The operating system Linux can be used for playing video games. Because many games are not natively supported for the Linux kernel, various software has been made to run Windows games, such as Wine, Cedega, and Proton, and managers such as Lutris and PlayOnLinux. The Linux gaming community has a presence on the internet with users who attempt to run games that are normally not supported on Linux.

History

Linux gaming started largely as an extension of the already present Unix gaming scene, which dates back to that system's conception in 1969 with the game Space Travel and the first edition in 1971, with both systems sharing many similar titles. These games were mostly either arcade and parlour type games or text adventures using libraries like curses. A notable example of this are the "BSD Games", a collection of interactive fiction and other text-mode amusements. The free software philosophy and open source methodology which drove the development of the operating system in general also spawned the creation of various early free games.

Popular early titles included Netrek and the various XAsteroids, XBattle, XBill, XBoing, X-Bomber, XConq, XDigger, XEmeraldia, XEvil, XGalaga, XGammon, XLander, XLife, XMahjong, XMine, XSoldier, XPilot, XRobots, XRubiks, XShogi, XScavenger, XTris, XTron, XTic and XTux games using the X Window System. Other games targeted or also supported the SVGAlib library allowing them to run without a windowing system, such as LinCity, Maelstrom, and SABRE. As the operating system itself grew and expanded, the amount of free and open-source games also increased in scale and complexity, with both clones of historically popular releases beginning with  BZFlag, LinCity, and FreeCiv, as well as original creations such as Rocks'n'Diamonds, Cube, The Battle for Wesnoth, and Tux Racer.

1994–1997

The beginning of Linux as a gaming platform for commercial video games is widely credited to have begun in 1994 when Dave D. Taylor ported the game Doom to Linux, as well as many other systems, during his spare time. Shareware copies of the game were included on various Linux discs, including those packed in with reference books. From there Taylor would also help found the development studio Crack dot Com, which released the video game Abuse, with the game's Linux port even being distributed by Linux vendors Red Hat and Caldera. The studio's never finished Golgotha was also slated to be released by Red Hat in box. Ancient Domains of Mystery was also released for Linux in 1994 by Thomas Biskup, building on the roguelike legacy of games such as Moria and its descendent Angband, but more specifically Hack and NetHack.

id Software, the original developers of Doom, also continued to release their products for Linux. Their game Quake was ported to Linux via X11 in 1996, once again by Dave D. Taylor working in his free time. An SVGALib version was also later produced by Greg Alexander in 1997 using recently leaked source code, but was later mainlined by id. Later id products continued to be ported by Zoid Kirsch and Timothee Besset, a practice that continued until the studio's acquisition by ZeniMax Media in 2009. The ports of Quake and Quake II were released physically by Macmillan Computer Publishing USA, while Quake III was released for Linux by Loki Software. Red Hat had previously passed on publishing Quake for Linux, since it was not open-source at the time.

In 1991 DUX Software contracted Don Hopkins to port SimCity to Unix, which he later ported to Linux and eventually released as open source for the OLPC XO Laptop. Other early commercial Linux games included Hopkins FBI, an adventure game released in 1998 by MP Entertainment, and Inner Worlds in 1996, which was released for and developed on Linux. In 1998, two programmers from Origin ported Ultima Online to Linux. The UNIX Book of Games, a 1996 publication by Janice Winsor, described various games with an accompanying CD-ROM containing executables and source code for Linux and SCO Unix.

A website called The Linux Game Tome, also known as HappyPenguin after its URL, was begun by Tessa Lau in 1995 to catalogue games created for or ported to Linux from the SunSITE game directories as well as other classic X11 games for a collection of just over 100 titles. It was taken over by Bob Zimbinski in 1998 eventually growing to over 2000 entries, sponsored by retailer Penguin Computing and later LGP until it went down in 2013, although mirrors still exist.

1998–2002

The site LinuxGames covered news and commentary from November 1998 until its host Atomicgamer went down in 2015. It was established by Marvin Malkowski, head of the Telefragged gaming network, alongside Al Koskelin and Dustin Reyes; Reyes passed away August 8, 2023.

On November 9, 1998, a new software firm called Loki Software was founded by Scott Draeker, a former lawyer who became interested in porting games to Linux after being introduced to the system through his work as a software licensing attorney. Loki, although a commercial failure, is credited with the birth of the modern Linux game industry. Loki developed several free software tools, such as the Loki installer (also known as Loki Setup), and supported the development of the Simple DirectMedia Layer, as well as starting the OpenAL audio library project. These are still often credited as being the cornerstones of Linux game development. They were also responsible for bringing nineteen high-profile games to the platform before its closure in 2002.

Loki's initial success also attracted other firms to invest in the Linux gaming market, such as Tribsoft, Hyperion Entertainment, Macmillan Digital Publishing USA, Titan Computer, Xatrix Entertainment, Philos Laboratories, and Vicarious Visions. During this time Michael Simms founded Tux Games, one of the first online Linux game retailers, later followed by Fun 4 Tux, Wupra, ixsoft, and LinuxPusher.

The period also saw a number of commercial compilations released, such as 100 Great Linux Games by Global Star Software, Linux Games by Walnut Creek CDROM, Best Linux Games by SOT Finnish Software Engineering, LinuxCenter Games Collection, Linux Games & Entertainment for X Windows by Hemming, Linux Spiele & Games by more software,  Linux Spiele by Franzis Verlag, and play it! Linux: Die Spielesammlung by S.A.D. Software. Numerous Linux distributions and collections packed in Loki games and demos, including Red Hat Linux, Corel Linux and WordPerfect Office, and the complete Eric's Ultimate Solitaire bundled with PowerPlant by TheKompany.

The release of ScummVM in 2001, Dosbox in 2002, as well as video game console emulators like MAME from 1997 and released as open source in 2016, helped make Linux a viable platform for retro gaming (facilitated by the RetroArch frontend since 2010). This is especially the case for the GP2X and Pandora handheld game consoles from 2005 and 2010, and dedicated emulation setups built on single-board computers like the Raspberry Pi released in 2012, which are most often Linux based including with Raspberry Pi OS. Wine is also useful for running older Windows games, including 16-bit and even some 32-bit applications that no longer work on modern 64-bit Windows. The Sharp Zaurus personal data assistants adopted a Linux derived system called OpenZaurus, which attracted its own gaming scene.

2003–2007

After Loki's closure, the Linux game market experienced some changes. Although some new firms, such as Linux Game Publishing and RuneSoft, would largely continue the role of a standard porting house, the focus began to change with Linux game proponents encouraging game developers to port their game products themselves or through individual contractors. Influential to this was Ryan C. Gordon, a former Loki employee who would over the next decade port several game titles to multiple platforms, including Linux.

Around this time many companies, starting with id Software, also began to release legacy source code leading to a proliferation of source ports of older games to Linux and other systems. This also helped expand the already existing free and open-source gaming scene, especially with regards to the creation of free first person shooters. In addition, numerous game engine recreations have been produced to varying levels of accuracy using reverse engineering or underlying engine code supporting the original game files including on Linux and other niche systems.

The company TransGaming marketed as a monthly subscription its own proprietary fork of Wine called WineX in October 2001, later renamed Cedega in 2004 and discontinued in 2011, which aimed for greater compatibility with Microsoft Windows games. CodeWeavers also offered an enhanced version of Wine called CrossOver Games. The reliance on such compatibility layers remains controversial with concerns that it hinders growth in native development, although this approach was defended based on Loki's demise. PlayOnLinux, established in 2007, provides a community alternative. A special Gaming Edition of Mandrake Linux 8.1 was released that featured WineX packed in with The Sims. The fact that the fork of Wine did not release source back to the main project was also a point of contention, despite promises to release code after achieving a set number of subscribers.

2008–2011

The Linux gaming market also started to experience some growth towards the end of the decade with the rise of independent video game development, with many "indie" developers favouring support for multiple platforms. The Humble Indie Bundle initiatives inaugurated in 2010 helped to formally demonstrate this trend, with Linux users representing a sizable population of their purchase base, as well as consistently being the most financially generous in terms of actual money spent. The Humble Indie Bundle V in 2012 faced controversy for featuring a Wine-based release of Limbo prepared by CodeWeavers, while a native version was later released in 2014. Humble eventually began offering Windows-only games in their bundles and on their store.

In 2009, the small indie game company Entourev LLC published Voltley to Linux which is the first commercial exclusive game for this operating system. In the same year, LGP released Shadowgrounds which was the first commercial game for Linux using the Nvidia PhysX middleware. The GamingOnLinux website was launched on July 4, 2009, and eventually succeeded LinuxGames as the main source of news and commentary.

The release of a Linux version of Desura in 2011, a digital distribution platform with a primary focus on small independent developers, was heralded by several commentators as an important step to greater acknowledgement of Linux as a gaming platform. Shortly before this, Canonical launched the Ubuntu Software Center which also sold digital games. The digital store Gameolith also launched in 2011 focused principally on Linux before expanding in 2012 and closing in 2014.

2012–2016

In July 2012, game developer and content distributor Valve announced a port of their Source engine for Linux as well as stating their intention to release their Steam digital distribution service for Linux. The potential availability of a Linux Steam client had already attracted other developers to consider porting their titles to Linux, including previously Mac OS only porting houses such as Aspyr Media and Feral Interactive.

In November 2012, Unity Technologies ported their Unity engine and game creation system to Linux starting with version 4. All of the games created with the Unity engine can now be ported to Linux easily.

In September 2013 Valve announced that they were releasing a gaming oriented Linux based operating system called SteamOS with Valve saying they had "come to the conclusion that the environment best suited to delivering value to customers is an operating system built around Steam itself." This was used for their Steam Machine platform released on November 10, 2015, and discontinued in 2018.

In March 2014 GOG.com announced they would begin to support Linux titles on their DRM free store starting the same year, after previously stating they would not be able due to too many distributions. GOG.com began their initial roll out on July 24, 2014, by offering 50 Linux supporting titles, including several new to the platform.

Despite previous statements, GOG have confirmed they have no plans to port their Galaxy client to Linux. The free software Lutris started in 2010, GameHub from 2019, MiniGalaxy from 2020, and the Heroic Games Launcher from 2021, offer support for GOG as well as the Epic Games Store, Ubisoft Connect and Origin.

In March and April 2014 two major developers Epic Games and Crytek announced Linux support for their next generation engines Unreal Engine 4 and CryEngine respectively.

Towards the end of 2014 the game host itch.io announced that Linux would be supported with their developing open source game client. This was fully launched simultaneously on Windows, Mac OS X and Linux on December 15, 2015. The service had supported Linux since it was first unveiled on March 3, 2013, with creator Leaf Corcoran personally a Linux user. The similar Game Jolt service also supports Linux and has an open source client released on January 13, 2016. GamersGate also sells games for Linux.

2017-present

On August 22, 2018, Valve released their fork of Wine called Proton, aimed at gaming.  It features some improvements over the vanilla Wine such as Vulkan-based DirectX 11 implementation, Steam integration, better full screen and game controller support and improved performance for multi-threaded games. It has since grown to include support for DirectX 9 and DirectX 12 over Vulkan. The itch.io app added its own Wine integration in June 2020, while Lutris and PlayOnLinux are long-standing independent solutions for compatibility wrappers.

