The Danbury Railway Museum  is a railway museum housed in the former Union Station on the east end of downtown Danbury, Connecticut, United States. It was established in the mid-1990s following the closure of the station by the Metro-North Railroad in favor of a new station nearby, and primarily focuses on the history of railroading in southern New England and neighboring New York. In addition to the former station building, the museum has a collection of heritage railcars in the neighboring rail yard it shares with Metro-North.

The station was built in 1903 by the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad in response to local pressure for a new station after the three railroads that served the city were merged into the New Haven. At the station's peak, 125 trains stopped there in a day. By 1993, that had dwindled to a few commuter trains, and the Connecticut Department of Transportation, which by then owned the neglected building, closed it in favor of a newer station on the other side of the block. Within two years the museum was formed and restored the station to its former appearance.

It is architecturally distinctive, with Colonial Revival touches on a Richardsonian Romanesque structure. Alfred Hitchcock filmed station scenes for Strangers on a Train on its distinctive curved platform. In 1986, prior to the museum's use of the building, it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places. It was joined on the Register in 2005 by the former turntable, the only intact one in the state.

Site

The museum itself is located on a  lot at the southeast corner of White Street and Patriot Drive, just across from Meeker's Hardware, which is also on the Register. To its west is a parking lot with room for 25 cars. Immediately behind it, to the south, are the railroad tracks and a  rail yard. The current Danbury station is a short distance away, and sometimes Metro-North stores its trains on the tracks behind the station between runs. The museum's collection of older cars is on the tracks in the yard's interior. A grade crossing on White marks the eastern terminus of the Beacon Line kept in reserve by Metro-North for possible future use.

Building
The station building is a one-story L-shaped structure of buff and brown brick with sandstone trim, , both wings topped with gabled roofs covered in asphalt. Hipped-roof dormer windows pierce the north and west elevations, and similar canopies run along the tracks on either side, continuing the overhanging bracketed eaves that shelter the platform on the building itself. A single chimney rises from the south end of the station, near where the sets of tracks meet.

Windows vary in size and shape. Those on the east are high and small, whereas tall windows that give the impression of sidelights are along the southwest, next to the tracks. These are hints of the Colonial Revival style that was emerging at the time of the station's construction.

Inside, the museum's exhibits and displays occupy the  southern half of the building, its former waiting room. In the northern half, is the museum's gift shop and restrooms. The original ticket window and the varnished pine door and window architraves. Immediately east of the entry is a fireplace whose mantel is decorated in molded brick in floral patterns.

The facility comprises a railroad yard full of restored and unrestored railroad equipment, and the restored station house containing exhibits of photographs and railroad paraphernalia, model train layouts, an extensive reference library, and a gift shop. The station is "significant in the history of Danbury" and also as a "good example" of a turn-of-the-twentieth-century railway station building. Its architectural style of the hip-roofed station is eclectic, with exterior Richardsonian and Colonial Revival elements. Its interior workmanship is more impressive.

Yard

Visitors can ride the "Rail Yard Local" on weekends in the summer season. The ride takes about 30–35 minutes and includes a unique ride by the passengers on the museum's operating turntable, and a tour of the recently restored Danbury fairground's pumphouse. The turntable was added to the National Register of Historic Places on September 15, 2005. The turntable, built around 1914 was originally part of a roundhouse and machine shop complex. A fire destroyed the buildings in the 1980s, leaving "the only intact surviving [railroad] turntable in Connecticut". It is essentially a swing bridge, and is located several hundred yards east of the station.

Some of the rolling stock in the yard, including its 1907-built 2-6-0 steam locomotive (B&M #1455), two cabooses, a Budd Company self-propelled rail diesel car, and a Sperry track inspection car, are open to the visitors. The museum is an all-volunteer operation and welcomes anyone who would like to participate in any of the many facets of its operations – including operating its locomotives and self-propelled cars.

History
By the 1880s, the three railroads that served the city — the Danbury and Norwalk, Housatonic and New York and New England — had built small, separate stations for their lines in the vicinity of the current building. Later in that decade, economic difficulties led to them all becoming part of the New York, New Haven and Hartford, leading it to be known locally as the Consolidated Road. Citizens began asking the new owner to consolidate its three stations into one as early as 1894, two years after the last merger.

In 1901, the Consolidated realigned the tracks and built the new station where the New York & New England's passenger depot had been. A. Malkin's design combined a basic Richardsonian Romanesque structure with some Colonial Revival details, like the small panes in the windows. It was said to be the largest station on the New Haven's New York Division.

In its peak years, early in the 20th century, extant timetables suggest the station saw as many as 125 trains a day. Much of that passenger traffic was related to the city's large hatmaking industry, with workers migrating to and from jobs, and business travelers selling to or buying from the hatmakers. It was acknowledged with a neon sign on a nearby coal shed showing a derby hat coming down on a crown and saying "Danbury Crowns Them All". The hat-related traffic grew around the industry's two big seasons, the Christmas and Easter holidays. Other passengers were commuters going to jobs in Bridgeport or New York City, summer travelers headed for country retreats and hotels in the area, or visitors to the Danbury Fair, held every October.

After World War II, train ridership began to decline with the rise of passenger air travel and the Interstate Highway System. The decline of hatmaking, as many Americans started going around bareheaded, also contributed. Many of the station's original decorative features were removed. The New Haven's passenger train services to northwestern Connecticut, the Berkshires and to Pittsfield, Massachusetts were cut to weekend-only service by 1961. The last named train on the route, the Berkshire, was discontinued in 1968. In the late 1960s the Consolidated was itself absorbed into the short-lived Penn Central conglomerate. The last intercity passenger train left for Pittsfield in 1972, and the next year the Penn Central's final failure put its trains in the hands of Conrail and the station itself became property of the state Department of Transportation (ConnDOT).

Metro-North closed the station, the northern terminus of the New Haven Line's Danbury Branch, in 1993. The city's mayor, Gene Eriquez, who had seen downtown wither as retail business and customers went to the mall built on the former fairgrounds, did not want to see another old building lost to urban blight. The station seemed to him and others the ideal place for a rail museum that could attract visitors, and the Danbury Railway Museum was formed the next year by a group of National Railway Historical Society and local railfans.

The museum soon grew to a hundred members, and the first excursion train was run later that year. A temporary museum was established in an Ives Street storefront while the old station itself was restored with a $1.5 million grant. In late 1995 the restored station was rededicated at a ceremony attended by the mayor and a thousand people. The museum interior was opened in the middle of the following year.

The turntable was restored in 1998. Since 2005 it has been a regular stop on the Railyard Local. Today the museum has 550 members and 60 pieces of equipment.

See also
List of heritage railroads in the United States
List of railway museums
National Register of Historic Places listings in Fairfield County, Connecticut

References

External links

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Photos from the Danbury Railway Museum's annual Railway Day (2010)

Railroad museums in Connecticut
Former railway stations in Connecticut
Former New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad stations
Heritage railroads in Connecticut
National Register of Historic Places in Fairfield County, Connecticut
Museums in Fairfield County, Connecticut
Museums in Danbury, Connecticut
Railway stations in the United States opened in 1903
Railway stations closed in 1993
Railway stations on the National Register of Historic Places in Connecticut
Model railway shows and exhibitions
Romanesque Revival architecture in Connecticut
Museums established in 1994
1994 establishments in Connecticut
Railroad roundhouses in Connecticut
Railway stations in the United States closed in the 1990s

Danbury Railway Museum


The Bild Lilli doll was a West German line of fashion doll launched by Greiner & Hausser GmbH on August 12, 1955, and produced until 1964. Its design was based on the comic-strip character Lilli, created by Reinhard Beuthien for the tabloid newspaper Bild. The doll was made of polystyrene, came in two sizes, and had an available wardrobe of 1950s fashion. The Lilli doll was copied, and altered to some degree, for Mattel upon the direction of that company's co-founder, Ruth Handler. Mattel acquired the rights to Bild Lilli in 1964, and production of the German doll ceased, in favor of Mattel's new vinyl doll, which they called Barbie.

History
Lilli was a German cartoon character created by Reinhard Beuthien for the German tabloid Bild. In 1953, the newspaper decided to market a Lilli doll and contacted Max Weissbrodt of the toy company O&M Hausser in Neustadt bei Coburg. Weissbrodt designed a prototype doll based on Beuthien's cartoons, which was sold from 1955 to 1964; that year Mattel acquired the rights to the doll and German production stopped.

Bild Lilli was available in two sizes:  and . She held three patents, features absolutely new in doll-making: the head and neck were not one form connected with a seam at the shoulders, but rather the seam was mid-neck, behind the chin; the hair was not rooted, but a cut-out scalp that was attached by a hidden metal screw; the legs did not sprawl open when she was sitting. The doll was made of plastic and had molded eyelashes, pale skin and a painted face with side glancing eyes, high narrow eyebrows and red lips. Her fingernails were also painted red. She wore her hair in a ponytail with one curl on the forehead. Her shoes and earrings were molded on. Her limbs were attached inside by coated rubber bands. The cartoon Lilli was blonde, but a few of the dolls had other hair colours. Each Lilli doll carried a miniature copy of Bild and was sold in a clear plastic tube, with the doll's feet fitted into the base of a stand labelled "Bild-Lilli" that formed the bottom of the tube; the packaging was designed by E. Martha Maar, the mother-in-law of the Hausser company owner.

Originally the tall dolls cost DM 12, the small DM 7.50 at a time when average monthly take-home pay was DM 200 to DM 400. As this price suggests, the dolls were marketed to adults, mainly men, as a joke or gag gift at tobacconists, kiosks and newsagents that normally sold flowers, chocolates and other small giftware. A German brochure from the 1950s states that Lilli was "always discreet", and that her wardrobe made her "the star of every bar", and an advertisement from the 1960s encouraged young men to give their girlfriends a Lilli doll as a gift, rather than flowers. (This latter advert was then referenced by a Lilli newspaper cartoon, where Lilli says to her boyfriend: "I found it so apt that you gave me a Lilli doll as a present – now, I've a similarly suitable present for you" while presenting him with a puppet).

A total of 130,000 were made. The doll eventually became popular with children, too. Dollhouses, room settings, furniture, and other toy accessories to scale with the small Lilli were produced by German toy factories to cash in on her popularity amongst children and parents.

