddie Bartholomew and Shirley Temple. In terms of his vocalist abilities, he was described as a combination of Allan Jones, Nelson Eddy and Al Jolson. His debut saw him being top-billed with Henry Armetta as his co-star. He sang La donna è mobile, among other songs, in the movie. He also signed a contract with Decca Records and had moderate success with a series of 78 rpm records in the late 1930s. The title song from Let's Sing Again (Decca 798) would become a national hit, charting at #14 in the summer of 1936. By the 21st century, Breen was the only male artist with a pre-World War II hit record still living (Rose Marie, who charted as an eight-year-old in 1932 with "Say That You Were Teasing Me", died in 2017, a year after Breen).

Satisfied with his debut for the studio, RKO signed a deal with him for three additional movies. He was cast in another musical later the same year called Rainbow on the River, co-starring May Robson and Alan Mowbray. He sang Ave Maria and the film's title song Rainbow on the River. Kurt Neumann, who had directed Breen in his first two pictures, worked with him for the last time in Make a Wish in 1937. His co-star was Basil Rathbone. In a 1938 article, he was referred to as one of the rare cases of child actors succeeding in an adult-dominated industry.

By the time he had completed filming Escape to Paradise in 1939, his voice was gradually changing due to puberty. As a result, he retired from the film industry, despite being originally contracted for two additional movies, and instead focused on his education at Beverly Hills High School. He described the sudden voice change in a 1977 article:

His popularity did not immediately wane during his hiatus, receiving mail from numerous fans across the United States and United Kingdom. He briefly returned to the screen in 1942 to appear as himself in Johnny Doughboy, starring Jane Withers. As an adult, he expressed skepticism about children working in the entertainment industry.

In the military
Breen enlisted in the infantry in the U.S. Army during World War II. He and fellow Hollywood actor Mickey Rooney were soon assigned to entertain the troops, despite him having retired from show business. Breen was hospitalized in France in 1945 towards the end of the war. For his war efforts, he was awarded the Bronze Star Medal.

Adult years
After his discharge from the U.S. Army, in 1946, he initially struggled to find work as he returned to show business. He did some theatre work  as well as some radio appearances in New York during this period. Because of his voice having changed since becoming an adult, he took singing lessons to reinvent himself by adapting to a new tenor singing style.

Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, he worked as a singer in nightclubs and as a musical performer in stock theatre, later serving as a guest pianist for the NBC Symphony Orchestra on radio, and hosting a local TV show in New York. He also recorded briefly for the Motown label, singing on two singles and produced an unreleased album in 1964 called Better Late Than Never. Berry Gordy had hoped for Breen to become his first white contracted artist, but ultimately changed his mind because the singer did not suit the type of music Motown produced. In 1953, Breen appeared on ABC's reality show, The Comeback Story, to explain how his career nose-dived as he entered his teen years and how he fought to recover.

Since the 1970s, he and his wife Audrey had been working in Florida as entrepreneurs, booking agents and producers arranging musical shows performed by various entertainers at smaller, affordable venues. The business idea is called a "condominium circuit". In later years, it has focused on hiring aged stars of the past, including Debbie Reynolds, Mickey Rooney and Ann Blyth.

Personal life
In November 1948, he went missing while on a private flight from Waukesha, Wisconsin, to Hayward, Wisconsin. Several planes went searching for him for a day and a half before it was discovered that he had been staying at a hotel anonymously without telling anyone. He was fined 300 U.S. dollars.

Breen married fashion model Jocelyn Lesh on November 9, 1952. The couple had a son, Hunter Keith Breen, in 1954. Four years later, the marriage became unsustainable, with Jocelyn claiming that he had physically injured her. They went their separate ways, but the divorce was not finalized until February 1961. He married the president of the City of Hope National Medical Center, Audrey Howard, in around 1962.

He lived with his family in Tamarac, Florida, and worked as the owner/operator of Bobby Breen Enterprises, a local talent agency. Starting in 2002, he made occasional concert appearances.

His sister Sally died in 1999. That same year, he underwent bypass surgery due to blocked arteries in his heart.

Death
He died of natural causes in Pompano Beach, Florida, on September 19, 2016, three days following the death of his wife.

Awards
On February 12, 2012, he was the recipient of the "Forest Trace Honorary Octogenarian: Turn Back Time" award.

Filmography

In popular culture
Breen was one of the people represented on the cover of The Beatles' album Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band. He found his inclusion on the album cover surprising.
Lenny Bruce mentioned Breen in his comedy routine "The Palladium".

References

Further reading

Holmstrom, John (1996). The Moving Picture Boy: An International Encyclopaedia from 1895 to 1995. Norwich, Michael Russell, pp. 153–154.
 Dye, David (1988). Child and Youth Actors: Filmography of Their Entire Careers, 1914-1985. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co.,  pp. 25–26.

External links

Bobby Breen at the American Film Institute

1927 births
2016 deaths
Boy sopranos
American male child actors
Apex Records artists
Canadian emigrants to the United States
Canadian people of Ukrainian-Jewish descent
Jewish American male actors
Jewish Canadian male actors
Jewish Canadian musicians
National Recording Corporation artists
American people of Ukrainian-Jewish descent
Male actors from Montreal
Musicians from Montreal
People from Tamarac, Florida
21st-century American Jews
Decca Records artists

Bobby Breen


Arye Carmon (, b. 1943) is the Founding President and Senior Fellow at the Israel Democracy Institute (IDI). He helped to found the institute in 1991 as an independent think tank dedicated to promoting and strengthening democracy and democratic values in Israel.

Biography
Arye (Arik) Carmon was born in Jerusalem in 1943.  He received a B.A. in History and Philosophy and an M.A. in History from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. He went on to earn a Ph.D. from the University of Wisconsin with a major in European History and a minor in Educational Policy Studies. Since then he has taught at prestigious institutes around the world including Max Planck Institut in Germany, UCLA and Stanford University in the United States. He also taught at Hebrew University's School of Public Policy.

In the 1960s, Carmon was an Educational adviser at the Boyer School in Jerusalem, and he later served as Deputy Principal of the ORT Alliance High School. In the 1970s he was Head of the Curriculum Division of the Youth Department of the Ministry of Education, and Academic advisor and moderator of the educational series "Open Circuit" on Israeli Educational Television. In the 1980s he served as Chairman of the Israeli National Committee for Fostering Democratic Education. Carmon has been a member of the International Council of Yad Vashem since 1979, and President of the Israeli-Diaspora Institute.

Carmon has written extensively on education, Israel-Diaspora relations, and the Holocaust.

Published works
 Schooling of a Society in the Making: Education in Israel
 Mamlachtiyut Yehudit
 The Holocaust (educational program for high school students)
 Reinventing Israeli Democracy
 Building Democracy on Sand

See also
Education in Israel

References

1943 births
Living people
Academic staff of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem
Israeli non-fiction writers

Arye Carmon


Horse valuation is the process of assessing the value of a horse in the opinion of a qualified appraiser. There are also online value calculators available, which can be easy-to-use tools when used by an open and objective evaluator. Before using such tools it is important to have a complete understanding of horses and what attributes are important in evaluating horses. A horse is a unique individual and sometimes impossible to value. Horse value is usually used as a pre-qualification pricing factor related to the issuance of equine insurance or purchase.

An objective evaluation of a horse's attributes such as: conformation, disposition, training level, pedigree, intellect and temperament. The health, soundness and bad vices should be considered for overall purpose of the horse. In most cases veterinarians can perform a pre-purchase examine.  For a proper horse valuation, a horse breed, color, age, sex and location of horse are also important factors for market demand considerations.

References

http://pods.dasnr.okstate.edu/docushare/dsweb/Get/Document-2083/F-4004web.pdf
http://www.uaex.edu/Other_Areas/publications/PDF/FSA-3029.pdf

Horse management

Horse valuation


Chinese philosophers include:

Ancient philosophers

Confucianism
 Confucius, arguably the most influential Chinese philosopher ever.
 Dong Zhongshu, integrated Yin Yang cosmology into a Confucian ethical framework.
 Gaozi
 Mencius, idealist who proposed mankind is innately benevolent.
 Wang Fu, endorsed the Confucian model of government.
 Wang Mang, emperor who sought to create a harmonious society, yet chaos resulted.
 Xunzi, broke from Mencius' view, instead arguing that morality is extrinsic.
 Yan Hui, the favorite disciple of Confucius and one of the most revered figures of Confucianism.
 Zengzi
 Zheng Xuan
 Zisi
 Zhu Xi
 List of Confucianists

Taoism
 Ge Hong
 Laozi (Lao Tzŭ), illusive founder of Taoism and author of the Tao te Ching (Book of the Way).
 Lie Yukou, said to be the author of the Daoist book Liezi
 Yang Xiong
 Zhang Daoling
 Zhang Jue
 Zhuangzi (Chuang Tzŭ), mystical and relativistic skeptic.
 List of Taoists

Chinese School of Naturalists and Naturalism
 Zou Yan, combined the theories of Yin-Yang and The Five Elements.

Mohism
 Mozi (Mo Tzŭ), utilitarian and founder of the Mohist school.
 Lu Ban

Legalism
 Guan Zhong, whose reforms made him disparagingly identified as Legalist, but actual philosophy did not develop until hundred years later.
 Chao Cuo
 Han Feizi, synthesizer of Legalist theories.
 Li Kui
 Li Si
 Shang Yang
 Shen Buhai
 Shen Dao
 Zi Chan

Yangism
 Yang Zhu

The Logicians
 Deng Xi
 Hui Shi, relativistic Logician who influenced Zhuangzi.
 Gongsun Long, logician who was known for his paradoxes.