As with Wine and Cedega in the past, concerns have been raised over whether Proton hinders native development more than it encourages use of the platform. Prodeus dropped native support in favour of Proton shortly before final release and Arcen Games cancelled planned native support for Heart of the Machine. Valve has expressed no preference over Proton or native ports among developers.

On February 25, 2022, Valve released Steam Deck, a handheld game console running SteamOS 3.0. The deployment of Proton and other design decisions were based on the limited response to their previous Steam Machines.

As of early 2023, the retro game store Zoom Platform was enhancing Linux support on their available titles.

Market share

The Steam Hardware Survey reports that as of July 2021, 1% of users are using some form of Linux as their platform's primary operating system. The Unity game engine used to make their statistics available and in March 2016 reported that Linux users accounted for 0.4% of players. In 2010, in the first Humble Bundle sales, Linux accounted for 18% of purchases.

Supported hardware

Linux as a gaming platform can also refer to operating systems based on the Linux kernel and specifically designed for the sole purpose of gaming. Examples are SteamOS, which is an operating system for Steam Machines, Steam Deck and general computers, video game consoles built from components found in the classical home computer, (embedded) operating systems like Tizen and Pandora, and handheld game consoles like GP2X, and Neo Geo X. The Nvidia Shield runs Android as an operating system, which is based on a modified Linux kernel.

The open source design of the Linux software platform allows the operating system to be compatible with various computer instruction sets and many peripherals, such as game controllers and head-mounted displays. As an example, HTC Vive, which is a virtual reality head-mounted display, supports the Linux gaming platform.

Performance
In 2013, tests by Phoronix showed real-world performance of games on Linux with proprietary Nvidia and AMD drivers were mostly comparable to results on Windows 8.1. Phoronix found similar results in 2015, though Ars Technica described a 20% performance drop with Linux drivers.

Software architecture
An operating system based on the Linux kernel and customized specifically for gaming, could adopt the vanilla Linux kernel with only little changes, or—like the Android operating system—be based on a relative extensively modified Linux kernel. It could adopt GNU C Library or Bionic or something like it. The entire middleware or parts of it, could very well be closed-source and proprietary software; the same is true for the video games. There are free and open-source video games available for the Linux operating system, as well as proprietary ones.

Linux kernel
The subsystems already mainlined and available in the Linux kernel are most probably performant enough so to not impede the gaming experience in any way, however additional software is available, such as e.g. the Brain Fuck Scheduler (a process scheduler) or the Budget Fair Queueing (BFQ) scheduler (an I/O scheduler).

Similar to the way the Linux kernel can be, for example, adapted to run better on supercomputers, there are adaptations targeted at improving the performance of games. A project concerning itself with this issue is called Liquorix.

Available software for video game designers

Game creation systems
Several game creation systems can be ran on Linux, such as Game Editor, GDevelop, Construct and Stencyl, as well as beta versions of GameMaker. A Linux version of Clickteam Fusion 3 was mentioned, but has yet to be released. The Godot, Defold, and Solar2D game engines also supports creating games on Linux, as do the commercial UnrealEd and Unity Editor, The visual programming environments Snap!, Scratch and Tynker are Linux compatible. Enterbrain's RPG Maker MV was released for Linux. In addition, open-source, cross-platform clones of the RPG Maker series exist such as Open RPG Maker, MKXP and EasyRPG, as well as the similar OHRRPGCE and Solarus. The Adventure Game Studio editor is not yet ported to Linux, although games made in it are compatible, and the Wintermute and SLUDGE adventure game engines are available. ZGameEditor, Novashell, GB Studio, and the ZZT inspired MegaZeux are also options. Versions of Mugen were made available for Linux, and open-source re-implementations such as IKEMEN Go are compatible. The JavaScript based Ct.js Pixelbox.js, and Superpowers
are also options.

Level editors
Various level editors exists for Linux, such as Qoole, Gtkradiant, TrenchBroom and J.A.C.K. for the id Tech engines and related, Eureka, SLADE and ReDoomEd for the Doom engine, and the general purpose tile map editors LLDtk, Ogmo, and Tiled.

Debuggers

Several game development tools have been available for Linux, including GNU Debugger, LLDB, Valgrind, glslang and others. VOGL, a debugger for OpenGL was released on 12 March 2014.

Available interfaces and SDKs
There are multiple interfaces and Software Development Kits available for Linux, and almost all of them are cross-platform. Most are free and open-source software subject to the terms of the zlib License, making it possible to static link against them from fully closed-source proprietary software. One difficulty due to this abundance of interfaces, is the difficulty for programmers to choose the best suitable audio API for their purpose. The main developer of the PulseAudio project, Lennart Poettering, commented on this issue.
Physics engines, audio libraries, that are available as modules for game engines, have been available for Linux for a long time.

The book Programming Linux Games covers a couple of the available APIs suited for video game development for Linux, while The Linux Programming Interface covers the Linux kernel interfaces in much greater detail.

Available middleware
Beside majority of the software which acts as an interface to various subsystems of the operating system, there is also software which can be simply described as middleware. A multitude of companies exist worldwide, whose main or only product is software that is meant to be licensed and integrated into a game engine. Their primary target is the video game industry, but the film industry also utilizes such software for special effects. Some very few well known examples are
 classical physics: Havok, Newton Game Dynamics and PhysX
 audio: Audiokinetic Wwise, FMOD
 other: SpeedTree
A significant share of the available middleware already runs natively on Linux, only a very few run exclusively on Linux.

Available IDEs and source code editors
Numerous source code editors and IDEs are available for Linux, among which are Visual Studio Code, Sublime Text, Code::Blocks, Qt Creator, Emacs, or Vim.

Multi-monitor
A multi-monitor setup is supported on Linux at least by AMD Eyefinity & AMD Catalyst, Xinerama and RandR on both X11 and Wayland. Serious Sam 3: BFE is one example of a game that runs natively on Linux and supports very high resolutions and is validated by AMD to support their Eyefinity. Civilization V is another example, it even runs on a "Kaveri" desktop APU in 3x1 portrait mode.

Voice over IP
The specifications of the Mumble protocol are freely available and there are BSD-licensed implementations for both servers and clients. The positional audio API of Mumble is supported by e.g. Cube 2: Sauerbraten.

Wine

Wine is a compatibility layer that provides binary compatibility and makes it possible to run software, that was written and compiled for Microsoft Windows, on Linux. The Wine project hosts a user-submitted application database (known as Wine AppDB) that lists programs and games along with ratings and reviews which detail how well they run with Wine. Wine AppDB also has a commenting system, which often includes instructions on how to modify a system to run a certain game which cannot run on a normal or default configuration. Many games are rated as running flawlessly, and there are also many other games that can be run with varying degrees of success. The use of Wine for gaming has proved controversial in the Linux community as some feel it is preventing, or at least hindering, the further growth of native gaming on the platform.

Emulators

There are numerous emulators for Linux. There are also APIs, virtual machines, and machine emulators that provide binary compatibility:

 Anbox and Waydroid for the Android operating system;
 Basilisk II for the 68040 Mac;
 DOSBox and DOSEMU for MS-DOS and compatibles;
 DeSmuME and melonDS for the Nintendo DS;
 Dolphin for the GameCube, Wii, and the Triforce;
 FCEUX, Nestopia and TuxNES for the Nintendo Entertainment System;
 Flashpoint for Adobe Flash;
 Frotz for Z-Machine text adventures;
 Fuse for the Sinclair ZX Spectrum;
 Hatari for the Atari ST, STe, TT and Falcon;
 gnuboy for the Nintendo Game Boy and Game Boy Color;
 MAME for arcade games (and previously MESS for multiple hardware platforms);
 Mednafen and Xe emulating multiple hardware platforms including some of the above;
 Mupen64Plus and the no longer actively developed original Mupen64 for the Nintendo 64;
 PCSX-Reloaded, pSX and the Linux port of ePSXe for the PlayStation;
 Neko Project for the NEC PC-9801;
 PCSX2 for the PlayStation 2;
 PPSSPP for the PlayStation Portable;
 ScummVM for LucasArts and various other adventure games;
 SheepShaver for the PowerPC Macintosh;
 Snes9x, higan and ZSNES for the Super NES;
 Stella for the Atari 2600;
 UAE for the Amiga;
 VICE for the Commodore 64, 128, VIC-20, Plus/4 and PET;
 VisualBoyAdvance, mGBA and Boycott Advance for the Game Boy Advance;
 Mini vMac and the no longer actively developed original vMac for the 680x0 Macintosh;

Linux homebrew on consoles

Linux has been ported to several game consoles, including the Xbox, PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, GameCube, and Wii which allows game developers without an expensive game development kit to access console hardware. Several gaming peripherals also work with Linux.

Linux adoption

Adoption by game engines

The game engine is the software solely responsible for the game mechanics, or rules defining game play. There are different game engines for first-person shooters, strategy video games, etc. Besides the game mechanics, software is also needed to handle graphics, audio, physics, input handling, and networking.

Game engines that are used by many video games and run on top of Linux include:
 C4 Engine (Terathon Software)
 CryEngine (Crytek)
 Diesel 2.0 (Grin)
 Godot engine (Godot Foundation)
 HPL Engine 1–3 (Frictional Games)
 id Tech (id Software)
 Leadwerks (Leadwerks Software)
 Open 3D Engine (Open 3D Foundation)
 Serious Engine (Croteam)
 Source (Valve)
 Torque engine (GarageGames)
 Unigine (Unigine Corp)
 Unity 5 (Unity Technologies)
 Unreal Engine (Epic Games)

Adoption by video games

There are many free and open-source video games as well as commercially distributed proprietary video games that run natively on Linux. Some independent companies have also begun porting prominent video games from Microsoft Windows to Linux.

Free and open-source games

Original games

A few original open source video games have attained notability:

 0 A.D. is a real-time strategy game of ancient warfare, similar to Age of Empires.
 AssaultCube is a first-person shooter.
 AstroMenace is a 3D scroll-shooter.
 BZFlag is a 3D First person tank shooter (With jumping).
 Battle for Wesnoth is a turn-based strategy game.
 Blob Wars: Metal Blob Solid is a 2D platform game.
 Chromium B.S.U. is a fast-paced, arcade-style, top-scrolling space shooter.
 CodeRED: Alien Arena is a sci-fi first-person shooter derived from the Quake II engine.
 Crimson Fields is a turn-based tactical wargame.
 Cube 2: Sauerbraten is a 3D first-person shooter with an integrated map editing mode.
 Danger from the Deep is a submarine simulator set in World War II.
 Glest is a real-time strategy game, with optional multiplayer.
 NetHack and Angband are text-based computer role-playing games.
 Netrek is a Star Trek themed multiplayer 2D space battle game.
 Nexuiz is a first-person shooter. Although, this has been replaced by Xonotic.
 TORCS (The Open Racing Car Simulator) – considered one of the best open-source racing simulators, with realistic graphics and vehicle handling.
 Tremulous is a 3D first-person shooter/real-time strategy game.
 Tux Racer is a 3D racing game featuring Tux.
 Urban Terror is a standalone Quake III Arena first-person shooter. (Proprietary mod).
 Vega Strike is a space flight simulation.
 Warsow is a Quake-like, fast-paced first-person shooter.

