Diandongosuchus is an extinct genus of archosauriform reptile, possibly a member of the Phytosauria, known from the Middle Triassic of China. The type species Diandongosuchus fuyuanensis was named in 2012 from the Zhuganpo Formation of Yunnan Province. It is a marine species that shows similarities with another Chinese Triassic species called Qianosuchus mixtus, although it has fewer adaptations toward marine life. It was originally classified as the basal-most member of the pseudosuchian clade Poposauroidea. However, a subsequent study conducted by Stocker et al. (2016, 2017) indicated it to be the basalmost known phytosaur instead.

Description

Diandongosuchus is known from a nearly complete articulated skeleton (ZMNH M8770) missing most of the tail. The total length of ZMNH M8770 is  and the estimated body length of the animal in life is around . The specimen is preserved on its right side, with the underside of the lower jaws and the trunk showing. It was prepared out of a limestone slab to reveal details on the left side of the skeleton, many of which are better preserved. The skull of Diandongosuchus is pointed, with oval-shaped eye sockets, antorbital and temporal openings. Distinctive features include a long premaxilla bone at the tip of the snout that extends backward past the nostril openings, a large ridge on the jugal bone that runs beneath the eye socket, and two supratemporal openings on the skull table that have prominent ridges surrounding them. The skull has similar proportions to that of Qianosuchus, and has the same number of teeth in the premaxilla. Like the terrestrial poposauroid Poposaurus, Diandongosuchus has a maxilla (upper jaw) bone that does not reach the border of the nostril opening.

ZMNH M8770 has 25 vertebrae in the back and neck, two sacral vertebrae (as in most Triassic pseudosuchians), and seven of the forward-most tail vertebrae. The neck vertebrae are taller and narrower than they are in Qianosuchus. Most of the back vertebrae are obscured by overlying ribs. At the back of the trunk near the hips are bones belonging to small vertebrates such as fish - likely the stomach contents of the individual. Small overlapping osteoderms (bony scutes) overlay many of the vertebrae. Two rows run along the neck, back, and tail with about two osteoderms overlaying each vertebra. Small osteoderms also cover the limb bones.

Some features of the limbs, pelvic and pectoral girdles are also diagnostic in Diandongosuchus, including a thick ischium bone in the hip, an opening of the coracoid bone in the pectoral girdle that is much larger than those of other archosaurs and is closed by the end of the scapula, and a fourth metatarsal bone in the foot that is longer than the other metatarsals. The scapula of Diandongosuchus is longer and narrower than that of Qianosuchus. The iliac blade of the hip is unusual in that it is narrow and projects far back from the rest of the hip. As in Qianosuchus, the femur of Diandongosuchus is slightly twisted, but the fibula is thinner and more curved. The astragalus and calcaneum bones of the ankle fit together like a ball-and-socket, a feature that confirms Diandongosuchus as a pseudosuchian. Some of the phalanges or toe bones are missing in ZMNH M8770, but the metatarsals are present and have unique proportions among Triassic archosaurs in which the fourth is longer than the third.

Classification

A phylogenetic analysis conducted by Li et al. (2012) in the original description of Diandongosuchus showed that it was the most basal member of a clade called Poposauroidea, which includes mostly terrestrial pseudosuchians such as the bipedal Poposaurus and the sail-backed Arizonasaurus. It was found to be closely related to Qianosuchus, an aquatic pseudosuchian that was the second most basal member of Poposauroidea. The data matrix of Li et al., a list of characteristics that was used in the analysis, was based on that of Nesbitt (2011), one of the most extensive on archosaurs. Because of this, many of the relationships found by Li et al. are the same as those found by Nesbitt. Below is a cladogram from the analysis:

However, more recent studies have found it to be a basal phytosaur.

Paleoecology

Diandongosuchus was found in a Ladinian-age marine limestone formation that has preserved many marine reptiles including thallatosaurs, nothosaurs, pistosaurs, and some protorosaurs. The closely related pseudosuchian Qianosuchus was found in a marine deposit about  northwest of the Diandongosuchus locality that is slightly older (Anisian in age) and possesses many features consistent with a marine lifestyle.  However, Diandongosuchus  shows no features that are clear adaptations to a marine lifestyle. Possible adaptations include nostrils that are positioned slightly farther back on the skull than most terrestrial pseudosuchians and a greater number of premaxillary teeth (a feature seen in possible semiaquatic archosaurs such as Chanaresuchus and spinosaurids). Fish bones within its stomach contents are additional evidence that it was a marine archosaur. Diandongosuchus may have had a similar lifestyle to modern marine crocodylians like the saltwater crocodile that live along coastlines yet are not fully marine.

The fossil assemblage in which Diandongosuchus was found bears many similarities to that of European fossil localities such as Monte San Giorgio. Both include marine reptiles like thallatosaurs and nothosaurs and probably represented environments along the northern shorelines of the Tethys Ocean. No marine archosaurs like Diandongosuchus and Qianosuchus are known from Europe, although the pseudosuchian Ticinosuchus from Monte San Giorgio was probably adapted to life along the shorelines of the Tethys. In the analyses of Li et al. (2012) and Nesbitt (2011), Ticinosuchus is either the most basal member of a clade called Loricata which is the sister taxon of Poposauroidea, or the sister taxon of Paracrocodylomorpha which includes both Loricata and Poposauroidea. Although Ticinosuchus and Diandongosuchus were initially believed to have been very closely related basal paracrocodylomorphs, this hypothesis is invalidated if Diandongosuchus is a phytosaur as other studies have shown.

References

Phytosaurs
Middle Triassic reptiles of Asia
Triassic archosaurs
Prehistoric reptile genera

Diandongosuchus


Malware, short for malicious software, is any software intentionally designed to cause damage to a computer. There are different kinds of malware that can hurt computers, such as viruses, Trojan horses, spyware and ransomware. These programs can steal passwords, delete files, collect personal information, or even stop a computer from working at all. Computer security or anti-malware software is usually good at stopping malware from installing itself. When security software is not installed, malware can get into the computer. Getting rid of malware can be difficult, even when using programs designed to remove it.

The term "malware" refers only to software that is made for malicious purposes and works against users' expectations — and so does not include applications that may do unintended harm due to software bugs.

History
People first started writing malware in the 1970s and early 1980s. Computers were very simple then. They did not have any interesting information for malware to take. Instead, people wrote malware for fun or just to show that they could. Even the most common piece of malware from this time did not do damage to people's computers. In fact, malware was so rare that the word "malware" was not coined until 1990.

More people started using the computers in the late 1990s and early 2000s. Computers were getting more complex and faster. People saw that they could use malware to get useful information now, like passwords and credit card information. So, more programmers started writing malware. The number of malware programs on the Internet has grown very quickly ever since then the late 1990s and is still growing today. Experts think that 31.5% of the world's computers have some type of malware installed.

Purposes
The main reason people write malware is to hurt others and make money, usually by stealing or deleting important information. The Cryptolocker computer virus, for example, makes it so a person cannot use their own computer until they pay the malware writers for a software key to unlock it. Another virus, CIH, tries to make it so the victim can never use their files or turn on their computer again. Malicious keystroke logging software remembers everything a user types in and gives it to the malware author to read.

World governments have written malware to hurt their enemies. Experts think that the United States government made a virus named Stuxnet to stop an important place in Iran from working. The Chinese government probably used a virus to stop people from protesting its decisions.

How malware gets installed
There are a lot of ways malware can get onto someone's computer. One common way is through email attachments. These attachments are usually sent from other computers that already have malware on them. When someone downloads and opens the attachment, the virus installs and uses their computer to send itself to even more people.

Another way malware installs itself is when a victim gets malware just by going to a website with the malware hidden on it. This is called  drive-by downloading. A user does not have to click anything for their computer to get infected from a drive-by download. This kind of malware attack is usually found on websites that are not used a lot or whose security methods are very old. However, even current websites that people use all the time can host drive-by downloads when someone hacks the site.

People who write malware also get their programs onto computers by attaching them to real programs that people want. This is most common with pirated programs. This is because the downloader was doing something illegal and cannot complain to the authorities without getting in trouble themselves. However, some non-piracy websites also put malware (or other unwanted programs that are almost as bad as malware) in a download with real, legal software in a process known as bundling. Computer security experts complain about websites that bundle real software with malware. Their complaints do not always stop the websites from bundling.

Kinds of malware
There are many different kinds of malware. Each acts a different way.

 Viruses are a kind of malware that need a user-run program to work. They cannot copy themselves or move from one computer to another without a program to host it. Viruses are very common in pirated programs. They can harm computers in many different ways, like deleting files and stealing passwords.

 Worms are a lot like viruses and can cause the same kinds of damage. However, they're able to move through the internet and copy themselves onto computers without help from a host program. This makes them more dangerous than a virus. Worms are usually found in emails and drive-by downloads.

 Trojan horses are a type of harmful software that masquerades as a regular, benign program or utility in order to persuade a victim to install it. A Trojan horse usually carries a hidden destructive function that is activated when the application is started. They need a user to agree to run a program to work and cannot copy themselves from one computer to another. However, trojan horses can make the same problems a normal virus can make. They can also allow the malware writer to control the victim's computer, install more malware, steal bank data, and more. For example, ransomware is a type of trojan horse that stops a victim from using their files until they pay the person who wrote the malware. Experts think that trojan horses are the most common type of malware in existence.

 Adware is a type of malware that earns the program authors money with advertising. These programs show users ads and force them to use websites that make money for the malware writers. Adware will also find personal information about the victim (such as their age, race, and job). This is so the malware authors can sell the information to other people. A user can usually uninstall adware easier than most malware. However, this is still difficult to do without a specially-designed program.

 Spyware is a more dangerous kind of adware that steals more information from a user. Spyware can steal someone's Internet traffic, account passwords, and anything they have typed into their computers. Spyware is also much harder to uninstall than adware is.

Why computers get malware
There are a few reasons why computers get programs a user didn't mean to install. One common reason is because of regular programs that have software bugs. Malware can use bugs, such as a buffer overflow, to make a program do something it was not designed to do. Malware can also get onto a computer if it tricks a user into putting it there themselves. This can happen when a user plugs in a USB flash drive that has a virus on it already. Malware also commonly uses social engineering to get users to run it, like pretending to be an important email attachment for work. Some malware even pretends to be an anti-malware program to get people to run it.

How malware is stopped
Since malware is such a big problem, many companies make programs to try to stop it. These anti-malware programs have a lot of different ways to find malware. One is static analysis, which looks at the source code of a program before it is run. Then, if the program is similar to malware the static analysis program has seen before, the anti-malware program will stop the code from running. Another way of finding malware is dynamic analysis. Dynamic analysis runs only part of a program it is checking. If this part of the program tries to do anything that could be bad or harmful, the anti-malware program will not let the program run.