The Agrarians
 Xu Xing

School of Diplomacy
 Guiguzi
 Su Qin
 Zhang Yi
 Yue Yi
 Li Yiji

School of Military
 Sun Tzu
 Sun Bin

Imperial era philosophers

Xuanxue
 Guo Xiang
 Wang Bi, Three Kingdoms philosopher
 Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove
Ruan Ji
Ji Kang
Shan Tao
Liu Ling
Ruan Xian
Xiang Xiu

Zen
 Huineng, 6th Buddhist patriarch of the Chan (Zen) School in China, he established the concept of "no mind".
 Linji Yixuan (Lin-chi), founder of the Linji school of Chan (Zen) Buddhism in China, a branch of which is the Rinzai school in Japan.
 Zhaozhou, famous chan (Zen) master during the 8th century, noted for his wisdom. Became known for his subtle teaching methods and his use of gongans.
 Jizang
 Sengzhao
 Yi Xing
 Zhi Dun
 Xuanzang
 Huiyuan

Neo-Confucianism
 Zhou Dunyi, argued for the inseparability of metaphysics and ethics.
 Cheng Yi, made enemies with other philosophers, resulting in his works being banned.
 Cheng Hao, brother to Cheng Yi.
 Zhu Xi (Chu Hsi), rationalist and leading figure of the School of Principle.
 Chen Hongmou, argued for racial and sexual equality in the place of education.
 Wang Fuzhi, believed Confucius' teachings had become distorted, so wrote his own commentaires.
 Wang Yangming, idealist and leading figure of the School of Mind.
 Li Zhi, preached a form of moral relativism.
 Qian Dehong, further developed The Yangming School of Mind.
 Xu Ai, ardent follower of Wang Yangming.
 Huang Zongxi, one of the first Neo-Confucians to stress the need for constitutional law.
 Zhan Ruoshui, lifelong friend to Wang Yangming.
 Han Yu, precursor to Neo-Confucianism, essayist, and poet.
 Lu Jiuyuan, saw moral conduct as a consequence of intuitive insights into the essence of reality.
 Shao Yong, considered one of the most scholarly men of the time.
 Su Shi, accomplished Song Dynasty writer.
 Ye Shi, stressed practical learning and applying Confucian doctrine to real world problems.
 Zhang Zai, everything is composed of qi, and that fact explains everything.
 Lai Zhide, created the Taijitu.
 Li Ao
 Liu Zongzhou – considered the last master of Song-Ming Neo-Confucianism.

Islamic-Confucianism
 Wang Daiyu
 Liu Zhi
 Ma Zhu

Kaozheng Evidential Research
 Wang Fuzhi
 Gu Yanwu
 Yan Yuan
 Dai Zhen
 Duan Yucai
 Ji Xiaolan
 Zhang Xuecheng
 Ruan Yuan
 Kang Youwei
 Tan Sitong
 Hong Liangji

Philosophers that cannot be easily categorised
 Pan Pingge, criticised Neo-Confucianism, instead emphasized the search for truth in daily living.
 Dai Zhen, made two arguments against Neo-Confucianism.
 Fan Zhen, denied the ideas of reincarnation and body-soul dualism.
 Huan Tan
 Wang Chong
 Ma Rong
 Shen Kuo
 Ximen Bao

Modern philosophers
 Feng Youlan (Fung Yu-Lan), rationalist who integrated Neo-Confucian, Taoist, and Western metaphysics.
 Jin Yuelin, logical positivist and logician.
 Tu Weiming, ethicist.
 Xiong Shili
 Mou Zongsan
 Tang Junyi
 Xu Fuguan
 Zhang Dongsun
 Carsun Chang (Zhang Junmai)
 Zhou Guoping
 Tsang Lap Chuen (曾立存)

Chinese Marxist Philosophy
 Mao Zedong
 Deng Xiaoping
 Wang Ruoshui
 Li Da
 Ai Siqi
 Chen Duxiu
 Qu Qiubai
Xi Jinping
 Yang Xianzhen
 Yang Rongguo
 Zhang Shiying

Chinese

Philosophers

List of Chinese philosophers


His Majesty's principal secretaries of state, or secretaries of state, are senior ministers of the Crown in the Government of the United Kingdom. Secretaries of state head most major government departments and make up the majority of the Cabinet of the United Kingdom. There are currently 17 secretaries of state. They are all also currently members of Parliament elected to the House of Commons, although it is possible for them to be members of the House of Lords.

Legal position
Legislation in the United Kingdom is often written like this example section of a hypothetical Silly Walks Act 1970:

The "Secretary of State", thus capitalised, is interpreted under the Interpretation Act 1978 as referring to any one of the secretaries of state in use; in practice, such secretaries are provided a portfolio by the prime minister, and only exercise their power in that portfolio. In this example, a "Secretary of State for Silly Walks" would be created to enforce the provisions of the Act, but could theoretically exercise the powers of, for example, the Secretary of State for Scotland at any time. A prominent exception to this arrangement is the Lord Chancellor, who is explicitly referred to as such in primary legislation and is not interchangeable with other offices by executive order.

Under the Ministerial and other Salaries Act 1975, a maximum of 21 secretaries of state can receive a salary.

Secretaries of state, like other government ministers, are appointed through the royal prerogative.

Most secretaries of state are incorporated as a "corporation sole". This gives the minister a separate legal personality, allowing continuity in areas such as the ownership of property between office-holder changes.

History

Kingdom of England

The origin of the office lies in the office of the king's private secretary. However, by the Tudor period, the office's purview had become more onerous.

In 1539 or 1540, Henry VIII appointed two people to the office. After the Stuart Restoration, the practice of appointing two secretaries of state resumed. A formal division, in the form of the offices of the secretary of state for the Northern Department and the secretary of state for the Southern Department, was made in 1689, though the office had been first divided into the Northern and Southern Department purviews in 1660.

After the Union
In 1782, the responsibilities of these offices were changed, so that one would be responsible for foreign affairs and one for domestic affairs, thus establishing the embryonic offices of foreign secretary and home secretary. Over time, the number of secretaries of states grew, so that there were five in 1900 and 14 by 1996. There are currently 16 secretaries of state.

Secretaries of state currently in use

Secretaries of state no longer in use

Health, education, work, business, energy, environment, transport and the regions

The secretaries of state that have been used for the matters of health, education, work, business, energy, environment, transport and the regions are shown in the graphic below. It shows how portfolios of responsibilities have been broadly passed down from one secretary of state position to the position(s) directly below it. However, it is impossible for such a graphic to be completely accurate; it cannot show smaller changes, or gains or losses of responsibilities within a position due to changes of responsibilities for the UK Government (for example, due to devolution or Brexit). It is not to scale. In the gaps, and before the first of these secretaries of state, relevant responsibilities were taken on by ministers not titled 'Secretary of State'.

Key:

Culture
The Secretaries of state that have been used for culture, heritage and sport are as follows:

References

Titles
Government occupations
Ministerial positions in the Government of the United Kingdom

Secretary of State (United Kingdom)


The Independence Party () was a political party in Iceland between 1907 and 1927. Along with the Home Rule Party, it was one of the dominant parties in the country during the early 20th century.

History
The party was established in 1907 by a merger of the Democratic Party and the National Defence Party. During the two elections in 1916 it was split into two factions; Þversum and Langsum. The Þversum faction finished second in the August Upper House elections, with the Langsum faction in fifth, whilst the positions were reversed in the October general elections. The party ran as a single entity in the 1919 elections, emerging as the second largest party after the Home Rule Party. It remained in the government with the Home Rule Party and Progressive Party until 1920, when the Home Rule Party began to govern alone.

In the 1922 Upper House elections the Independence Party finished fifth, with just 5% of the vote, but returned to join the Home Rule Party in a coalition government. For the general elections the following year it allied with former members of the dissolved Home Rule Party to establish the Citizens' Party. The new party won the elections with 23 of the 42 seats, with the Independence Party winning a further two seats in the Upper House.

The following year saw the Citizens' Party dissolved, with most MPs forming the Conservative Party. The remaining MPs reassumed the Independence Party name, and in 1927 they founded the Liberal Party. In 1929 the Liberal Party merged with the Conservative Party to establish the modern Independence Party.

References

Political parties established in 1907
Political parties disestablished in 1927
Defunct political parties in Iceland
Independence Party (Iceland)

Independence Party (Iceland, historical)


Michael Craig Hillmann (born May 5, 1940) is professor of Persian Studies at the University of Texas at Austin and President of Persepolis Institute, Inc. He has published widely on Persian language and literature and specializes in lyric Persian verse, Persian prose fiction from the 1920s through the 1970s, and literary autobiography.  Since the late 1990s, he has focused on Persian instructional materials development, resulting in, among other things, a new Persian language learning syllabus in four volumes called "Persian for America(ns)."

He has published two autobiographical books titled From Durham to Tehran (1991) and From Classroom to Courtroom (2008). In From Classroom to Courtroom, he tells the story of how academics at the Middle Eastern Studies department became involved in cross-cultural conflicts which resulted in official complaints, allegations of abuse, discrimination, harassment, racism, and a lawsuit against the university. Hillmann is at work on a third and final autobiographical essay called To and From a Maine Village and a new Persian dictionary for Hippocrene Books.

Selected publications
 From Classroom to Courtroom (AuthorHouse 2008)
 Tajiki Textbook and Reader: Second Edition (Dunwoody Press 2003)
 Basic Tajik(i) Word List (Dunwoody Press 2003)
 Persian Vocabulary Acquisition, 2nd ed. (Dunwoody Press 2003)
 Reading Iran Reading Iranians, 2nd ed. rev. (Dunwoody Press 2002)
 Persian Listening (Dunwoody Press, 2008)

External links
Michael C. Hillmann's personal website
Faculty Profile, Department of Middle East Studies
Persepolis Institute

1940 births
Living people
University of Texas at Austin faculty
College of the Holy Cross alumni
Iranologists
Loyola University Maryland alumni
University of Chicago alumni

Michael Craig Hillmann


The Stoic is a novel by Theodore Dreiser, written in 1945 and first published in 1947. It is the conclusion of his Trilogy of Desire, which includes The Financier (1912) and The Titan (1914). This series of novels depicts Frank Cowperwood, a businessman based on the real-life streetcar tycoon Charles Yerkes. Dreiser had attempted to complete his trilogy in the early 1930s, but he was unable to begin The Stoic until near the end of his life; he died before he could finish the manuscript, and his widow Helen assembled the novel's final pages.

Plot summary
Cowperwood, still married to his estranged wife Aileen, lives with Berenice. He decides to move to London, England, where he intends to take over and develop the underground railway system. Berenice becomes close to Earl Stane, while Frank has an affair with Lorna Maris, a relative of his. Meanwhile, he tries to fix Aileen up with Tollifer, but she becomes enraged when she finds out it was a ruse. Finally, Cowperwood dies of Bright's disease. His inheritance is squandered in lawsuits. Aileen dies shortly after. Berenice travels to India, where she is moved by poverty. Back in the United States, she realises there is poverty there too, and decides to set up a hospital for the poor, as Cowperwood intended.

Cultural allusions
Cowperwood is said to own paintings by William-Adolphe Bouguereau, Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot, Rembrandt, Meindert Hobbema, Teniers, Jacob Isaakszoon van Ruisdael, Hans Holbein the Younger, Peter Paul Rubens, Anthony van Dyck, Reynolds, and J. M. W. Turner, among others.