Clones and remakes

There are a larger number of open source clones and remakes of classic games:

 FreeCiv is a clone of Civilization II.
 FreeOrion is inspired by Master of Orion.
 Frets on Fire is a clone of Guitar Hero.
 Frozen Bubble is a clone of Puzzle Bobble.
 Grid Wars is a clone of Geometry Wars.
 Head Over Heels, a ZX-Spectrum action platformer, was remade for Linux, Windows, Mac OS X, and BeOS.
 Oolite is a free and open-source remake of Elite.
 OpenClonk is a free and open-source remake of Clonk.
 OpenTTD is a remake of Transport Tycoon Deluxe.
 OpenMW game engine reimplementation of Morrowind.
 Performous is a remix of the ideas behind Guitar Hero, SingStar and Dance Dance Revolution.
 Pingus is a clone of Lemmings.
 Scorched 3D is a 3D adaptation of Scorched Earth.
 Spring originally is a clone of Total Annihilation, but actually is a platform for real time strategy games.
 StepMania is a clone of Dance Dance Revolution
 SuperTuxKart and TuxKart are clones of Mario Kart.
 SuperTux and Secret Maryo Chronicles are both clones of Super Mario Bros.
 The Dark Mod is a stealth game inspired by the Thief (series) games (particularly 1 and 2) from Looking Glass Studios
 The Zod Engine is an actively developed open source remake of the game Z.
 UFO: Alien Invasion is heavily influenced by the X-COM series, mostly by UFO: Enemy Unknown.
 UltraStar is an open source clone of SingStar
 Ur-Quan Masters is based on the original source code for Star Control II
 Warzone 2100 is a real-time strategy and real-time tactics hybrid computer game. Originally published by Eidos Interactive and later released as open source.
 Widelands is a clone of The Settlers II.
 Bill Kendrick has developed many free software games, most inspired by games for the Atari 8-bit and other classic systems.

Proprietary games

Available on Steam

Valve officially released Steam for Linux on February 14, 2013.  the number of Linux-compatible games on Steam exceeds 6,500. With the launch of SteamOS, a distribution of Linux made by Valve intended to be used for HTPC gaming, that number is quickly growing. Listed below are some notable games available on Steam for Linux:

 Age of Wonders III
 Alien: Isolation
 American Truck Simulator
 And Yet It Moves
 Another World
 Aquaria
 Bastion
 The Binding of Isaac
 BioShock Infinite
 Borderlands 2
 Borderlands: The Pre-Sequel!
 Braid
 Brütal Legend
 Cave Story+
 Civilization V
 Civilization VI
 Civilization: Beyond Earth
 Counter-Strike
 Counter-Strike: Global Offensive
 Counter-Strike: Source
 Day of the Tentacle Remastered
 Dead Island
 Deus Ex: Mankind Divided
 Dirt Rally
 Don't Starve
 Dota 2
 Empire: Total War
 Fez
 Freedom Planet
 GRID Autosport
 Grim Fandango Remastered
 Half-Life
 Half-Life 2
 Hitman
 Hitman Go
 Kerbal Space Program
 Lara Croft Go
 Left 4 Dead 2
 Life Is Strange
 Life Is Strange 2
 Limbo
 Mad Max
 Madout Big City Online
 Metro 2033
 Metro: Last Light
 Middle-earth: Shadow of Mordor
 Mini Metro
 Pillars of Eternity
 Portal
 Portal 2
 Saints Row 2
 Saints Row IV
 Saints Row: The Third
 Shovel Knight
 Skullgirls
 Spec Ops: The Line
 Star Wars Knights of the Old Republic II: The Sith Lords
 Super Meat Boy
 System Shock 2
 The Talos Principle
 Tank Force
 Team Fortress 2
 Tomb Raider
 Total War: Warhammer
 TowerFall Ascension
 Undertale
 VVVVVV
 The Witcher 2: Assassins of Kings
 XCOM: Enemy Unknown
 XCOM 2

Independent game developers

Independent developer 2D Boy released World of Goo for Linux. Role-playing video game titles like Eschalon: Book I, Eschalon: Book II and Penny Arcade Adventures: On the Rain-Slick Precipice of Darkness were developed cross-platform from the start of development, including a Linux version. Sillysoft released Linux versions of their game Lux and its various versions, as did My Game Company and its Dirk Dashing series. Donohoe Digital released War! Age of Imperialism and DD Poker for Linux. Devolver Digital has released a number of indie games for Linux, including Hotline Miami, Hatoful Boyfriend, Minit, Ruiner, Reigns, OlliOlli, Carrion and Broforce. Vlambeer has released Luftrausers and Nuclear Throne. Supergiant Games has released Bastion, Transistor, and Pyre.

Hemisphere Games has released a Linux version of Osmos. Koonsolo has released a Linux version of Mystic Mine. Amanita Design released Linux versions of Machinarium and Samorost 2. Irrgheist released a Linux version of their futuristic racing game H-Craft Championship before later releasing the source code. Gamerizon released a Linux version of QuantZ. InterAction Studios ported several titles mostly in the Chicken Invaders series. GridWars was released for Linux by Canadian developer Marco Inciti.

Young Horses released Octodad: Dadliest Catch, Studio Pixel released Cave Story, Number None released Braid, Subset Studios released FTL: Faster Than Light, The Indie Stone released Project Zomboid, Vblank Entertainment released Retro City Rampage, Bit Kid released Chasm, Rocketcat Games released Death Road to Canada, Ape Marina released Tales, HuniePot released HuniePop, Toby Fox has released Undertale, ConcernedApe has released Stardew Valley, Skookum Arts released The Pedestrian, and Data Realms released Cortex Command. Yacht Club Games has released Shovel Knight and Mina the Hollower. Drinkbox Studios released Tales from Space: Mutant Blobs Attack and Guacamelee!. Edmund McMillen has released Super Meat Boy, The Binding of Isaac, and The End is Nigh.

Kristanix Games released Linux versions of Crossword Twist, Fantastic Farm, Guess The Phrase!, Jewel Twist, Kakuro Epic, Mahjong Epic, Maxi Dice, Solitaire Epic, Sudoku Epic, and Theseus and the Minotaur. Anawiki Games released Linux versions of Path of Magic, Runes of Avalon, Runes of Avalon 2, Soccer Cup Solitaire, The Perfect Tree and Dress-Up Pups. Gaslamp Games released a Linux version of Dungeons of Dredmor. Broken Rules released a Linux version of And Yet It Moves. Klei Entertainment have released Shank, Mark of the Ninja, Don't Starve and more. Tomorrow Corporation has released Little Inferno, Human Resource Machine and 7 Billion Humans. Alientrap released Nexuiz, Capsized, Apotheon, and Cryptark. Freebird Games has released To the Moon, A Bird Story, Finding Paradise and Impostor Factory. 17-Bit released Skulls of the Shogun and Galak-Z: The Dimensional.

Frictional Games released Linux versions of both Penumbra: Black Plague and Penumbra: Overture, as well as the expansion pack Penumbra: Requiem. They also released Amnesia: The Dark Descent for Linux simultaneously with the Windows and Mac OS X versions, a practice they continued through to Amnesia: Rebirth (2020). S2 Games released Linux clients for their titles Savage: The Battle for Newerth, Savage 2: A Tortured Soul and Heroes of Newerth. Wolfire Games released a Linux version of their game Lugaru  and supported its sequel Overgrowth on Linux; David Rosen's  earlier Black Shades was also ported to Linux via released source code. Arctic Paint released a Linux version of Number Drill. Charlie's Games has released a Linux version of Bullet Candy Perfect, Irukandji, Space Phallus and Scoregasm. Spiderweb Software has released Blades of Exile and Avadon: The Black Fortress for Linux.

Illwinter Game Design released Conquest of Elysium II, Dominions: Priests, Prophets and Pretenders, Dominions II: The Ascension Wars, and Dominions 3: The Awakening for Linux. Introversion Software released Darwinia, Uplink, and DEFCON. Cartesian Theatre is a Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, based software house specializing in free, commercial, games for Linux, most notably Avaneya. Kot-in-Action Creative Artel released their Steel Storm games for Linux. Hazardous Software have released their game Achron for Linux. Harebrained Schemes has released Shadowrun Returns, Shadowrun: Dragonfall, Shadowrun: Hong Kong, and BattleTech.

UNIGINE Company developed Oil Rush using its Unigine engine technology that works on Linux. Unigine Corp was also developing a "shooter-type game" that would have been released for Linux, but development was later frozen while OilRush developed. The MMORPG game Syndicates of Arkon was also supposed to come to Linux. The game Dilogus: The Winds of War was also being developed with Unigine and was planned to have a Linux client. Cradle was released for Linux in 2015, as was Sumoman in 2017.

A number of visual novel developers support Linux. Winter Wolves released titles such as Spirited Heart, Heileen, The Flower Shop, Bionic Heart, Card Sweethearts, Vera Blanc, Planet Stronghold, and Loren The Amazon Princess for Linux. Hanako Games released Science Girls, Summer Session, Date Warp, Cute Knight Kingdom, and were considering porting Fatal Hearts to Linux. sakevisual brought Jisei, Kansei, Yousei, RE: Alistair and Ripples to Linux. Four Leaf Studios also released Katawa Shoujo for Linux and Christine Love released Digital: A Love Story, both of which, along with Summer Session mentioned previously, are powered by the free software Ren'Py game engine.

The Java-based sandbox game Minecraft by then indie developer Mojang is available on Linux, as are any other video games compiled for the Java virtual machine. Linux support was maintained even following Mojang's purchase by Microsoft in November 2014.

Dwarf Fortress, a sandbox management simulator / roguelike, has been made available for Linux by Tarn Adams.

The voxel-based space sandbox game, ScrumbleShip by indie developer Dirkson was under development for Linux, Mac OS X, and Windows.

The realistic replay baseball simulation Out of the Park Baseball by OOTP Developments was made available for Linux, Mac OS X, and Windows, for single player and multiplayer online leagues.

Grappling Hook, a first-shooter like puzzle game using the jMonkeyEngine, was released by Christian Teister. David Pittman released his game Eldritch for Linux. Big Robot released Sir, You Are Being Hunted and The Signal From Tölva. Superhot Team released Superhot. New Blood Interactive has released Dusk and Ultrakill for Linux. Sorath released Devil Daggers, Free Lives released the prototype of Anger Foot, and Samurai Punk released Screencheat. Pine Studio released SEUM: Speedrunners from Hell and Quicktequila released Lovely Planet. Milkstone Studios has released the first-person shooter roguelike Ziggurat for Linux, while Crema released Immortal Redneck, Terrible Posture Games released Tower of Guns, Terri Vellmann released Heavy Bullets, Pixel Titans released Strafe, and Code Avarice released Paranautical Activity. Magellanic Games has released Office Point Rescue and Affliction Rescue based on the Godot engine.