Lilli came as a dressed doll—additional fashions were sold separately. Her fashions, mostly also designed by Maar, mirror the lifestyle of the 1950s: She had outfits for parties, the beach and tennis, as well as cotton dresses, pyjamas and poplin suits. In her last years, her wardrobe consisted mainly of traditional "dirndl" dresses. Lilli's dresses always have patent fasteners marked "PRYM".

Lilli and her fashions were sold as children's toys in several European countries, including Italy and Scandinavian countries; outside Germany she is usually remembered as a children's doll. In the United States, she was just called "Lilli". Some Lillis have been seen in original 1950s packaging for an English-speaking market labelled "Lili Marleen", after the song.

Imitations and Barbie
Several toy companies (mainly in Hong Kong) produced dolls resembling Bild Lilli, some from purchased original molds. Also in Spain, Muñecas FEJ (Guillen y Vicedo) copied the molds and made a very similar doll, but with darker skin, white earrings and articulated waist. However, Spanish society was extremely conservative at the time, and was not ready for such "offensive" dolls. Mothers were not buying them for their daughters and the manufacturer had to retire them from the market.

Mattel's Barbie doll, which appeared in March 1959, was based on Bild Lilli dolls that co-founder Ruth Handler had acquired in Hamburg. The first Barbie doll was made of vinyl instead of hard plastic, had rooted hair with curly bangs rather than a wig-cap, included separate shoes and earrings which were not molded on as Lilli's were. However, apart from these differences, the earliest Barbie dolls were in many ways quite similar to Lilli in overall shape and appearance.

Louis Marx and Company acquired the rights to the Bild Lilli doll from Hausser and sold Miss Seventeen and smaller Miss Marlene dolls. Mattel had bought all patents and copyrights to the Bild Lilli doll so that using that name as a book title or product name would infringe copyright laws. Marx unsuccessfully attempted to sue Mattel for patent infringement.

Legacy
Lilli has been a collector's piece. In the Coburg Doll Museum, over 1,000 historic dolls are displayed, including the Lilli doll, the "grandmother" of the world-famous Barbie.

References

Further reading
Knaak, Silke. Deutsche Modepuppen der 50er und 60er Jahre (German fashion dolls of the Fifties and Sixties); 2005; available at Barbies.de. German and English.
Warnecke, Dieter. Barbie im Wandel der Jahrzehnte; Heyne 1995. . German.
Metzger, Wolfram (Ed.): 40 Jahre Barbie-World; Info Verlag 1998. . German.
"Rolf Hausser's Story" (Interview in the magazine Barbie Bazaar, February 2000).

Fashion dolls
Products introduced in 1955
Barbie

Bild Lilli doll


David Patterson (born November 20, 1966) is an American guitarist. He was the founding member of the New World Guitar Trio and is recognized as a solo performer and arranger.

Biography
David Patterson was born in Red Bank, New Jersey. His father, John Patterson, was an amateur pianist and organist. His mother emigrated from Cuba in the late 1950s and became a school teacher in Rumson, New Jersey where she met John Patterson. David Patterson attended several schools in his youth including boarding school, which he later left to more seriously pursue musical studies.

As a youth, Patterson studied piano and violin as well as the guitar. Among his many teachers were jazz guitarist Harry Leahey, theorist and arranger Dr. Henry Melnik, and classical guitarist Francis Perry. He went on to study at New England Conservatory of Music, where he received both his bachelor's and master's degree with distinction in classical guitar performance. His teachers were David Leisner and Neil Anderson.

Patterson's influences include: Jimmy Page, John McLaughlin, Julian Bream, John Williams, Miles Davis, Jeff Beck, Paco de Lucia, Beethoven, Bach, and Heitor Villa-Lobos.

The New World Guitar Trio
In 1988, Patterson founded the New World Guitar Trio, a group dedicated to commissioning and performing new music as well as creating original arrangements of the standard repertoire. As the group's producer and arranger, Patterson was praised for his innovative programming and his "ingenious transcriptions of solo piano, chamber, and orchestral works" (Guitar Player magazine). His approach merged the traditional genres of Beethoven and the folk music of Portugal, with the sounds of late 20th-century repertoire. Patterson has collaborated with such composers as Osvaldo Golijov, Claudio Ragazzi, Chiel Meijering, David Leisner, and Dana Brayton on works commissioned by the Trio.  The ensemble was praised for its recordings: "Indeed, what's remarkable…is how fluidly and fluently the New World Guitar Trio makes this program seem idiomatic to three guitars, while providing a refreshing new perspective on the music itself" (Audio Magazine).

Between 1988 and 1997, the members of the Trio included David Patterson, Dean Harada, and Thomas Noren. Harada left the group and was replaced by Thomas Rhode in the summer of 1997.
After 15 years of success, the Trio members disbanded in 2003 to pursue individual projects.

Solo career
In addition to his work with the New World Guitar Trio, Patterson has maintained an active solo career, performing with such ensembles as the Auros Group for New Music, Boston Musica Viva, the Boston University Chamber Orchestra, the Boston Modern Orchestra Project, Opera Boston, and the Fromm Players for the Harvard Group for New Music as an artist-in-residence. He has been a guest artist at the Tanglewood Music Festival and Bowdoin International Music Festival. In 2003, Patterson collaborated with composer Osvaldo Golijov and soprano Dawn Upshaw as an arranger and performer in the world premiere of the opera Ainadamar under the baton of Robert Spano at Tanglewood. He was a performer in the Boston premiere of Ainadamar in 2007, with Opera Boston under the baton of Gil Rose and renowned director Peter Sellars. In 2008, Patterson was a guest artist at the Longy School of Music's tribute to the 100th birthday of legendary American composer, Elliott Carter. He performed Changes, Carter's most important work for the classical guitar.

Discography
David Patterson can be heard on two New World Guitar Trio recordings: the eponymous New World Guitar Trio (1994) and Exiled (2000). In 2005, his debut solo recording, Esordio was released featuring the music of Bach, Heitor Villa-Lobos, Leo Brouwer, Johann Kaspar Mertz, and Ginastera. Patterson's work for guitar includes his 2003 recording of Jimmy Page's "White Summer/Black Mountainside", featured in a compilation CD Guitar Harvest alongside guitarists Andy Summers, Bill Frisell, and Ralph Towner, among others.

Esordio (T4D 005-01, 2005)
Guitar Harvest (Solid Air Records, SACD 2042, 2003)
Exiled (200NW2-2)
New World Guitar Trio (993TMR-6, 1995)

Teaching
Patterson is on the faculty of Longy School of Music (Cambridge, MA), Tufts University (Medford, MA), and Gordon College (Wenham, MA).

References

External links
Official website of David Patterson

1966 births
Living people
New England Conservatory alumni
People from Red Bank, New Jersey
Guitarists from New Jersey
Tufts University faculty
Gordon College (Massachusetts) faculty
Longy School of Music of Bard College faculty
Musicians from Massachusetts
American male guitarists
20th-century American guitarists
20th-century American pianists
American male pianists
21st-century American pianists
20th-century American male musicians
21st-century American male musicians

David Patterson (guitarist)


Harvard Law School (HLS) is the law school of Harvard University, a private research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Founded in 1817, Harvard Law School is the oldest continuously operating law school in the United States. Harvard Law School's history of innovation in legal education and its alumni network have made it one of the most prestigious law schools in the world.

Each class in the three-year JD program has approximately 560 students, which is among the largest of the top 150 ranked law schools in the United States. The first-year class is broken into seven sections of approximately 80 students, who take most first-year classes together. Aside from the JD program, Harvard also awards both LLM and SJD degrees.

HLS is home to the world's largest academic law library. The school has an estimated 115 full-time faculty members. According to Harvard Law's 2020 ABA-required disclosures, 99% of 2019 graduates passed the bar exam. The school's graduates accounted for more than one-quarter of all Supreme Court clerks between 2000 and 2010, more than any other law school in the United States.

History

Founding
Harvard Law School's founding is traced to the establishment of a 'law department' at Harvard in 1817. Dating the founding to the year of the creation of the law department makes Harvard Law School the oldest continuously operating law school in the United States. William & Mary Law School opened first in 1779, but it closed due to the American Civil War, reopening in 1920. The University of Maryland School of Law was chartered in 1816 but did not begin classes until 1824, and it also closed during the Civil War.

The founding of the law department came two years after the establishment of Harvard's first endowed professorship in law, funded by a bequest from the estate of wealthy slave-owner Isaac Royall Jr., in 1817. Royall left roughly 1,000 acres of land in Massachusetts to Harvard when he died in exile in Nova Scotia, where he fled to as a Loyalist during the American Revolution, in 1781, "to be appropriated towards the endowing a Professor of Laws ... or a Professor of Physick and Anatomy, whichever the said overseers and Corporation [of the college] shall judge to be best." The value of the land, when fully liquidated in 1809, was $2,938; the Harvard Corporation allocated $400 from the income generated by those funds to create the Royall Professorship of Law in 1815. The Royalls were so involved in the slave trade, that "the labor of slaves underwrote the teaching of law in Cambridge." The dean of the law school traditionally held the Royall chair; deans Elena Kagan and Martha Minow declined the Royall chair due to its origins in the proceeds of slavery.

The Royall family's coat of arms, which shows three stacked wheat sheaves on a blue background, was adopted as part of the law school's arms in 1936, topped with the university's motto (Veritas, Latin for 'truth').  Until the school began investigating its connections with slavery in the 2010s, most alumni and faculty at the time were unaware of the origins of the arms. In March 2016, following requests by students, the school decided to remove the emblem because of its association with slavery. In November 2019, Harvard announced that a working group had been tasked to develop a new emblem. In August 2021, the new Harvard Law School emblem was introduced.

Royall's Medford estate, the Isaac Royall House, is now a museum which features the only remaining slave quarters in the northeast United States. In 2019, the government of Antigua and Barbuda requested reparations from Harvard Law School on the ground that it benefitted from Royall's enslavement of people in the country.