References

Novels by Theodore Dreiser
1947 American novels
Novels published posthumously
Doubleday (publisher) books

The Stoic


The Ankaful Nurses Training College is public tertiary health institution in the Ankaful in the Central Region of Ghana.  The college is in the Cape Coast Metropolitan Assembly.  The school is located at the Ankaful Psychiatric Hospital. The activities of the institution is supervised by the Ministry of Education. A Diploma in Nursing certificate is awarded students from the institution upon successfully completing a three-year nursing training programme. The Nurses and Midwifery Council (NMC) is the regulates the activities, curriculum and examination of the student nurses and midwives. The council's mandate Is enshrined under section 4(1) of N.R.C.D 117. The college specializes in the training of psychiatric nurses.

References

Nursing and midwifery colleges in Ghana

Ankaful Nurses Training College


William Henry Smith (October 28, 1957 – March 8, 2005) was executed by the state of Ohio for the rape and murder of 47-year-old Mary Virginia Bradford of Cincinnati, Ohio, that occurred on September 26, 1987.

Smith and Bradford were seen speaking and dancing together at a local bar where they were both frequent regulars. They both left the bar at different times on the night of September 26. On the following day, Bradford's boyfriend became concerned because he had not seen her that day. He entered her unlocked apartment and found Bradford's body, nude from the waist down, on the bed. Missing from the apartment were Bradford's two television sets and her stereo components.

During the autopsy the coroner located ten stab wounds in her neck and chest. Of these wounds, one penetrated her right lung, two penetrated the liver, and two penetrated the heart. The coroner concluded that although five of the wounds could ultimately have been fatal, the immediate cause of death was the two heart wounds, one in the right atrium and the other in the right ventricle. The autopsy also indicated that despite Bradford having engaged in intercourse before her death, the sex was not consensual.

When the police executed a search warrant at the residence of Smith's mother, they recovered the two television sets, bloody clothing and bloody shoes. Analysis of the blood on the clothing yielded a sample that matched Bradford's blood type.

Smith subsequently confessed to the crime, telling police officers that he had gone to Bradford's apartment sometime after leaving tavern. When he left her apartment, he remembered that he had forgotten his cigarettes and $2,500 worth of cocaine. Upon his return to the apartment, Bradford told him that she did not have the cocaine, and after further discussion about restitution, she offered to reimburse Smith by having sexual relations with him. After engaging in sexual intercourse, the two argued in the living room, and according to Smith, Bradford threatened him with a kitchen knife. He said that he took the knife from Bradford and stabbed her in the neck and stomach, causing her to fall back into a living room chair, and that the two engaged in intercourse for a second time after Bradford retreated to the bedroom and fell on her bed. Smith admitted that he stole two televisions and the stereo components from Bradford's apartment, but he claimed that they were his. He ended his account of this incident by telling the police that he dropped the knife in a river on the way to his mother's residence.

On October 21, 1987, Smith was indicted for the crimes that resulted in Mary Bradford's death. He entered a plea of not guilty to the four counts and the accompanying specifications. A separate plea of not guilty by reason of insanity was later withdrawn in open court. After Smith waived a jury trial, a three-judge panel heard the evidence and found Smith guilty of all counts and specifications on April 6, 1988. Five days after the guilt phase of the trial, the penalty phase commenced, and on April 14, 1988, the three-judge panel sentenced Smith to death.

Smith spent 16 years, 10 months, and 22 days on death row before he was executed by lethal injection.

See also
 Capital punishment in Ohio
 Capital punishment in the United States
 List of people executed in Ohio
 List of people executed in the United States in 2005

General references
 Clark Prosecutor
 Smith v. Anderson, 104 F. Supp. 2d 773 (2000)
 State v. Smith, 1990 Ohio App. LEXIS 2217
 Smith v. Mitchell, 348 F.3d 177 (2003)
 2005 Capital Crimes Report (pdf) Office of the Ohio Attorney General.

1957 births
2005 deaths
21st-century executions by Ohio
American rapists
American people executed for murder
21st-century executions of American people
People executed by Ohio by lethal injection
People from Cincinnati
People convicted of murder by Ohio
Executed African-American people
Executed people from Ohio
21st-century African-American people

William Smith (murderer)


The Koshi embankments were built in late 1950s to retain the Kosi River which is a transboundary river between Nepal and India and is one of the largest tributaries of the Ganges. It was conceptualised during the first Bihar Government of CM Shri Babu and his deputy Anugraha Babu.
According to the agreement with Nepal, the responsibility of maintaining these embankments was vested in the Government of Bihar.

History of breaches
1963 : Breach in the western embankment in Nepal near the village Dalwa. Binodanand Jha of the Congress Party was the chief minister. The breach was blamed on rats and foxes digging holes in the embankments causing water seepage and the embankment failed. The other reason for the failure was given that because of the bad road conditions, the boulders could not be brought to the site.
1968 : Breach at five places in Jamalpur (Darbhanga), caused by the highest flow of  ever recorded in the river. Enquiry held by the Chief Engineer – Floods of CWC, P N Kumra revealed that the failure was once again caused by rats and foxes. The state was under the President's rule then.
1971 : The Bhatania Approach :Bundh that was constructed in 1968–69, collapsed between 10th to 19th kilometers below Bhimnagar in 1971 and many villages were washed away, but the eastern embankment had not breached.
1980 : Breach near Bahuarawa on the eastern embankment in Salkhua block of Saharsa district near 121st kilometer below Bhimnagar. The river eroded the embankment in about 2 kilometers reach, but just after eroding, it receded very fast and did not spill onto the countryside. The state was ruled by Dr Jagannath Mishra of Congress Party then.
1984 : A tragedy as bad as 1968 struck the eastern embankment near Hempur village in the Navhatta block of Saharsa district, 75 kilometers below the Bhimnagar barrage. It uprooted half a million people and flooded engulfed 96 villages in 7 blocks of Saharsa and Supaul districts. People could go back to their villages only after the Holi festival of 1985 when the breach got plugged. The breach was repaired at a cost of Rs. 8.2 crore. Bindeshwari Dubey of Congress Party was the Chief Minister.
1987 : A Breach in the western embankment near km 44.00 barhampur(Gandaul) village too much lost of property and lives no any enquiry initiated due to lack of people interest.
1991 : A breach in the western embankment near Joginia in Nepal. It led to a political crisis in Bihar and the Water Resources Minister of the state had to resign his post. This resignation was never accepted by Lalu Prasad Yadav who was the Chief Minister of the state then. This was a repeat performance of the Bahuarawa breach where the river had receded after eroding the embankment.
2008: see 2008 Bihar flood

See also
 Bhote Koshi Project
 Floods in Bihar
 Indo-Nepalese relations
 Koshi Barrage
 Sapt Koshi

External links
 BBC News
 newkerala.com
 The New Nation

Dikes
Dams in Nepal
Dams in Bihar
1950s establishments in Bihar
Dams completed in the 1950s
Year of establishment missing
20th-century architecture in India

Kosi embankment


Air is the Earth's atmosphere. Air is a mixture of many gases and tiny dust particles. It is the clear gas in which living things live and breathe. It has an indefinite shape and volume. It has mass and weight, because it is matter. The weight of air creates atmospheric pressure. There is no air in outer space.

Atmosphere is a mixture of about 78% nitrogen, 21% of oxygen, and 1% other gases, such as Carbon Dioxide.

Animals live and need to breathe the oxygen in the atmosphere. In breathing, the lungs put oxygen into the blood, and send back carbon dioxide to the air. Plants need the carbon dioxide in the air to live. They give off the oxygen that we breathe. Without it we die of asphyxia.

Air can be polluted by some gases (such as carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxides), smoke, and ash. This air pollution causes various problems including smog, acid rain and global warming. It can damage people's health and the environment. There are debates about whether or not to act upon climate change, but soon enough the Earth will heat up to much, causing our home to become too hot and not support life! Some say fewer people would die of cold weather, and that is true but there is already a huge amount of people dying from heat and that number is and will keep increasing at a frighting height.

Since early times, air has been used to create technology. Ships moved with sails and windmills used the mechanical motion of air. Aircraft use propellers to move air over a wing, which allows them to fly. Pneumatics use air pressure to move things. Since the late 1900s, air power is also used to generate electricity.

Air is invisible: it cannot be seen by the eye, though a shimmering in hot air can be seen.

Air is one of the 4 classical elements.

Main history

Original atmosphere
At first it was mainly a hydrogen atmosphere. It has changed dramatically on several occasions—for example, the Great Oxygenation Event 2.4 billion years ago, greatly increased oxygen in the atmosphere from practically no oxygen to levels closer to present day. Humans have also contributed to significant changes in atmospheric composition through air pollution, especially since industrialisation, leading to rapid environmental change such as ozone depletion and global warming.

Second atmosphere
Outgassing from volcanism, supplemented by gases produced during the late heavy bombardment of Earth by huge asteroids, produced the next atmosphere, consisting largely of nitrogen plus carbon dioxide and inert gases.

Third atmosphere

The constant re-arrangement of continents by plate tectonics influences the long-term evolution of the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide was transferred to and from large continental carbonate stores. Free oxygen did not exist in the atmosphere until about 2.4 billion years ago. The Great Oxygenation Event is shown by the end of the banded iron formations.

Related pages
 Air pollution
 Air craft

References

Basic English 850 words
Atmosphere

Air


Bioresource engineering is similar to biological engineering, except that it is based on biological and/or agricultural feedstocks. Bioresource engineering is more general and encompasses a wider range of technologies and various elements such as biomass, biological waste treatment, bioenergy, biotransformations, bioresource systems analysis, bioremediation and technologies associated with Thermochemical conversion technologies such as combustion, pyrolysis, gasification, catalysis, etc.

Bioresource engineering also contains biochemical conversion technologies such as aerobic methods, anaerobic digestion, microbial growth processes, enzymatic methods, and composting.  Products include fibre, fuels, feedstocks, fertilisers, building materials, polymers and other industrial products, and management products e.g. modelling, systems analysis, decisions, and support systems.
Bioresource engineering is a discipline that is usually very similar to environmental engineering.

The impact of urbanization and increasing demand for food, water and land presents bioresource engineers with the task of bridging the gap between the biological world and traditional engineering.  Agricultural and bioresource engineers attempt to develop efficient and environmentally sensitive methods of producing food, fiber, timber, bio-based products and renewable energy sources for an ever-increasing world population. Some of the research in bioresource engineering include machine vision, vehicle modification, wastewater irrigation, irrigation water management, stormwater management, inside natural environment for animals and plants, sensors, non-point source pollution and animal manure management.

Accomplishments
A biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles (NPs) mediated by fungal proteins of Coriolus versicolor has been undertaken for the first time in 2008. Hydrogels have been used to separate As(V) from water.