Pillow Castle Games released Superliminal, Gone North Games released A Story About My Uncle, and Manekoware with Fire Hose Games released Catlateral Damage. Incandescent Imaging released Caffeine, Bloober Team released Layers of Fear, Red Barrels released Outlast, Saibot Studios released Doorways, Camel 101 and Bigmoon Entertainment released Syndrome, Adam Pype released No Players Online, Arbitrary Metric released Paratopic, Mystman12 released Baldi's Basics in Education and Learning, and Kindly Beast released Bendy and the Ink Machine.

The German indie-studio Pixel Maniacs released both of their games, ChromaGun and Can't Drive This for Linux.

In the walking simulator space, Dan Ruscoe's Dark Hill Museum of Death is available for Linux, as well as the better known Gone Home, The Stanley Parable, Jazzpunk, Firewatch and Proteus. Blendo Games has released their games, including Gravity Bone, Thirty Flights of Loving and Quadrilateral Cowboy built on the open source id Tech code, for Linux.

Game porters

Independent companies have also taken on the task of porting prominent Windows games to Linux. Loki Software was the first such company, and between 1998 and 2002 ported Civilization: Call to Power, Descent³, Eric's Ultimate Solitaire, Heavy Gear II,
Heavy Metal: F.A.K.K.², Heretic II, Heroes of Might and Magic III, Kohan: Immortal Sovereigns, Myth II: Soulblighter, Postal, Railroad Tycoon II, Quake III Arena, Rune, Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri, Sim City 3000, Soldier of Fortune, Tribes 2, and MindRover to Linux.

Tribsoft created a Linux version of Jagged Alliance 2 by Sir-Tech Canada before shutting down in 2002. Linux Game Publishing was founded in 2001 in response to the impending demise of Loki, and has brought Creatures: Internet Edition, Candy Cruncher, Majesty: Gold Edition, NingPo MahJong, Hyperspace Delivery Boy!, Software Tycoon, Postal²: Share The Pain, Soul Ride, X2: The Threat, Gorky 17, Cold War, Knights and Merchants: The Shattered Kingdom, Ballistics, X3: Reunion, Jets'n'Guns, Sacred: Gold, Shadowgrounds, and Shadowgrounds Survivor to Linux. Some of these games were ported for them by Gordon.

LGP-associated but freelance consultant Frank C. Earl is porting the game Caster to Linux and has released the first episode and also developed the Linux version of Cortex Command being included in the second Humble Indie Bundle. He is also working towards other porting projects such as the entire Myth series. He is largely taking recommendations and he comments as part of the Phoronix community. icculus.org has ported beta releases for Medal of Honor: Allied Assault and Devastation, versions of America's Army, and the titles Prey, Aquaria, Braid, Hammerfight and Cogs.

The German publisher RuneSoft was founded in 2000. They ported the games Northland,
Robin Hood: The Legend of Sherwood, Airline Tycoon Deluxe, Ankh, Ankh: Heart of Osiris, Barkanoid 2, and Jack Keane to Linux, as well as porting Knights and Merchants: The Shattered Kingdom and Software Tycoon, for Linux Game Publishing. Hyperion Entertainment ported games to several systems, they have ported Shogo: Mobile Armor Division and SiN to Linux, as well as porting Gorky 17 for Linux Game Publishing. Wyrmkeep Entertainment has brought the games The Labyrinth of Time and Inherit the Earth: Quest for the Orb to Linux. Alternative Games brought Trine and Shadowgrounds, and Shadowgrounds Survivor for Linux Game Publishing.

Aspyr Media released their first Linux port in June 2014, they claim they are porting to Linux due to Valve bringing out SteamOS. Aspyr Media later ported Borderlands 2 to Linux in September 2014.

Having ported games to the Macintosh since 1996, video game publisher Feral Interactive released XCOM: Enemy Unknown, its first game for Linux, in June 2014. Feral Interactive stated they port games to Linux thanks to SteamOS.

Other developers

Some id Software employees ported the Doom series, the Quake series, Return to Castle Wolfenstein, Wolfenstein: Enemy Territory and Enemy Territory: Quake Wars. Some games published by GarageGames which have Linux versions include Bridge Builder, Marble Blast Gold, Gish, Tribal Trouble, and Dark Horizons: Lore Invasion.

MP Entertainment released Hopkins FBI and Crack dot com released Abuse for Linux, becoming one of the first developers to release a native port. Inner Worlds, another early commercial Linux title, was released for and developed on Linux. Philos Laboratories released a Linux version of Theocracy on the retail disk. Absolutist has supported Linux for a number of years. GLAMUS GmbH released a Linux version of their game Mobility. Vicarious Visions ported the space-flight game Terminus to Linux.

Mountain King Studios released a port of Raptor: Call of the Shadows. BlackHoleSun Software released Krilo, Bunnies and Aftermath, and worked on Atlantis: The Underwater City - Interactive Storybook. RedLynx released the freeware Phobia III - Edge Of Humanity for Linux.

Lava Lord Games released their game Astro Battle for Linux. Xatrix Entertainment released a Linux version of Kingpin: Life of Crime. BioWare released Neverwinter Nights for Linux. Croteam released the Serious Sam series, with the first game ported by Gordon and with the second self-ported. Gordon also ported Epic Games' shooter games Unreal Tournament 2003 and Unreal Tournament 2004.

Revolution System Games released their game Decadence: Home Sweet Home through Steam only for Linux for a period of time after Mac or windows release.

On 12 October 2013 Lars Gustavsson, creative director at DICE, said to polygon.com

Commercial games for non-x86 instruction sets

Some companies ported games to Linux running on instruction sets other than x86, such as Alpha, PowerPC, Sparc, MIPS or ARM.

Loki Entertainment Software ported Civilization: Call to Power, Eric's Ultimate Solitaire, Heroes of Might and Magic III, Myth II: Soulblighter, Railroad Tycoon II Gold Edition and Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri with Alien Crossfire expansion pack to Linux PowerPC. They also ported Civilization: Call to Power, Eric's Ultimate Solitaire, Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri with Alien Crossfire expansion pack to Linux Alpha and Civilization: Call to Power, Eric's Ultimate Solitaire to Linux SPARC.

Linux Game Publishing published Candy Cruncher, Majesty Gold, NingPo MahJong and Soul Ride to Linux PowerPC. They also ported Candy Cruncher, Soul Ride to Linux SPARC and Soul Ride to Linux Alpha.

Illwinter Game Design ported Dominions: Priests, Prophets and Pretenders, Dominions II: The Ascension Wars and Dominions 3 to Linux PowerPC, as well as Conquest of Elysium 3, Dominions 4: Thrones of Ascension to Raspberry Pi.

Hyperion Entertainment ported Sin to Linux PowerPC published by Titan Computer and Gorky 17 to Linux PowerPC which later was published by LGP.

Runesoft hired Gunnar von Boehn which ported Robin Hood – The Legend of Sherwood to Linux PowerPC. Later Runesoft ported Airline Tycoon Deluxe to Raspberry Pi was running Debian GNU/Linux.

Source ports

Several developers have released the source code to many of their legacy titles, allowing them to be run as native applications on many alternative platforms, including Linux. Examples of games which were ported to Linux this way include Duke Nukem 3D, Shadow Warrior, Rise of the Triad, Blake Stone, Ken's Labyrinth, Catacomb 3D, Seven Kingdoms, Warzone 2100, Homeworld, Call to Power II, Wolfenstein 3D, Heretic, Hexen, Hexen II, Aliens versus Predator, Descent, Descent II and Freespace 2. Several game titles that were previously released for Linux were also able to be expanded or updated because of the availability of game code, including Doom, Abuse, Quake, Quake II, Quake III Arena and Jagged Alliance 2. Some derivatives based on released source code have also been released for Linux, such as Aleph One and Micropolis for Marathon 2: Durandal and SimCity respectively.

Certain game titles were even able to be ported due to availability of shared engine code even though the game's code itself remains proprietary or otherwise unavailable, such as the video game Strife, Blood, PowerSlave, Redneck Rampage, or the multiplayer component of Star Trek: Voyager – Elite Force. Some games have even been ported entirely or partially by reverse engineering and game engine recreation such as WarCraft II through Wargus or Commander Keen through Commander Genius. Another trick is to attempt hacking the game to work as a mod on another native title, such as with the original Unreal. Additionally, some games can be run through the use of Linux specific runtime environments, such as the case of certain games made with Adventure Game Studio such as the Chzo Mythos or certain titles made with the RPG Maker tool. Games derived from released code, with both free and proprietary media, that are released for Linux include Urban Terror, OpenArena, Freedoom, World of Padman, Nexuiz/Xonotic, War§ow, The Dark Mod, and Excalibur: Morgana's Revenge.

Massively multiplayer online role-playing games

This is a selected list of MMORPGs that are native on Linux:

 A Tale in the Desert III (2003, eGenesis) – A trading and crafting game, set in ancient Egypt, pay-to-play.
 Crossfire (1992) – A medieval fantasy 2D game.
 Dofus (2005, Ankama Games) – A 2D fantasy MMORPG.
 PlaneShift – A free 3D fantasy game.
 Regnum Online – A 3D fantasy game, free-to-play with premium content.
 RuneScape – Java fantasy 3rd person MMORPG.
 Salem – An isometric, 3D fantasy game with a focus on crafting and permadeath.
 Shroud of the Avatar – An isometric, 3D fantasy game and the spiritual successor to Ultima Online.
 Spiral Knights – Java fantasy 3rd person game.
 The Saga of Ryzom – has a Linux client and source code available.
 Tibia – A 2D Medieval fantasy MMORPG game. Free-to-play with premium content. One of the oldest MMORPG, created January 1997. With Official Linux client.
 Ultima Online has an unofficial Linux client.
 Vendetta Online – A 3D spacecraft MMOFPS with growing RPG elements, pay to play. Maintains both Linux/32 and Linux/64 clients.
 WorldForge – A game engine. There are Linux clients available.
 Wyvern – A 2D fantasy MMORPG that runs on Java.
 Yohoho! Puzzle Pirates – A puzzle game which runs on Java.
 Many Virtual Worlds – (such as Second Life) also have Linux clients.

Types of Linux gaming
Linux gaming can be divided into a number of sub-categories.

Libre gaming
Libre gaming is a form of Linux gaming that emphasizes libre software, which often includes levels and assets as well as code.

Native gaming
Native gaming is a form of Linux gaming that emphasizes using only native games or ports and not using emulators or compatibility layers.

DRM-free gaming
DRM-free gaming is a form of Linux gaming that emphasizes boycotting DRM technologies. This can include buying games from GOG.com, certain Humble Bundles or itch.io and avoiding Steam and similar services.

Terminal gaming
Terminal gaming is the playing of text-based games from within a console, often programmed within Bash or using libraries such as ncurses.

Retro gaming
Retrogaming is the playing of older games using emulators such as MAME or Dosbox, compatibility layers such as Wine and Proton, engine reimplementations and source ports, or even older Linux distributions (including live CDs and live USB, or virtual machines), original binaries,
and period hardware.

Live gaming
A number of games can be played from live distributions such as Knoppix, allowing easy access for users unwilling to fully commit to Linux. Certain live distros have specially targeted gamers, such as SuperGamer and Linux-Gamers.

Browser gaming
Browser gaming is the act of playing online games through a web browser, which has the advantage of largely being platform independent. The same largely applies to social network games hosted on social media sites. Older games were largely based on Adobe Flash, while modern ones are mostly HTML5.