Malware can also be stopped without a program. This can be done by not letting a computer connect to the Internet or other computers, called creating an air gap. However, these computers can still get malware if someone puts it there another way. One example is when someone plugs in a Universal Serial Bus (USB) drive that was already plugged into a computer with a virus.

References

Malware


Banksia prolata is a species of bushy shrub that is endemic to Western Australia. It has linear, serrated or pinnatifid leaves, yellow flowers in heads of between 150 and 250, and egg-shaped follicles.

Description
Banksia prolata is a bushy shrub that grows to a height of  but does not form a lignotuber. It has linear, serrated or pinnatifid leaves that are  long and  wide on a petiole  long. There are between six and twenty-one sharply-pointed, triangular teeth on each side of the leaves. The flowers are yellow and borne in heads of between 150 and 250 with hairy, lance-shaped involucral bracts up to  long at the base of each head. The perianth is  long and the pistil  long. Flowering occurs from April to October, and the follicles are egg-shaped and  long.

Taxonomy and naming
This species was first formally described in 1810 by Robert Brown who gave it the name Dryandra longifolia and published the description in Transactions of the Linnean Society of London from material collected near Lucky Bay. The specific epithet (longifolia) is derived from the Latin words longus, "long" and folium, "leaf".

In 1996, Alex George described three subspecies of Dryandra longifolia in the journal Nuytsia:
 Dryandra longifolia  subsp. archeos A.S.George has flowers with larger organs than those of the other two subspecies, including bracts that are  long;
 Dryandra longifolia subsp. calcicola A.S.George is similar to the autonym but has straight bracts up to  long;
 Dryandra longifolia R.Br. subsp. longifolia has bracts up to  long that curve downwards.

In 2007 Austin Mast and Kevin Thiele transferred all dryandras to the genus Banksia, but since the name Banksia longifolia had already been used (Banksia longifolia Donn ex F.Dietr.), Mast and Thiele gave this species the name Banksia prolata. The epithet (prolata) is from a Latin word meaning "drawn out". The subspecies were named archeos, calcicola and prolata respectively. The names of the subspecies are accepted by the Australian Plant Census.

Distribution and habitat
Subspecies archeos grows among boulders in dense scrub on Mount Arid in the Cape Arid National Park, subspecies calcicola in scrub to the west of Esperance Bay and subspecies longifolia in scrub near granite slopes between Cape Le Grand to Cape Paisley in the Cape Le Grand National Park and on Mondrain Island in the Recherche Archipelago.

Conservation status
Banksia prolata is listed as "not threatened" by the Western Australian Government Department of Parks and Wildlife but subspecies archeos is listed as "Priority Two" meaning that it is poorly known and from only one or a few locations, subspecies calcicola as "Priority Four" meaning that is rare or near threatened and subspecies prolata as "Priority Three" meaning that it is poorly known and known from only a few locations but is not under imminent threat.

References

prolata
Plants described in 1810
Taxa named by Robert Brown (botanist, born 1773)

Banksia prolata


The Montreal Screwjob was an incident that happened on November 9, 1997, at the World Wrestling Federation (WWF)'s Survivor Series professional wrestling show. It happened in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. It is called a screwjob, because in real life, the way the match would end was changed without one of the wrestlers knowing about it. The wrestler who was screwed was Bret Hart. The people who took part in the screwjob were Hart's opponent Shawn Michaels, WWF's owner Vince McMahon, and referee Earl Hebner.

Why the screwjob happened
Bret Hart had wrestled in the WWF for 14 years, since 1983. He was popular, wrestling alone or as part of a tag team. He became WWF Champion five times. He was WWF Champion when the screwjob happened. In 1996, he signed a contract that lasted 20 years. The contract was meant to last until he retired as a wrestler, and let him be part of WWF's backstage plans. This meant he would be paid a lot of money.

At the same time World Championship Wrestling (WCW), another professional wrestling company, was getting more popular. WCW had become popular using wrestlers who left WWF, like Hulk Hogan, Scott Hall, and Kevin Nash. They were now more popular than WWF. This meant WWF could not make as much money. WWF had signed a 20-year contract with Hart because they did not want him to leave, go to WCW, and make them even more popular. But now they found it hard to pay Hart, so they had to promise to pay him later because they were in danger of running out of money.

Bret Hart and Shawn Michaels did not like each other. Hart took professional wrestling very seriously, whilst Michaels liked to party. This meant they would argue a lot. One time, when Michaels said that Hart was cheating on his wife with Sunny, a woman wrestler, the two had a fight backstage. Michaels said that if he were champion, he would not agree to lose to Hart, even though Hart had agreed to lose to Michaels on any occasion except Survivor Series. The Survivor Series show took place in Canada, which is Hart's home country. Hart did not want to lose the championship to someone he disliked in his own home country. Bret also did not like how his character had changed in the WWF. He was being told to act like he hated America.

At the start of November, Hart agreed to leave WWF and sign a new contract with WCW. His time in the WWF would end after Survivor Series. Because he was still WWF Champion, and he did not want to lose it in his final appearance, Vince McMahon was worried that Hart would bring the championship belt to WCW. This had happened before, when Debra Miceli, a wrestler who appeared as Alundra Blayze in WWF and Madusa in WCW, left WWF as WWF Women's Champion. She brought the belt on to WCW's TV show, WCW Monday Nitro, and dropped the belt in a trash can. The WWF Championship was the most important belt in WWF, so it would be even worse if Hart did something like that.

McMahon and Hart agreed to a plan, where Hart would still be champion at the end of Survivor Series. The next night on WWF's TV show, Monday Night Raw, he would give up the belt. McMahon did not follow this plan.

The screwjob
At Survivor Series, the match between Hart and Michaels was the main event (final match) of the show. At the end of the match, Michaels had put Hart in a wrestling hold called the Sharpshooter. This was a hold that Hart liked to use, and won a lot of matches with. The ending of the match was supposed to have D-Generation X (a group of Shawn Michaels' on-screen friends) and The Hart Foundation (a group of Bret Hart's relatives and on-screen friends) run out to try and help. This meant the match would end without a winner. After that, Hart would give up the belt.

Instead, Earl Hebner, the referee, called for the match to end. He acted like Bret Hart had given up in the hold, even though he had not. The bell rang and the match ended. This meant that Shawn Michaels was the new WWF Champion. Hart was angry because this was not what had been planned. He spat at McMahon, who had planned this. The fans were also angry, and booed McMahon and Michaels while cheering Hart.

After the screwjob
Bret Hart went to WCW, where he wrestled for two years until he retired.

Because the fans hated McMahon for what he had done, he decided to act like a villain on-screen. He was shown as the owner of the WWF (before, he pretended others owned it) and played the role of an evil boss. He had a long storyline with Stone Cold Steve Austin, who was a very popular hero at the time.

On the January 4, 2010 episode of Raw, Hart made up with Michaels by shaking his hand and hugging in the ring.

References

1997 in professional wrestling
WWE
1997 in Canada
1990s in Quebec

Montreal Screwjob


Nathan Shamuyarira  (29 September 1928 – 4 June 2014) was a Zimbabwean nationalist who at different times fought on behalf of and helped lead FROLIZI, ZANU, and ZAPU. He later served as the Information Minister of Zimbabwe and as the Information Secretary of ZANU PF. He was writing President Robert Mugabe's biography at the time of his death.

Nathan Shamuyarira implanted the policy of vetting foreign journalists, renewing their licences every month. This was a way of weeding out government and Zanu PF critics. Very few in the country understood the implications of this policy until opposition politics was effectively silenced.

Musa Shamuyarira, Nathan's brother, was as a student in the United States and member of the MAZAZI Student Union in the 1960s was very close to the CIA affiliated American Society of African Culture and it appears that he attempted to involve Nathan in the organisation as well.

Pius Ncube
In March 2005 he referred to prominent government critic and archbishop Pius Ncube as a

International Crisis Group
In June 2006 he accused the International Crisis Group think tank of calling for a coup against President Robert Mugabe in the Zimbabwe's Continued Self-Destruction paper. The article, which advocated unity among the opposition political parties, warned of "greater insecurity and violence" prior to the 2008 presidential election. Shamuyarira said the ICG had "sponsored violence" by the Movement for Democratic Change.

Minister of Foreign Affairs
He was considered to be routinely in dereliction of his duty, as he delegated virtually all responsibilities to other members of the government with regards to interactions with other countries. Nicholas Goche and Stan Mudenge frequently did duties that had previously been considered the responsibility of the Foreign Minister, leading to Mudenge replacing Shamuyarira in that role in 1995 with Goche taking over as Mudenge's deputy.

Gukurahundi
In October 2006 Shamuyarira sparked outrage when he praised the Gukurahundi, a series of state-sponsored massacres in the 1980s, in response to the South African government's attempts to infiltrate Zimbabwe with disgruntled units of ZAPU, called Super ZAPU, as part of Operation Drama. These elements also killed white farmers to grab international headlines. Nathan Shamuyarira stated, that the "actions of the North Korea-trained Five Brigade that killed around 3000 civilians and militants in the Matabeleland and Midlands provinces during political disturbances in the 1980s were not regrettable as [the Five Brigade was] doing a job to protect the people. It was because the dissidents were killing people, that Gukurahundi went to correct the situation and protect the people. We killed vana Gwesela (the Gweselas) in my own province in Mashonaland West, in Sanyati. We killed him because he played havoc. In Matabeleland, they (vana Gwesela) killed the Shona-speaking teachers; it's not true to say the Ndebeles were the only victims. Europeans in Mat South fled their farms and went to hide in the city." Max Mnkandla, President of the Zimbabwe Liberators' Peace Initiative, and politician Jonathan Moyo also strongly condemned his comments. Mnkandla stated that Shamuyarira's comments showed he is "not only suffering from 1880s hangover – the feeling that the Ndebele also did the same to the Shonas – it also shows that Shamuyarira is now old and should retire."

The ZANU PF leadership in Matabeleland and National Party chairman John Nkomo condemned his comments, Nkomo calling them "arrogant and insulting." He further warned,

Mandlenkosi Ncube of New Zimbabwe, in an article titled Why Shamuyarira makes me sick, referred to Shamuyarira as a "pathetic and shameless liar," a "sick individual – a Gukurahundi denier."

He later said his comments were taken out of context, but he refused to condemn the incident, saying, "That's a situation that we would like to put into history. It's not a fair question to put to me, why should I be answering this 25 years later?"

