In fantasy football, a type of fantasy sport, players assemble and manage virtual teams of real Australian rules footballers. Teams score points based on their footballers' performance in real-world matches. Players compete against all other participants in a fantasy football competition, but may also form smaller leagues, often with friends or co-workers. Most fantasy football competitions use players from the Australian Football League (AFL), although several competitions based on the AFL Women's (AFLW) have emerged.

Fantasy football competitions based on a salary cap are the most popular. Under this format, the competition's administrators price every footballer based on their estimated scoring potential. Players receive a limited amount of virtual currency to spend on footballers for their squad. During the season, footballers' prices rise, fall or stagnate, depending on their weekly performances. Every round, players may opt to trade a limited number of  footballers to improve their teams, subject to the salary cap. In another common format, players instead select footballers for their teams through a virtual draft. Unlike under the salary-cap format, no two players in a league may own the same footballer. Daily fantasy football, an emerging type, sees players assemble teams for a single game or single week rather than an entire season. In this format, players generally pay a fee to participate.

For season-long formats, the two major fantasy football competitions are AFL SuperCoach, operated by News Corp Australia, and AFL Fantasy, operated by the AFL itself. Draftstars and Moneyball are notable competitions in daily fantasy football.

References

Fantasy sports
Australian Football League

Fantasy football (Australian rules)


The National Association of Underwater Instructors (NAUI Worldwide) is a non-profit association of scuba instructors. It primarily serves as a recreational dive certification and membership organization established to provide international diver standards and education programs. The agency was founded in 1960 by Albert Tillman and Neal Hess. NAUI is headquartered in the Tampa, Florida area with dive and member instructors, resorts, stores, service and training centers, located around the world.

It was officially CE and International Organization for Standardization (ISO) certified in May 2007 in all three diver levels and both instructor levels and re-certified for its scuba diving programs as meeting ISO and European Underwater Federation standards on November 24, 2015.

The US Internal Revenue Service determined that NAUI be a tax-exempt non-profit educational organization in 1971.

Agency standards, policies, and ethics are governed by the Association's Board of Directors, who are members themselves and who are each elected through a democratic election process by the overall instructor membership.

History

After Jacques-Yves Cousteau introduced the Aqua-Lung to the market, there followed a growing interest in scuba diving by the public and a subsequent need to codify the training.

In 1951, Jim Auxie Jr and Chuck Blakeslee started a magazine called The Skin Diver (later renamed Skin Diver Magazine). Two-year dive teacher Neal Earl Hess contributed to its "The Instructors Corner" column to inform readers about scuba. He soon established a column called "The National Diving Patrol" as a section to name new skin and scuba diving "instructors".

Still, no official training and certifying agency existed, except for the training and resources provided by the military (Underwater Demolition Teams) and dive clubs.

In 1952, Al Tillman, the director of sports for the Los Angeles County Department of Parks and Recreation, said in a letter to Parks and Recreation director Paul Gruendyke, "A new sport—skin diving—is becoming popular in the area. Recently while diving in Palos Verdes, I ran into several divers in the water with me who didn't know what they were doing. One had one of the new underwater breathing units that allows divers to stay under for long periods of time... I propose that my department get involved in this sport and provide training classes. I believe that diving will grow in the future and we have an obligation to make the sport as safe as possible."

In 1955, Tillman and L.A. County lifeguard Bev Morgan created the L.A. County Parks and Recreational Underwater Instructor Certification Course (1UICC) in an effort to respond to the growing number of diver requests. It was the world's first civilian training program to certify recreational divers and soon began granting Provisional Certification to instructors across the country.

In the May 1960 issue of Skin Diver Magazine, the creation of The National Diving Patrol was announced as an official, national organization. Its purpose and function was "to insure competent underwater instruction and to reduce diving accidents through education." In 1959, the name was changed to the National Association of Underwater Instructors (NAUI).

Hess, Blakeslee, Auxier, and Tillman met in August 1960 to discuss and organize NAUI's first Instructor Certification Course. It was held at the Shamrock Hotel in Houston, Texas on August 22–26.  During the six-day course, 72 candidates attended from the U.S. and Canada, but only 53 graduated. The 53 graduates and their staff instructors became the first instructor members of the National Association of Underwater Instructors. The NAUI ICC became the first course to make diver certification available worldwide.

A year later, the second NAUI ICC was held in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, under the direction of Ben Davis.

In October 1961, NAUI was incorporated in the State of California as a non-profit educational organization, with Al Tillman as the President and Neal Hess as the Executive Secretary.