Cloud gaming
Cloud gaming is the streaming of games from a central server onto a desktop client. This is another way to play games on Linux that are not natively supported, although some cloud services, such as the erstwhile Google Stadia, are hosted on Linux and Android servers. GamingAnywhere is an open source implementation.

On Windows
Although less exploited than the reverse, as few programs are Linux exclusive, support does exist for running Linux binaries from Windows. The Windows Subsystem for Linux allows the running of both command line and graphical Linux applications from Windows 10 and Windows 11. An earlier implementation is Cygwin, started by Cygnus Solutions and later maintained by Red Hat, although it has limited hardware access and required adaptation. The use of Wine can even allow for the running of Windows games on Linux from Windows. The LibTAS library for tool assisted speedruns currently recommends WSL to run on Windows. Naughty Dog meanwhile have used Cygwin to run old command-line tools for use in their game development, which is a broader use for the platform. As with running Windows applications on Linux, there is controversy over whether running Linux applications on Windows will dilute interest in Linux as distinct platform, though it has speciality uses.

Android gaming
Originally derived from Linux, the Android mobile operating system has a distinct and popular gaming ecosystem. It has also been used as the base for several game consoles, such as the Nvidia Shield Portable and the Ouya. Popular games include Pokemon Go, Genshin Impact, League of Legends: Wild Rift, Dead Cells and Call of Duty: Mobile. Certain games, such as Minecraft, Stardew Valley, and Papers Please, are available for both Android and desktop Linux.

BSD gaming
Owing to a common Unix-like heritage and free software ethos, many games for Linux are also ported to BSD variants or can be run using compatibility layers such as Linuxulator. BSDi had partnered with Loki Software to ensure its Linux ports ran on FreeBSD. The Homura launcher exists to facilitate running Windows games through Wine, which can still be used standalone. A 2011 benchmark by Phoronix even found certain speed advantages over running games on Linux itself, comparing PC-BSD 8.2 to Ubuntu 11.04. Most BSD systems come with the same pack in desktop games as Linux. The permissive licensing of BSD has also lead to its inclusion in the system software of several game consoles, such as the Sony PlayStation line and the Nintendo Switch.

Unix gaming

A further niche exists for running games, either through ports or lxrun, on Solaris and derivatives such as OpenIndiana, Darwin distributions such as PureDarwin, HarmonyOS and OpenHarmony, Coherent, SerenityOS, Redox OS, ToaruOS, Xv6, Fiwix, or on Minix and Hurd based systems. There has been some cross-pollination with purely proprietary Unix derivatives, such as AIX, QNX, Domain/OS, HP-UX, IRIX (see here), Xenix, SCO Unix, Unixware, Tru64 UNIX, LynxOS (which features inbuilt Linux compatibility), Ultrix, OpenVMS, z/OS UNIX System Services, and even A/UX. The games Doom and Quake were developed by id Software on NeXTStep, a forerunner of modern macOS, before being ported to DOS and back to numerous other Unix variants. This involved reaching out to numerous Unix vendors to supply machines to use in the build and testing process.

See also

 Directories and lists
 Free Software Directory
 List of emulators
 List of open source games
 List of video game console emulators
 Linux gaming software
 Direct3D (alternative implementation)
 Lutris
 PlayOnLinux
 Proton (software)
 Steam (service)
 Vulkan (API)
 Wine (software)
 Other articles
 Linux for PlayStation 2
 Sega Lindbergh

References

Gaming

Video game platforms

Video games and Linux


The hazelnut is the fruit of the hazel tree and therefore includes any of the nuts deriving from species of the genus Corylus, especially the nuts of the species Corylus avellana. They are also known as cobnuts or filberts according to species.

Hazelnuts are used as a snack food, in baking and desserts, breakfast cereals such as muesli, confectionery to make praline, and also used in combination with chocolate for chocolate truffles and products such as chocolate bars, hazelnut cocoa spread such as Nutella, and Frangelico liqueur. Hazelnut oil, pressed from hazelnuts, is strongly flavored and high in monounsaturated fat; it is used as a cooking oil and as a salad or vegetable dressing. Turkey is the world's largest producer of hazelnuts, accounting for 64% of total production in 2021.

Description

A hazelnut cob is roughly spherical to oval, about  long and  in diameter, with an outer fibrous husk surrounding a smooth shell, while a filbert is more elongated, being about twice as long as its diameter. The nut falls out of the husk when ripe, about seven to eight months after pollination. The seed is edible and consumed raw, roasted or ground into a paste. The seed has a thin, dark brown skin, which is sometimes removed before cooking.

Cultivation

History
In 1995, evidence of large-scale Mesolithic nut processing, some 8,000 years old, was found in a midden pit on the island of Colonsay in Scotland. The evidence consists of a large, shallow pit full of the remains of hundreds of thousands of burned hazelnut shells. Hazelnuts have been found on other Mesolithic sites, but rarely in such quantities or concentrated in one pit. The nuts were radiocarbon dated to 7720±110 BP, which calibrates to . Similar sites in Britain are known only at Farnham in Surrey and Cass ny Hawin on the Isle of Man.

This discovery gives an insight into communal activity and planning in the period. The nuts were harvested in a single year, and pollen analysis suggests that all of the hazel trees were cut down at the same time.

The scale of the activity and the lack of large game on the island suggest that Colonsay may have contained a community with a largely vegetarian diet for the time they spent on the island. Originally, the pit was on a beach close to the shore and was associated with two smaller, stone-lined pits whose function remains obscure, a hearth and a second cluster of pits.

The traditional method to increase nut production is called brutting, which involves prompting more of the tree energy to go into flower bud production by snapping, but not breaking off, the tips of the new year shoots six or seven leaf groups from where they join with the trunk or branch, at the end of the growing season. The traditional term for an area of cultivated hazelnuts is a plat.

Cultivars
The many cultivars of the hazel include 'Atababa', 'Barcelona', 'Butler', 'Casina', 'Clark', 'Cosford', 'Daviana', 'Delle Langhe', 'England', 'Ennis', 'Halls Giant', 'Jemtegaard', 'Kent Cob', 'Lewis', 'Tokolyi', 'Tonda Gentile', 'Tonda di Giffoni', 'Tonda Romana', 'Wanliss Pride', and 'Willamette'. Some of these are grown for specific qualities of the nut, including large nut size or early or late fruiting, whereas others are grown as pollinators. The majority of commercial hazelnuts are propagated from root sprouts. Some cultivars are of hybrid origin between common hazel and filbert.

In Ireland and the United Kingdom, hazelnuts are sometimes referred to as cobnuts, for which a specific cultivated variety – Kent cobnuts – is the main variety cultivated in fields known as plats, hand-picked, and eaten green. According to the BBC, a national collection of cobnut varieties exists at Roughway Farm in Kent. They are called cobnuts because cob was a word used to refer to the head or "noggin", and children had a game in which they would tie a string to a hazelnut and use it to try to hit an opponent on the head.

Harvesting

Hazelnuts are harvested annually in mid-autumn. As autumn comes to a close, the trees drop their nuts and leaves. Most commercial growers wait for the nuts to drop rather than using equipment to shake them from the tree. The harvesting of hazelnuts is performed either by hand or by manual or mechanical raking of fallen nuts.

Four primary pieces of equipment are used in commercial harvesting: the sweeper, the harvester, the nut cart, and the forklift. The sweeper moves the nuts into the center of the rows, the harvester lifts and separates the nuts from any debris (i.e., twigs and leaves), the nut cart holds the nuts picked up by the harvester, and the forklift brings a tote to offload the nuts from the nut cart and then stacks the totes to be shipped to the processor (nut dryer).

The sweeper is a low-to-the-ground machine that makes two passes in each tree row. It has a  belt attached to the front that rotates to sweep leaves, nuts, and small twigs from left to right, depositing the material in the center of the row as it drives forward. On the rear of the sweeper is a powerful blower to blow material left into the adjacent row with air speeds up to . Careful grooming during the year and patient blowing at harvest may eliminate the need for hand raking around the tree trunk, where nuts may accumulate. The sweeper prepares a single center row of nuts, narrow enough for the harvesting tractor to drive over without driving on the center row. It is best to sweep only a few rows ahead of the harvesters at any given time, to prevent the tractor that drives the harvester from crushing the nuts that may still be falling from the trees. Hazelnut orchards may be harvested up to three times during the harvest season, depending on the number of nuts in the trees and the rate of nut drop due to the weather.

The harvester is a slow-moving machine pushed by a tractor, which lifts the material off the ground and separates the nuts from the leaves, empty husks, and twigs. As the harvester drives over the rows, a rotating cylinder with hundreds of tines rakes the material onto a belt. The belt takes the material over a blower and under a powerful vacuum that sucks any lightweight soil, leaves from the nuts, and discharges them into the orchard. The remaining nuts are conveyed into a cart pulled behind the harvester. Once a tote is filled with nuts, the forklift hauls away the full totes and brings empty ones back to the harvester to maximize the harvester's time.

Two different timing strategies are used for collecting the fallen nuts. The first is to harvest early when about half of the nuts have fallen. With less material on the ground, the harvester can work faster with less chance of a breakdown. The second option is to wait for all the nuts to fall before harvesting. Although the first option is considered the better of the two, two or three passes do take more time to complete than one.

Production
In 2021, world production of hazelnuts (in shells) was 1.1 million tonnes. The hazelnut production in Turkey accounts for 64% of the world total, followed by Italy, the United States, and Azerbaijan as secondary producers.

Food

Hazelnuts are used in confections to make pralines, chocolate truffles, and hazelnut paste products. The (solid) combination of ground hazelnuts with chocolate is called gianduja. In Austria, hazelnut paste is an ingredient for making tortes, such as Viennese hazelnut torte. In Kyiv cake, hazelnut flour is used to flavor its meringue body, and crushed hazelnuts are sprinkled over its sides. Dacquoise, a French dessert cake, often contains a layer of hazelnut meringue. Hazelnuts are used in Turkish cuisine and Georgian cuisine; the snack churchkhela and sauce satsivi are used, often with walnuts. Hazelnuts are also a common constituent of muesli. The nuts may be eaten fresh or dried, having different flavors.

Nutrition

Raw hazelnuts are 5% water, 61% fat, 17% carbohydrates, and 15% protein (table).

In a  reference amount, raw hazelnuts supply  of food energy and are a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of numerous essential nutrients (see table).

Hazelnuts contain particularly high amounts of protein, dietary fiber, vitamin E, iron, thiamin, phosphorus, manganese, and magnesium, all exceeding 30% DV (table). Several B vitamins have appreciable content. In lesser but still significant amounts (moderate content, 10–19% DV) are vitamin K, calcium, zinc, and potassium (table).

Hazelnuts are a rich source of dietary fat, accounting for 93% DV in a 100-gram amount. The fat components are monounsaturated fat as oleic acid (75% of total), polyunsaturated fat mainly as linoleic acid (13% of total), and saturated fat, mainly as palmitic acid and stearic acid (together, 7% of total).