Sanctions
Shamuyarira was put on the United States sanctions list in 2003 and remained on the list until his death. In January 2007 the British government announced it would renew targeted travel sanctions on members of the Zimbabwean government who contributed to the poor human rights situation in the country. Shamuyarira claimed that the British government had not "learn[ed] from history and they don't want to leave behind their colonial suppression of independent states. Zimbabwe has done nothing wrong that deserves those illegal sanctions."

Death
Shamuyarira died at the age of 85 on 4 June 2014.

References

External links

2014 deaths
1928 births
Foreign ministers of Zimbabwe
ZANU–PF politicians

Nathan Shamuyarira


The glossy-mantled manucode (Manucodia ater) is a medium-sized bird of paradise, around 42cm long, glossed green, blue and purple black with a red iris, black bill, long tail and somewhat elongated upper breast and neck feathers. They can be found in the lowlands of New Guinea and nearby islands. They eat fruits, figs and arthropods.

The glossy-mantled manucode was the first bird of paradise seen by the French naturalist René-Primevère Lesson, who was the first westerner to see live wild birds of paradise.

San Diego Zoo has the only captive individual of this species outside of New Guinea.

References
  Database entry includes justification for why this species is of least concern

Manucodia
Birds of Oceania

Glossy-mantled manucode


Anna Larroucau Laborde de Lucero (March 7, 1864 – September 3, 1956) was a French-Argentine philanthropist and educator. Pioneer of the Argentine grape and wine industry. She was born in Oloron-Sainte-Marie, France, more precisely in the district of Sainte-Croix, Oloron, rue Mercière Nº13, (erstwhile called rue Centule). She died in San Martín, Mendoza, Argentina.

Anna Larroucau, daughter of Louis Barthélémy Larroucau and Justine Laborde, was the elder of 16 brothers, all born in Oloron.

Towards 1878 Anna migrated to Argentina, in company of her uncles and some brothers. In Argentina, Anna worked as an educational governess and during a certain time, she also taught music and French. She was fluent in Basque, Gascon, Spanish and French. Friend of the writer Jules Supervielle's family. Anna pursued her studies at the famous Collège Sacré-Cœur of Oloron.

Towards 1880, Anna Larroucau introduced in San Martin, Mendoza, the first plants of grapevine of French origin, which she had brought from Bordeaux, France. In all of Mendoza grapevines of Spanish or Italian origins were slowly replaced by these new ones of French origin, providing an improved performance and an optimization of wine.
On July 27, 1887, in San Martin, Mendoza, she married Leopoldo Lucero Rincons, a famous farm and cousin of the governor of the neighbor Province of San Luis, General Brigadier Pablo Lucero. The couple Lucero Larroucau will give rise to an important lineage in all of Argentina.
Towards 1900 Anna Larroucau, already widow, founded the First Company of Charity of San Martín, Mendoza. During decades she ran the association. Through this institution, she worked for the well-being and the education of childhood in that region of Argentina.

References
Revista de la Junta de Estudios Históricos de Mendoza, 1968, p. 493. (Revue of the Association of Historic Studies of Mendoza, Argentina).
Carlos Alvarado-Larroucau, "Ernesto Nava" in Alba Omil comp., Italianos en Tucumán, Historias de vida, Yerba Buena, Tucumán, Argentina, Lucio Piérola Ediciones, p. 82.
"Une rue pour Anna Larroucau-Laborde de Lucero", Inf'Oloron, Oloron-Ste-Marie, Automne 2016, n.º7, p. 22.

About her family, see also:

Crónica de los Franceses en Rosario, Emilio Maisonnave; Alberto Campazas; Emilio Ricardo Maisonnave; prefacio de Paul Dijoud. Rosario : s.e., 1998.
Alberto SARRAMONE, Los Abuelos bearneses y gascones. Azul, Buenos Aires, Argentina, Editorial Biblos Azul 2001. p. 288.

Other References in Archives

The Genealogical Center of Pyréenées Atlantiques, Pau, France
Archives Bishopric of Mendoza, Argentina
Newspaper The Andes, Mendoza, September 4, 1956, Obituario
Archives Family Lucero (Tucumán, Argentina)
Archives Larroucau Family (Chile)
Archives Family González Dangles (Chile)

External links
See in Spanish, on Carlos Alvarado-Larroucau weblog page:
Anna Larroucau Laborde de Lucero
François Larroucau Laborde

1864 births
1956 deaths
People from Oloron-Sainte-Marie
French emigrants to Argentina
French viticulturists
Argentine philanthropists
Argentine educators
Argentine women educators
French philanthropists
French women philanthropists
French educators
French women educators
20th-century Argentine women educators
20th-century Argentine educators
19th-century Argentine women educators
19th-century Argentine educators

Anna Larroucau Laborde de Lucero


Carrom is a indoor tabletop game. It is between billiards and table shuffleboard. Carrom is known by many names around the world, including carrum, couronne, carum, karam, karom, karum, fatta (Punjabi) and finger billiards. The game was started in India. Formal rules for the game were not written until 1988.

The game is played in many countries across the world.  It is played for fun and as a competitive sport. The competitive sport is organised by the International Carrom Federation. Carrom uses simple equipment which lets many people play. There is a version of the game that uses cue sticks (which is also known as pool).

There are two players or two teams. The time it takes to play a game changes with each game. It is a brain game. There are two pink colour billiards, nine black colour billiards and nine brown colour billiards. There are many carrom board manufacturers namely, Synco, Presice, Siscaa etc. These are the leading carrom brands in India.

Games
Indoor sports

Carrom


The Ordnance Quick-Firing 6-pounder 7 cwt, or just 6-pounder, was a British 57 mm gun, serving during the Second World War as a primary anti-tank gun of both the British and United States Army (as the 57 mm Gun M1). It was also used as the main armament for a number of armoured fighting vehicles.

Although designed before the start of the war, it did not reach service until the North African Campaign in April 1942. There, it replaced the 2-pounder as an anti-tank gun, allowing the 25-pounder gun-howitzer to revert to its intended artillery role.

Development and production

Development

Limitations of the existing 2-pounders were apparent even as the gun entered service and an effort was made to replace it with a much more capable weapon starting as early as 1938. The Woolwich Arsenal was entrusted with the development of a new gun with a calibre of 57 mm. Guns of this calibre had been employed by the Royal Navy from the late 19th century and manufacturing equipment was available. The gun design was complete by 1940 but the carriage design took until 1941. The production was further delayed by the defeat in the Battle of France. The loss of equipment – most of the heavy equipment of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) was left behind in France during Operation Dynamo – and the prospect of a German invasion made re-equipping the army with anti-tank weapons an urgent task, so a decision was made to carry on the production of the 2-pounder, avoiding the period of adaptation to production and also of re-training and acclimatisation with the new weapon. It was estimated that 100 6-pounders would displace the production of 600 2-pounders.
This had the effect of delaying production of the 6-pounder until November 1941 and its entry into service until May 1942.

Unlike the 2-pounder, the new gun was mounted on a conventional two-wheeled split trail carriage on pneumatic tyres but without a spring suspension. The first mass production variant – the Mk II – differed from the pre-production Mk I in having a shorter L/43 barrel, because of the shortage of suitable lathes. The Mk IV was fitted with an L/50 barrel, with muzzle brake. Optional side shields were issued to give the crew better protection but were apparently rarely used.

The 6-pounder was used where possible to replace the 2-pounder in British tanks, requiring work on the turrets, pending the introduction of new tanks designed for the 6-pounder. The Churchill Marks III and IV, Valentine Mark IX and Crusader Mark III all began to enter service during 1942. The Valentine and Crusader both needed to lose a crew member from the turret. Tanks designed to take the 6-pounder were the troubled Cavalier, the Cromwell and the Centaur. When the Cromwell went into combat in 1944, it was armed with the Ordnance QF 75 mm gun, which was a redesign of the 6-pounder to take US 75 mm ammunition and more useful against general targets. The 6-pounder was also fitted to the AEC Armoured Car Mark II.

Although the 6-pounder was kept at least somewhat competitive through the war, the Army started the development of a more powerful weapon in 1942. The aim was to produce a gun with the same general dimensions and weight as the 6-pounder but with improved performance. The first attempt was an 8-pounder of 59 calibre length but this version proved too heavy to be used in the same role as the 6-pounder. A second attempt was made with a shorter 48 calibre barrel but this proved to have only marginally better performance than the 6-pounder and the program was cancelled in January 1943.

The 6-pounder was followed into production by the next generation British anti-tank gun, the Ordnance QF 17-pounder, which came into use from February 1943. As a smaller and more manoeuvrable gun, the 6-pounder continued to be used by the British Army for the rest of World War II and for about 20 years afterwards. A 57/42.6 mm squeeze bore adaptor was developed for the gun but was never adopted. The gun was produced in Canada and South Africa, where the Combined Ordnance Factories (COFAC) produced 300.

Production

US production

The idea of manufacturing the 6-pounder in the US was expressed by the US Army Ordnance in February 1941. The US Army still favoured the 37mm Gun M3 and production was planned solely for lend lease. The US version, classified as substitute standard as 57 mm Gun M1, was based on the 6-pounder Mark II, two units of which were received from the UK. Since there was sufficient lathe capacity, the longer barrel could be produced from the start. Production started early in 1942 and continued until 1945. The M1A1 variant used US combat tyres and wheels. The M1A2 introduced the British practice of free traverse, meaning that the gun could be traversed by the crew pushing and pulling on the breech, instead of solely geared traverse, from September 1942. The M1 was made standard issue in the spring of 1943. A more stable carriage was developed but not introduced. Once the 57 mm entered US service, a modified towing point design was introduced (the M1A3) for US use. Tractors for the M1 included the Dodge WC-63 1½-Ton 6×6 and the M2 Half-Track.

Two-thirds of American production (10,000 guns) went to US Army Divisions in Europe. About one-third of production (over 4,200 guns) was delivered to the UK and 400 guns were sent to the Soviet Union through Lend-Lease. When the United States re-armed and re-equipped Free French forces for the Normandy landings, their anti-tank units received American-made M1s. Like the British Army, the US Army also experimented with a squeeze bore adaptor (57/40 mm T10) but the program was abandoned. American shell designs and production lagged behind the introduction of the gun once it was accepted for service and so, at first, only AP shot was available. The HE shell was not available until after the Normandy landings and UK stocks were procured to cover its absence. Its use by regular US Army front-line units was discontinued in the 1950s.