NAUI's first elected Board of Directors included Al Tillman, John C. Jones, Jr., Neal Hess, Garry Howland, Jim Auxier, and James Cahill. A Board of Advisers was appointed and included Captain Albert Behnke, Jr., Commander George Bond, Captain Jacques-Yves Cousteau, and Dr. Andreas Rechnitzer.

The number of NAUI ICCs grew throughout the 1960s in central locations throughout North America. The association's conduct of business relied on volunteers and the board regional leaders, all administered out of Al Tillman's home. Skin Diver Magazine published the "NAUI Page" as a regular feature to help the organization grow, to accumulate a salary and, later, to provide office space.The first International Conference on Underwater Education was held in 1969 at Santa Ana College, where it served as a venue for NAUI members from all over could meet and exchange ideas. It was also used as a forum to present information on diving skills and safety, teaching, diving physiology, physics, and other diving and marine sciences.

Soon, NAUI membership began to expand internationally, with an ICC being held in Japan in 1970 and NAUI Canada being organized as a separate corporation in 1972.

NAUI instructors certified more than 40,000 entry-level scuba divers in 1970 alone; 1979 was a year with over 5,000 newly certified NAUI scuba instructors. By the time 1989 came around, over 12,000 NAUI instructors were certified. NAUI Worldwide had established a network of 20 service centers in 1998.

From 1981 to 1997, NAUI headquarters facilities remained in Montclair, California. It was during these years (in 1987) that the NAUI Board of Directors elected its first woman president: Nancy Guarascio.

In 1997, NAUI Worldwide headquarters was moved to Tampa, Florida and included Board of Directors members from Europe and Asia for the first time.

NAUI hired Jim Bram as its president in June 1995. Bram renamed NAUI to do business as NAUI Worldwide, with the intent to provide business support to members everywhere via licensed service centers.

On January 20, 2015, the Ohio Board of Pharmacy amended Code 4729-21-06: Sales of medical oxygen to scuba divers. The code authorized individuals who completed courses from NAUI to purchase and possess medical oxygen for the purpose of emergency care or treatment at the scene of a diving emergency.

In November 2015, NAUI released a series of announcements during the 2015 DEMA Show in Orlando, Florida. Its first podcast series, the "Dive Team Report", released once per week. The podcast was designed to inform the general public and divers on trends and issues affecting the sport of diving. The first full episode aired on November 12, 2015.

A series of other announcements included its new marketing campaign "The Definition of Diving", its demo version of its new website interface (version 1.0), and its alliance with the Divers Alert Network and Performance Freediving International.  For the first time, NAUI and DAN came together to offer DAN's first-aid programs to NAUI divers and members. NAUI established and incorporated the co-branded DAN-NAUI first-aid courses into their curricula.

NAUI Green Diver Initiative
In 2010, NAUI Worldwide formed the NAUI Green Diver Initiative (GDI). GDI was implemented to "empower individuals to preserve and conserve the ocean planet with the common goal of taking action to protect the environment." With stagnant progress, it was not until July 2015 that NAUI renewed its commitment to the Initiative, unveiling its first manager, Sam Richardson, who entered the full-time position with over 10 years of non-profit experience. GDI remained a U.S. registered 501 (c) (3) non-profit that relied on the support of donors to fulfill its mission.

Honorary NAUI members recognitions

In the United States, US Navy SEALs, Coast Guard rescue divers, and other special military forces are trained to NAUI standards as part of their overall training with open and closed circuit rebreathers; National Park Service and NOAA divers receive NAUI training and certifications.

Aqualung inventor Captain Jacques-Yves Cousteau was on the original Board of Advisers of NAUI, as was Albert R. Behnke, a pioneer of diving medicine.

Actor Lloyd Bridges was the first honorary NAUI instructor member. He played frogman "Mike Nelson" in the American television series Sea Hunt, which popularized scuba diving as a recreational sport. Zale Parry played the female role, and she formally instructed Lloyd Bridges on how to dive for the part. She was a research diver starring in the television's first underwater documentary series, Kingdom of the Sea, in 1954. She made a record-setting 209-foot dive that same year, distinguishing women as skilled divers.