Growth and the Langdell curriculum
By 1827, the school, with one faculty member, was struggling. Nathan Dane, a prominent alumnus of the college, then endowed the Dane Professorship of Law, insisting that it be given to then Supreme Court Justice Joseph Story. For a while, the school was called "Dane Law School."  In 1829, John H. Ashmun, son of Eli Porter Ashmun and brother of George Ashmun, accepted a professorship and closed his Northampton Law School, with many of his students following him to Harvard. Story's belief in the need for an elite law school based on merit and dedicated to public service helped build the school's reputation at the time, although the contours of these beliefs have not been consistent throughout its history. Enrollment remained low through the 19th century as university legal education was considered to be of little added benefit to apprenticeships in legal practice.  After first trying lowered admissions standards, in 1848 HLS eliminated admissions requirements entirely.  In 1869, HLS also eliminated examination requirements.

In the 1870s, under Dean Christopher Columbus Langdell, HLS introduced what has become the standard first-year curriculum for American law schools – including classes in contracts, property, torts, criminal law, and civil procedure. At Harvard, Langdell also developed the case method of teaching law, now the dominant pedagogical model at U.S. law schools.  Langdell's notion that law could be studied as a "science" gave university legal education a reason for being distinct from vocational preparation. Critics at first defended the old lecture method because it was faster and cheaper and made fewer demands on faculty and students. Advocates said the case method had a sounder theoretical basis in scientific research and the inductive method. Langdell's graduates became leading professors at other law schools where they introduced the case method. The method was facilitated by casebooks. From its founding in 1900, the Association of American Law Schools promoted the case method in law schools that sought accreditation.

20th century
During the 20th century, Harvard Law School was known for its competitiveness. For example, Bob Berring called it "a samurai ring where you can test your swordsmanship against the swordsmanship of the strongest intellectual warriors from around the nation." When Langdell developed the original law school curriculum, Harvard President Charles Eliot told him to make it "hard and long." An urban legend holds that incoming students are told to "Look to your left, look to your right, because one of you won't be here by the end of the year." Scott Turow's memoir One L and John Jay Osborn's novel The Paper Chase describe such an environment. Trailing many of its peers, Harvard Law did not admit women as students until 1950, for the class of 1953.

Eleanor Kerlow's book Poisoned Ivy: How Egos, Ideology, and Power Politics Almost Ruined Harvard Law School criticized the school for a 1980s political dispute between newer and older faculty members over accusations of insensitivity to minority and feminist issues. Divisiveness over such issues as political correctness lent the school the title "Beirut on the Charles."

In Broken Contract: A Memoir of Harvard Law School, Richard Kahlenberg criticized the school for driving students away from public interest and toward work in high-paying law firms. Kahlenberg's criticisms are supported by Granfield and Koenig's study, which found that "students [are directed] toward service in the most prestigious law firms, both because they learn that such positions are their destiny and because the recruitment network that results from collective eminence makes these jobs extremely easy to obtain." The school has also been criticized for its large first year class sizes (at one point there were 140 students per classroom; in 2001 there were 80), a cold and aloof administration, and an inaccessible faculty. The latter stereotype is a central plot element of The Paper Chase and appears in Legally Blonde.

In response to the above criticisms, HLS eventually implemented the once-criticized but now dominant approach pioneered by Dean Robert Hutchins at Yale Law School, of shifting the competitiveness to the admissions process while making law school itself a more cooperative experience. Robert Granfield and Thomas Koenig's 1992 study of Harvard Law students that appeared in The Sociological Quarterly found that students "learn to cooperate with rather than compete against classmates," and that contrary to "less eminent" law schools, students "learn that professional success is available for all who attend, and that therefore, only neurotic 'gunners' try to outdo peers."

21st century

Under Kagan, the second half of the 2000s, saw significant academic changes since the implementation of the Langdell curriculum. In 2006, the faculty voted unanimously to approve a new first-year curriculum, placing greater emphasis on problem-solving, administrative law, and international law. The new curriculum was implemented in stages over the next several years, with the last new course, a first year practice-oriented problem solving workshop, being instituted in January 2010. In late 2008, the faculty decided that the school should move to an Honors/Pass/Low Pass/Fail (H/P/LP/F) grading system, much like those in place at Yale and Stanford Law Schools. The system applied to half the courses taken by students in the Class of 2010 and fully started with the Class of 2011.

In 2009, Kagan was appointed solicitor general of the United States by President Barack Obama and resigned the deanship. On June 11, 2009, Harvard University president, Drew Gilpin Faust named Martha Minow as the new dean. She assumed the position on July 1, 2009. On January 3, 2017, Minow announced that she would conclude her tenure as dean at the end of the academic year. In June 2017, John F. Manning was named as the new dean, effective as of July 1, 2017.

In September 2017, the school unveiled a plaque acknowledging the indirect role played by slavery in its history:

Reputation
HLS was ranked as the fifth best law school in the United States by U.S. News & World Report in its 2023 rankings. HLS was ranked first in the world by QS World University Rankings in 2023. It is ranked first in the world by the 2019 Academic Ranking of World Universities.

HLS has graduated the largest number of U.S. Supreme Court justices and U.S. attorneys general. HLS is the best represented law school in the current U.S. Congress and among the law faculty at U.S. law schools.

In November 2022, the law school made a joint decision along with Yale Law School to withdraw from the U.S. News & World Report Best Law Schools rankings, citing the system's "flawed methodology."

Employment
According to the school's employment summary for 2020 graduates, 86.8% were employed in bar passage required jobs and another 5.3% were employed in J.D. advantage jobs.

Costs
The cost of tuition for the 2022-2023 school year (9 month term) is $72,430. A Mandatory HUHS Student Health Fee is $1,304, bringing the total direct costs for the 2022-2023 school year to $73,734.

The total cost of attendance (indicating the cost of tuition, fees, and living expenses) at Harvard Law for the 2021–2022 academic year is $104,200.

Coat of arms

The governing body of the university voted to retire the law school's coat of arms. The school's shield incorporated the three garbs of wheat from the armorial bearings of Isaac Royall Jr., a university benefactor who had endowed the first professorship in the law school. The shield had become a source of contention among a group of law school students, who objected to the Royall family's history of slave ownership.

The president of the university and dean of the law school, acting upon the recommendation of a committee formed to study the issue, ultimately agreed with its majority decision, that the shield was inconsistent with the values of both the university and the law school. Their recommendation was ultimately adopted by the Harvard Corporation and on March 15, 2016, the shield was ordered retired.

On August 23, 2021, it was announced that a new emblem was approved by the Harvard Corporation. The new design features Harvard's traditional motto,  (Latin for 'truth'), resting above the Latin phrase Lex et Iustitia, meaning 'law and justice'. According to the HLS Shield Working Group's final report, the expanding or diverging lines, some with no obvious beginning or end, are meant to convey a sense of broad scope or great distance — the limitlessness of the school's work and mission. The radial lines also allude to the latitudinal and longitudinal lines that define the arc of the earth, conveying the global reach of the Law School's community and impact. The multifaceted, radiating form — a form inspired by architectural details found in both Austin Hall and Hauser Hall — seeks to convey dynamism, complexity, inclusiveness, connectivity, and strength.

Student organizations and journals
Harvard Law School has more than 90 student organizations that are active on campus. These organizations include the student-edited journals, Harvard Law Record, and the HLS Drama Society, which organizes the annual Harvard Law School Parody, the Harvard Legal Aid Bureau as well as other political, social, service, and athletic groups.

HLS Student Government is the primary governing, advocacy, and representative body for Law School students. In addition, students are represented at the university level by the Harvard Graduate Council.

Harvard Law Review

Students of the Juris Doctor (JD) program are involved in preparing and publishing the Harvard Law Review, one of the most highly cited university law reviews, as well as several other law journals and an independent student newspaper. The Harvard Law Review was first published in 1887 and has been staffed and edited by some of the school's most notable alumni.

In addition to the journal, the Harvard Law Review Association, in conjunction with the Columbia Law Review, University of Pennsylvania Law Review, and Yale Law Journal also publishes The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation, the most widely followed authority for legal citation formats in the United States.

The student newspaper, the Harvard Law Record, has been published continuously since the 1940s, making it one of the oldest law school newspapers in the country, and has included the exploits of fictional law student Fenno for decades. The Harvard Law School Forum on Corporate Governance and Financial Regulation, formerly known as the Harvard Law School Corporate Governance Blog, is one of the most widely read law websites in the country. Harvard Human Rights Reflections, which is hosted by the Human Rights Program, is a widely read discussion platform for critical engagement with the human rights project. It features legal arguments, advocacy pieces, applied research, practitioner's notes and other forms of reflections related to human rights law, theory, and practice.

The Harvard Law Bulletin is the magazine of record for Harvard Law School. The Harvard Law Bulletin was first published in April 1948. The magazine is currently published twice a year, but in previous years has been published four or six times a year. The magazine was first published online in fall 1997.

Harvard Law School student journals
 Harvard Law Review
 Harvard Business Law Review
 Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review
 Harvard BlackLetter Law Journal
 Harvard Environmental Law Review
 Harvard Human Rights Journal
 Harvard International Law Journal
 Harvard Journal of Law & Gender (formerly Women's Law Journal)
 Harvard Journal of Law & Public Policy
 Harvard Journal of Law and Technology
 Harvard Journal of Sports and Entertainment Law
 Harvard Journal on Legislation
 Harvard Latinx Law Review
 Harvard Law & Policy Review
 Harvard National Security Journal
 Harvard Negotiation Law Review
 Unbound: Harvard Journal of the Legal Left

Research programs and centers
 Animal Law & Policy Program
 Berkman Klein Center for Internet and Society
 Center on the Legal Profession (CLP)
 Charles Hamilton Houston Institute for Race and Justice
 Child Advocacy Program (CAP)
 Criminal Justice Policy Program (CJPP)
 East Asian Legal Studies Program (EALS)
 Environmental & Energy Law Program
 Foundations of Private Law
 Harvard Initiative on Law and Philosophy
 Harvard Law School Project on Disability (HPOD)
 Human Rights Program (HRP)
 Institute for Global Law and Policy (IGLP)
 John M. Olin Center for Law, Economics and Business
 The Julis-Rabinowitz Program on Jewish and Israeli Law
 Labor and Worklife Program (LWP)
 The Petrie-Flom Center for Health Law Policy, Biotechnology, and Bioethics
 Program in Islamic Law (PIL)
 Program on Biblical Law and Christian Legal Studies (PBLCLS)
 Program on Behavioral Economics and Public Policy
 Program on Corporate Governance
 Program on Institutional Investors (PII)
 Program on International Financial Systems (PIFS)
 Program on International Law and Armed Conflict (PILAC)
 Program on Law and Society in the Muslim World
 Program on Negotiation (PON)
 Shareholder Rights Project (SRP)
 Systemic Justice Project (SJP)
 Tax Law Program

Notable people

Alumni

Harvard's prestige and large class size have enabled it to graduate a large number of distinguished alumni.