Service history

British service

Anti-tank gun

The 6-pounders (and the US-built M1 of which 4,242 guns were received) were issued to the Royal Artillery anti-tank regiments of infantry and armoured divisions in the western theatres (four batteries with 12 pieces each) and later in the war to the six-gun anti-tank platoons of infantry battalions. An air-landing battalion had an AA/AT company with two four-gun AT platoons. The Far East theatres had lower priority and different organisation, reflecting the lower tank threat. The gun was also employed by Commonwealth forces in formations similar to the British. The anti-tank ammunition was a basic Armour-Piercing (AP) shot, but by January 1943 an Armour-Piercing, Capped (APC) shot and an Armour-Piercing, Capped, Ballistic Capped (APCBC) shot was supplied. A High Explosive shell was produced for use against unarmoured targets.

The 6-pounder first saw action in May 1942 at the Battle of Gazala. It made an immediate impact on the battlefield as it was able to penetrate any enemy tank then in service. In the most celebrated action, the 6-pounder guns of 2nd Battalion, The Rifle Brigade (together with part of 239 Anti-Tank Battery Royal Artillery under command), destroyed more than 15 Axis tanks in the action at Outpost Snipe during the Second Battle of El Alamein. Over the next year, the Germans introduced much heavier tanks into service, notably the Tiger I and Panther. The standard 6-pounder shot was ineffective against the front armour at any range but proved effective on the less armoured sides and rear.

6-pounder gunfire accounted for the first Tigers disabled in North Africa; two Tigers being knocked out by towed 6-pounder AT guns, while the 48th Royal Tank Regiment knocked out the first Tigers by the Western Allies in tank vs. tank action with their Churchill tanks, destroying two Tiger I (the same unit also knocked out the first Panther tanks by the Western Allies in May 1944 in Italy). The North Irish Horse disabled and captured Tiger 131 after the crew had abandoned it after it received several hits, most seriously a shot which struck the turret ring, making traverse impossible. The situation was somewhat improved by the development of more sophisticated ammunition in the form of the Armour-Piercing, Composite Rigid (APCR) shot and the Armour-Piercing, Discarding Sabot (APDS) shot, which was available from 1944 and made it effective against the frontal armour of Tiger Is and Panthers.

In the Royal Artillery regiments, the 6-pounders were joined by the 17-pounders starting in 1943; in infantry units, the gun remained the sole AT gun in service until 1951, when it was finally declared obsolete and replaced by the 17-pounder in the British Army of the Rhine (BAOR).

Tank gun
The first tank to go into action armed with the 6-pounder gun was the Mark III version of the Churchill tank, in the Dieppe Raid of August 1942. They were deployed to North Africa; six, as KingForce, were in action at El Alamein in October (destroying five tanks and three AT guns for the loss of one Churchill).

Molins gun

The Royal Navy used the 6-pounder extensively in Motor Gun Boats during World War II (especially the Fairmile D). The gun was mounted on a hydraulic-powered mount and fitted with a power loading system developed by the Molins Machine Company Limited, permitting a six-round burst at one round per second. The guns were all the early short-barrel (43 calibre) type and fired exclusively HE (high-explosive) ammunition, at much lower muzzle velocities than for AP (armour-piercing), because of the use of flashless propellant for night operations. The naval designation was QF 6-Pounder Mk IIA; nearly 600 of these weapons were made.

The Molins autoloader was also deployed on a small number of Royal Air Force de Havilland Mosquitos of Coastal Command, which were referred to as the "Tsetse" (after the Tsetse fly). Officially the QF 6-pdr Class M Mark I with Auto Loader Mk III, it was based on the long-barrelled (50 calibre) gun. It was fully automatic, with a cyclic rate of fire of about 55 rounds per minute with 21 rounds carried. It was intended for use against U-boats and fired solid shot that could penetrate their hulls through  of water from 1,400 m. The weapon was used to sink a U-boat and, on one occasion to shoot down a Junkers 88 aircraft during an attack on IJN submarine I-29 off Cape Penas. It was replaced in 1943 by the more versatile but less accurate RP-3 3-inch Rocket Projectile.

US service

In spring 1943, following the experience of the North African Campaign, the Infantry branch of the US Army recognised the need to field a heavier antitank gun than the 37 mm M3. The Ordnance QF 6-pounder was introduced into US service as the 57mm M1, following standard US nomenclature.

The introduction was made in the face of objections by the US Army Infantry Board, which believed it to be too heavy. The Ordnance Board, on the other hand, felt that a more powerful weapon should be introduced; the Airborne and Cavalry rejected it.

According to the Table of Organisation and Equipment (TO&E) of 15 July 1943, the "defense platoon" in the infantry division's headquarters company had three 57 mm guns, each of the three infantry regiments' antitank companies included nine guns (three platoons of three) and each battalion had a platoon of three guns, giving a total of 57 57 mm guns per division. Dodge WC-62/WC-63 6×6 1½ ton trucks were issued as artillery tractors in place of the 3/4 ton truck used with its predecessor, the 37 mm gun. Because of the unexpected adoption into service, the only ammunition type in production in the US was AP ammunition.

By mid-1944, the M1 was the standard antitank gun of US infantry divisions om the Western Front and outnumbered the M3 in Italy. In this role, the gun had a crew of ten; a squad leader, a gunner (for crew drill purposes, designated #1), four cannoneers (#2-5), three ammunition bearers (#6-8), and a driver (#9). The gunner aimed and fired the gun, and cooperated closely with the #2, who was the loader. Crew member #3 passed ammunition to the #2. Crew members #4 and #5 prepared ammunition, and delivered it to the #3; #4 and #5 were also used as spotters or guards against enemy tanks or aircraft. Crew members #6-8 were ammunition bearers, while the driver was responsible for maintaining and concealing the prime mover and acting as a fourth ammunition bearer when not concerned with the vehicle. The squad leader and driver were issued M1 Garands, the gunner and cannoneers M1911 pistols, and the ammunition bearers M1 carbines. In addition, the driver was issued an M7 grenade launcher for antitank defense, and the squad was also issued a bazooka.

Preparation for the D-Day invasion of Normandy highlighted an additional need. The Airborne Command had rejected the 57 mm M1 in the summer of 1943, claiming that it was unfit for airlanding by glider due to its weight and the TO&E of February 1944 still had airborne divisions keeping their 37 mm guns. To increase firepower, the 82nd and the 101st airborne divisions were re-equipped with British-manufactured 6-pounders on the narrow carriage Mk III designed for glider use – 24 in AA battalion, and 9 in each glider infantry regiment – for the Normandy airdrops. In the fighting after the Normandy landings, the paratroops used them against German armour near St Mere Eglise and Carentan. However, few tanks were encountered and they were mostly used for support, which made the lack of an HE shell more significant.Subsequently, the guns were officially introduced under the TO&E from December 1944. According to the TO&E, a division was issued 50 pieces: 8 in the divisional artillery, 24 in the AA battalion, and 18 in the glider infantry regiment; parachute infantry regiments did not have anti-tank guns. The British guns were referred simply as 57 mm guns.

The British 6-pounder with the MK III carriage was also used by the Antitank Company of the 442nd Infantry Regiment as part of the glider-borne invasion force assigned at that time to the 517th Parachute Infantry Regiment, First Airborne Task Force, during Operation Dragoon, the invasion of Southern France.

Limited availability of different ammunition types limited the efficiency of the gun in the infantry support role. Only after the Normandy Campaign did the HE round reach the battlefield, although before then US units were sometimes able to get a limited amount of HE ammunition from the British Army. The canister shot was not seen in significant amounts until early 1945. Some British stocks of APDS were supplied to the US units, although APCR and APDS rounds were never developed by the US.

From July, US anti-tank units encountered the Panther tank, which was vulnerable to the 57 mm only from the sides. Towed anti-tank guns were less effective in the hedgerow terrain, where mobility suffered; but, when the Germans went on the offensive in August, they were effective in defence with infantry. Towards the end of the war, towed anti-tank units had gone out of favour due to their lack of mobility compared to self-propelled guns. With few tanks to contend with, some units that would have been equipped with the 57 mm were instead deployed as infantry, or primarily with the Bazooka for tank hunting. The M1 went out of service in the US soon after the end of the war.

Korean service

The M1 anti-tank gun was the main anti-tank weapon operated by the Korean military during the early stages of the Korean War. The South Korean military acquired 117 M1s when the U.S. Forces Korea withdrew from Korea in 1948-49, and the military deployed six guns to each infantry regiment's anti-tank battery. Due to the low number of anti-tank guns, the South Korean military expressed concern over the possibility of the possession of tanks by the North Korean military; however, the U.S. military advisers neglected the concern and claimed South Korea's poor road and bridge conditions are not suitable for effective tank operations.

When the Korean War broke out in 1950, the South Korean military actively used M1 anti-tank guns against North Korean tanks and self-propelled guns, but did not have much effect. Armor-piercing (AP) ammunitions did not have enough firepower to penetrate North Korean tanks, and nearly 70 % of the 35,000 shells were anti-personnel high-explosives (HE). The South Korean military tried to overcome the disadvantage by firing at close range or concentrating on weak parts, but it did not have a significant impact on the war situation.

The South Korean military operated the M1 anti-tank gun as an infantry-assisted firearm from 1950 to 1951, and gradually retired it by replacing it with a M20 Super Bazooka and M20 recoilless rifle. In the end, M1s were eliminated during the war without much achievement due to lack of performance.

Other operators
In addition to being used by the US, UK and other Commonwealth forces, the M1 was supplied under the Lend-Lease program to the Free French Forces (653), USSR (400) and Brazil (57). Guns captured by the Germans were given the designations 5.7 cm PaK 209(e) and 5.7 cm PaK 202(a). The Israel Defense Forces employed the 6-pounder in the 1950s in brigade-level anti-tank battalions and battalion-level anti-tank platoons (the latter formations were disbanded in 1953). By late 1955, the Israel Defense Forces possessed 157 pieces and 100 more were purchased from the Netherlands in 1956, too late to enter service before the Suez Crisis. Some of those are described as "57-mm guns, nearly identical to the 6-pounders and firing the same ammunition", which apparently makes them US-built M1 guns. The gun was also used by the Pakistani Army; numerous examples can still be seen as "gate guards" outside army bases in Pakistan. The Irish Army acquired six 6-pounder anti-tank guns in the late 1940s. The US 57 mm M1 gun is popular with modern-day cannoneers, as there is a relatively good supply of shell casings and projectiles. The gun is also reportedly still in active military use with some South American countries, and in coastal defence emplacements of outlying island garrisons of the Republic of China Army.

During the Biafran War, from 1967 to 1970, both the Nigerian Federal Army and the Biafran armed forces, including some Biafran vessels, used the 6-pdr gun.