ATCC
Founded in 1925, the ATCC (American Type Culture Collection) is a nonprofit and research organization, whose mission focuses on the acquisition, production, and development of standard reference microorganisms, cell lines and other materials for research in life sciences. ATCC has collected a wide range of biological items for research. Their holdings include molecular genomics tools, microorganisms and bioproducts.

See also
Environmentalist

References

External links
 Giles Shih, co-founder and CEO of BioResource International, briefly discusses some issues in bioresource engineering. Kauffman Foundation and Khan Academy, 2013.08.28 (about 3 min)

Agriculture
Agronomy
Engineering disciplines

Bioresource engineering


Matthew Raymond Lindstrom (born February 11, 1980) is an American former professional baseball pitcher. He played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Florida Marlins, Houston Astros, Colorado Rockies, Baltimore Orioles, Arizona Diamondbacks and Chicago White Sox.

College career
Lindstrom played college baseball at Ricks College (now BYU-Idaho).

Professional career

New York Mets
Lindstrom was selected by the New York Mets in the 10th round of the 2002 MLB draft. He made his professional debut at Rookie League Kingsport and posted an 0–6 record with a 4.84 ERA in twelve games with eleven games as a starting pitcher. He began next year at Single-A Capital City and was dominant, as his 2.86 ERA and 7.94 K/9 rate showed. This earned him a promotion to Brooklyn where Lindstrom would finish out the  season well, as he compiled a 7–3 record with a 3.44 ERA.

In , Lindstrom was promoted to St. Lucie where, at 24, he compiled a 5–5 record with a 3.73 ERA in fourteen starts. His walk rate was staggering, however, at 2.26 BB/9. The righty found himself back at Capital City midway through the season, where his numbers improved slightly, as he posted a 3–2 record with a 3.21 ERA and much-improved control, with a 1.61 BB/9.

At age 25, Lindstrom began the  season at Double-A Binghamton, in what was determined to be a make-or-break year for his career. Lindstrom went 2–5 with an ERA of 5.40 with eye-popping walk and home run rates of 6.75 BB/9 and 1.35 HR/9 in thirty-five games (ten starts, as the troubled righty was switched to bullpen duty midway through the season).

Florida Marlins

On November 20, , Lindstrom and Henry Owens were traded to the Florida Marlins in exchange for Jason Vargas and Adam Bostick. Both Lindstrom and Owens were highly regarded as a top closer candidates for the  season. Lindstrom's fastball often touches 100 mph and averages in the high 90's. Playing in the Puerto Rican Winter League in the 06-07 offseason, his fastball was clocked at 102 mph.

On May 17, 2007, while pitching in the 8th inning against the Pittsburgh Pirates at PNC Park, Lindstrom's fastball was clocked at 102 mph on the stadium scoreboard.

Lindstrom picked up his first MLB win against the Brewers in Milwaukee on June 2, 2007.

In the final game of the 2008 regular season, Lindstrom earned a save versus the New York Mets. He threw the final pitch during actual game-play of Shea Stadium (Tom Seaver would throw a "final pitch" during the post-game activities).

Houston Astros
On December 9, 2009, Lindstrom was dealt to the Houston Astros for minor leaguers Robert Bono, Luis Bryan and a player to be named later, which became Rule 5 draft pick Jorge Jimenez, a third baseman selected from the Red Sox organization. On March 30, 2010, Lindstrom was named the Astros' closer for the 2010 season.

Colorado Rockies
After the 2010 season, Lindstrom was traded to the Colorado Rockies for two minor league pitchers: Wes Musick and Jonnathan Aristil.

Baltimore Orioles
On February 6, 2012, Lindstrom was traded with Jason Hammel to the Baltimore Orioles for starter Jeremy Guthrie. He had early success, not giving up an earned run on the season until May 10, the day before he was placed on the disabled list with an injury to his right middle finger. He began his minor league rehab assignment on June 22. Lindstrom returned on June 27 and had a 2.72 ERA on the season when he was dealt to the Arizona Diamondbacks.

Arizona Diamondbacks
On August 26, 2012, Lindstrom was traded to the Arizona Diamondbacks for Joe Saunders.

On November 1, 2012, Lindstrom's option was declined by the Arizona Diamondbacks.

Chicago White Sox
On January 19, 2013, Lindstrom was signed to a 1-year deal by the Chicago White Sox with a 2014 option. His 2014 option was picked up on October 31, 2013, which was worth $4 million.

Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim
On February 17, 2015, Lindstrom signed a minor league contract with the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim. He was released by the Angels on March 28.

Second stint with the White Sox
On April 2, 2015, he signed a minor league deal with the Chicago White Sox. On April 9, 2015, he was assigned to AAA Charlotte Knights.  He was later released on July 10.

International career
Lindstrom was selected for the Team USA at the 2009 World Baseball Classic.

References

External links

1980 births
Living people
Albuquerque Isotopes players
Arizona Diamondbacks players
Baltimore Orioles players
Baseball players from Idaho
Binghamton Mets players
Bowie Baysox players
Brooklyn Cyclones players
Capital City Bombers players
Colorado Rockies players
Colorado Springs Sky Sox players
Corpus Christi Hooks players
Charlotte Knights players
Chicago White Sox players
Florida Marlins players
Grand Canyon Rafters players
Gulf Coast Orioles players
Houston Astros players
Jacksonville Suns players
Jupiter Hammerheads players
Kingsport Mets players
Major League Baseball pitchers
Peoria Saguaros players
Ricks Vikings baseball players
St. Lucie Mets players
World Baseball Classic players of the United States
2009 World Baseball Classic players
Latter Day Saints from Idaho

Matt Lindstrom


Ladies and gentlemen is a salutation used in the field of entertainment, sports and theater since the mid-19th century vaudeville era. It is intended to raise the audience's expectations of a good performance and, to this end, is often followed by an announcement of the names of the performers, a description of what sort of act they are to perform, or an often hyperbolic series of accolades accorded to the act.

The motivation behind the term is to make the audience feel as if they have paid a substantial amount for the privilege of witnessing the event in question, and thus raise their expectations for what is to come.

19th-century introductions
Greeting words and phrases
Vaudeville tropes

Ladies and gentlemen (salutation)


John Clive Ward,  (1 August 1924 – 6 May 2000) was a Anglo-Australian physicist who made significant contributions to quantum field theory, condensed-matter physics, and statistical mechanics. Andrei Sakharov called Ward one of the titans of quantum electrodynamics.

Ward introduced the Ward–Takahashi identity. He was one of the authors of the Standard Model of gauge particle interactions: his contributions were published in a series of papers he co-authored with Abdus Salam. He is also credited with being an early advocate of the use of Feynman diagrams. It has been said that physicists have made use of his principles and developments "often without knowing it, and generally without quoting him." The Ising model was another one of his research interests.

In 1955, Ward was recruited to work at the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment at Aldermaston. There, he independently derived a version of the Teller–Ulam design, for which he has been called the "father of the British H-bomb".

Early life
John Clive Ward was born in East Ham, London, on 1 August 1924. He was the son of Joseph William Ward, a civil servant who worked in Inland Revenue, and his wife Winifred  Palmer, a schoolteacher. He had a sister, Mary Patricia. He attended Chalkwell Elementary School and Westcliff High School for Boys. In 1938 he sat for and won a £100 scholarship to Bishop Stortford College. He  took the Higher School Certificate Examination in 1942, receiving distinctions in Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry and Latin, and was offered a postmastership (scholarship) to Merton College, Oxford.

Although the Second World War was raging at the time, Ward was not called up by the Army, and was allowed to complete his Bachelor of Arts degree in Engineering Science with first class honours, studying mathematics under J. H. C. Whitehead and E. C. Titchmarsh. He received a bursary from the Harmsworth Trust, and in October 1946, with the war over, secured a position as a graduate assistant to Maurice Pryce, who had recently been appointed a professor of theoretical physics at Oxford.

Scientific contributions

Quantum entanglement
In 1947, Ward and Pryce published a paper in Nature,  in which they were the first to calculate, and use, probability amplitudes for the polarisation of a pair of quantum entangled photons moving in opposite directions. For polarisations x and y, Ward derived this probability amplitude to be:

which can be normalised as:

This can be used to derive the correlation of the quantum polarisations of the two photons. Their prediction was confirmed experimentally by Chien-Shiung Wu and I. Shaknov in 1950. This was the first experimental confirmation of a pair of entangled photons as applicable to the Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen (EPR) paradox. The result was subsequently explained by Richard Dalitz and Frank Duarte. Apparently following Dirac's doctrine, Ward was never bothered by issues of interpretation in quantum mechanics.

With his Harmsworth scholarship expiring, and seeing few prospects at Oxford, Ward responded to a job advertisement from the University of Sydney. He was offered a position, but when he arrived, found that it was for a tutor, and not a lecturer. He therefore served out the year, then returned to Oxford to complete his Doctor of Philosophy (D.Phil.) thesis on "Some Properties of the Elementary Particles". Ward expected that his thesis, an elaboration of his 1947 paper, would be easily approved by the external examiner, Nicholas Kemmer, but at the last minute Kemmer's place was taken by Rudolf Peierls, who refused to accept it. Only after a forceful argument by the internal examiner, J. de Witt, was the thesis awarded.

Ward identity
Pryce arranged for Ward to receive an award from the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR) for two years. It was then that he developed the Ward–Takahashi identity, originally known as "Ward Identity" (or "Ward's Identities"). This result in quantum electrodynamics was inspired by a conjecture of Freeman Dyson, and was disclosed in a one-half-page letter typical of Ward's succinct style.  In their book Quantum Electrodynamics, Walter Greiner and  state in their discussion of charge renormalisation: "the Ward Identity has a much more fundamental significance: it ensures the universality of the electromagnetic interaction." In his book The Infinity Puzzle, Frank Close wrote: "Ward's Identities are the basic foundations on which the entire edifice of renormalisation rests."

In 1950, Ward's DSIR fellowship was coming to an end. Pryce had become a visiting professor at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, and Ward's colleagues P. T. Matthews and Abdus Salam were visiting members there in the 1950–1951 academic year. Through them, he was able to secure a $3,000 membership for the 1951–1952 academic year. It was at Princeton that he was introduced to the Ising Model, and met Mark Kac from Cornell University, with whom he would collaborate on an exact solution of the Ising model using a combinatorial method. His joint work with Kac on the Ising Model gave rise to what is now being called the Kac-Ward operator. When his membership ended he worked for the Bell Laboratories in 1952 and 1953. He then accepted an offer of a lectureship at the University of Adelaide from Bert Green, where he worked for a year before taking up another membership at the Institute for Advanced Study.