Rutherford B. Hayes, the 19th president of the United States, graduated from HLS. Additionally, Barack Obama, the 44th president of the United States, graduated from HLS and was president of the Harvard Law Review. His wife, Michelle Obama, is also a graduate of Harvard Law School. Past presidential candidates who are HLS graduates, include Michael Dukakis, Ralph Nader and Mitt Romney. Eight sitting U.S. senators are alumni of HLS: Romney, Ted Cruz, Mike Crapo, Tim Kaine, Jack Reed, Chuck Schumer, Tom Cotton, and Mark Warner.

Other legal and political leaders who attended HLS include former president of Taiwan, Ma Ying-jeou, and former vice president Annette Lu; the incumbent Chief Justice of India, Dhananjaya Y. Chandrachud; the incumbent Chief Justice of the Court of Final Appeal of Hong Kong, Andrew Cheung Kui-nung; former chief justice of the Republic of the Philippines, Renato Corona; Chief Justice of Singapore Sundaresh Menon; former president of the World Bank Group, Robert Zoellick; former United Nations high commissioner for human rights, Navanethem Pillay; the former president of Ireland, Mary Robinson; Lady Arden, Justice of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom; Solomon Areda Waktolla, Judge at United Nations Dispute Tribunal, Former Deputy Chief Justice of the Federal Supreme Court of Ethiopia.  Justice Solomon Areda Waktolla is also member of the Permanent Court of Arbitration at Hague, Netherlands

Lobsang Sangay is the first elected sikyong of the Tibetan Government in Exile. In 2004, he earned a S.J.D. degree from Harvard Law School and was a recipient of the 2004 Yong K. Kim' 95 Prize of excellence for his dissertation "Democracy in Distress: Is Exile Polity a Remedy? A Case Study of Tibet's Government-in-exile".

Sixteen of the school's graduates have served on the Supreme Court of the United States, more than any other law school. Four of the current nine members of the court graduated from HLS: the chief justice, John Roberts; associate justices Neil Gorsuch; Ketanji Brown Jackson; and Elena Kagan, who also served as the dean of Harvard Law School, from 2003 to 2009. Past Supreme Court justices from Harvard Law School include Antonin Scalia, David Souter, Harry Blackmun, William J. Brennan, Louis Brandeis, Felix Frankfurter, Lewis Powell (LLM), and Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr., among others. Ruth Bader Ginsburg attended Harvard Law School for two years.

Attorneys General Loretta Lynch, Alberto Gonzales, and Janet Reno, among others, and noted federal judges Richard Posner of the Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals, Michael Boudin of the First Circuit Court of Appeals, Joseph A. Greenaway of the Third Circuit Court of Appeals, Laurence Silberman of the D.C. Circuit Court of Appeals, Lawrence VanDyke of the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals, and Pierre Leval of the Second Circuit Court of Appeals, among many other judicial figures, graduated from the school. The former Commonwealth solicitor general of Australia and current justice of the High Court of Australia, Stephen Gageler, senior counsel graduated from Harvard with an LL.M.

Many HLS alumni are leaders and innovators in the business world. Its graduates include the current senior chairman of Goldman Sachs, Lloyd Blankfein; former chief executive officer of Reddit, Ellen Pao; current chairman of the board and majority owner of National Amusements Sumner Redstone; current president and CEO of TIAA-CREF, Roger W. Ferguson Jr.; current CEO and chairman of Toys "R" Us, Gerald L. Storch; and former CEO of Delta Air Lines, Gerald Grinstein, among many others.

Legal scholars who graduated from Harvard Law include Payam Akhavan, Henry Friendly, William P. Alford, Rachel Barkow, Yochai Benkler, Alexander Bickel, Andrew Burrows, Erwin Chemerinsky, Amy Chua, Sujit Choudhry, Robert C. Clark, Hugh Collins, James Duane (professor), I. Glenn Cohen, Ronald Dworkin, Christopher Edley Jr., Melvin A. Eisenberg, Susan Estrich, Jody Freeman, Gerald Gunther, Andrew T. Guzman, Louis Henkin, Harold Koh, Richard J. Lazarus, Arthur R. Miller, Gerald L. Neuman, Eric Posner, Richard Posner, John Mark Ramseyer, Jed Rubenfeld, Lewis Sargentich, John Sexton, Jeannie Suk, Kathleen Sullivan, Cass Sunstein, Laurence Tribe, Edwin R. Keedy, C. Raj Kumar and Tim Wu.

In sports, David Otunga is the first and only Harvard Law alum to work for WWE. He is a two-time WWE Tag Team Champion.

Milton A. Rudin, a chief counsel and entertainment lawyer was a graduate of HLS in 1946, he had been working for 52 years with clients that included Marilyn Monroe, Lucille Ball, Elizabeth Taylor, the Jackson family, and Frank Sinatra.

Faculty

 William P. Alford
 Deborah Anker
 Yochai Benkler
 Robert C. Clark
 I. Glenn Cohen
 Susan P. Crawford
 Noah Feldman
 Roger Fisher
 William W. Fisher
 Jody Freeman
 Charles Fried
 Gerald Frug
 Nancy Gertner
 Mary Ann Glendon
 Jack Goldsmith
 Lani Guinier
 David Alan Hoffman
 Morton Horwitz
 Vicki C. Jackson
 David Kennedy
 Duncan Kennedy
 Randall Kennedy
 Michael Klarman
 Richard J. Lazarus
 Lawrence Lessig
 Kenneth W. Mack
 John F. Manning
 Frank Michelman
 Martha Minow
 Robert Harris Mnookin
 Ashish Nanda
 Charles Nesson
 Gerald L. Neuman
 Ruth Okediji
 Charles Ogletree
 John Mark Ramseyer
 Mark J. Roe
 Lewis Sargentich
 Robert Sitkoff
 Jeannie Suk
 Ronald S. Sullivan Jr.
 Cass Sunstein
 Laurence Tribe
 Mark Tushnet
 Rebecca Tushnet
 Roberto Unger
 Adrian Vermeule
 Lucie E. White
 Steven M. Wise
 Jonathan Zittrain

Former faculty

 Paul M. Bator
 Joseph Henry Beale
 Derrick Bell
 Derek Bok
 Stephen Breyer
 Zechariah Chafee
 Abram Chayes
 Vern Countryman
 Archibald Cox
 Alan Dershowitz
 Christopher Edley Jr.
 Felix Frankfurter
 Paul A. Freund
 Lon Fuller
 John Chipman Gray
 Erwin Griswold
 Lani Guinier
 Henry M. Hart Jr.
 Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.
 Wendy Jacobs
 Elena Kagan
 Christopher Columbus Langdell
 Daniel Meltzer
 Soia Mentschikoff
 Arthur R. Miller
 Elisabeth Owens
 John Palfrey
 Roscoe Pound
 John Rawls
 Joseph Story
 Kathleen Sullivan
 Elizabeth Warren
 Joseph H. H. Weiler
 Samuel Williston

Buildings gallery

In popular culture

Books
The Paper Chase is a novel set amid a student's first ("One L") year at the school. It was written by John Jay Osborn, Jr., who studied at the school. The book was later turned into a film and a television series (see below).

Scott Turow wrote a memoir of his experience as a first-year law student at Harvard, One L.

Film and television
Several movies and television shows take place at least in part at the school. Most of them have scenes filmed on location at or around Harvard University. They include:
 Love Story (1970)
 The Paper Chase (1973)
 The Paper Chase (1978–1979, 1983–1986 television series)
 Soul Man (1986)
 The Firm (1993)
 A Civil Action (1998)
 How High (2001)
 Legally Blonde (2001)
 Catch Me If You Can (2002)
 Love Story in Harvard (2004 Korean TV series)
 Suits (TV Series) (2011–2019)
 On the Basis of Sex (2018)
Many popular movies and television shows also feature characters introduced as Harvard Law School graduates. The central plot point of the TV series Suits is that one of the main characters did not attend Harvard but fakes his graduate status in order to practice law.

See also

 Ames Moot Court Competition
 Harvard Association for Law & Business
 Harvard/MIT Cooperative Society
 List of Harvard University people
 List of Ivy League law schools

References

Further reading

 Chase, Anthony. "The Birth of the Modern Law School," American Journal of Legal History (1979) 23#4 pp. 329–48 in JSTOR
 Coquillette, Daniel R. and Bruce A. Kimball. On the Battlefield of Merit: Harvard Law School, the First Century (Harvard University Press, 2015) 666 pp.

 Kimball, Bruce A. "The Proliferation of Case Method Teaching in American Law Schools: Mr. Langdell's Emblematic 'Abomination,' 1890–1915," History of Education Quarterly (2006) 46#2 pp. 192–240 in JSTOR
 Kimball, Bruce A.  '"Warn Students That I Entertain Heretical Opinions, Which They Are Not To Take as Law': The Inception of Case Method Teaching in the Classrooms of the Early C.C. Langdell, 1870–1883," Law and History Review 17 (Spring 1999): 57–140.
 LaPiana, William P. Logic and Experience: The Origin of Modern American Legal Education (1994)
  + v.2, v.3

External links

1817 establishments in Massachusetts
Educational institutions established in 1817
Law schools in Massachusetts
Environmental law schools
Law School
Universities and colleges in Cambridge, Massachusetts
Robert A. M. Stern buildings

Harvard Law School


Aleksander Kotsis (30 May 1836, in Kraków – 7 August 1877, in Kraków) was a Polish painter. He created landscapes, portraits, and genre scenes in a combination Romantic and Realistic style. Most of his paintings are small.