Variants
Mk 1: limited production version with L/50 barrel.
Mk 2: first mass-production version. Shortened L/43 barrel was adopted due to the shortage of suitable manufacturing equipment.
Mk 3: tank version of Mk 2.
Mk 4: L/50 barrel, single baffle muzzle brake.
Mk 5: tank version of Mk 4.
Molins Class M gun: 6-pounder gun fitted with automatic loader built by the Molins company, a manufacturer of cigarette making machines. It was mounted on the Royal Navy Motor Torpedo Boats and in the RAF Mosquito planes, which were referred to as the "Tsetse".
57 mm Gun M1: US-built version; although based on Mk II, it had the "original" L/50 barrel.
Carriage types, British:
Mk 1
Mk 1A: different axle and wheels
Mk 2: simplified design
Mk 3: modified for use by airborne troops
Carriage types, US:
M1
M1A1: US wheels and tyres
M1A2 (1942): improved traverse mechanism, allowing free traverse
M1A3 (1943): modified towing hook; the first version to be adopted by the US Army
M2 (1944): caster wheel added to the right trail, relocated trail handles, new utility box
M2A1 (1945): improved elevation gear

Self-propelled mounts

Tank gun versions of the 6-pounder were used in the Crusader Mark III, Cavalier, Centaur Mk I and II, Cromwell Mk I to III, Valentine Mk VIII to X and Churchill Mk III and IV, and also in the Canadian Ram Mk II and the prototype American Light Tank T7E2. The Deacon wheeled and the experimental Alecto Mk II self-propelled guns also mounted the 6-pounder. Another experimental vehicle armed with the 6-pounder was a 'Firefly' tank destroyer, based on the Morris Light Reconnaissance Car. The only mass-produced vehicle mounting the 57 mm M1 was the M3 Half-track based 57 mm Gun Motor Carriage T48 (also known by its Soviet designation SU-57). The production of the T18E2 armored car, known as Boarhound in its limited British service, was stopped after 30 units were built. A project for a tank destroyer armed with the M1—the 57 mm Gun Motor Carriage T49—was cancelled after a single pilot vehicle was built. Similarly, the wheeled 57 mm Gun Motor Carriage T44, based on Ford 4×4 ¾ ton cargo carrier chassis, was cancelled after brief testing.

Ammunition
Ammunition was of the fixed type made up of projectile -  with a tracer in the base - a charge in a brass cartridge and a percussion primer. A drill round made of weighted wood was also used. Propellant was cordite or NH, the latter being more compact than cordite as cordite had a piece of packing between the propellant and base of the projectile.

Performance
The zone of dispersion of the gun was 90% in  at .

AP in use as a tank gun, penetration was 81 mm (for Mark 3 gun) and 83 mm (Mark 5) at 500 yards and target at 30°.

Users

 (in WW2 and in Korea)

 - As 57 mm Infantry Gun (Fodfolkskanon)

: Arab Legion

: Received 117 from the U.S. in 1948–49.

 Kingdom of Yemen

See also
Caliber#Pounds as a measure of cannon bore

Weapons of comparable role, performance and era
57 mm anti-tank gun M1943 (ZiS-2) : Soviet anti-tank gun
5 cm Pak 38 : German anti-tank gun

Notes

References

Bibliography

External links

Development, Performance, Production of the 6pdr AT Gun
Anthony G Williams - The 6 pdr 7cwt and the Molins gun
US M-1 57 mm Anti-tank gun at Militaria: Weapons
Armour penetration table
Photo gallery at Tanxheaven.com
 TO&E antitank company
Photographic album of the restoration of a WWII 6-Pounder Mk V

Tank guns of the United Kingdom
Tank guns of the United States
World War II anti-tank guns
57 mm artillery
Anti-tank guns of the United Kingdom
Anti-tank guns of the United States
Weapons and ammunition introduced in 1941
World War II field artillery
World War II artillery of the United Kingdom
World War II tank guns

Ordnance QF 6-pounder


Ricardo Caballero Tostado (born January 19, 1982) is a Mexican singer who was the runner-up of the second season of the singing competition series Latin American Idol.  Ricardo is known as the "Caballero de Mexico".

Caballero was born in the city of Guadalajara in the state of Jalisco, located in western Mexico. He is the only son of Raul Caballero, a performer, and Georgina Tostado Orozco de Caballero, a fitness trainer; he has an older paternal half brother. Caballero began singing at bars and hotel lobbies at the age of 17. A year later, he began performing shows with his father. He continued performing in order to help pay for his studies at the Instituto Tecnologico y de Estudios Superiores de Occidente, or ITESO, at the Guadalajara campus, from which he graduated with a bachelor's degree in Marketing.

Ricardo has been the opening performer for concerts for international groups that include La Quinta Estación and Ha*Ash, among others. He has his own self-titled show, Ricardo Caballero; he is the singer and is accompanied by a band of five additional people.  They have toured Mexico.

Songs performed on Latin American Idol
 Top 30: "La Fuerza del Corazón" (Alejandro Sanz) - First Workshop
 Top 12: "Volver A Amar" (Cristian Castro) - First Concert
 Top 10: "Detenedla Ya" (Emmanuel) - Second Concert
 Top 8: "Santa Lucía" (Miguel Ríos) - Third Concert
 Top 7: "La Cima del Cielo" (Ricardo Montaner) - Fourth Concert
 Top 6: "Tragedia" (Marc Anthony) - Fifth Concert
 Top 5: "Si Nos Dejan" (José Alfredo Jiménez) - Sixth Concert
 Top 5: "El Viajero" (Luis Miguel) - Sixth Concert
 Top 4: "Si Tu Supieras" (Alejandro Fernández) - Seventh Concert
 Top 4: "¿Y Si Fuera Ella?" (Alejandro Sanz) - Seventh Concert
 Top 3: "La Gota Fría" (Carlos Vives) - Eighth Concert
 Top 3: "No Se Tú" (Armando Manzanero) - Eighth Concert
"Cada Palabra" (Written for the show) - Ninth Concert - Runner up (09/27/2007)
"La Fuerza del Corazón" (Alejandro Sanz) - Ninth Concert - Runner up (09/27/2007)
"Con una Canción" (Written for the show) - Ninth Concert - Runner up (09/27/2007)

References

External links
Official website

1982 births
Latin American Idol participants
Singers from Guadalajara, Jalisco
Living people
21st-century Mexican singers
21st-century Mexican male singers

Ricardo Caballero Tostado


Mount Enterprise is a city in Rusk County, Texas, United States. The population was 447 at the 2010 census.

History

The city of Mount Enterprise, located south of Henderson in rural Rusk County, was named for a small elevation near the town and for the business enterprise of the Vinzent brothers, who settled it in 1832.

The town owes its existence to the presence of promising iron ore in the area. Charles Vinzent considered the "old mountain" nearby to be an "iron mountain," and he was not far off the mark; the brown, crumbly ore of the Weches formation that outcrops in the area has a better than 50 percent iron content. However, Vinzent's real enterprise came in the form of manufacturing and retailing. His factory made wagons, buggies, furniture, plows, caskets, and a patented churn. He launched a chain of stores to sell these products, and more, operating out of Mount Enterprise. At one time Vinzent had as many as four stores.

Lumbering was also an early industry of Mount Enterprise; the furniture factory it supported is dated as early as 1850. There were also numerous plantations in the area before the Civil War. In 1846 the Mulberry Grove post office was established with Henry Henson as postmaster. Three years later the name was changed to Mount Enterprise.

Mount Enterprise Male and Female College was begun in 1851, and it lasted until 1855. In 1853 Mount Enterprise Male and Female Academy was established. In 1880 the town had three sawmills, a hotel, two cotton gins, a school, three churches, and a population of 150.

In 1894 the Caro Northern Railway was chartered to operate as a logging road between Mount Enterprise and Caro, in Nacogdoches County, a distance of little over 16 miles. The railroad, which connected Mount Enterprise with the Texas and New Orleans Railroad, came to within a mile of Mount Enterprise, and the town then moved to the railroad. It became the new Mount Enterprise, and the old location was called the old Mount Enterprise.

The railroad was abandoned in 1934, but by 1939 the town had incorporated and still had a number of businesses, a bank, a post office, a newspaper, and a population of 920. After 1940 the population gradually declined to 485 in 1982, when the town had a bank, a post office, and fifteen businesses. In 1990 the population was 501. The population grew to 525 in 2000, but has since dropped to 447 according to the 2010 census.

Geography

Mount Enterprise is located at  (31.915852, –94.681673).

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 1.5 square miles (3.8 km), all  land.

Demographics

As of the census of 2000, there were 525 people, 206 households, and 155 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 241 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 91.05% White, 8.19% African American, and 0.76% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.71% of the population.

There were 206 households, out of which 30.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 64.6% were married couples living together, 7.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 24.3% were non-families. 21.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.55 and the average family size was 2.97.

In the city, the population was spread out, with 25.7% under the age of 18, 7.6% from 18 to 24, 25.7% from 25 to 44, 22.5% from 45 to 64, and 18.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 95.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.4 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $25,577, and the median income for a family was $31,719. Males had a median income of $27,083 versus $20,125 for females. The per capita income for the city was $13,165. About 18.1% of families and 22.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 33.9% of those under age 18 and 9.7% of those age 65 or over.

Education
The City of Mount Enterprise is served by the Mount Enterprise Independent School District.

References

Cities in Texas
Cities in Rusk County, Texas
Longview metropolitan area, Texas

Mount Enterprise, Texas


Jane Bethel Leslie (August 3, 1929 – November 28, 1999) was an American actress and screenwriter. In her career spanning half a century, she was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award and a Laurel Award in 1964, a Tony Award in 1986, and a CableACE Award in 1988.

Early years
Jane Bethel Leslie was born in New York, New York.  Her parents were a lawyer, Warren Leslie, and Jane Leslie, a newspaperwoman. Bethel was a student at Brearley School in New York City. She had a brother, writer Warren Leslie.

While a 13-year-old student at Brearley School, Leslie was discovered by George Abbott, who cast her in the play Snafu in 1944. In a 1965 newspaper article, Leslie described herself as "a 'quick study' -- able to learn my lines rather fast."

Stage
Over the next four decades she appeared in a number of Broadway productions, including Goodbye, My Fancy (1948), The Time of the Cuckoo (1952), Inherit the Wind (1955), Catch Me If You Can (1965), and Long Day's Journey Into Night (1986). In 1950, Leslie was cast as Cornelia Otis Skinner in The Girls, a television series based on the author's Our Hearts Were Young and Gay. She departed the show after two months to appear with Helen Hayes in the play The Wisteria Trees, adapted from Anton Chekhov's The Cherry Orchard by Joshua Logan.