In culture
The hazelnut is used as a literary device by Julian of Norwich (c. 1343 – after 1416) within her mystical Christian treatise Revelations of Divine Love. The hazelnut shell is imagined as a chariot for the fairy Queen Mab within English playwright and poet William Shakespeare's play Romeo and Juliet. The hazel fruit is also used as a metaphorical device in the poem To Autumn by the English Romantic poet John Keats.

Gallery

See also
 Filbertone, the principal flavor compound of hazelnuts
 Frangelico
 List of hazelnut diseases
 The Hazelnut Child

References

External links

Hazelnuts
Corylus
Crops originating from Europe
Edible nuts and seeds

de:Haselnuss#Nüsse
pt:Avelã

Hazelnut


Flight West Airlines was an Australian regional airline headquartered in Brisbane, Queensland. Established in May 1987, it operated predominantly in Queensland. The airline went into voluntary liquidation on 19 June 2001 before being sold to Queensland Aviation Holdings, the parent company of Alliance Airlines in April 2002.  The company slogan is Jetting into new territory.

History
Flight West Airlines was established by Sir Dennis Buchanan in 1987 to operate subsidised passenger services to remote communities on Queensland Government contracts.

Initially, the airline used Beechcraft Super King Air aircraft on these services from a base in Brisbane and then quickly expanded, adding DHC-6 Twin Otters and an EMB 110 to the fleet. A second base was established in Cairns. It was soon operating the most extensive network of routes throughout regional Queensland.

From bases in Brisbane, Townsville and Cairns it served major cities and small regional communities throughout the state including communities on Cape York Peninsula and in the Torres Strait, major coastal cities and islands, and cities and towns in western Queensland.

The airline was affiliated with (but independent of) Ansett Australia airlines which ceased operations on 14 September 2001.
Before entering liquidation in June 2001, Flight West serviced 34 destinations and employed over 420 staff.

Collapse
On 16 June 2001, the airline was placed into voluntary liquidation and PricewaterhouseCoopers was appointed to manage the company. Ansett announced on 27 June that they would lease eight of the company's aircraft and restart 16 routes effective immediately. On 13 September 2001, Ansett itself collapsed, again halting Flight West services. After extensive restructuring, the airline was offered for sale on 29 September 2001. In an effort to revitalise the airline, the Australian Government announced on 6 November that they would underwrite the airline's operating costs for three months. The airline began flights between Gladstone and Brisbane on 17 November 2001. After the airline failed to sell, it was placed into Voluntary Administration on 4 December 2001.

On 16 April 2002, it was announced that Queensland Aviation Holdings had purchased Flight West Airlines and intended to restructure the company under a new name, Alliance Airlines. Most of the assets of Flight West including the Fokker jets were purchased and the Embraer EMB 120s were sold. Alliance Airlines operated the Fokker 100s on selected charter routes from Brisbane, Townsville and Mount Isa for a period of time before suspending these regular services and operating ad hoc charter services.

Fleet

In the mid 1990s, the fleet was composed of Beechcraft King Airs, DHC-6 Twin Otters, de Havilland Canada Dash 8s, Embraer EMB 110s and EMB 120s. By the late 1990s the airline had disposed of the Twin Otters and EMB 110s. It acquired Jetstream J32s and jet aircraft in the form of three ex-Ansett Fokker F28s followed shortly after by two newer Fokker 100s.

At the suspension of services, Flight West operated a mixed fleet of 16 jet and turboprop aircraft:

Destinations
Flight West operated 34 routes at the time its services were suspended.

Over the airline's 14-year history, it travelled to destinations in Queensland, New South Wales, the Northern Territory and Norfolk Island including:
Bamaga, Barcaldine, Bedourie, Birdsville, Blackwater, Boulia, Brisbane, Bundaberg, Cairns, Charleville, Coen, Cooktown, Doomadgee, Edward River, Emerald, Gladstone, Hervey Bay, Hughenden, Julia Creek, Kurumba, Kowanyama, Lockhart River, Longreach, Mackay, Mornington Island, Mount Isa, Normanton, Norfolk Island, Proserpine, Quilpie, Richmond, Rockhampton, Roma, Sydney, Thursday Island (Horn Island), Townsville, Weipa, Windorah and Winton.

The Fokker jets were used on services linking Norfolk Island with Brisbane and Sydney and between Brisbane, Townsville, Gladstone, Longreach and Emerald.

In Brisbane, the airline operated from the Ansett Domestic terminal. In Cairns, the airline operated from its own terminal on the western side of the airport adjacent to the Captain Cook Highway for a short time before transferring its operations to the Ansett Terminal in the main terminal complex on the eastern side of the airport.

The Flight West base in Cairns was later sold to Transtate airlines.

See also
List of defunct airlines of Australia

References

External links

Flight West Photos

 Norfolk Island, Airways Magazine, May 2000 pp41–42. (ISSN 1074-4320)

Defunct airlines of Australia
Airlines established in 1987
Airlines disestablished in 2001
Ansett Australia
Companies based in Brisbane

Flight West Airlines


The Sigriswiler Rothorn is a mountain of the Emmental Alps, located north of Sigriswil in the canton of Bern. With an elevation of 2,051 metres above sea level, it is the culminating point of the chain named Sigriswilergrat.

Location
The ridge is located about 12 km east of Thun. The Sigriswilergrat chain stretches from Lake Thun at Merligen over some 7 kilometres to the northeast to the edge of the Zulgtals. Major peaks are found from the southwest to the northeast including Fluh (1,658 m above sea level), Merra (1,954 m above sea level), Sigriswiler Rothorn (2,051 m above sea level, which is also the highest mountain in the chain), Mittaghorn (2,014 m above sea level), Schaflägerzähne (1,952 m above sea level) and Burst (1,969 m above sea level).

Geology
Sigriswilergrat was formed by the Helvetic System over the course of approximately 160 million years. From a geological point of view Sigriswilergrat was formed of Helvetic sediments, these were deposited between approximately 225 to 66 million years ago.

References

External links
Sigriswiler Rothorn on Hikr

Two-thousanders of Switzerland
Mountains of the canton of Bern
Emmental Alps
Mountains of the Alps
Mountains of Switzerland

Sigriswiler Rothorn


Morvan Marchal (31 July 1900, Vitré, Ille-et-Vilaine – 13 August 1963, Paris; also known as Maurice Marchal) was an architect and a prominent member of the Breton national movement. He is best known for having designed the national flag of Brittany.

Biography
A former pupil of the Saint Martin's day college of Rennes, Marchal went on to study architecture at the Rennes School of Art. In 1918 he joined the Breton Regionalist Union and became involved with its journal Breiz Atao ("Brittany Always!") and the nationalist youth movement Breton Youth.

In 1923 he designed the Breton national flag Gwenn ha du ("Black and White"). An artist, poet and illustrator, he participated in many Breton publications, political and intellectual. He also belonged to "Seiz Breur", a group of Breton artists.

He took part in the creation of the Breton Separatist Party (PAB) at the first congress of Breiz Atao, held in September 1927 at Rosporden. He was a member of the party's management committee. In constant conflict with the pro-Nazi nationalist Olier Mordrel, he finally broke with Breiz Atao.

At the 11 April 1931 congress, the PAB split. Mordrel set up the fascist Breton National Party, and Marchal joined the moderate Breton Federalist League, from which in 1932 he founded  the journal Federal Brittany. In 1934, he joined the Breton Federalist Movement, with Y. Gestalen, Francis Bayer of Kern, Goulven Mazéas and Rafig Tullou. In 1938 he signed the manifesto of the Breton federalists, which affirmed:

...the pressing duty to gather those of our compatriots who do not want to confuse Brittany with the Church; Brittany with reaction; Brittany with puerile anti-French bias; Brittany with capitalism; and even less, Brittany with racism.

Marchal turned to philosophical and occult studies, associated with Druidic revivalism. With other members of the Breton Federalist Movement, he founded the neo-Pagan "Kredenn Geltiek Hollvedel" (World Celtic Creed) group, of which he was the first arch-Druid. The group is separate from the Gorsedd of Brittany.

Wartime activity and later life

During the war, Marchal was not associated with the pro-Nazi activities of Mordrel and his followers. However his group Kredenn Geltiek Hollvedel published a Druidic journal, Nemeton, one of the goals of which was to denounce Catholic influence in Brittany in the name of a supposed Aryan (Indo-European) cultural fraternity which bound a Nordic "New Europe" to the Celtic fatherland in Germany.

Following the Liberation of France he suffered from the association of Breton nationalism with collaborationism. He left Brittany to live in Paris, where he worked installing gas. He continued to contribute to some journals, such as Marius Lepage's Le Symbolisme. He died in poverty in 1963 in the commonroom of the Lariboisière hospital.

A street of the district of Poultière in the North-East of Vitré has been named after him.

Morvan Marchal was buried in Paris in 1963 and re-buried in the family grave in Châteaugiron, near Rennes in Brittany on 24 January 1997.

References

Bibliography
The Breton movement. Published by real Brittany 1954

1900 births
1963 deaths
People from Vitré, Ille-et-Vilaine
Breton Autonomist Party politicians
Breton Federalist League politicians
Founders of modern pagan movements
French modern pagans

Morvan Marchal


Typhoon Hagupit (called Typhoon Ruby in the Philippines) was a strong tropical cyclone in the western Pacific Ocean. The storm headed towards the Philippines.

Storm warnings and notices were up for the Philippines because of this typhoon.

Hagupit became a tropical storm on December 1, 2014. It became a typhoon the next day.

Hagupit
Pacific typhoons
2014 in weather
2014 in Asia

Typhoon Hagupit (2014)


Vicha Ratanachote (; born February 22, 1977) is a Thai former swimmer, who specialized in middle-distance freestyle events. In 1999, Ratanachote became a SEA Games champion in the 200 m freestyle, and later represented Thailand at the 2000 Summer Olympics. While studying in the United States, he is a member of the USC Trojans swimming and diving team under head coach Mark Schubert.

At the 1999 Southeast Asian Games in Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei, Ratanachote powered past the entire field to earn a gold medal in the 200 m freestyle with a time of 1:53.43.

Ratanachote competed in the men's 200 m freestyle at the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney. After winning a gold medal from the SEA Games, his entry time of 1:53.43 was accredited under a FINA B-standard. He challenged seven other swimmers in heat three, including 17-year-olds Damian Alleyne of Barbados and Wu Nien-pin of the Chinese Taipei. He rounded out the field to last place by 0.33 of a second behind Wu in a time of 1:54.91. Ratanachote failed to advance into the semifinals, as he placed thirty-first overall in the prelims.

References

1977 births
Living people
Vicha Ratanachote
Vicha Ratanachote
Swimmers at the 2000 Summer Olympics
Vicha Ratanachote
USC Trojans men's swimmers
University of Southern California alumni
Vicha Ratanachote
Swimming coaches
Asian Games medalists in swimming
Swimmers at the 1994 Asian Games
Medalists at the 1994 Asian Games
SEA Games medalists in swimming
Vicha Ratanachote
Competitors at the 1999 SEA Games
Vicha Ratanachote

Vicha Ratanachote


Michael Gottlieb Birckner Bindesbøll (5 September 1800 – 14 July 1856) was a Danish architect active during the Danish Golden Age in the first half of the 19th century. Most known for his design of Thorvaldsens Museum in Copenhagen, he was a key figure in the stylistic shift in Danish architecture from late classicism to Historicism. He was the father of the designer Thorvald Bindesbøll and the textile artist Johanne Bindesbøll.