Biography
He grew up just outside Kraków, where his family had a small farm. They moved into Kraków in 1846 to become merchants and he began his studies in 1850 at the Academy of Fine Arts with Wojciech Stattler and Władysław Łuszczkiewicz. His father was not supportive of his studies, so he had to continue working in their shop and taking his lessons intermittently. In 1857, he began exhibiting with the Society of Friends of Fine Arts. Finally he sold some paintings and, with the assistance of Stattler, obtained a scholarship from the Ministry of Religion and Education which enabled him to enroll at the Academy of Fine Arts, Vienna, where he studied with Ferdinand Georg Waldmüller, among others.

He returned to Kraków in 1862 and became involved with a patriotic group that met in the studio of the sculptor, Parys Filippi, which was located in the Church of St. Francis of Assisi. Although this group became involved in the January Uprising, Kotsis spent most of the years 1862 to 1864 painting church murals.

After receiving another scholarship in 1866, he moved to Warsaw, then to Paris in 1867, followed by Brussels. When he returned home, he established a studio and worked constantly, spending his summers painting en plein aire in the Tatra mountains. He also began exhibiting extensively throughout Poland and Northern Europe. After 1870, he travelled frequently and, from 1871 to 1875, lived primarily in Munich, where he often exhibited with the Kunstverein München. He shared a studio with his friends, Antoni Kozakiewicz and Franz Streitt, and went on painting excursions to the Bavarian Alps with them.

In 1875, he received an offer of a professorial chair at his alma mater but, that same year, was diagnosed with an incurable brain disorder. He was forced to refuse the chair and was unable to continue working. He died two years later.

Selected paintings

References

Further reading
 Jerzy Zanoziński, Aleksander Kotsis, 1836-1877: życie i dzieło, Warsaw, State Publishing Institute (PIW), 1953

External links

Arcadja Auctions: More works by Kotsis.

Polish landscape painters
19th-century Polish painters
19th-century Polish male artists
1836 births
1877 deaths
Genre painters
Artists from Kraków
Jan Matejko Academy of Fine Arts alumni
Polish male painters

Aleksander Kotsis


Omoyele "Yele" Sowore (born 16 February 1971) is a Nigerian human rights activist, citizen reporter, writer, lecturer and pro-democracy campaigner, known for founding the online news agency Sahara Reporters.  In August 2018, he founded the African Action Congress party and ran as its presidential candidate in the 2019 Nigerian general election. Sowore also ran for President in the 2023 Nigerian General elections.

On August 3 2019, Omoyele Sowore was arrested by the Nigerian State Security Service (SSS), for alleged treason after calling for a protest tagged RevolutionNow. He was arrested again and assaulted during a protest in Abuja on January 1, 2021. Sowore was injured by a police officer during a protest in Abuja on the 31st of May 2021.

Early life and education
Yele Sowore is from Ese-Odo, Ondo State in South West Nigeria. Sowore was born in the Niger Delta region of the country (comprising six states in South-South region, Ondo, Abia and Imo States) where he was also raised in a polygamous home with sixteen children. At 12, he learned to ride a motorcycle so that he could go to the lake to go fishing for food for his entire family every morning before going to school. Sowore's passion and desire in media was propelled during the military rule in Nigeria.

Sowore studied Geography and Planning at the University of Lagos, from 1989 to 1995, with his academic program extended by two extra years, after being expelled twice for political reasons and student activism. He was the President of the University of Lagos Student Union Government between 1992 and 1994 where he was involved in anti-cultism and anti-corruption advocacy. Sowore holds a master's degree in Public Administration from Columbia University.

Career

Activism
In 1989, he took part in student demonstrations protesting the conditions of an International Monetary Fund (IMF) loan of $120 million to be used for a Nigerian oil pipeline. Included among the conditions of the IMF loan, was a reduction in the number of universities in Nigeria from 28 to 5.

Sowore led 5,100 students in protest against the Nigerian government in 1992. The protest resulted in police opening fire and killing seven protesters. Sowore was arrested and tortured. Omoyele was also involved in the demand for democratic government taking over military rule on 12 June 1993. This resulted in several arrests, detentions and life-threatening treatment by government officials.

A journalist, Niyi Babade, in his yet to be published memoir, also acknowledges Sowore's stride in the June 12 struggle - "Unannounced, they came out of an unmarked grey vehicle and saw the ugly scenes, then opened fire on all of us. I spent some quality time in my resting place, the gutter, till I heard the singing voices of the students of the University of Lagos led by Yele Sowore (now a Sahara reporter), heading to Abiola's house. I crawled out of my hiding and tried to get an exclusive shot when the hoodlums among the students attacked me and wanted to confiscate my camera but with the heroic effort of Sowore, I was spared and allowed to join them, as one of the hoodlums and a journalist which then gave me unlimited access to exclusive footage of the day, till we got to Moshood Kashimawo Olawale (MKO) Abiola's house."

Arrest
On 12 January 2017, the Lagos State Police Command arrested Sowore over a petition by a magazine publisher, Lekan Fatodu. Later in the evening of same day, Sowore  confirmed the incident in a video he posted on his Facebook wall where he accused the police of supporting Fatodu while he assaulted him at the Area F Police Command.

Treason charges

Sowore was arrested by the DSS on 3 August 2019, ahead of a planned nationwide #RevolutionNow protest. The Federal Government, which later admitted to the arrest, was condemned by Wole Soyinka, Oby Ezekwesili  and many other activists. He was later charged with "conspiracy to commit treason and insulting President Muhammadu Buhari".

On 24 September 2019, Sowore was granted bail by the Federal High Court Abuja, on the condition that he surrender his international passport within forty-eight hours. The DSS has refused to release Sowore claiming ignorance of the court order. The DSS' refusal to release Sowore led to protests at the UN Plaza in New York led by Sowore's wife and has sparked a global decry on Nigeria's failed democracy.

On 29 September 2019, Sowore made his first appearance in the media since his detention. He described his poor treatment, being locked up in a dark room without the sunlight. He also mentioned that "Boko Haram commanders who are engaged in high level terrorism have access to telephone, TV and even cable in their cells" while he is being denied such access. The court again set Sowore free on 5 December 2019, confirming that he had settled his bail terms. However, there was a wind of change the next change in court when DSS operatives evaded the premises to re-arrest him. He was finally released on 24 December 2019.

On 8 December 2021, The Federal High Court, Abuja, ordered the Department of State Services (DSS) to pay Omoyele Sowore, 2 million Naira over the unlawful seizure of his mobile phone in 2019 at the point of his arrest.

In March 2022, it was reported that Omoyele Sowore, sued the Nigeria Police Force and three others at the Federal High Court, Abuja, over violation of his fundamental human rights.

Sahara Reporters
Sowore started Sahara Reporters in New York City in 2006 to fight against corrupt and wrong government practices. Sahara Reporters is supported by grants from the Ford Foundation and Omidyar Foundation. As part of its policy, Sahara does not accept adverts and financial support from the Nigerian Government .

Presidential campaign

On 25 February 2018, Sowore announced his intention to run for presidency in the 2019 Nigerian general election. In August 2018, he founded a political party, the African Action Congress (AAC), for which he would run for in 2019. On 6th, October 2018, following successful primary elections at the AAC's national convention, Omoyele Sowore emerged unchallenged as the Presidential Candidate for the party. After touring many states in Nigeria, visiting dignitaries such as the Emir of Kano and Wole Soyinka, Sowore embarked on a fundraising tour around the world including Australia, the United States of America and the UK. He was in Luton, England, on 10 November 2018.

Sowore also contested the 2023 general election as the presidential candidate of his party (AAC) where he recorded  14,608 votes, an election he described as a "selection".

Election result
Muhammdu Buhari of the All Progressives Congress (APC), polled 15,191,847 votes to win while his main contender, Atiku Abubakar of the People's Democratic Party got 11,264,977 votes to come second. Sowore came fifth with 33,953 votes ahead of other new entrants to the race like Fela Durotoye of the Alliance for New Nigeria (ANN), who polled 16,779, and Kingsley Moghalu of the Young Democratic Party (YPP), who garnered 21,886 votes.

On 1 March 2022, Sowore announced his intention to run for president in the 2023 Nigerian general election.

Personal life
Sowore and his family have been residents of Haworth, New Jersey.

In September 2021, it was reported that Sowore's younger brother had been shot dead by herdsmen or kidnappers in Edo state.

Justice Ijeoma Ojukwu of the Abuja division of the Federal High Court barred Sowore from travelling outside Abuja in October 2019. According to Sowore, the restriction prevented him from attending his brother's burial.

References

1971 births
Living people
People from Haworth, New Jersey
People from Ondo State
Nigerian activists
Nigerian bloggers
Nigerian human rights activists
University of Lagos alumni
School of International and Public Affairs, Columbia University alumni
Yoruba activists
Nigerian newspaper founders
Yoruba businesspeople
Yoruba politicians
Candidates for President of Nigeria
21st-century Nigerian politicians
Amnesty International prisoners of conscience held by Nigeria

Omoyele Sowore


Biel/Bienne is a city in the canton of Berne, Switzerland.

Biel may also refer to:

Places
 Biel, Valais, Switzerland, a village
 Biel, Ostrów Mazowiecka County, Poland, a village
 Biel, Siedlce County, Poland, a village
 Biel, Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship, Poland, a village
 Biel, East Lothian, Scotland, a village
 Biel Water, a river
 Biel House, a historic house
 Biel, Trebišov, Slovakia, a village and municipality
 Biel, Zaragoza, Spain, a municipality
 Biel District, Switzerland, of which Biel/Bienne is the seat
 Biel/Bienne (administrative district), an administrative district in the Canton of Bern, Switzerland.
 Lake Biel, Switzerland

Transport
 Biel (Goms) railway station in Biel, Valais, Switzerland
 Biel Mett railway station in Biel/Bienne, Bern, Switzerland
 Biel/Bienne railway station in Biel/Bienne, Bern, Switzerland

Other uses
 Biel (name), given name and surname
 Biel (singer), Brazilian pop and funk singer
 Biel chess tournament, held in Biel, Switzerland
 Beirut International Exhibition & Leisure Center
 Bielschowsky stain, used in neuropathology and often abbreviated as biel

See also
 Biel-Benken, a town in the canton of Basel-Land, Switzerland

Biel (disambiguation)


Gerald William Heaney (January 29, 1918 – June 22, 2010) served for nearly forty years as a United States Circuit judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit, from his appointment by President Lyndon B. Johnson in November 1966 until his full retirement in August 2006. Heaney's career in public service began in 1941, upon graduation from law school. He soon enlisted in the United States Army, volunteered for the United States Rangers, and soon became a second lieutenant in the 2nd Ranger Battalion. Heaney's endurance as a judge was related to his endurance as a Ranger; of the hundreds of members of the Second Ranger Battalion who landed at Normandy on the early hours of D-Day, Heaney was one of only three still on the front lines with the Rangers on VE Day. Between the end of World War II and his appointment to the federal bench, he rewrote the Free State of Bavaria's labor laws, and was a valued political advisor and organizer for several liberal Democratic politicians, including Hubert Humphrey, Adlai Stevenson, Orville Freeman, Eugene McCarthy, and Walter Mondale. As an appellate court judge, Heaney typically favored broad interpretations of the Bill of Rights and civil rights, labor and employment rights statutes.