Television
Leslie began working in television in the 1940s and frequently was a guest on the many anthology series popular in the early to mid-1950s, such as Studio One and Playhouse 90. She appeared with Ronald W. Reagan and Stafford Repp in the 1960 episode "The Way Home" of CBS's The DuPont Show with June Allyson.  Later, she was one of the repertory of actors starring in The Richard Boone Show (1963-1964).

Leslie made three guest appearances on Perry Mason, and was featured as Perry's client in all three episodes. In 1958, she played Janet Morris in "The Case of the Fugitive Nurse" and Evelyn Girard in "The Case of the Purple Woman". In 1960 she played Sylvia Sutton in "The Case of the Wayward Wife". In 1962, she portrayed the part of Martha Hastings in the episode, "The Long Count", on CBS's Rawhide. She guest-starred in many western television series, including The Texan, Mackenzie's Raiders (as Lucinda Cabot in "The Lucinda Cabot Affair"), The Man from Blackhawk, Riverboat, Wanted: Dead or Alive (episode "Secret Ballot"), Trackdown, Bat Masterson, The Rifleman, Gunsmoke, Maverick, Pony Express, Stagecoach West, Bonanza, The Wild Wild West, Have Gun - Will Travel, and Wagon Train.

Her other credits were on drama series, such as Alfred Hitchcock Presents, Richard Diamond, Private Detective and The Fugitive, both starring David Janssen;  The Eleventh Hour, The Lloyd Bridges Show, Mannix, Route 66 (episodes "The Layout at Glen Canyon" and "City of Wheels"), Straightaway, Bus Stop, Target: The Corruptors!, The Investigators, The Man and the Challenge, Adventures in Paradise, Ben Casey, One Step Beyond, Thriller, Empire, and The High Chaparral. She became a regular on the NBC soap, The Doctors, when she took over the role of "Maggie Powers" after Ann Williams left the part.  Leslie was also featured in the 1964 episode "The Fluellen Family" in the NBC western Daniel Boone. She had recurring roles on Another World and All My Children and was featured in the television adaptations of In Cold Blood and Saint Maybe.

Writing
Leslie was the head writer for The Secret Storm in 1970. She also scripted episodes for Gunsmoke, Bracken's World, Barnaby Jones, McCloud, The New Land, Matt Helm, and Falcon Crest. In 1970, producer Howard Christie referred to Leslie as "a good actress who has turned into a fine scriptwriter."

Film
Leslie's debut in feature films came in 1964 in Captain Newman, M.D.. Her feature film credits include A Rage to Live (1965), The Molly Maguires (1970), with Sean Connery, Dr. Cook's Garden (1971), Old Boyfriends (1979), Ironweed (1987), Message in a Bottle (1999) and Uninvited (1999).

Partial Television Appearances

Awards and recognition
Leslie was a regular on NBC's The Richard Boone Show, which garnered her an Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Single Performance by an Actress in a Leading Role for her work in the episode "Statement of Fact." Media critic John Crosby wrote about Leslie's work in that anthology series, "During the season Bethel played everything from a seductive ax murderess to a dumb gangster's moll, to an Irish scrub woman, through a whole series of witchy mothers."

A poll of media critics and editors named her Most Promising New Talent in Radio Television Daily's 1963 All-American Favorites—Television.

Leslie's 1986 Broadway portrayal of a drug-addicted mother in Long Day's Journey into Night brought her a Tony Award nomination for Best Featured Actress.

Family
Leslie was married to director Andrew McCullough. They had one child, daughter Leslie McCullough.

Death
Bethel Leslie died of cancer at 70 in her Manhattan apartment.

Radio appearances

References

External links

American stage actresses
American television actresses
American film actresses
Screenwriters from New York (state)
Actresses from New York City
Actresses from Los Angeles
1929 births
1999 deaths
Deaths from cancer in New York (state)
American women screenwriters
American soap opera writers
20th-century American actresses
Women soap opera writers
20th-century American women writers
Western (genre) television actors
Brearley School alumni
Screenwriters from California
20th-century American screenwriters

Bethel Leslie


Ruhama Avraham Balila (; born 29 January 1964) is an Israeli politician who served as a member of the Knesset for Likud and Kadima between 2003 and 2013. She also held the positions of  Deputy minister of interior Minister of Tourism and Minister without Portfolio responsible for liaison with the Knesset and was in charge of the Israel's 60th Independence Day celebrations.

Biography
Avraham was born in Rishon LeZion. Graduated from the Rakusin School in Ramla in the field of drafting machines. She holds a B.A. in political science from Bar-Ilan University. and an MBA from Peres Academic Center, specializing in Organizational Management and Human Resources).

Political career
She began her political career as an assistant to Likud general manager Avigdor Lieberman in the early 1990s. In 1994–1999, she served as the bureau chief of the opposition leader and later prime minister Benjamin Netanyahu. She later served as a selection advisor to the Minister of National Infrastructures for Lieberman.

Likud Party
She ran in the Likud primaries in 2003 and won 16th place in the Knesset elections, in which the Likud won 38 seats.

She served as Chairperson of the Sub-Committee for Small and Medium Businesses, as well as a member of the Knesset Finance Committee, the Committee on the Status of Women, the Special Committee on Foreign Workers. As chairman of the Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises Committee, she initiated the establishment of the State-guaranteed Small Business Loans Fund, which is currently managed by Bank Leumi and leveraged NIS 3 billion.

On 30 March 2005, she was appointed Deputy Minister of the Interior by then-Prime Minister Ariel Sharon.

On 1 November, Army Radio reported that Avraham and the deputy minister of the interior were traveling to Agrexco in the US with the funding of Agrexco. In August 2008, it was decided to close the case for lack of evidence.

At the end of 2005, Interior Minister Ophir Pines resigned. Avraham, who served as Deputy Minister of Interior, received the powers of the Minister of the Interior. She became the acting interior minister until the end of the 2006 election campaign. During her tenure as interior minister, the interior minister first came out with a municipal bond program that was implemented in the cities of Ramla, Yehud, Eilat and Ra'anana.

Kadima Party
At the end of November 2005, she left the Likud faction and together with Ariel Sharon, the prime minister and another 12 MKs, established the Kadima party. She was placed in the 18th place on the list and was elected to the 17th Knesset.

With the establishment of the 31st government of Israel headed by Ehud Olmert, Avraham was appointed chair of the House Committee, and in her position she directed a struggle to reduce the Arrangements Law – a law that would mean economic sanctions on the public, reducing it and canceling a quarter of its provisions. In addition, the most prominent law initiated by MK Avraham was the "Hot Meal for the Student Law", in which 250,000 students receive hot meals in schools

On 4 July 2007, as part of a round of government portfolios, Avraham was appointed to serve as the liaison between the government and the Knesset, which is responsible for the loneliness of the 60th anniversary of the State of Israel. IDF soldiers by teenagers, and the main show on Independence Day, which was widely praised.

On 6 July 2008, the government approved its monopoly on the tourism minister. In her role as Tourism Minister she canceled the visa to their tourist from Ukraine opened a representative office of the Ministry of Tourism in China and crossed the tourist 3 million line.

In the elections to the 18th Knesset, she was elected sixth on the Kadima list and in this Knesset served as Deputy Speaker of the Knesset, Chairperson of the Lobby for Minors and Mid-sized Businesses, Chairperson of the Lobby for Food Security, Member of the Knesset Foreign Affairs and Defense Committee.

During her tenure as a member of the Knesset, she was considered a Knesset member whose social agenda is very close to her heart. It initiated a number of major laws, including:
 Hot meal law for students
 The Food Security Council Law – The establishment of a national council to initiate a comprehensive plan to combat poverty.
 An amendment to the Value Added Tax Law, which stipulates that small and medium-sized businesses shall be the date for payment of tax on the date of receipt of the payment and not on the day of service.
 Amendment to the Tenant Rights Law in public housing, which regulates the distribution of rights in public housing in the event of separation between spouses.
 The law of hot meal plan for schoolchildren, which led to approximately 250,000 pupils to a hot meal in schools.
 Amendment to the Tenant Rights Law in public housing, which regulates the distribution of rights in public housing in case of separation of spouses.
 Amendment to the Administration & Law Ordinance (Abolition of Law, Jurisdiction and Administration), which was initiated during the 17th Knesset with Avigdor Yitzhaki. The amendment states that an agreement or government decision, according to which the law, jurisdiction and administration of Israel, will not apply to a territory, will require the approval of the Knesset and will be brought to a referendum. The law also regulates the way to conduct a referendum.
 Amendment to the Computers Law that prohibits the editing and transfer of software that causes damage to a computer or computer material, even if there is no actual damage, if it was done in order to penetrate the computer, to perform actions that result in false information or output or to perform secret monitoring.
Amendment to the Law and Administration Law:

The amendment provides that an agreement or government decision according to which the law, jurisdiction and administration of the State of Israel shall not apply to territory shall be subject to the approval of the Knesset and shall be brought to a referendum. The law also regulates the way to conduct a referendum.

An amendment to the Computers Law that prohibits the editing and transfer of software that causes damage to the computer or the computer material, even if there is no actual damage if the purpose is to penetrate the computer, to perform actions that result in false information or output or to carry out wiretapping.

Following the dissolution of the 18th Knesset, Avraham announced that she would not run for the 19th Knesset.

After politics
Between 2014 and 2016 served as an external director in the construction company Beit Yair.

Since 2017, she has served as an external director at Minrav and Canada's Ski Line.

Between 2013 and 2019 She also served as a strategic consultant to companies and organizations.

Since 2019 until the present she is serving as the acting General Manager of Real Estate Participations in Israel Ltd. (a subsidiary of the Jewish Agency for Israel).

Personal life
She is divorced and a mother of two. She speaks Hebrew, Ladino and English. She lives in Petah Tikva.

References

External links

1964 births
Living people
Bar-Ilan University alumni
Israeli Jews
Israeli people of Turkish-Jewish descent
Women members of the Knesset
Jewish Israeli politicians
Kadima politicians
Likud politicians
Members of the 16th Knesset (2003–2006)
Members of the 17th Knesset (2006–2009)
Members of the 18th Knesset (2009–2013)
Deputy ministers of Israel
Ministers of Tourism of Israel
People from Rishon LeZion
Israeli Sephardi Jews
21st-century Israeli women politicians
Women government ministers of Israel

Ruhama Avraham


Peter Robert Lamont Brown  (born 26 July 1935) is an Irish historian. He is the Rollins Professor of History Emeritus at Princeton University. Brown is credited with having brought coherence to the field of Late Antiquity, and is often regarded as the inventor of said field. His work has concerned, in particular, the religious culture of the later Roman Empire and early medieval Europe, and the relation between religion and society.