Standard Model

Ward left the British hydrogen bomb programme and took a job with an electronics company in California. Later in 1956, Elliott Montroll offered him a visiting professorship at the University of Maryland. Noting a recent paper by Keith Brueckner and Murray Gell-Mann on the ground state energy of an electron gas, Ward gave a lecture in which he proposed a different approach. Montroll recognised that this was Debye–Hückel theory. Over the next few weeks, Ward later recalled, "We had managed not only to produce a definitive extension of a previously purely classical theory, but also to establish the rules for diagrammatic treatment of problems in quantum statistical mechanics, rules that are now the bread and butter of modern calculations."

Soon after, physicists were rocked by the news that Wu and Tsung-Dao Lee had demonstrated in the Wu experiment that parity is not conserved in weak interactions. This inspired Ward to consider particle physics again. Along with many others, he consider how gauge theory could be applied to Fermi's theory of beta decay. Ward became one of the authors of the Standard Model of gauge particle interactions; his contributions on electromagnetic and weak interactions were published in a series of papers he co-authored with Abdus Salam. Ward wrote a note to Abdus, informing him that Albert Einstein would be spinning in his grave, presumably clockwise.

The contributions of Salam and Ward to the Standard Model were used in the development of the theoretical structure of the Higgs boson. Ward also made contributions to quantum mechanics, fermion theory, quantum solid-state physics, and statistical mechanics and the Ising model.

Aldermaston
In 1955, Ward was recruited by William Cook to work on the British hydrogen bomb programme at the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment at Aldermaston. The British government had decided that it needed hydrogen bombs, and it was Aldermaston's task to design one. Cook had been put in charge of the project in September 1954. Ward was the only theoretical physicist at Aldermaston; the director, William Penney, although a physicist, was an expert on hydrodynamics and instrumentation.  Penney was not happy to have Ward forced on him, and the two did not get along. John Corner recalled that Ward did not fit in at Aldermaston.

British knowledge of thermonuclear designs was limited to the work done by the wartime  Manhattan Project: Edward Teller's Classic Super, and a 1946 design by John von Neumann and Klaus Fuchs. All that was known for certain about the American hydrogen bomb design was that it had multiple stages. "I was assigned", Ward later recalled, "the improbable job of uncovering the secret of the Ulam–Teller invention ... an idea of genius far beyond the talents of the personnel at Aldermaston, a fact well-known to both Cook and Penney."

After working through a large number of proposals, Ward hit upon a workable design incorporating staging, compression and radiation implosion. At a meeting on 2 December 1955, Ward sketched it on the blackboard. Penny's response was cool, regarding it as too complicated, but Cook recognised it as worthy. Although Ward's design was not the one ultimately adopted for the hydrogen bombs used in Operation Grapple, the concept was influential, and the development of a more advanced design than the Americans had would be the key to achieving the overall objective of the project—a resumption of the nuclear Special Relationship with the Americans. He has been called the "father of the British H-bomb".

Macquarie University
After Maryland, Ward looked for a new job. He thought he had found one at the University of Miami in Florida, but was denied tenure and left in 1959. He then secured a position at Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, but was unhappy there. He applied once again for a one-year membership at the Institute for Advanced Study, and was accepted for a third time. Theodore H. Berlin then offered him a position at Johns Hopkins University in 1961. He remained until 1966, when he answered an advertisement for a mathematics professor at Victoria University of Wellington in New Zealand. Australian friends were astounded that anyone would choose New Zealand over Australia, and in 1967 he became the foundation professor of physics at Macquarie University in Sydney. He turned down offers from Oxford and Cambridge. He eventually became an Australian citizen.

In 1967 he created the physics program at Macquarie University using the Feynman Lectures on Physics as primary textbooks.  This program had a strong experimental emphasis and Ward himself (who originally was trained as an engineer) "had great admiration for anything practical". He is credited with being an early pioneer in the use of Feynman diagrams, and spreading their use in Australia. In the late 1970s Ward participated, with Frank Duarte, in the successful Macquarie science reform movement, and considered this a "most important accomplishment".  The most visible sign was that the university agreed to present Bachelor of Science (BSc) degrees instead of just Bachelor of Arts (BA) degrees, the former being more highly prized by students and workplaces in Australia.

Personal life and death
Ward's total number of published papers was only about 20, a fact that reflects a strong sense of self-criticism. He was also critical of what he called "PhD factories" and expressed scepticism towards the importance attached to having a large number of citations. He never supervised graduate students. Although he never received the Nobel Prize in Physics, he did receive some significant awards, including the Guthrie Medal and Dirac Medal of the University of New South Wales in 1981, the Heineman Prize in 1982, and the Hughes Medal in 1983 "for his highly influential and original contributions to quantum field theory, particularly the Ward identity and the Salam–Ward theory of weak interactions". He became a fellow of the Royal Society in 1965. He has an Erdős number of 2.

Andrei Sakharov said Ward was one of the "titans" of quantum electrodynamics alongside Freeman Dyson, Richard Feynman, Julian Schwinger, Sin-Itiro Tomonaga and Gian Carlo Wick. In this regard, it has been said that physicists have made use of his principles and developments "often without knowing it, and generally without quoting him."

Besides his physics, Ward played the piano and the French horn.  He was a bachelor for most of his life, but he was briefly married while in the US. He had no children. He died on Vancouver Island in British Columbia, Canada, on 6 May 2000, from a respiratory illness.

References

1924 births
2000 deaths
Australian physicists
English physicists
Australian nuclear physicists
British nuclear physicists
Particle physicists
Quantum physicists
Theoretical physicists
Optical physicists
Fellows of the Royal Society
Fellows of the Australian Institute of Physics
Academic staff of Macquarie University
Mathematical physicists
People associated with the nuclear weapons programme of the United Kingdom
Alumni of Merton College, Oxford
British emigrants to Australia

John Clive Ward


Fried onions are slices of onions that are either pan fried (sautéed) or deep fried — and consumed as a popular snack food, garnish, or vegetable accompaniment to various recipes.

Sautéed onions

Common fried onions are cooked by basic pan frying or sautéing of sliced onions. This produces a fairly soft cooked onion, which may brown some from a Maillard reaction, depending on the length of cooking and the temperature. The Philadelphia cheesesteak is a hot sandwich commonly served with sautéed onions, and they are half of the dish called liver and onions. In the Middle East, mujaddara is a dish made of lentils and rice topped with fried onions. In Indian cuisine, fried onions are one of the key ingredients for the rice dish called biryani.

Crisp fried onions

If the much higher temperature, immersive, deep frying is used, this prepares the onions in a manner similar to that of French fried potatoes.
Crispy deep fried onions are called "French fried onions" in Southern cooking of the
United States. Smaller and irregularly shaped (from being deep-fried until they are crunchy) onions are an integral part of the American dish green bean casserole. Freshly made crisp fried onions may be used as garnishes in some restaurants.

In Sweden and the rest of Scandinavia, known as rostad lök/ristede løg/stekte løk, they are a staple garnish for hot dogs or Tunnbrödsrulle, served in local fast food restaurants or by street vendors (which are common in large cities such as Copenhagen and Stockholm).

Crisp fried onions are also used in biriyani for layering and garnishing.

Variations

Onion rings

Large, often ring-shaped, batter-coated, deep-fried onions are often associated with fast food and casual dining. Examples include onion rings and blooming onions.

Fried shallot

Shallot, a variety of onion, is fried and used in various parts of Asia as garnish and flavouring ingredient. This include bawang goreng in Indonesian cuisine, you cong su (油蔥酥) from Taiwanese cuisine as well as in Thai cuisine.  Shallots are thinly sliced and deep fried in plenty of cooking oil until golden crisp, and often placed in a tight glass jar for later use.

Fried shallot has a slightly bitter yet savoury flavour. Crispy fried shallots are often sprinkled upon steamed rice, satay, soto, gado-gado, bubur ayam and many other dishes as a condiment as well as garnish. They are used for stir-fried vegetables, soups, stews, curries, noodles, rice and salads as toppings. Prepacked bawang goreng fried shallots are available in supermarkets and grocery stores in Indonesia, and also Asian grocery stores abroad.

See also

Funyuns – a fried-onion-flavored snack
Kushari – which is topped with fried onions
List of onion dishes
Lomo a lo pobre

References

Fast food
Onion-based foods
Deep fried foods
Onion
Iranian condiments

Fried onion


Dubautia kenwoodii, the Kalalau rim dubautia, is an "extremely rare" species of flowering plant in the family Asteraceae. It is endemic to Hawaii where it is known only from the island of Kauai. Only one plant has ever been seen: the type specimen. A part of this plant was collected in 1991 and the individual was described as a new species in 1998. It was federally listed as an endangered species of the United States in 2010. Like other Dubautia this plant is known as na`ena`e.

This member of the silversword alliance was discovered growing on a cliff along the Kalalau Rim adjacent to the Kalalau Valley on Kauai. The single plant was examined and collected by the biologist Ken Wood, who rappelled down the cliff to view it. It was later described to science and named for him. After Hurricane Iniki in 1992 this specimen was absent and feared extirpated. Biologists are hopeful that more individuals of this "exceedingly rare" and "critically endangered" plant will be located as more of Kauai is surveyed.

The only known specimen of the plant was described as a shrub half a meter tall with oppositely arranged leaves up to 12 centimeters long by 2 wide. The blades are shiny on top and more pale on the undersides. The flower heads contain several flowers which turn "rusty yellow in age".

References

kenwoodii
Endemic flora of Hawaii
Biota of Kauai
Plants described in 1998

Dubautia kenwoodii


Eduard Arnold Martin (22 April 1809, Heidelberg – 5 December 1875, Berlin) was a German obstetrician and gynecologist. He was the father of medic Carl Eduard Martin (1838-1907), philologist Ernst Eduard Martin (1841-1910) and obstetrician August Eduard Martin (1847-1933).

Initially a student of law, he later studied medicine at the University of Heidelberg (1830–31), where his instructors included Maximilian Joseph von Chelius and Franz Naegele. He then continued his education at the University of Jena, and received his doctorate in 1833 at the University of Göttingen with the thesis "De lithogenesi praesertim urinaria". Following an extended study trip to Prague, Vienna, Berlin, England and France, he obtained his habilitation at Jena in 1835.

In 1837 he became an associate professor at the University of Jena, where during the following year he was named subdirector of the university maternity hospital. In 1846 he became a full professor as well as director of the maternity hospital. In 1858 he relocated to Berlin as successor to Dietrich Wilhelm Heinrich Busch as director of the maternity hospital at the Charité. At Berlin he also established a department of gynecology. Among his better known students and assistants were Robert Michaelis von Olshausen and Adolf Gusserow.