Personal background

Heaney was born in the farming community of Goodhue, in southeastern Minnesota, on January 29, 1918. He was one of seven children of a butcher (William J. Heaney) and his wife (Johanna (Ryan) Heaney). Heaney's involvement in political campaigns began with the 1928 presidential election, when, as a ten-year-old, he assisted in posting campaign signs for New York Governor and Democratic Nominee Al Smith. Heaney came of age during the Great Depression. He attended the College (now University) of St. Thomas, then transferred to the University of Minnesota, where he received a Bachelor of Science in Law degree in 1939. Upon graduation he enrolled in the University of Minnesota Law School. Heaney received his Bachelor of Laws in 1941, and then worked in the securities division of the Minnesota Department of Commerce. However, his legal career was soon interrupted by the United States' entry into World War II.

Service in World War II

In 1942, at age 24, Heaney enlisted. After the United States Marines rejected him due to color blindness, he enlisted as a private in the United States Army. He then volunteered for the United States Rangers, and would soon be commissioned as a second lieutenant in Company C of the Second Ranger Battalion, then in intense training to serve as a spearhead in Operation Overlord, the Allied invasion of western Europe.

Organizers of Operation Overlord decided that Ranger Company C would constitute Ranger "Task Force B". Unlike Ranger Task Force A (which scaled Pointe du Hoc, as depicted in The Longest Day) and Ranger Task Force C (which landed in Dog Green sector of Omaha Beach as depicted at the outset of Saving Private Ryan), the story of Task Force B on D-Day is lesser-known. In the first minutes of the invasion's amphibious landing, Task Force B disembarked in "Charlie" sector of Omaha Beach. That sector was located at Omaha Beach's far western end, where the beach abruptly terminates in a rocky promontory of 100-foot cliffs called Pointe de la Percee. The Task Force's mission included taking out the four German pillboxes at the top of the cliffs, as part of coordinated actions with Rangers' efforts to take the Vierville draw (to the east) and Pointe du Hoc (to the west).

In a Library of Congress oral history interview conducted by Congressman James Oberstar, Heaney recounted the first moments of the battle:
"At 6:30 we arrived close to the beach. We could not quite get into the beach because of the obstacles that the Germans had placed under water and also had proximity bombs that would blow up ships. They were having trouble getting the vessels in, so they could not get to the beach, but they got into relatively shallow water. And the door went down on the landing craft, and the captain stood up and said, everyone ashore, and he was cut down by gunfire. And the first lieutenant stood up and said, everyone ashore, and he was cut down by gunfire. And then that left me, Second Lieutenant Gerald Heaney, in charge, and I looked up and said, we are not going out that door; everybody over the side." Unfortunately, the landing craft had stopped in water over the heads of the soldiers, most of whom were burdened down by packs and equipment. Only by cutting loose their equipment and then swimming to shore could most of them avoid drowning.

Only half of the members of Task Force B reached the relative safety at the foot of the cliff. The Task Force's preferred route to the high ground – through the Vierville draw in Dog Green sector – had quickly become a killing zone, forcing Task Force B to find a route directly up the face of the cliff. Without the London fire ladders that helped Task Force A to take Pointe du Hoc, and with most of their other climbing equipment at the bottom of the Channel, Task Force B's surviving Rangers used bayonets thrust into the cliffs as footholds, and eventually reached the crest of Pointe de la Percee. There, control of the trenches surrounding the pillboxes switched back and forth between German and American forces for hours, further depleting the Company's ammunition and manpower. By the end of the battle, Task Force B secured Charlie sector, but at great cost in lives. For his heroism on D-Day, Second Lieutenant Heaney was awarded the Silver Star.

After D-Day, the Second Ranger Battalion served alongside regular infantry units in areas such as the Cherbourg peninsula (in June–July 1944), Brest (in August–September 1944), the Crozon peninsula (September 1944), LeFret (September 1944) and the Hürtgen Forest (in December 1944). For his courage in battles after D-Day, Heaney was awarded a Bronze Star.

By May 1945, Heaney's unit had reached so deeply into Axis-held territory that it crossed Germany's pre-1938 eastern border, entering areas of Bohemia that later would be turned over to Soviet control and become a part of Czechoslovakia (now a part of the Czech Republic). There, as Germany's surrender was imminent, Heaney – now a captain—was responsible for a poignant moment. American, British, and Soviet forces had met and were preparing for a flag-raising ceremony, when Heaney recognized that no American flag was available. Heaney went into a nearby village, found swatches of red, white and blue cloth, and seamstresses, and convinced them to create a 48-star United States flag in time for the ceremony. That impromptu flag returned home with Captain Heaney, and serves as a cherished feature of many patriotic events in Duluth.

Because of the Second Ranger Battalion's extraordinary service, General Omar Bradley permitted them to return home as a group. Before returning, however, Heaney assisted the new government of Bavaria in West Germany to revise its labor laws, helping to organize a free trade movement. Heaney left the service in 1946.

Political and legal career

Upon his return to Minnesota, Heaney moved to Duluth, practicing labor law with the Lewis, Hammer, Heaney, Weyl and Halverson firm, and becoming deeply involved in activities of Minnesota's Democratic-Farmer-Labor (DFL) Party. By 1948, he soon found himself in the middle of a watershed year in the history that party, as a new generation of young liberals led by future governor Orville Freeman and Minneapolis Mayor (and United States Senate Candidate) Hubert Humphrey wrested control of the party away from supporters of third-party presidential candidate Henry Wallace, while at the same time building the foundation for a 30-year political dynasty. Among that group, Heaney was considered "one of the shrewdest politicians in Minnesota", and became a Democratic national committeeman in 1955. Heaney became involved in Adlai Stevenson's 1956 presidential campaign. In Minnesota Senator Hubert Humphrey's unsuccessful run for the democratic presidential nomination in 1960, Heaney served as a campaign manager. In 1964 he was appointed by the Minnesota Legislature to fill a vacancy on the Board of Regents of the University of Minnesota.

Heaney's political career was not without its setbacks. In May 1960, during the DFL convention, he was unseated as a member of the Democratic National Committee. Newspapers reported that "his foes called him high-handed, arrogant and ruthless." In 1965, the Minnesota Legislature ended his career as a university regent, even though he was an incumbent and the governor's nominee for reappointment, and the Legislature had not failed to reappoint a regent for twelve years. His rejection was attributed to conservatives in the Legislature.

Federal judicial service

Heaney was nominated by President Lyndon B. Johnson on September 9, 1966, to the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit, to a new seat authorized by 80 Stat. 75. His nomination came upon the recommendation of former Minnesota Governor and then Secretary of Agriculture Orville Freeman. Freeman noted in his letter to President Johnson that Heaney was a close personal friend, had served as a Democratic National Committee member from Minnesota, was an excellent lawyer, and a supporter of Johnson's Great Society program. Heaney was confirmed by the United States Senate on October 20, 1966, and received his commission on November 3, 1966. He entered active service in December 1966. He assumed senior status on December 31, 1988. His service terminated on August 31, 2006, due to his retirement.

Judicial philosophy and law clerks

The Heaney appointment was one of three by Johnson to the Eighth Circuit that collectively altered the balance of the court. Heaney, along with Johnson nominees Myron H. Bright of North Dakota and Donald P. Lay of Nebraska and Iowa, "were more likely to vote for civil liberties claims and were more willing to accept an activist judiciary (as well as more likely to publish dissents) than their predecessors." Judges Heaney, Lay and Bright also shared a relative youthfulness at the time of appointment and a commitment to public service that led each of them to remain on the bench for many decades; the three served, collectively, over 129 years on the Eighth Circuit. According to Judge Bright, Judge Heaney hired the Eighth Circuit's first woman law clerk (Rebecca Knittle, in 1970), and its first African-American law clerk (Henry L. Jones, Jr., later a United States Magistrate Judge in Little Rock, Arkansas).

School desegregation in St. Louis, Missouri

During Heaney's tenure on the Eighth Circuit, school desegregation suits arising in cities such as Little Rock, St. Louis and Kansas City were among the court's most complex and lengthy proceedings. Judge Heaney played a particularly personal role in the St. Louis desegregation case, and wrote every appellate opinion in the case after 1980. The case involved implementation of a voluntary city-county transfer plan, and eventually drew 13,000 black students to county schools from the city, which Heaney credits for an increase in the percentage of black students who graduated from high school and went on to college. In 2004, after recusing himself from the St. Louis desegregation cases, Judge Heaney co-authored (with Dr. Susan Uchitelle, a former law clerk), a book on segregation and desegregation in the St. Louis school systems entitled Unending Struggle: The Long Road to an Equal Education in St. Louis.

Influential opinions

In Chess v. Widmar, 635 F.2d 1310, 1320 (8th Cir. 1980), members of a religious student organization at the University of Missouri-Kansas City alleged that university officials violated their right to free exercise of religion under the First Amendment by refusing to grant them equal access to university facilities. Writing for the Eighth Circuit, Judge Heaney agreed, holding that once a university opens its facilities for certain groups, it must keep them open for all groups. The United States Supreme Court granted certiorari, and in Widmar v. Vincent, 454 U.S. 263 (1981) affirmed this ruling.