Early life and education

Peter Brown was born in Dublin, Ireland, in 1935, to a Scots-Irish Protestant family. Until 1939, he spent winter and spring each year in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, where his father worked as a railway engineer based at Khartoum. For the rest of the year, he would return with his mother to Bray, in County Wicklow, near Dublin. Following the outbreak of war, Brown and his mother remained in Ireland, though his father did not return finally until 1948. Brown has a stutter and came later in life to be noted as an example of a successful public speaker with a stutter.

Brown has written and spoken about the influence of the Sudanese connection on several occasions. Speaking to the Daily Princetonian, he has remarked:
 After his father had returned to Ireland, 'a handbook of Sudanese Courtesy Customs, containing delicate Arabic phrases of greeting and polite enquiry, was prominent on his bookshelf, as was a deluxe edition of T. E. Lawrence's The Seven Pillars of Wisdom, which I would read, from cover to cover, every time that I returned home on holiday from my school in England." Such influences, with "roots deep in my childhood, already ensured, perhaps, that both religion and the 'exotic' (the non-European and, by implication, the non-classical) were both too large, too ever-present and too rich for their intrusion into the classical world to be dismissed out of hand, as unambiguously negative symptoms of decline. The power of both had begun to puzzle and intrigue me. The collapse of an enlightened empire might, indeed, be a catastrophic event, for all I knew; but it was unlikely to be uninteresting."

Brown was initially educated at Aravon School – now closed but, at that time, a distinguished preparatory school in Bray, County Wicklow, where he first studied Latin and French. Brown was then educated at Shrewsbury School and New College, Oxford. At Shrewsbury, Brown expected to concentrate on sciences, but first studied Ancient Greek and turned in earnest to the study of history:

When asked to comment on his intellectual formation, Brown has also indicated that he completed his public schooling a year early, returning to Ireland (as he had done for school holidays) in 1952, the year he turned 17. It was then in Dublin that he read Michael Rostovtzeff's  (1926), which he borrowed from the lending library of the Royal Dublin Society at Ballsbridge. The academic year 1952–1953 was a "hiatus" for Brown, between school and university, during which he learned to type at a secretarial school, and received German lessons from an academic at Trinity College Dublin who had been a refugee from Nazi Germany.

In 1953, Brown took up a scholarship to read Modern History at New College, leaving in 1956. Most of his degree was "devoted to English History in its entirety and to the European High Middle Ages, from 919 to 1127", but in his final academic year, he undertook a Special Subject on The Age of Augustine, and was particularly influenced by the writings of Marrou and Piganiol. That Special Subject had a profound influence on Brown:

Career

Employment and professional memberships
Following his graduation Brown began, but did not complete, a doctoral thesis under the external supervision of Arnaldo Momigliano (at that time professor of ancient history at University College London). The potential he had shown as an undergraduate was recognized by the award of the Harmsworth Senior Scholarship at Merton College, Oxford, and a seven-year Prize Fellowship at All Souls College, Oxford. At a time when it was normally possible to remain in the college after the Prize Fellowship, All Souls College subsequently elected him a research fellow in 1963 and a senior research fellow in 1970. The Modern History Faculty of the University of Oxford appointed him a special lecturer in 1970 and a reader (ad hominem) in 1973. He was elected a fellow of the British Academy in 1971. Brown left Oxford to become professor of modern history and head of the Department of History at Royal Holloway College in the University of London (1975–78). He subsequently left Britain to become professor of classics and history in the University of California at Berkeley (1978–86) and then Philip and Beulah Rollins Professor of History at Princeton University (1986–2011).  He was elected a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1979, a fellow of the Medieval Academy of America in 1988, and a resident member of the American Philosophical Society in 1995.

Before joining the tenured faculty at UC Berkeley and Princeton, Brown held visiting professorships at both institutions: at UC Berkeley in 1975, and at Princeton in 1983–6. He has also held visiting professorships at UCLA and in Italy. Other engagements as a visiting teacher have taken Brown to Toronto in the 1970s and, since 2000, to Hungary and Iceland. At Princeton, Brown was given the President's Award for Distinguished Teaching in 2000. A significant number of his former students in the UK and US have gone on to substantive academic posts.

Speaking engagements
Brown has delivered several named lecture series. These include the Carl Newell Jackson Lectures at Harvard University (1976); the Haskell Lectures at the University of Chicago (1978); the ACLS Lectures in the History of Religion (1981-2); the Curti Lectures at the University of Wisconsin, Madison (1988); the Tanner Lectures at Cambridge and Yale (1993 and 1996 respectively); the Menahem Stern Lectures in Jerusalem (2000); the Lectures in Human Sciences at the Institute for Human Sciences in Vienna (2012); and the James W. Richard Lectures at the University of Virginia (2012).

He has also delivered a multitude of named single lectures. These include national academic occasions in the UK and US: the Raleigh Lecture in History in the British Academy (1992); and the Charles Homer Haskins Lecture ("A Life of Learning") for the American Council of Learned Societies (2003).

Other named lectures include the Stenton Lecture at Reading University (1976); the Sigmund H Danziger Jr Memorial Lecture at the University of Chicago (1997); a Presidential Lecture at Stanford University (2002); the Clark Lecture at Trinity College, Cambridge (2004); the Gennadius Library Lecture at the American School of Classical Studies in Athens (2007); the Fr. Alexander Schmemann Lecture at St. Vladimir's Orthodox Theological Seminary, NY (2013); the Annual Distinguished Lecture in Religion at Rutgers University (2013); the Nicolai Rubinstein Lecture at Queen Mary College, University of London (2013); the Patricia H. Labalme Friends of the Library Lecture at the American Academy in Rome (2013); the Burke Lecture on Religion and Society, University of California, San Diego (2014); the Corish Lecture at Maynooth College, Ireland (2014); the Etienne Gilson Lecture at the Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies, Toronto (2014); and the inaugural Costan Lecture at Georgetown University (2014).

He has also been a named lecturer, usually in retrospect, in all the universities at which he has held substantive posts: lectures include the Magie Lecture at Princeton (1991); the Pritchett Lecture at UC Berkeley (1993); the Hayes Robinson Lecture at Royal Holloway College, University of London (1997); the Ronald Syme Lecture at Wolfson College, Oxford, and the Dacre Lecture in the History Faculty at Oxford (2006 and 2010 respectively).

In 2007, Brown gave an inaugural talk at the opening of the Oxford Centre for Late Antiquity. In 2015 he was hosted by the Group for the Study of Late Antiquity at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel, in a public discussion with Paula Fredriksen.

Brown has also frequently been a keynote speaker at conferences and congresses. These include the International Congress of Medieval Studies at Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo (1986); the International Medieval Congress at Leeds (1999); the Sewanee Medieval Colloquium (2012); and the First Annual Symposium on Medieval and Renaissance Studies at St. Louis University (2013). He gave the inaugural address at the first Coloquio Internacional "Nuevas perspectivas sobre la Antigüedad tardía" in Segovia (2009).

Editorial work
For several decades, Brown has been General Editor of the book series "The Transformation of the Classical Heritage", published by the University of California Press. The first volume in the series was published in 1981. The full published list to date now exceeds fifty-five titles.

Research grants
Following his earlier books, Brown has received some prestigious and substantial research grants. These include the MacArthur Fellowship in 1982 and the Distinguished Achievement Award for scholars in the humanities from the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation in 2001.

Research overview

Brown, who has a knowledge of at least 26 languages, has been instrumental in the development of the study of late antiquity as a field. Within this broad field, he has also been central in the study of Augustine, monasticism (both the eremitical "holy man" and coenobitic alternatives), the cult of the saints and the practice of sexual renunciation. More recently, he has made fundamental contributions to the study of power relations in late Roman society and to the study of financial giving. He has produced a steady stream of articles (several being classics in the field) since 1961, and a steady series of influential books since 1967.

Janet Nelson, the distinguished British historian of the early Middle Ages, has said: "He took the study of medieval history into fields of cultural history and social history, social psychological history. He was interested in religion but not in an old-fashioned ecclesiastical history, institutional sort of way, but what made people think in this way: how did they conceptualise God? How did they think about religious symbols and rituals in the ways that they did? Why did these things change? That was his agenda. He wrote mostly about late antiquity, the very early period, but he sometimes ventured into the Middle Ages and whenever he did he transformed the scene. The great area he's famous for doing is the cult of the saints."

Drawing on her interview with Brown, Ruby Shao has remarked: "Brown cites the balance of his scholarship between eastern and western Christianity as his proudest accomplishment. Few scholars research both equally, as the task demands mastery of different languages and intuitions. His commitment has challenged him throughout his career to break into new territory, such as by examining the Desert Fathers, Syriac poetry, and languages like Greek and Coptic."

1956 to 1971

Following his exposure to the works of Marrou and Piganiol as an undergraduate, and shortly after joining All Souls College as a Prize Fellow, Brown travelled in Italy in 1957–8, doing research at the British School in Rome. During that time, he was especially influenced by the work of Santo Mazzarino, which provided a stimulus for Brown's earliest lectures at Oxford, on return from Italy in 1958. Other early influences were Norman Hepburn Baynes, William Frend and A. H. M. Jones.

Brown's earliest research articles concerned the Christianization of the senatorial aristocracy of Rome (1961), and the phenomena of religious dissent and coercion in late Roman North Africa (1961, 1963). From there, he turned to the study of Augustine's own views on the state (1963) and its use of coercion in matters of religion (1964). Italy and Africa in the fourth and early fifth centuries provided the principal context for the life of Augustine, which became the subject of Brown's substantial first book - Augustine of Hippo: A Biography (1967). This was followed by related articles that explored both the Pelagian milieu in Italy (1968, 1970) and the relation between Christianity and local culture in Roman Africa (1968).

Following the completion of Augustine, however, Brown felt "free, at last" to take a wider approach to Late Antiquity, and to turn in particular to the Near East and Central Asia. In 1964, A. H. M. Jones's vast magnum opus on The Later Roman Empire, 284–602: A Social, Economic and Administrative Survey had appeared, on which Brown wrote a long and important review article for the Economic History Review (1967). In addition, as Augustine had been a Manichaean for many years, Brown already had a natural route into the religious history of the eastern half of the later Roman Empire and the Persian Empire. An article on "The Diffusion of Manichaeism in the Roman Empire" (1969) reflected the direction of his interests, and was spectacularly corroborated when, shortly after, the Cologne Mani-Codex came to light.