In 1873 he founded the Gynäkologische Gesellschaft (Gynecological Society) in Berlin. His "Hand-Atlas der Gynäkologie und Geburtshülfe" was later translated into English and published as: "Atlas of obstetrics and gynaecology" (1880).

References

External links

1809 births
1875 deaths
Physicians from Heidelberg
Academic staff of the University of Jena
Academic staff of the Humboldt University of Berlin
Heidelberg University alumni
University of Jena alumni
German gynaecologists
German obstetricians
19th-century German physicians

Eduard Arnold Martin


The Amazing Quest of Ernest Bliss is a 1936 British romantic comedy film directed by Alfred Zeisler and starring Cary Grant. It is a remake of the 1920 film The Amazing Quest of Mr. Ernest Bliss, based on The Curious Quest, a 1919 novel by E. Phillips Oppenheim.

The film was issued in the United States in 1937 under the title The Amazing Adventure (and subsequently Romance and Riches), but edited down to 62 minutes from the reputed original UK running time of 80 minutes. All currently circulating copies are of the US edit, but the British Film Institute has several archive prints of 77 minutes in length. The film is often believed to be in the public domain and appears on many budget VHS and DVD releases, but as director Alfred Zeisler did not die until 1985, UK copyright subsists until the end of 2055. As a non-US film still under copyright in its country of origin on 1 January 1996, it is protected in the US for 95 years after publication, so to the end of 2031.

Plot

In London, rich, idle socialite Ernest Bliss (Cary Grant) feels out of sorts for no discernible reason. He sees a doctor, Sir James Aldroyd, who bluntly informs him that he is suffering from too much money, and that he would be cured if he lived for a year on a few pounds per week. Bliss is so insulted that he makes a bet for £50,000 with Sir James that he can survive for a year, supporting himself solely on whatever he earns and not touching his inherited millions.

He takes the Underground to Stepney Green and rents an attic room. He falls behind on the rent, but landlady Mrs. Heath is sympathetic to his plight.

Finally, despite having no experience, he persuades Mr. Masters to give him a job selling Alpha stoves. After three weeks, he has not made a single sale, and Frances Clayton (Mary Brian), Masters' secretary, tells Bliss that the company, in which Masters has invested his life savings, is in danger of closing down. Then Bliss comes up with an idea to promote the product. He takes £500 of his own money—but not for his own benefit, so the bet is still on—and offers free meals cooked on the stoves to the general public. A wholesale buyer places a trial order for 100 stoves, with the prospect of purchasing 40,000 a year if things work out. Masters is delighted and offers Bliss a partnership, but Bliss instead resigns.

After he finds another job, Bliss takes Frances to dinner. As they dance, she informs him that she too is leaving Masters; he offered her a partnership too, but of the matrimonial kind.

Late one night, Dr. Alroyd engages a car and a chauffeur for a medical emergency. That chauffeur turns out to be Bliss. After Bliss drives the doctor back to Harley Street, Bliss informs him that almost seven months have elapsed on their bet.

Dorrington, another customer, asks him to come to 11 Regents Park Gate, flat 6, which happens to be Bliss's place. Bliss's valet Clowes, with too much time on his hands, lost heavily betting on the dogs and let the flat to Dorrington.  Dorrington had been practising forging Bliss's signature and had noticed the "resemblance" between the chauffeur and the absent owner so wants the chauffeur to cash a cheque for £30,000 in return for a third share. Bliss gets the cashier to give him blank pieces of paper in an envelope and returns to his flat. He reveals who he is to Dorrington and his henchman, but they do not believe him. In the ensuing fight, Dorrington slips away with the worthless envelope while Bliss struggles with the henchman. Finally a drunk Clowes emerges and hits the henchman with a bottle. Afterward, Bliss forgives his servant.

Frances gets a job with Mr. Montague; he makes it clear that he wants more than a secretary, but she needs the work. When she tells Bliss that Montague wants her to do some work outside the office at night, Bliss disables Montague's car and has her hire him to take them to Montague's rendezvous. After confirming that Montague's intentions are not honourable, he takes Frances away. When his boss sacks him, he is unconcerned, but then the manager discharges mechanic Bill Bronson for standing up for him, so Bliss buys the company and orders that the manager be fired and replaced by Bill.

He persuades Frances to accept his marriage proposal. Then her mother arrives with terrible news: Frances's sister will die unless she is taken to a winter resort in Switzerland. In desperation, Frances decides to marry Masters for the money she needs. She moves without informing Bliss. He finally tracks her down and, after learning why she broke up with him, fixes everything and marries her himself.

Cast
Cary Grant as Ernest Bliss
Mary Brian as Frances Clayton
Peter Gawthorne as Sir James Alroyd
Henry Kendall as Lord Honiton
Leon M. Lion as Dorrington
John Turnbull as Masters
Arthur Hardy as Crawley
Iris Ashley as Clare
Garry Marsh as The Buyer
Andreas Malandrinos as Giuseppi
Alfred Wellesley as Montague
Marie Wright as Mrs. Heath
Buena Bent as Mrs. Mott
Charles Farrell as Scales
Quinton McPherson as Clowes (as Quinton MacPherson)
Hal Gordon as Bill Bronson

Critical reception
Variety thought it "a bit old-fashioned and present-day filmgoers may regard it as implausible. Coincidences are highly improbable, and the whole thing, despite excellent direction and acting, moves at a pace that demands a large measure of cutting before being offered to the general public... Cary Grant looks and acts the part with deft characterization. He secures laughs easily and apparently without effort. Mary Brian plays the role of the typist with a metallic harshness which would be more in keeping with the gold-digger. One expects more feminine softness and sympathy from such a role. Most of the other actors and actresses are adequate, and production details are very good".

In his book British Popular Films 1929-1939: The Cinema of Reassurance, Stephen Shafer notes that the plot was intended to appeal to working-class filmgoers, as it gave over the message that their lives were more fulfilling than those of millionaires. Shafer writes:

Obviously, the thrust of The Amazing Quest of Ernest Bliss implied that the "earnest bliss", suggested by the pun in the title, which the protagonist sought could be obtained by hard work, generosity, and self-sacrifice, all concepts with which working-class individuals in real life might well be familiar. Clearly, Bliss's happiness was to be derived from people rather than money which had created his isolation as a millionaire and left him depressed. ... the subtle theme of the feature was that the ordinary moviegoer ought to be grateful in some respects for the simple pleasures in life which he could enjoy but which the wealthy ordinarily did not experience.

References

External links

 British Film Institute page

1936 films
1936 romantic comedy films
British romantic comedy films
United Artists films
British black-and-white films
Remakes of British films
Sound film remakes of silent films
Films based on works by E. Phillips Oppenheim
Films directed by Alfred Zeisler
Films set in London
Films shot at Station Road Studios, Elstree
Films shot at British International Pictures Studios
1930s English-language films
1930s British films
Films with screenplays by John L. Balderston
English-language romantic comedy films

The Amazing Quest of Ernest Bliss


Mary Virginia "Jennie" (sometimes "Ginnie") Wade (May 21, 1843 – July 3, 1863), was a woman from Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. She was the only Gettysburg civilian killed directly during the Battle of Gettysburg. The house where she was killed is now a museum called the "Jennie Wade House."

Early life

Wade was born in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. The house where she was born still stands. When she was a young woman, she and her mother worked as seamstresses. They lived in a house on Breckenridge Street. Wade's father was a tailor. He lived in a psychiatric hospital.

Jack Skelly

Wade may have been engaged to marry Johnston Hastings "Jack" Skelly. He was an officer in the Union Army. His picture was found in her pocket after her death. Skelly was wounded in the Second Battle of Winchester. He died from his injuries on July 12, 1863. He did not know that Wade had died days earlier. Skelly and Wade were childhood friends. Only one letter between the two survived the war. There was nothing in it about a romantic relationship.

Battle of Gettysburg
The first day of the Battle of Gettysburg was July 1, 1863. Early in the morning, Wade and others went to the house of Wade's sister, Georgia McClellan. They planned to help Georgia with her five-day-old baby.

McClellan's house was at 528 Baltimore Street. That was between the armies of the North (the Union) and the South (the Confederacy). The house was hit by 150 bullets during the battle. An artillery shell went through the roof. It did not explode. It stayed where it fell for the next 15 years.

In the early morning of July 3, 1863, Wade was in the kitchen of her sister's home. She was making biscuits and bread for Union soldiers. A bullet came through two doors and hit Wade. It went through her left shoulder blade and through her heart. It stopped in her corset. She was killed instantly. Nobody knows which side fired the shot. Some writers say it was an unknown Confederate soldier. Jennie Wade was the only Gettysburg civilian killed directly during the Battle of Gettysburg.

Three Union soldiers found Wade's body almost right away. They told the rest of her family. The family took shelter in the cellar. Wade's body was placed in a coffin that was meant for a Confederate officer. She was buried in the back yard of her sister's house. On July 4, Wade's mother finished making the bread from the dough that Wade had prepared. In January 1864, Wade's body was moved to the cemetery of the German Reformed Church on Stratton Street in Gettysburg.

Newspaper accounts
Wade received much attention from newspaper writers after her death. Most writers called her a heroine. Some writers did not have good things to say about her. She was accused of having visitors late at night. Other writers said that she was too friendly with Confederate soldiers.

Monument

In November 1865, Wade's body was buried in the Evergreen Cemetery in Gettysburg near Jack Skelly. Gettysburg resident Anna M. Miller designed a monument to Wade. It was put in the cemetery in 1900. This monument includes a Flag of the United States that flies around the clock. The Betsy Ross House in Philadelphia is the only other site devoted to a woman that has a flag flying at all times.

Notes

References
 Frassanito, William A. Early Photography at Gettysburg. Gettysburg, PA: Thomas Publications, 1995. .
 Halbur, Patsy. "Jennie Wade and Gettysburg: It Was Not Supposed to Happen." Gettysburg Magazine 25 (July 2001): 105-15.
 Petruzzi, J. David, and Steven Stanley. The Complete Gettysburg Guide. New York: Savas Beatie, 2009. .
 Trudeau, Noah Andre. Gettysburg: A Testing of Courage. New York: HarperCollins, 2002. .
 Wert, Jeffry D. Gettysburg: Day Three. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001. .