In Brenden v. Independent School District No. 742, 477 F.2d 1292, 1300 (8th Cir. 1973), two female students who requested to participate in non-contact sports at schools that offered no varsity teams for females brought an action claiming that a state high school league rule prohibiting females from participating with males in interscholastic sports violated the Fourteenth Amendment's Equal Protection Clause. Writing for the court, Judge Heaney found the rule unconstitutional, holding that the activities were non-contact and the females displayed the ability to compete with males.

In U.S. v. City of Black Jack, Missouri, 508 F.2d 1179 (8th Cir. 1974), cert. denied, 422 U.S. 1042 (1975), the Eighth Circuit became one of the first United States Courts of Appeals to decide what standards should apply to challenges under the Civil Rights Act of 1968, otherwise known as the Fair Housing Act, to zoning decisions that allegedly had a disproportionate impact on the ability of residents of segregated communities to move to desegregated communities. Writing for the court, Judge Heaney found that the city's actions violated the act because of its disparate impact on the ability of minority group residents of St. Louis to relocate to suburban Black Jack, and because Black Jack's justification did not satisfy a rigorous standard. The Supreme Court declined to review the case, and for many years Judge Heaney's analysis was cited approvingly by other federal courts interpreting the act.

In Consolidated Freightways Corp. of Delaware v. Kassel, 612 F.2d 1064 (8th Cir. 1979), aff'd, 450 U.S. 662 (1981), Iowa's prohibition of extra-long semitrailer trucks was alleged to unconstitutionally burden interstate commerce, in violation of what is known as the dormant Commerce Clause. The court upheld the claim and struck down the requirement. In the court's opinion, Judge Heaney reasoned that, while "some burdening of interstate commerce will be tolerated" for the sake of safety, The Iowa regulation failed because it burdened interstate commerce and failed to directly protect a state safety interest. Two years later, the United States Supreme Court affirmed this ruling.

Later activities

Gerald and Eleanor Heaney continued to live in Duluth, where he worked to raise money for scholarships for students attending the University of Minnesota-Duluth. Free again to become involved in partisan politics, in late 2006 he volunteered at local DFL Party campaign offices, and in March 2007 endorsed John Edwards' bid for the 2008 Democratic nomination for president. In the fall of 2007 he served as co-chair of Don Ness's successful campaign for mayor of Duluth.

Honors

The federal courthouse and customhouse in Duluth, and residence hall at the University of Minnesota-Duluth, are named in Heaney's honor. In 2001 he received an honorary Doctor of Laws Degree for Public Service from the University of Minnesota-Duluth.

Death

Heaney died June 22, 2010, in Duluth, Minnesota.

References

External links
Judge Gerald Heaney 1918–2010
"In a time of Minnesota giants, none stood taller than Judge Heaney". MinnPost. June 23, 2010.
"The late judge Gerald Heaney, in his own words". MPR News. June 30, 2010.

1918 births
2010 deaths
United States Army personnel of World War II
Military personnel from Minnesota
Judges of the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit
Minnesota Democrats
Minnesota lawyers
People from Duluth, Minnesota
Recipients of the Silver Star
United States Army officers
United States Army Rangers
United States court of appeals judges appointed by Lyndon B. Johnson
20th-century American judges
University of Minnesota Law School alumni
People from Goodhue County, Minnesota

Gerald Heaney


Quincas Borba is a novel written by the Brazilian writer Machado de Assis. It was first published in 1891. It is also known in English as Philosopher or Dog? The novel was principally written as a serial in the journal A Estação from 1886 to 1891. It was definitively published as a book in 1892 with some small but significant changes from the serialized version.

Following The Posthumous Memoirs of Bras Cubas (1881) and preceding Dom Casmurro (1899), this book is considered by modern critics to be the second of Machado de Assis's realist trilogy, in which the author was concerned with using pessimism and irony to criticize the customs and philosophy of his time, in the process parodying scientism, Social darwinism, and Comte's positivism, although he did not remove all Romantic elements from the plot.

In contrast to the earlier novel of the trilogy, Quincas Borba was written in third person, telling the story of Rubião, a naive young man who becomes a disciple and later the heir of the titular philosopher Quincas Borba, a character in the earlier novel. While living according to the fictional "Humanitist" philosophy of Quincas Borba, Rubião befriends and is fooled by the greedy Christiano and his wife Sofia who manage to take him for his entire inheritance.

External links
 MetaLibri Digital Library
 Contos Fluminenses
 Dom Casmurro
 Memórias Póstumas de Bras Cubas
 Quincas Borba

1891 Brazilian novels
Novels by Machado de Assis
Portuguese-language novels

Quincas Borba


Julie Marie Berman (born November 3, 1983) is an American actress. She is known for her role as Lulu Spencer on the ABC Daytime soap opera General Hospital, for which she received three Daytime Emmy Awards, and for her role on the Golden Globe nominated Hulu  comedy series Casual as Leia, Valerie's receptionist.

Early life
Berman was born to Peter and Renée Berman in Los Angeles, California. She started acting at the age of six.

Career
Berman made her television debut with the recurring role in the WB family drama series, 7th Heaven as the misunderstood Shelby Connor, a friend of Lucy Camden. Berman continued her role on 7th Heaven, while simultaneously adding a recurring role in the ABC drama Once and Again. She also guest-starred on ER and Boston Public, and starred alongside Shelley Long in the 1999 television movie Vanished Without a Trace.

2005–13; General Hospital
Berman is best known for her role as Lulu Spencer, the stubborn, troubled daughter of Luke and Laura Spencer, in the ABC daytime soap opera General Hospital. She made her first appearance on October 28, 2005. The casting immediately garnered much attention due to Berman's strong resemblance to Genie Francis who played Laura; Lulu and Laura's strong resemblance was often mentioned within the series. In July 2012, Berman informed producers that she had no plans of renewing her contract when it expired in November. Despite no official word from ABC or Berman, rumors began to circulate that Berman was about to vacate the role. After months of speculation, on February 26, 2013, an issue of Soaps In Depth confirmed that Berman was indeed leaving the series and had just filmed her final scenes.

Berman earned her first Daytime Emmy nomination in 2007, and won her first Daytime Emmy for Outstanding Younger Actress in 2009. She won her second consecutive Emmy in 2010 in the same category. Berman departed her role as Lulu in 2013, and was replaced by The Young and the Restless actress Emme Rylan In 2013, Berman won her third Emmy, but in the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress category.

2013–present
After leaving daytime television, Berman guest-starred on prime time comedy series include Two and a Half Men and Jane the Virgin. In 2015, she began the recurring role opposite Michaela Watkins and Frances Conroy in the Hulu comedy series, Casual. She was promoted to series regular for second season. Later that year, Berman joined the cast of NBC medical drama Chicago Med, playing the recurring role of Dr. Samantha "Sam" Zanetti.

Personal life
Berman graduated with a bachelor's degree in Television and Cinema from the University of Southern California in May 2006. While at the university she was a member of the Kappa Kappa Gamma sorority.

Berman married Michael Grady on August 15, 2008. The couple welcomed their first child, son Asher Dean Grady on February 18, 2019. Their second child, son Holden Jeffrey Grady was born on January 18, 2022.

Filmography

Film

Television

Awards and nominations

References

External links

1983 births
Living people
American soap opera actresses
Jewish American actresses
Actresses from Los Angeles
USC School of Cinematic Arts alumni
Daytime Emmy Award winners
Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series winners
Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Younger Actress in a Drama Series winners
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses
20th-century American Jews
21st-century American Jews
American television actresses

Julie Berman


Andrew Downes, also known as Dounaeus (2 February 1628), was an English classical scholar.

Life

He was born in the county of Shropshire, and was educated at Shrewsbury School and St. John's College, Cambridge, where he did much to revive the study of Greek, at that time at a very low ebb.

In 1571 he was elected fellow of his college, and, in 1585, he was appointed to the Regius Professor of Greek, which he held for nearly forty years. He died at Coton, near Cambridge, on 2 February 1627/1628. According to Simonds d'Ewes, who attended his lectures on Demosthenes and gives a slight sketch of his personality, Downes was accounted "the ablest Grecian of Christendom."

He published little, but seems to have devoted his chief attention to the Greek orators. A 1587 edition of Plato's Menexenus, the first Greek book printed at Cambridge and the first Greek Plato printed in England, "set as a teaching text...was almost certainly printed as part of the curriculum established by Andrew Downes."  He edited Lysias' Pro caede Eratosthenis (1593); Praelectiones in Philippicam de pace Demosthenis (1621), dedicated to James I of England; some letters (written in Greek) to Isaac Casaubon, printed in the Epistolae of the latter; and notes to John Chrysostom, in Sir Henry Savile's edition. Downes was also one of the seven translators of the Apocrypha for the King James Version of the Bible, and one of the six learned men appointed to revise the new version after its completion.

References

1540s births
1628 deaths
16th-century English writers
Writers from Shropshire
English classical scholars
Translators of the King James Version
People educated at Shrewsbury School
Alumni of St John's College, Cambridge
Fellows of St John's College, Cambridge

16th-century Anglican theologians
17th-century Anglican theologians
Regius Professors of Greek (Cambridge)

Andrew Downes (scholar)


The Malayo-Polynesian languages are a subgroup of the Austronesian languages. There are about 385.5 million people who speak these languages. The Malayo-Polynesian languages are spoken by the Austronesian people of the island nations of Southeast Asia and the Pacific Ocean. There are a smaller number in continental Asia. Malagasy is spoken on the island of Madagascar. Part of the language family shows a strong influence of Sanskrit and Arabic as the western part of the region has many followers of Buddhism, Hinduism, and, since the 10th century, Islam.

References

Austronesian languages

Malayo-Polynesian languages


Kreuzweg Ost is an Austrian darkwave/martial industrial project founded by Michael Gregor and Martin Schirenc. The music is a blend of world war-related samples and loops with booming sounds and instrumental pieces.  There are no vocals; instead, the predominant samples are arranged so that they take the role of vocals, sometimes telling short stories similar to radio play snippets.  Martin Schirenc, of Austrian death metal band Pungent Stench, left the group shortly after the release of the Iron Avantgarde album and was replaced by programmer Ronald Albrecht and producer/sound engineer Oliver Stummer.  Michael Gregor is a member of the Austrian black metal band Summoning and is also known as Silenius.  Oliver Stummer has also released as Tomoroh Hidari and his Namelessness Is Legion.