Early life and education
Gottlieb Bindesbøll was born in Ledøje, a village 20 km west of Copenhagen. He first trained as a windmill builder with the intention of becoming an engineer. Simultaneously, from 1817 to 1823, he was taking night classes at the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts to learn to draw.

He attended lectures by Hans Christian Ørsted, the natural scientist, who in 1822 invited him along on a journey to Germany and France. There Bindesbøll got acquainted with Karl Friedrich Schinkel's Classicism and the two men also visited Goethe in Weimar, and met German-born architect and archaeologist Frans Gau, who introduced Bindesbøll to his studies of polychromy in Classical architecture.

Back in Denmark, Bindesbøll starting working as a resident architect for royal building inspector Jørgen Hansen Koch. He also continued his studies at the Academy until 1833, when he won the Academy's large gold medal.

To Rome and beyond

With the large gold medal came a travel scholarship and in 1834 Bindesbøll set out on a four-year journey to Rome, visiting Berlin, Dresden and Munich on the way. In Rome he joined the Danish artists' colony which, with Bertel Thorvaldsen as it central figure, resided in the city during those years. He also visited Southern Italy and, together with painter Martinus Rørbye, one of the compatriots he met in Rome, he continued to Greece the following year. In Athens he had the opportunity to study the polychromy of the Acropolis temples which Gau had first introduced him to more than a decade earlier. Bindesbøll and Rørbye also visited Constantinople in the Ottoman Empire before returning to Rome in 1836.

During his stay in Rome Bindesbøll collected a store of antique decorations. He was interested in simple, powerful geometric patterns such as floor mosaics.

Thorvaldsens Museum

In 1833, there was talk in Copenhagen of establishing a museum for the Danish sculptor, Bertel Thorvaldsen, if he would agree to bequeath his collections to his homeland. Jonas Collin, an active art and culture official under Frederik VI, awakened the King's interest in a museum for Thorvaldsen and asked Bindesbøll (Collin's nephew) to make some sketches for the building whose location had not yet been decided. Bindensbøll's designs ultimately stood out from other architects' competing for the commission to transform the Royal Carriage Depot and Theatre Scenery Painting Building into a museum dedicated to Thorvaldsen.

Bindesbøll liberated the building from its surroundings, just as Thorvaldsen had liberated sculpture from architecture. He emulated the construction of the Erechtheion and the Pantheon as freestanding buildings designed to be seen from a diagonal point of view, released from traditional urban plan of closed street courses. This new, free perception of space served as a guiding principle for the cities and buildings of the future (Lange, Bente, and Jens Lindhe. Thorvaldsen's Museum: Architecture, Colours, Light. Copenhagen: Danish Architectural Press, 2002)

Late career

In 1847, Bindesbøll was appointed Royal Building Inspector in Holstein and from 1849 in Jutland.

In 1851, he returned to the Danish capital when he was appointed Royal Building Inspector in Copenhagen. For the Royal Danish Society of Medicine he designed an area of terraced houses later known as Brumleby, which was to provide good, healthy housing for the lower classes, and set a standard for later, similar developments. His last major project in Copenhagen was the Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University's main building in Frederiksberg, which was built from 1856 to 1858.

He was made a titular professor in 1853 and a professor at the Art Academy in Copenhagen in 1856 but died shortly after, on 14 July 1856.

Selected projects
 Thorvaldsens Museum, Copenhagen (1839–48)

 Yellow and Red Cottage, Klampenborg Spa, Klampenborg, Denmark (1844, listed in  1978 and 1979, other works at the same site demolished)
 Rosendal Manor, Faxe, Denmark (1847–49, listed in 1950)
 Upåkra Church, Scania, Sweden (1848–49)
 Jyske Asyl, Aarhus (1850)
 Bishop's House, Nykøbing Falster, Falster, Denmark (1850, listed in 1977)
 Hobro Church, Hobro, Denmark (1850–52)
 Rørvig Church (tower), Rørvig, Denmark (1852–53)
 Town Hall, Court House and Jail, Thisted, Denmark  (1853, listed in 1978)
 Schleswig Railway stations, Schleswig (most have been demolished)
 Flensborg Central Station (demolished in 1983)
 Old Town Hall, Storegade 39, Stege, Møn, Denmark (1853–54, listed in 1971)
 Brumleby, Copenhagen (first blocks and the inspector's residence 1853–57, from 1867 expanded by Vilhelm Klein, fredet, listed)
 Hother Hage House, Møn, Denmark (1854)
 Doctor's House, Skælskør )1856=
 Vrams Gunnarstorp Castle (rebuilding), Scania, Sweden  (1854–56)
 Brock House, Taarbæk Strandvej, Taarbæk (1855)
 Old Town Hall, Hjultorvet 2, Næstved, Denmark (1855–56, listed in  1959)
 Great Hall, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen (1856)
 Oringe Psychiatric Hospital, Færgegårdsvej 15, Vordingborg (1857, listed in 1945)
 Frederik VII Memorial, Rytterknægten, Bornholm, Denmark (1856, height added  by Thorvald Bindesbøll in 1899)
 The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University's main building, Frederiksberg, Denmark (1856–58, main building and two lateral wings, later extended by J. E. Gnudtzmann, listed in 1950, forge demolished in 1977)

See also
 Architecture of Denmark

References

External links
Biography

1800 births
1856 deaths
Historicist architects
Academic staff of the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts
Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts alumni
Bertel Thorvaldsen
Recipients of the C.F. Hansen Medal
19th-century Danish architects
People from Egedal Municipality

Gottlieb Bindesbøll


Apurvi Singh Chandela (born 4 January 1993) is an Indian Shooting player who competes in the 10 metre air rifle event. She won the gold medal in the 2019 ISSF World Cup in New Delhi. She is a recipient of Arjuna award.

Early life and background
Chandela was born on 4 January 1993 in Jaipur, Rajasthan. Her father, Kuldeep Singh Chandela, is a hotelier and a sports enthusiast and mother, Bindu Rathore, is a businesswoman, who was a basketball player. She did her schooling from Mayo College Girls School Ajmer  & Maharani Gayatri Devi Girls' School, Jaipur. She studied Sociology honours from Jesus and Mary College, Delhi University.

In her early years, Chandela wanted to become a sports journalist, but she was inspired to take up shooting as a sport by Abhinav Bindra's performance at the 2008 Beijing Olympics, where he won a gold medal in shooting. Initially, she had to travel for 45 minutes to reach a shooting range in Jaipur. Later on, her parents set up a shooting range for 10-meter air rifle practice for her at their home.

In 2009, Chandela won the All India School Shooting Competition, and the Senior national shooting championship in 2012. She registered podium finishes at national events at least six times during 2012–2019.

Chandela enjoys reading in her free time and practices meditation to enhance her focus to help her game.

Career
In 2012, Chandela won the gold medal in the 10 metres air rifle event at the National shooting and chandela was a woman shooter
champion in New Delhi, her first year in the senior circuit. In 2014, she won four medals at the InterShoot Championships at The Hague, that included two individual and two team medals. In the same year, she won the gold medal in the Commonwealth Games in Glasgow, having scored 206.7 points in final, in the process creating a new games record. And a year later, she debuted in ISSF World Cup in Changwon, where she won a bronze medal.

Chandela qualified for the 2016 Rio Olympics in the women's 10m air rifle event, where she finished at 34th position in the qualification round out of 51 contestants. Chandela received the Arjuna Award, from the President of India in 2016.

At the 2018 Asian Games, she paired with Ravi Kumar for the 10 meter air rifle mixed team event, and won a bronze medal.
She is being mentored by former National Champion Rakesh Manpat. In the 2018 Commonwealth Games, Chandela won a bronze medal for India. She won the gold medal at the 2019 ISSF World Cup in New Delhi and set a world record of 252.9 in the 10-metre air rifle event.  She has secured a gold medal in women's 10m air rifle at the (ISSF) World Cup 2019.

In ISSF World Cup 2019 in New Delhi, Chandela won the first medal for India by winning the gold medal with a record score in the women's 10m air rifle event.  The 28 years old set a new world record in the process with 252.9 points to bag her third individual World Cup medal. The shooter, rose to the top of the table in the finals with her 17th shot and then followed it up with 10.8 in the 18th shot. In the 2016 Swedish Cup Grand Prix, Chandela broke the world record for the second time in three years after her score of 211.2.

Chandela also secured a quota spot to participate in the Tokyo Olympics in Women's 10 metre air rifle event, where she finished at 36th position in the qualification round out of 50 participants. In 2020, she won a gold medal at a private tournament in Meyton cop, Austria.

ISSF World Medal Tally

Awards
Arjuna Award, India 2016

References

External links

Living people
1993 births
Indian female sport shooters
Sport shooters from Jaipur
Commonwealth Games gold medallists for India
Shooters at the 2014 Asian Games
Shooters at the 2018 Asian Games
Olympic shooters for India
Shooters at the 2016 Summer Olympics
Shooters at the 2020 Summer Olympics
Commonwealth Games medallists in shooting
Sportswomen from Rajasthan
21st-century Indian women
21st-century Indian people
Medalists at the 2018 Asian Games
Asian Games bronze medalists for India
Asian Games medalists in shooting
ISSF rifle shooters
Shooters at the 2014 Commonwealth Games
Shooters at the 2018 Commonwealth Games
Recipients of the Arjuna Award
Medallists at the 2014 Commonwealth Games
Medallists at the 2018 Commonwealth Games

Apurvi Chandela


The 2007–08 BCHL season is the 46th season of the British Columbia Hockey League. It began on September 7, 2007, and ran through February 27, 2008, followed by the Fred Page Cup Playoffs, ending in April, 2008.  On February 28, the league announced a partnership with INSINC to live video stream the 2008 playoffs.

Scott Knowles of the Surrey Eagles scored the first goal of the season against the Langley Chiefs on September 7 in one of seven games on opening night.

The Nanaimo Clippers and Vernon Vipers matched up for the first time since the 2007 Fred Page Cup Finals on November 16, 2007, at Nanaimo.

Final Regular Season Statistics

Conference standings

Note: GP = Games played; W = Wins; L = Losses; T = Ties; OTL = Overtime losses; GF = Goals for; GA = Goals against; PTS = Points; Top six teams in each conference qualified for post-season playoffs.

Interior Conference

x - clinched playoff spot, y - clinched division title, e - eliminated from playoff contention

Coastal Conference

x - clinched playoff spot, y - clinched division title, e - eliminated from playoff contention

Scoring leaders

Note: GP = Games played; G = Goals; A = Assists; Pts = Points; PIM = Penalty minutes

As of February 28, 2008

Leading goaltenders
Note: GP = Games played; TOI = Time on ice (minutes); W = Wins; L = Losses; T = Ties; GA = Goals against; SO = Shutouts; Sv% = Save percentage; GAA = Goals against average

As of February 28, 2008

Playoff seeds
After the 2007–08 BCHL regular season, the standard of 12 teams qualified for
the playoffs.