In 1969, Geoffrey Barraclough (as General Editor of the Thames & Hudson "Library of European Civilization" series) approached Brown with a view to commissioning a book on late antiquity - and Brown has since noted that it might well have been Barraclough who suggested "The World of Late Antiquity" as a title. At this point, Brown engaged increasingly with the work of Henri Pirenne – and also with that of the French Annales School, in particular Fernand Braudel. Their work, combined with the eastward shift in his interests, prompted Brown to think increasingly of the Mediterranean as "truly distinctive".

Brown's interest in analyzing culture and religion as social phenomena, and as part of a wider context of historical change, had already been fostered by engagement with the work of Baynes, Frend and Jones. But the Annales influence in Brown's work can be seen in his increasing use of anthropology and sociology as interpretative tools for historical analysis. Brown was influenced by Anglo-American anthropology, himself noting the role of both a largely British tradition of social anthropology and a largely American tradition of cultural anthropology.

1971 to present
Brown's views slightly shifted in the eighties. In articles and new editions Brown said that his earlier work, which had deconstructed many of the religious aspects of his field of study, needed to be reassessed. His later work shows a deeper appreciation for the specifically Christian layers of his subjects of study.

His most recent research focuses on wealth and poverty in late antiquity, especially in Christian writers.

Principal publications

Augustine of Hippo: A Biography (1967; 2000)
Brown's biography of Augustine of Hippo was widely acclaimed. Reviewing it in the Journal of Theological Studies, William Frend – with whom Brown had had a courteous but critical difference of opinion on the religious history of Roman Africa – wrote: "This is a superb book, an intensely personal interpretation of its central figure, but one in which the scholar's full range of skills, those of the historian, the philosopher, and human psychologist have been brought to bear, sustained throughout by a profound knowledge of Augustine's writings and those of his contemporaries, as well as of modern critical works. The entire compass of the life and thought of the later Roman Empire in the West is its canvas."

The idiosyncrasies of the book did not go unnoticed. Another great master of Augustinian studies, the Rev. Henry Chadwick, remarked that Brown's book was a "biography without the theology" - a judgment that Brown has accepted as "fair". For this reason, among Anglophone students, Brown's book has often been read hand in hand with Gerald Bonner's St Augustine of Hippo: Life and Controversies, which first appeared four years earlier, in 1963, and which Bonner updated in subsequent editions.

Equally, however, it was Brown's distinctive and subtle de-emphasis of theological content, combined with his use of psychoanalytic insight - which was then highly unusual in the study of an ancient figure - that helped to set Augustine convincingly, as an individual, within a historical landscape. This was noticed by Richard Southern, who praised Brown for "bringing Augustine out of the tomb of theological doctrine, and setting his mind and emotions working before our eyes."

Brown published a new edition in 2000, closing with two new chapters, one focusing on new evidence and the other on new interpretations.

The World of Late Antiquity (1971)
In his second book The World of Late Antiquity (1971), Brown offered a radically new interpretation of the entire period between the second and eighth centuries AD. The traditional interpretation of this period was centred around the idea of decadence from a 'golden age', classical civilisation, after the famous work of Edward Gibbon The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1779). On the contrary, Brown proposed to look at this period in positive terms, arguing that Late Antiquity was a period of immense cultural innovation.

"The Rise and Function of the Holy Man in Late Antiquity" (1971)
His most celebrated early paper concerned the figure of the 'holy man'. According to Brown, the charismatic, Christian ascetics (holy men) were particularly prominent in the late Roman empire and the early Byzantine world as mediators between local communities and the divine. This relationship expressed the importance of patronage in the Roman social system, which was taken over by the Christian ascetics. But more importantly, Brown argues, the rise of the holy man was the result of a deeper religious change that affected not only Christianity but also other religions of the late antique period – namely the need for a more personal access to the divine.

The Body and Society (1988)
Published in 1988, Peter Brown's The Body and Society was a groundbreaking study of the marriage and sexual practices of early Christians in the ancient Mediterranean and Near East. Brown focuses on the practice of permanent sexual renunciation-continence, celibacy, and lifelong virginity in Christian circles from the first to the fifth centuries A.D. and traces early Christians' preoccupations with sexuality and the body in the work of the period's great writers.

The Body and Society questions how theological views on sexuality and the human body both mirrored and shaped relationships between men and women, Roman aristocracy and slaves, and the married and the celibate. Brown discusses Tertullian, Valentinus, Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Constantine, the Desert Fathers, Jerome, Ambrose, and Augustine, among others, and considers asceticism and society in the Eastern Empire, martyrdom and prophecy, gnostic spiritual guidance, promiscuity among the men and women of the church, monks and marriage in Egypt, the ascetic life of women in fourth-century Jerusalem, and the body and society in the early Middle Ages. In his new introduction, Brown reflects on his work's reception in the scholarly community.

Through the Eye of a Needle (2012)
Brown's longest book to date, Through the Eye of a Needle concerns attitudes to philanthropic giving in the Latin West in Late Antiquity. Divided into five parts, the core of the book – the long Parts II and III – focuses on two generations between about AD370 and 430, when a rich diversity of views gave way to an increasing polarization of thought brought on by the debate between Augustine and the Pelagians. Parts I and IV–V place this highly focused study in the much wider frame of the social structures of the fourth, fifth and sixth centuries.

Honours
Brown has received formal recognition for his academic achievements in at least twelve countries on three continents.

Honorary degrees and college fellowships
He has received some twenty honorary degrees. From outside the US, he has received honorary doctorates from the University of Fribourg, Switzerland (1974), Trinity College Dublin (1990), the University of Pisa (2001), Cambridge (2004), the Central European University in Budapest (2005), Oxford (2006), King's College London (2008), The Hebrew University of Jerusalem (2010), the Aristotle University in Thessaloniki (2010), and the University of St Andrews (2014). His US honorary doctorates include the University of Chicago (1978), Wesleyan University (1993), Tulane (1994), Columbia University (2001), Harvard University (2002), Southern Methodist University (2004), Yale University (2006), University of Notre Dame (2008), Amherst College (2009), and St Vladimir's Orthodox Theological Seminary, NY (2013).

He is an honorary fellow of Royal Holloway College in the University of London (1997), and of New College at Oxford University (1998).

Prizes
Brown has received several major prizes, including the Heineken Prize for History from the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (1994), the Ausonius Prize for Ancient History from the University of Trier (1999) and the Premio Anaxilao from the Municipality of Reggio di Calabria (1999). In 2008 he was the co-winner, with Indian historian Romila Thapar, of the semi-regular Kluge Prize for Lifetime Achievement in the Study of Humanity, from the US Library of Congress. In 2011, Brown was awarded the prestigious International Balzan Prize for the Humanities, for his works on Graeco-Roman antiquity. He shared the Dan David Prize in the category of "Retrieving the Past: Historians and their Sources" in 2015.

Learned centres, societies and academies
In addition to the professional memberships acquired during his career in the UK and US, Brown has received honorific recognition from a number of other learned bodies.

He is a foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (1991); a corresponding member of the Royal Academy of Letters in Barcelona (1997); an honorary fellow of the Italian Association for the Study of Sanctity, Cults and Hagiography; an honorary member of the Royal Irish Academy (2010); a foreign member of the Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei in Italy (2015); and a fellow of the Ecclesiastical History Society in the UK (2016).

He is also honorary president (from 2012) of the Centro Internacional de Estudios sobre la Antigüedad Tardía 'Teodosio el Grande', in the Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia, at Segovia.

Foreign public recognition
Brown is a Chevalier of the Order of Arts and Letters in France (1996).

Book prizes
Brown has won several distinguished book prizes. Augustine of Hippo: A Biography (1967) won the Arts Council of Great Britain Prize. The Body and Society: Men, Women, and Sexual Renunciation in Early Christianity (1988) won the Vursell Award of the American Academy of Arts and Letters, and the Ralph Waldo Emerson Award of Phi Beta Kappa. Through the Eye of a Needle: Wealth, the Fall of Rome, and the Making of Christianity in the West, 350–550AD (2012) won the Jacques Barzun Prize in Cultural History from the American Philosophical Society, and the Philip Schaff Prize from the American Society of Church History. It also secured the R.R. Hawkins Award (the top prize in a tiered structure) at the American publishing industry's annual PROSE Awards.

Selected bibliography

Books
Augustine of Hippo: A Biography (1967/2000) – , new edition, with new epilogue,
The World of Late Antiquity: AD 150–750 (1971/1989) –
 The Making of Late Antiquity (1978) –
The Cult of the Saints: Its Rise and Function in Latin Christianity (1981) –
Society & the Holy in Late Antiquity (1982) –
The Body and Society: Men, Women, and Sexual Renunciation in Early Christianity (1988) –
Power and Persuasion: Towards a Christian Empire (1992)
Authority and the Sacred: Aspects of the Christianisation of the Roman world (1995) –
The Rise of Western Christendom (1996/2003) –
Poverty and Leadership in the Later Roman Empire (2002)
Through the Eye of a Needle: Wealth, the Fall of Rome, and the Making of Christianity in the West 350–550 AD (2012)
The Ransom of the Soul: Afterlife and Wealth in Early Western Christianity (2015)
Treasure in Heaven: The Holy Poor in Early Christianity (2016)
Journeys of the Mind: A Life in History (2023)

References

External links
Heineken Prize laureate page.
Stanford site about Peter Brown.
Kluge Prize laureate page.
Balzan Prize laureate page.
Dan David Prize laureate page.
Interview by Ben Altshuler for Classics Conclave, APA Oral History Project.
Bound to Please by Michael Dirda, p. 22–25, W.W, Norton, 2005

1935 births
Living people
Academics of Royal Holloway, University of London
Alumni of New College, Oxford
American medievalists
British medievalists
Chevaliers of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres
Classical scholars of the University of California, Berkeley
Fellows of All Souls College, Oxford
Fellows of the British Academy
Fellows of the Medieval Academy of America
Fellows of New College, Oxford
Irish scholars and academics
20th-century Irish historians
21st-century Irish historians
Irish medievalists
Irish people of Scottish descent
Irish Protestants
Irish classical scholars
MacArthur Fellows
Members of the American Philosophical Society
Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences
Patristic scholars
Writers from Dublin (city)
People educated at Shrewsbury School
Princeton University faculty
University of California, Berkeley College of Letters and Science faculty
University of California, Los Angeles faculty
Wesleyan University people
Winners of the Heineken Prize
Augustine scholars
Alumni of Merton College, Oxford
Historians from California
People from Bray, County Wicklow

Peter Brown (historian)