Other websites
 Jennie Wade House Official Site
 History of the Jennie Wade House

1843 births
1863 deaths
American Civil War

Jennie Wade


Rainmaking, also known as artificial precipitation, artificial rainfall and pluviculture, is the act of attempting to artificially induce or increase precipitation, usually to stave off drought or the wider global warming. According to the clouds' different physical properties, this can be done using airplanes or rockets to sow to the clouds with catalysts such as dry ice, silver iodide and salt powder, to make clouds rain or increase precipitation, to remove or mitigate farmland drought, to increase reservoir irrigation water or water supply capacity, to increase water levels for hydropower generation, or even to solve the global warming problem.

In the United States, rainmaking was attempted by traveling showmen. It was practiced on the American frontier, but may have reached a peak during the Dust Bowl drought of the US west and midwest in the 1930s. The practice was depicted in the 1956 film The Rainmaker. Attempts to bring rain directly have waned with development of the science of meteorology, laws against fraud, and improved weather forecasting, with some exceptions such as cloud seeding and forms of prayer including rain dances, which are still practiced today. Prayers for rain is also a common cultural practice for Christians and Muslims. In some Christian areas, clerics of the Eastern Orthodox Church are believed to possess the power to arrest rain, bring hail to the farms of wayward souls, as well as to bring rain when the rainy season falls short.

The term is also used metaphorically to describe the process of bringing new clients into a professional practice, such as law, architecture, consulting, advertising, or investment banking—in general, processes that bring money into a company.

It is also used to describe a confidence trick where the scammer takes money from the victim to influence a system over which they have no real control, but a random chance of the outcome happening anyway.

Cloud seeding

Since the 1940s, cloud seeding has been used to change the structure of clouds by dispersing substances into the air, potentially increasing or altering rainfall. In spite of experiments dating back to at least the start of the 20th century, however, there is much controversy surrounding the efficacy of cloud seeding, and evidence that cloud seeding leads to increased precipitation on the ground is highly equivocal. One difficulty is knowing how much precipitation might have fallen had any particular cloud not been seeded.  Operation Popeye was a US military rainmaking operation to increase rains over Vietnam during the Vietnam War in order to slow Vietnamese military truck activity in the region, though this claim happened 60 years later by anti-government groups. Rainmaking is not climate engineering, which seeks to alter the climate, but a form of weather modification, as it seeks only to change local weather.

Wilhelm Reich's Cloudbuster

Austrian-American psychoanalyst Wilhelm Reich designed a "cloudbuster" in the United States with which he said he could manipulate streams of "orgone energy" (which he claimed was a primordial cosmic energy) in the atmosphere to induce rain by forcing clouds to form and disperse. It was a set of hollow metal pipes and cables inserted into water, which Reich argued created a stronger orgone energy field than was in the atmosphere, the water drawing the atmospheric orgone through the pipes. Reich called his research "Cosmic Orgone Engineering".

Rain dances and prayers

In many societies around the world, rain dances and other rituals have been used to stimulate rainfall.  Some Native Americans used rain dances extensively. European examples include ceremonies in the Balkans known as Perperuna and Dodola and Caloian. Some US farmers attempt to bring rain during droughts through prayer. These rituals differ greatly in their specifics, but share a common concern with bringing rain through spiritual means. Typical of these ceremonies was the public prayer service for rain by then-governor of Georgia, Sonny Perdue, in 2007.

In Muslim societies, in times of calamity such as drought, the Imam is asked to provide spiritual help to the community in the hope of inducing God to fall rain (Rain_prayer). The rain prayer (Arabic: صلاة الاستسقاء; ṣalāt al-istisqa, "rain request prayer") is a sunnah salah (Islamic prayer) for requesting and seeking rain water from God. A Muslim prayer offered to God seeking rain water. Indeed, the Muslim ummah regard the rain as a great divine blessing, and every time it rains showers, people rejoice and thank God Almighty.

Contemporary Jewish liturgy includes prayers for rain, seasonally, as a part of the morning, afternoon, and evening, daily amidah prayer, during mid-autumn to mid-spring. During summer, this prayer is changed from the prayer for rain, to a prayer for dew.

In popular culture
The video of the song "Cloudbusting" (based on the story of Wilhelm Reich) by Kate Bush features Donald Sutherland as an inventor of a rainmaking machine.
The 1956 film The Rainmaker tells of a traveling salesman/con artist who claims to be a rainmaker.  (A country song, Lizzie and the Rainman, would be based on the film.)

See also
Business rainmaking
Charles Hatfield
Rain Queen
Human behavior § Weather and climate
Honi Ha'Meagel, Circle drawing incident

References

Further reading

 Sanders, Todd 2008. Beyond Bodies: Rainmaking and Sense Making in Tanzania. Toronto, University of Toronto Press

Weather modification
Droughts
Rain

ar:إستمطار
zh:人造雨

Rainmaking


FiveThirtyEight is a website that makes forecasts about elections, sports, and other topics. It also publishes articles about those topics. It was created by statistician Nate Silver on March 7, 2008. FiveThirtyEight's name comes from the number of electors in the United States Electoral College.

FiveThirtyEight is famous for correctly predicting the winner of all 50 states in the 2012 United States presidential election. In the 2016 election, FiveThirtyEight said that Donald Trump had a 28.6% chance to win. Trump did win. However, 28.6% was much higher than other people thought, such as The New York Times and The Economist.

FiveThirtyEight has also analyzed at the calibration of their forecasts. If a forecast with good calibration says that many things each have a 40% chance of happening, then about 40% will. Their forecasts are fairly accurate.

References

2008 establishments in the United States

FiveThirtyEight


Centreville Historic District is a national historic district located at Centreville, New Castle County, Delaware.  It encompasses 15 contributing buildings and were built between 1820 and 1920.  It is primarily a residential district.  Notable buildings include the Dr. Joseph H. Chandler House, Chandler-Dixon House, Nichols House, the M. J. Furey House, the R. T. Carey House, the Rev. D. W. Moore House, the Mrs. R. Todd House, and the Odd Fellows Hall.

It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1983.

References

Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Delaware
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Delaware
Houses in New Castle County, Delaware
Historic districts in New Castle County, Delaware
National Register of Historic Places in New Castle County, Delaware

Centreville Historic District (Centreville, Delaware)


Sauropsida ("lizard faces") is a clade of amniotes, broadly equivalent to the class Reptilia, though typically used in a broader sense to include extinct stem-group relatives of modern reptiles. The most popular definition states that Sauropsida is the sister taxon to Synapsida, the other clade of amniotes which includes mammals as its only modern representatives. Although early synapsids have historically been referred to as "mammal-like reptiles", all synapsids are more closely related to mammals than to any modern reptile. Sauropsids, on the other hand, include all amniotes more closely related to modern reptiles than to mammals. This includes Aves (birds), which are now recognized as a subgroup of archosaurian reptiles despite originally being named as a separate class in Linnaean taxonomy.

The base of Sauropsida forks into two main groups of "reptiles": Eureptilia ("true reptiles") and Parareptilia ("next to reptiles"). Eureptilia encompasses all living reptiles (including birds), as well as various extinct groups. Parareptilia is typically considered to be an entirely extinct group, though a few hypotheses for the origin of turtles have suggested that they belong to the parareptiles. The clades Recumbirostra and Varanopidae, traditionally thought to be lepospondyls and synapsids respectively, may also be basal sauropsids. The term "Sauropsida" originated in 1864 with Thomas Henry Huxley, who grouped birds with reptiles based on fossil evidence.

History of classification

Huxley and the fossil gaps

The term Sauropsida ("lizard faces") has a long history, and hails back to Thomas Henry Huxley, and his opinion that birds had risen from the dinosaurs. He based this chiefly on the fossils of Hesperornis and Archaeopteryx, that were starting to become known at the time. In the Hunterian lectures delivered at the Royal College of Surgeons in 1863, Huxley grouped the vertebrate classes informally into mammals, sauroids, and ichthyoids (the latter containing the anamniotes), based on the gaps in physiological traits and lack of transitional fossils that seemed to exist between the three groups. Early in the following year he proposed the names Sauropsida and Ichthyopsida for the two latter. Huxley did however include groups on the mammalian line (synapsids) like Dicynodon among the sauropsids. Thus, under the original definition, Sauropsida contained not only the groups usually associated with it today, but also several groups that today are known to be in the mammalian side of the tree.

Sauropsids redefined (Goodrich, 1916)
By the early 20th century, the fossils of Permian synapsids from South Africa had become well known, allowing palaeontologists to trace synapsid evolution in much greater detail. The term Sauropsida was taken up by E.S. Goodrich in 1916 much like Huxley's, to include lizards, birds and their relatives. He distinguished them from mammals and their extinct relatives, which he included in the sister group Theropsida (now usually replaced with the name Synapsida). Goodrich's classification thus differs somewhat from Huxley's, in which the non-mammalian synapsids (or at least the dicynodontians) fell under the sauropsids. Goodrich supported this division by the nature of the hearts and blood vessels in each group, and other features such as the structure of the forebrain. According to Goodrich, both lineages evolved from an earlier stem group, the Protosauria ("first lizards"), which included some Paleozoic amphibians as well as early reptiles predating the sauropsid/synapsid split (and thus not true sauropsids). His concept differed from modern classifications in that he considered a modified fifth metatarsal to be an apomorphy of the group, leading him to place Sauropterygia, Mesosauria and possibly Ichthyosauria and Araeoscelida in the Theropsida.

Detailing the reptile family tree
In 1956, D.M.S. Watson observed that sauropsids and synapsids diverged very early in the reptilian evolutionary history, and so he divided Goodrich's Protosauria between the two groups. He also reinterpreted the Sauropsida and Theropsida to exclude birds and mammals respectively, making them paraphyletic, unlike Goodrich's definition. Thus his Sauropsida included Procolophonia, Eosuchia, Protorosauria, Millerosauria, Chelonia (turtles), Squamata (lizards and snakes), Rhynchocephalia, Rhynchosauria, Choristodera, Thalattosauria, Crocodilia, "thecodonts" (paraphyletic basal Archosauria), non-avian dinosaurs, pterosaurs and sauropyterygians; with araeoscelids, ichthyosaurs, captorhinids and mesosaurs further left incertae sedis.

This classification supplemented, but was never as popular as, the classification of the reptiles (according to Romer's classic Vertebrate Paleontology) into four subclasses according to the positioning of temporal fenestrae, openings in the sides of the skull behind the eyes. Since the advent of phylogenetic nomenclature, the term Reptilia has fallen out of favor with many taxonomists, who have used Sauropsida in its place to include a monophyletic group containing the traditional reptiles and the birds.