Motives

Kreuzweg Ost's concept is about making musical translations of various movies dealing with military or religious topics. The selection of films includes literature adaptations, along with other films.

Discography

Iron Avantgarde (album, 2000, Napalm Records)
Edelrost (album, 2005, Cold Spring Records)
Gott Mit Uns (album, 2012, Cold Spring Records)

Notes
 Track 5 on Edelrost, entitled "Eiserne Menschen" (English: "Iron Men") uses spoken word samples from the German film Mädchen in Uniform from 1931.
 There are two (known) unreleased tracks from Edelrost, "Geierwally" and "Ein Neuer Krieg". "Ein Neuer Krieg" was used on a compilation CD for Cold Spring.

External links
 Kreuzweg Ost at Cold Spring Records
 [ Kreuzweg Ost] at Allmusic

Martial industrial groups
Austrian alternative rock groups

Kreuzweg Ost


Yacouba Moumouni is a Nigerien singer and flautist. As the leader of the jazz-ethnic band Mamar Kassey, he is one of the best-known Nigerien musicians outside Niger. He is from the Songhai ethnic group.

Born in 1966 in a small sahel town some  from Niamey, Moumouni herded cattle with his family until his father died when he was 10.  Falling out with his brother, he ran away to the capital, where he lived on the street for two years until his talent attracted the attention of a music teacher, and he was taken on as an apprentice. Mastering the traditional flute, he joined the Ballet National of Niger and then formed Mamar Kassey, an eight-man group featuring Moumouni and guitarist Abdallah Alhassane. Together they have toured West Africa, Europe, and the United States, and have become the most popular musical group in Niger.

See also
Denké-Denké

References
BBC:  Mamar Kassey Alatoumi. Reviewed by Peter Marsh. 20 November 2002.
Afropop Worldwide:  Mamar Kassey Alatoumi. Reviewed by Banning Eyre, 2001.
SONG OF THE SAHEL. Dan Maley, Macon Telegraph (Georgia, USA),2004-09-03, p. 3.

20th-century Nigerien male singers
Living people
Nigerien flautists
Year of birth missing (living people)
21st-century Nigerien male singers
20th-century flautists
21st-century flautists

Yacouba Moumouni


Hugo Nicolás Barbaro (December 12, 1950) is a prelate of the Roman Catholic Church. He serves as bishop of San Roque de Presidencia Roque Sáenz Peña since 2008.

Life
Born in Vicente López, Barbarowas ordained to the priesthood on August 15, 1980.

On April 22, 2008, he was appointed bishop of San Roque de Presidencia Roque Sáenz Peña. Barbaro received his episcopal consecration on the following July 4 from Jorge Mario Bergoglio, archbishop of Buenos Aires, the later pope Francis, with bishop emeritus of San Roque de Presidencia Roque Sáenz Peña, José Lorenzo Sartori, and bishop of Santiago del Estero, Francisco Polti Santillán, serving as co-consecrators. He was installed as bishop on July 26, 2008.

External links
 catholic-hierarchy.org, Bishop Hugo Nicolás Barbaro

1950 births
21st-century Roman Catholic bishops in Argentina
Living people
Roman Catholic bishops of San Roque de Presidencia Roque Sáenz Peña

Hugo Nicolás Barbaro


Inex-Adria Aviopromet Flight 1308 was a McDonnell Douglas MD-81 aircraft operating a Yugoslavian charter flight to the French island of Corsica.  On 1 December 1981 the flight crashed on Corsica's Mont San-Pietro, killing all 180 people on board.  The crash was the deadliest and first major aviation accident involving a McDonnell Douglas MD-80, as well as the second-deadliest air disaster in France behind Turkish Airlines Flight 981.

Accident
Flight 1308 took off from Brnik Airport on a chartered flight from Slovenia (at the time Yugoslavia) to Corsica's capital city of Ajaccio with 173 Slovenian tourists and 7 crew members. At some point, the co-pilot let his young son enter the cockpit.

While in its holding pattern, the flight was instructed to descend through the minimum holding altitude of 6,800 feet. As it descended, its Ground Proximity Warning System gave off several audio warnings, which the crew did not react to for approximately ten seconds. Three seconds before impact, the crew increased engine power and attempted to climb, but were unable to clear the terrain. One of the aircraft's wings collided with the summit of Mont San-Pietro and broke off. The aircraft then went into an uncontrolled dive and violently crashed on the other side of the mountain eight seconds later, killing everyone on board. The time of the accident was 8:53 a.m. local time (07:53 UTC).

Investigation
The subsequent investigation into the disaster revealed that control mistakenly believed that Flight 1308 was out of its holding pattern, believing it was already located over the sea, while in reality it was located  inland, over the mountainous terrain of Corsica. The crew, apparently surprised at the instruction to descend, repeated several times that they were still in the holding pattern, which the control acknowledged. The crew was unfamiliar with the airport and its vicinity, as this was the first flight of Inex-Adria Aviopromet to Corsica. The investigation determined that the imprecise language used by the crew of the MD-81 and the air traffic controller played a significant role in the accident. Air traffic control in Ajaccio was cleared of all charges. The air traffic controller in charge of Flight 1308 was transferred to another airport in France.

At the time of the accident, the Ajaccio airport had no radar system. As a direct result of the accident, the equipment was upgraded and the approach pattern changed.

2008 clean-up operation
Some debris and human bodies were removed from the crash site after the accident in 1981. In 2007, POP TV (a TV station in Slovenia) did a news report on the accident. They visited the crash site in Corsica and found many of the airplane's parts still scattered on Mont San-Pietro, in rugged and inaccessible terrain. Subsequently, the Government of Slovenia, Adria Airways and Kompas (the Slovenian travel agency that organized the fatal trip in 1981) organized and funded a clean-up operation. A Slovenian team of about 60 soldiers, mountain rescuers, civil protection and rescue service members, medical personnel, and other volunteers removed about 27 tons of aircraft remains in May 2008. The removed debris included one aircraft engine and large wing parts. Some of the parts were so large they needed to be machine cut before transporting them from the mountain by a helicopter. Several human remains were also found, and were either sent for further identification tests, or were properly disposed. A commemorative plaque was installed at the site of the initial wing impact.

References

Other websites

 Final report ()
AirDisaster.Com – Crash photo of Flight 1308
Aviation Safety Network – Picture of the MD-81 that would become Flight 1308
24ur.Com – Videos of the crash of Flight 1308

Aviation accidents and incidents in the 1980s
1981 in Europe
1980s in France
20th century in Slovenia

Inex-Adria Aviopromet Flight 1308


Michael Alan Grodin (born December 26, 1951) is Professor of Health Law, Bioethics, and Human Rights at the Boston University School of Public Health, where he has received the distinguished Faculty Career Award for Research and Scholarship, and 20 teaching awards, including the "Norman A. Scotch Award for Excellence in Teaching." He is also Professor of Family Medicine and Psychiatry at the Boston University School of Medicine. In addition, Dr. Grodin is the Director of the Project on Medicine and the Holocaust at the Elie Wiesel Center for Judaic Studies, and a member of the faculty of the Division of Religious and Theological Studies. He has been on the faculty at Boston University for 35 years. He completed his B.S. degree at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, his M.D. degree from the Albert Einstein College of Medicine, and his postdoctoral and fellowship training at UCLA and Harvard University.

Biography
Michael Grodin is the Medical Ethicist at Boston Medical Center, and for thirteen years served as the Human Studies Chairman for the Department of Health and Hospitals of the City of Boston. He is a fellow of the Hastings Center; served on the board of directors of Public Responsibility in Medicine and Research, and the American Society of Law, Medicine and Ethics; and serves on the Advisory Board of the Center for the Philosophy and History of Science. He was a member of the National Committee on Bioethics of the American Academy of Pediatrics and the Committee on Ethics of the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Professor Grodin served on the Ethics Committee of the Massachusetts Center for Organ Transplantation, was a consultant to the National Human Subjects Protection Review Panel of the National Institutes of Health AIDS Program Advisory Committee, and is a consultant on Ethics and Research with Human Subjects for the International Organizations of Medical Sciences and the World Health Organization. He is a member of the Ethics Review Board of Physicians for Human Rights.

Grodin is the Co-Founder of Global Lawyers and Physicians: Working Together for Human Rights; Co-Director of the Boston Center for Refugee Health and Human Rights: Caring for Survivors of Torture; and has received a special citation from the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in recognition of his "profound contributions - through original and creative research - to the cause of Holocaust education and remembrance." He is an internationally recognized authority on Medicine during the Holocaust. The Refugee Center which he Co-Directs received the 2002 Outstanding Achievement Award from the Political Asylum/Immigration Representation Project for "sensitivity and dedication in caring for the health and human rights of refugees and survivors of torture." He is a Member of the Global Implementation Project of the Istanbul Protocol Manual on the Effective Investigation and Documentation of Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, and an Advisor to UNESCO. Grodin was the 2000 Julius Silberger Scholar and 2014 Kravetz award recipient as an elected member of the Boston Psychoanalytic Society and Institute and the American Psychoanalytic Association. Four times named one of America's Top Physicians, he has received four national Humanism in Medicine and Humanitarian Awards for "integrity, clinical excellence and compassion," "outstanding humanism in medicine and integrity as a faculty member," and "compassion, empathy, respect and cultural sensitivity in the delivery of care to patients and their families."

Grodin's primary areas of interest include the relationship of health and human rights, medicine and the holocaust, and bioethics.

Selected bibliography
Grodin has delivered over 600 invited regional, national, and international addresses, written more than 200 scholarly papers, and edited or co-edited seven books.

Books

Book review:

Book review:

Book review:

Book review:  Selected as second of the top ten humanitarian books of 1999.

 Grodin, Michael A. (forthcoming). Medical Halacha and Rabbinic Responsa in the Ghettos and Camps During the Holocaust.

Journal articles

References

1951 births
Living people
University of California, Los Angeles alumni
Harvard University people
Hastings Center Fellows
Boston University School of Public Health faculty
Massachusetts Institute of Technology alumni
Albert Einstein College of Medicine alumni
Boston University School of Medicine faculty

Michael Grodin