Coastal Conference
Nanaimo Clippers - Coastal Conference and BCHL regular season champion; 88 points
Langley Chiefs - 72 points
Surrey Eagles - 70 points
Burnaby Express - 69 points
Victoria Grizzlies - 68 points
Powell River Kings - 63 points

Interior Conference
Penticton Vees - Interior Conference regular season champion; 86 points
Westside Warriors - 83 points
Salmon Arm Silverbacks - 80 points
Vernon Vipers - 76 points
Trail Smoke Eaters - 53 points
Prince George Spruce Kings - 52 points

Playoff Bracket

In each round, the highest remaining seed in each conference is matched against the lowest remaining seed. The higher-seeded team is awarded home ice advantage, which gives them a maximum possible four games on their home ice, with the other team getting a maximum possible three. The opening elimination round follows a best-of-five 2-2-1 format. Each best-of-seven series follows a 2–2–1–1–1 format. This means that the higher-seeded team will have Games 1 and 2, plus 5 and 7 if necessary, played on their home ice, while the lower-seeded team will be at home for the other games. The format ensures that the team with home ice advantage will always have home ice for the "extra" game if there are an odd number of games in a series.

All Star Game
The BCHL All-Star Game was played at the Bear Mountain Arena in Victoria, British Columbia on January 23, 2008.  The Coastal Conference All-Stars won the game 15–9.

References

External links
BC Hockey League official website

BCHL
British Columbia Hockey League seasons

2007–08 BCHL season


In modern heraldry, a royal cypher is a monogram or monogram-like device of a country's reigning sovereign, typically consisting of the initials of the monarch's name and title, sometimes interwoven and often surmounted by a crown. Such a cypher as used by an emperor or empress is called an imperial cypher. In the system used by various Commonwealth realms, the title is abbreviated as 'R' for  or  (Latin for "king" and "queen"). Previously, 'I' stood for  or  (Latin for "emperor" and "empress") of the Indian Empire.

Royal cyphers appear on some government buildings, impressed upon royal and state documents, and are used by governmental departments.  They may also appear on other governmental structures built under a particular ruler.  For example, the insignia of "N III" for Napoleon III is seen on some Paris bridges, such as the Pont au Change.

Commonwealth realms
The use of a royal cypher in the Commonwealth realms originated in the United Kingdom, where the public use of the royal initials dates at least from the early Tudor period, and was simply the initial of the sovereign with, after Henry VIII's reign, the addition of the letter 'R' for  or . The letter 'I' for  was added to Queen Victoria's monogram after she became Empress of India in 1877.

The initialswhich had no set pattern or form of lettering laid downwere usually shown in company with the royal arms or crown as on the king's manors and palacessuch as those of Henry VIII on the gatehouse of St James's Palace. The purpose seems to have been simply to identify an individual sovereign, particularly on certain landmarks that he or she has commissioned, as the royal coat of arms in contrast was often used by successive monarchs and is therefore not distinct. The initials are furthermore used on government papers, duty stamps and similar objects, and are surmounted in England by a stylised version of the Tudor Crown or St Edward's Crown; in Scotland the Crown of Scotland is used instead.

Though royal symbols (including, most notably, the coat of arms, royal standards and great seals) differ among the 15 Commonwealth realms, as they are separate monarchies, the one sovereign uses the same cypher throughout all of his or her countries. Distinction continues to be made between the personal cypher and the simpler, more workaday public initials, the former being the sovereign's own monogram and the latter simply a means of identifying a reign. Nowadays, the initials are also called the royal cypher, but, to aid clarification, the monogram is referred to as the royal cypher interlaced and reversed.

Charles III

On 26 September 2022, Buckingham Palace unveiled the cypher of the new king, Charles III, that is gradually replacing the cypher of Elizabeth II in everyday use. The design was selected by Charles himself from a series of designs prepared by the College of Arms and features the King's initial "C" intertwined with the letter "R" for  with "III" denoting Charles III, with a Tudor Crown above the letters. Charles's Scottish cypher uses the Crown of Scotland instead.

Elizabeth II
The late queen's cypher was , standing for Elizabeth II . The monarch's cypher is today usually surmounted by a stylised version of St. Edward's Crown. In Scotland as a result of a dispute, known as the Pillar Box War, over the correct title of the new monarch (Elizabeth I of England and Ireland was not a monarch of Scotland, so the new queen would have been Elizabeth I, not II in Scotland according to that view), after 1953 new post boxes carried only the Crown of Scotland image rather than the  cypher, which continued to be used in the rest of the United Kingdom and in other realms and territories.

The production of the cypher was an early step in the preparations for her coronation in 1953 as it had to be embroidered on to the uniforms of the Royal Household and on other articles. Cyphers for other members of the royal family are designed by the College of Arms or Court of the Lord Lyon and are subsequently approved by the monarch.

Other monarchs

See the Gallery section for example of the cyphers of other monarchs.

Canada
The royal cyphers have been incorporated by the Canadian Heraldic Authority into the various royal standards of Canada. The use in Canada of the reigning monarch's cypher, which is sometimes uniquely surrounded by a garland of maple leaves, is as a symbol not only of the sovereign him- or herself, but of Canada's full sovereignty.

Australia
The royal cypher is also found on post offices and some government buildings in Australia.

Elsewhere

British royal cyphers are still visible on several public buildings and post boxes in the Republic of Ireland.

Other royal houses have also made use of royal or imperial cyphers. Ottoman sultans had a calligraphic signature, their tughra.

All the monarchs of Europe's six other surviving kingdoms use cyphers, with royal crowns above them. King Harald V of Norway uses the letter H crossed with the Arabic numeral 5; King Carl XVI Gustav of Sweden uses the letters C and G overlapping with the Roman numeral XVI below them; King Felipe VI of Spain uses the letter F with the Roman numeral; and Queen Margrethe II of Denmark uses the letter M with the Arabic numeral 2 and the letter R (for Regina) below it. King Philippe of the Belgians uses the letters P and F intertwined, referring to the fact that his name is Philippe in French and Philipp in German, but Filip in Dutch, the three main languages in Belgium. King Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands and his Queen Maxima share a joint cypher consisting of the letter W entwined with the letter M.

King Maha Vajiralongkorn of Thailand uses a cypher made up of his initials in Thai script ("" V.P.R. , an equivalent of  ).

Gallery

See also

 H7 (monogram)
 Heraldic badge
 MacCormick v Lord Advocate
 Mon (emblem)
 Personal Flag of Queen Elizabeth II
 Pillar Box War
 Royal sign-manual
 Signum manus

References

Monarchy
Monarchy in Australia
Monarchy in Canada
Monograms
State ritual and ceremonies

Royal cypher


The Empire District Electric Company (railcar reporting mark: EDEX) is an investor-owned utility providing electric, natural gas (through its wholly owned subsidiary The Empire District Gas Company), and water service with approximately 215,000 customers in Missouri, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Arkansas.  A subsidiary of the company also provides fiber optic services.

History
Empire was organized in 1909, although tracing its history goes back beyond the turn of the century as the mining industry grew in the service area. As mining companies were created, electric motors began to replace the mule and steam powered engines in several of the mines.

On October 16, 1909, papers of incorporation were filed in Topeka, Kansas, bringing together several small companies to form The Empire District Electric Company, under its parent company, Cities Services.

At the time of its organization, Empire had 109 miles of transmission line, 8 megawatts of generating capacity, and 2,400 customers. Today, the Company utilizes over 1,200 miles of transmission line and over 1,300 megawatts of owned capacity to serve over 165,000 electric customers.

Empire also provides both water and natural gas service to customers in Missouri. Empire Water Company was created in 1926 and meets the needs of approximately 4,500 customers.

In 2006, Empire acquired natural gas distribution rights and created The Empire District Gas Company, a wholly owned subsidiary of The Empire District Electric Company. Empire District Gas serves over 45,000 customers.

Additionally, in an effort to help customers control their energy usage, Empire offers a variety of energy efficiency programs in each state. Programs range from rebates for upgrading to more efficient electric or natural gas equipment to free online home energy audits providing customized suggestions for customers.

In 2009, Empire celebrated a Century of Service.

The current CEO of the company, Bradley P. Beecher, earns an annual salary of $1,364,968.

In 2015, the Missouri Supreme Court ruled 5–2 against Empire District in a case in which Empire had claimed an exemption from offering solar rebates to its customers.  Empire's primary concern has been its shareholders, and therefore has long resisted its customers' profit from the use of solar energy.  However, the company was ordered by the court to begin paying solar rebates in May 2015, just as other state electric providers such as Ameren and Kansas City Power had already been doing for over five years.

On February 9, 2016, Empire announced its merger with Algonquin Power & Utilities Corporation of Oakville, Ontario, Canada.  Empire has been purchased for $3.4 billion, and the acquisition was finalized during the first quarter of 2017.  The name of the new entity is Liberty Utilities.

References

External links
www.empiredistrict.com

Electric power companies of the United States
Companies based in Joplin, Missouri
Energy companies established in 1909
Non-renewable resource companies established in 1909
1909 establishments in Missouri
Companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange

Empire District Electric Company


Benabena is a stretch of valley that extends to the east of Goroka town in the west and borders with the Upper Ramu area of the Madang Province to the north, the Ungaii District to its south and the Henganofi District to its east. The name "Bena Bena' derived from a small hamlet or village just a few kilometres away from the once small rural station of Sigerehi in the Upper Bena area in the Eastern Highlands of Papua New Guinea.
The Bena Bena Valley had once known for a centre for weaving. The town was known also as Bena Bena.

History
An airfield was constructed near the village by Dan Leahy and Jim Taylor in December 1932. A Lutheran mission station commenced operations at the village in 1934.

References
Benabena information

Populated places in Eastern Highlands Province

Benabena, Papua New Guinea


Trinity National Forest was established as the Trinity Forest Reserve by the U.S. Forest Service in California on April 26, 1905 with . It became a National Forest on March 4, 1907. On July 1, 1908 it gave up some acreage to California National Forest. In 1954 it was combined administratively with Shasta National Forest to create Shasta-Trinity National Forest. Trinity National Forest is located overwhelmingly in Trinity County, which has 89.46% of its acreage. In descending order of land area the rest of the counties are Tehama with 7.37%, Shasta with 2.93%, and Humboldt with 0.23%. There are local ranger district offices in Hayfork and Weaverville. Its administrative offices reside in Redding, as part of the combined Shasta-Trinity National Forest. As of 30 September 2008, the Forest has an area of 1,043,677 acres (4,223.61 km²), comprising 47.23% of the combined Shasta-Trinity's total 2,209,832 acres (8,942.87 km²).

References

External links
Forest History Society
Listing of the National Forests of the United States and Their Dates (from the Forest History Society website) Text from Davis, Richard C., ed. Encyclopedia of American Forest and Conservation History. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company for the Forest History Society, 1983. Vol. II, pp. 743-788.

Former National Forests of California
Protected areas of Humboldt County, California
Protected areas of Shasta County, California
Protected areas of Tehama County, California
Protected areas of Trinity County, California
Shasta-Trinity National Forest
1907 establishments in California
Protected areas established in 1907
1954 disestablishments in California
Protected areas disestablished in 1954

Trinity National Forest