Cladistic definitions

The class Reptilia has been known to be an evolutionary grade rather than a clade for as long as evolution has been recognised. Reclassifying reptiles has been among the key aims of phylogenetic nomenclature. The term Sauropsida had from the mid 20th century been used to denote a branch-based clade containing all amniote species which are not on the synapsid side of the split between reptiles and mammals. This group encompasses all now-living reptiles as well as birds, and as such is comparable to Goodrich's classification. The main difference is that better resolution of the early amniote tree has split up most of Goodrich's "Protosauria", though definitions of Sauropsida essentially identical to Huxley's (i.e. including the mammal-like reptiles) are also forwarded. Some later cladistic work has used Sauropsida more restrictively, to signify the crown group, i.e. all descendants of the last common ancestor of extant reptiles and birds. A number of phylogenetic stem, node and crown definitions have been published, anchored in a variety of fossil and extant organisms, thus there is currently no consensus of the actual definition (and thus content) of Sauropsida as a phylogenetic unit.

Some taxonomists, such as Benton (2004), have co-opted the term to fit into traditional rank-based classifications, making Sauropsida and Synapsida class-level taxa to replace the traditional Class Reptilia, while Modesto and Anderson (2004), using the PhyloCode standard, have suggested replacing the name Sauropsida with their redefinition of Reptilia, arguing that the latter is by far better known and should have priority.

Cladistic definitions of Sauropsida include:

 Sauropsida as the total group of reptiles: "Reptiles plus all other amniotes more closely related to them than they are to mammals" (Gauthier, 1994). This is a branch-based total group definition. Gauthier (1994) considered turtles to be descended from parareptiles, thus defining Reptilia as a more restricted crown group encompassing diapsids and parareptiles (apart from mesosaurs, which he considered to be the most basal branch of sauropsids).
 Sauropsida as a total group, synonymous with Reptilia sensu lato: "The most inclusive clade containing Lacerta agilis and Crocodylus niloticus, but not Homo sapiens" (Modesto & Anderson, 2004). This total group definition leaves the question of turtle ancestry unresolved.
 Sauropsida as a broad node-based group: "The last common ancestor of mesosaurs, testudines and diapsids, and all its descendants" (Laurin & Reisz, 1995). Though formulated differently, this grouping was similar in scope and intention to the definition provided by Gauthier (1994).

Evolutionary history

Sauropsids evolved from basal amniotes approximately 320 million years ago, in the Carboniferous Period of the Paleozoic Era. In the Mesozoic Era (from about 250 million years ago to about 66 million years ago), sauropsids were the largest animals on land, in the water, and in the air. The Mesozoic is sometimes called the Age of Reptiles. In the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, the large-bodied sauropsids died out in the global extinction event at the end of the Mesozoic era. With the exception of a few species of birds, the entire dinosaur lineage became extinct; in the following era, the Cenozoic, the remaining birds diversified so extensively that, today, nearly one out of every three species of land vertebrate is a bird species.

Phylogeny
The cladogram presented here illustrates the "family tree" of sauropsids, and follows a simplified version of the relationships found by M.S. Lee, in 2013. All genetic studies have supported the hypothesis that turtles (formerly categorized together with ancient anapsids) are diapsid reptiles, despite lacking any skull openings behind their eye sockets; some studies have even placed turtles among the archosaurs, though a few have recovered turtles as lepidosauromorphs instead. The cladogram below used a combination of genetic (molecular) and fossil (morphological) data to obtain its results.

Laurin & Piñeiro (2017) and Modesto (2019) proposed an alternate phylogeny of basal sauropsids. In this tree, parareptiles include turtles and are closely related to non-araeoscelidian diapsids. The family Varanopidae, otherwise included in Synapsida, is considered by Modesto a sauropsid group.

In recent studies, the "microsaur" clade Recumbirostra, historically considered lepospondyl reptiliomorphs, have been recovered as early sauropsids.

Structure difference with synapsids
The last common ancestor of synapsids and Sauropsida lived at around 320mya during Carboniferous, known as Reptiliomorpha.

Thermal and secretion

The early synapsids inherited abundant glands on their skins from their amphibian ancestors. Those glands evolved into sweat glands in synapsids, which granted them the ability to maintain constant body temperature but made them unable to save water from evaporation. Moreover, the way synapsids discharge nitrogenous waste is through urea, which is toxic and must be dissolved in water to be secreted. Unfortunately, the upcoming Permian and Triassic periods were arid periods. As a result, only a small percent of early synapsids survived in the land from South Africa to Antarctica in today's geography. Unlike synapsids, sauropsids do not have those glands on the skin; their way of nitrogenous waste emission is through uric acid which does not require water and can be excreted with feces. As a result, sauropsids were able to expand to all environments and reach their pinnacle. Even today, most vertebrates that live in arid environments are sauropsids, snakes and desert lizards for example.

Brain structure
Different from how synapsids have their cortex in six different layers of neurons which is called neocortex, the cerebrum of Sauropsida has a completely different structure. For the corresponding structure of the cerebrum in the classic view, the neocortex of synapsids is homology with only the Archicortex of the avian brain. However, in the modern view appeared since the 1960s, behavioral studies suggested that avian neostriatum and hyperstriatum can receive signals of vision, hearing, and body sensations, which means they act just like the neocortex. Comparing an avian brain to that to a mammal, nuclear-to-layered hypothesis proposed by Karten (1969), suggested that the cells which form layers in synapsids' neocortex, gather individually by type and form several nuclei. For synapsids, when one new function is adapted in evolution it will be assigned to a separate area of cortex, so for each function, synapsids will have to develop a separate area of cortex, and damage to that specific cortex may cause disability. However, for Sauropsida functions are disassembled and assigned to all nuclei. In this case, brain function is highly flexible for Sauropsida, even with a small brain, many Sauropsida can still have a relatively high intelligence compared to mammals, for example, Corvidae. So, it is possible that dinosaurs, like T-rex which we know have tiny brains compared to their enormous body size, are much more intelligent than what people have imagined.

References

Amniotes
Mississippian first appearances
Extant Carboniferous first appearances
Fossil taxa described in 1956
Taxa named by D. M. S. Watson

Sauropsida


In United States law, a stipulation is a formal legal acknowledgment and agreement made between opposing parties before a pending hearing or trial.

For example, both parties might stipulate to certain facts and so not have to argue them in court. After the stipulation is entered into, it is presented to the judge.

The word is derived from the Latin word stipula "straw." The Ancient Roman custom was that the negotiating parties, upon reaching an agreement, broke a straw as a sign of their mutual agreement and wrote down the agreement's rules (stipulationes).

References

Legal terminology

Stipulation


Marcellus (Greek: Μάρκελλος; died 366) was an officer of the Roman Empire, supporter of usurper Procopius and briefly an usurper himself.

There are two versions of the history of his usurpation, the first told by Ammianus Marcellinus, a contemporary historian, the second exposed by Zosimus, a historian of the beginning of the 6th century.

Ammianus Marcellinus' version

Ammianus Marcellinus underlines the fact that Marcellus was a relative of Procopius (a member of the Constantinian dynasty). In 365 Procopius rebelled against emperor Valens, taking the purple; Marcellus became his protector and was entrusted with the defence of Nicaea. When, in 366, Procopius was killed, Marcellus killed Serenianus, a cruel general of Valens' who had been captured by Procopius at Cyzicus, and then conquered Chalcedon.

Procopius had based his usurpation on his bond with the Constantinian dynasty and on the support of some barbaric peoples; Marcellus tried to exploit his own bond to Procopius and to consolidate an alliance with Gothic tribes. He proclaimed himself emperor, but his rule was short. Valens' magister militum, Equitius, learned of Procopius' death and attacked Marcellus, capturing him. After a few days, Marcellus and some of his supporters were put to death.

Zosimus' version

According to Zosimus, Marcellus was sent by Procopius from Constantinople into Bithynia, to counter the cavalry unit under Serenianus' command and loyal to Valens. Serenianus occupied Cyzicus, but Marcellus put the city under siege and took it, forcing Serenianus to flee; after a short pursuit in Lydia, Marcellus killed him.

After Procopius' death, Valens captured Marcellus. According to Zosimus and John of Antioch, Marcellus was suspected of planning a usurpation, as he had been found with the regalia of Procopius; thus Valens ordered his death and that of his family and his supporters.

Bibliography
Primary sources
 Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, xxvi.10.1—5.
 John of Antioch, fr. 184.2
 Zosimus, New History, iv.6.3—5, iv.8.3—4.
Secondary sources
 Banchich, Thomas, "Marcellus (366 A.D.)", De Imperatoribus Romanis
 Jones, Arnold Hugh Martin, John Robert Martindale, John Morris, The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, Cambridge University Press, 1992, , p. 551.

4th-century Roman usurpers
366 deaths
Ancient Roman generals
Year of birth unknown
People executed by the Roman Empire
Executed ancient Roman people

Marcellus (usurper)


Ciṟupañcamūlam (Siruppanchamulam) (Tamil: சிறுபஞ்சமூலம்) is a Tamil poetic work of didactic nature belonging to the Eighteen Lesser Texts (Pathinenkilkanakku) anthology of Tamil literature. This belongs to the 'post Sangam period' corresponding to between 100 – 500 CE. Siruppanchamulam contains 100 poems written by the poet Kariyaasaan. He was probably a Jain by religious persuasion. This and the fact that he was a student of one Makkayanaar is known from the introductory poem of this book. The poems of Siruppanchamulam are written in the Venpa meter.

Siruppanchamulam uses the analogy of the traditional herbal medicine, which uses the roots of the five herbs kandankatthiri (a plant of the nightshade family – Solanum xanthocarpum), siruvzhuthunai, sirumalli, perumalli, and nerunji (a thorny prostrate plant – Tribulus terrestris)  to cure certain maladies. Siruppanchamulam similarly uses five different maxims to illustrate correct behaviour.

The following poem lists the five things, namely, a chaste girl, the humility of the learned, friendly neighbouring countries, benevolent kings under whose reign there are timely rains and loyal assistants as sweet as ambrosia.

 கற்புடைய பெண் அமிர்து, கற்று அடங்கினான் அமிர்து
 நற்புடைய நாடுஅமிர்து - நற்புடைய
 மேகமே சேர்கொடி வேந்து அமிர்து, சேவகனும்
 ஆகவே செய்யின் அமிர்து.

See also
Tamil Jain

References
 Mudaliyar, Singaravelu A., Apithana Cintamani, An encyclopaedia of Tamil Literature, (1931) - Reprinted by Asian Educational Services, New Delhi (1983)
 http://tamilnation.org/literature/
 http://tamilnation.org/literature/pathinen/pm0029.pdf Siruppanchamulam eText at Project madurai

Sangam literature
Jain texts

Ciṟupañcamūlam