Corporate alliances

NAUI has numerous corporate alliances with organizations, such as Walt Disney World Resort, The Florida Aquarium, NASA's Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory, and the Fire Department of New York. Many of the first generation of diving safety officers of the top universities, colleges and institutes of technology in the United States were NAUI members and made significant contributions to NAUI's programs, including: Lee Somers University of Michigan, James Stewart Scripps Institution of Oceanography, Richard Bell University of California, Davis, Henry Viex United States Military Academy, Lloyd Austin University of California, Berkeley, Mark Flahan California State University, San Diego, Phillip Sharkey University of Rhode Island, Ronnie D'Amico California State University, Long Beach, Walt Hendricks, Sr. University of Puerto Rico, Glen Egstrom University of California, Los Angeles, and John Heine Moss Landing Marine Laboratories.

These institutions, and others, belong to the American Academy of Underwater Sciences, and while their training programs greatly exceed minimum NAUI requirements, certifications in their scientific diving training programs are often arranged through NAUI. Many governmental agencies in the United States do the same, including the US Navy SEALs, Army Special Forces, and NASA.

Courses

NAUI produced a Scuba Diver Education System in 2000, and it began including its education systems to all mainline certification courses, listed below.

Recreational courses

Junior Skindiver
Junior Scuba Diver
Junior Advanced Scuba Diver
Skin Diver
Scuba Diver
Experienced Scuba Diver
Advanced Scuba Diver
Master Scuba Diver

Specialty courses
Deep Diver
Dry Suit Diver
Enriched Air Nitrox (EAN) Diver
Scuba Rescue Diver
Search and Recovery Diver

Training Assistant
Underwater Archaeologist
Underwater Ecologist
Underwater Environment
Underwater Photographer
Underwater Hunter and Collector
Wreck Diver (External Survey)

Leadership courses

Assistant Instructor
Skin Diving Instructor
Divemaster
Instructor Preparation Course
Instructor
Instructor Trainer
Course Director

Technical courses

Cave Diver (Levels I, II, and III)
Cavern Diver
CCR Mixed Gas Diver
Closed Circuit Rebreather Diver
Decompression Technique
Heliair Diver
Helitrox Diver
Ice Diver
Introduction to Technical Diving
Mixed Gas Blender and O2 Service Technician
Semi-closed Rebreather Diver
Technical Nitrox Diver
Technical Support Leader
Technical Wreck Penetration Diver
Tri-Mix Diver (Levels I & II)
Wreck Penetration Diver

NAUI programs

Insurance programs

NAUI is allied with Divers Alert Network, a non-profit organization for diver's assistance and medical research on recreational scuba diving safety, developed by Executive Director Dan Orr in 1980. DAN and NAUI allied in 2007 to work together for diver safety. DAN is the official dive accident insurance provider for NAUI. In November 2015, DAN and NAUI renewed their alliance to extend their reach of dive safety programs.

NAUI initiated a worldwide coverage instructor liability insurance policy in 1974. This worldwide policy allowed members of the Bahamas, British Virgin Islands and other islands of the Caribbean, and military personnel stationed in various areas around the world to receive worldwide coverage.

First aid programs
NAUI's rescue certification course was first proposed and made available to members in 1981 to provide an alternative to the Red Cross training, which was previously required for leadership candidates in NAUI courses. It was created by the NAUI Board of Directors to avoid making NAUI programs dependent upon other agency certifications.

NAUI technical diving professional certifications

NAUI sanctioned nitrox training in 1992 and published standards for teaching technical diving in 1997.

Technical diving includes methods that exceed the limits imposed on depth or immersion time for traditional recreational diving. It often involves the use of special gas mixtures (rather than compressed air) for breathing. NAUI standards for technical diving were developed by Tim O'Leary and published by NAUI Worldwide in 1997. NAUI's technical diving program requires special training, equipment, and qualified support teams.

In 1997, the NAUI Technical Diving Division was created. NAUI formed a Technical Training Advisory Board and Rebreather Advisory Board, with Tim O'Leary as the chairman for each, to assist in the development of technical diving standards and training.

NAUI decompression algorithms and tables

The reduced gradient bubble model is an iterative approach to staging diver ascents. It employs a dual phase approach with separated phase volumes as limit points, along with critical tensions across tissue compartments. It was developed by Dr. Bruce Wienke in 1988 at Los Alamos National Laboratories. He published the model in 1992. The algorithm is now incorporated into many dive computers and advanced dive planning software. Today it enhances the safety of serious deep and technical divers.

NAUI's RGBM decompression tables were developed in 1997 exclusively for NAUI by Dr. Bruce Wienke and Tim O'Leary. NAUI began publishing the only decompression manual with a full set of RGBM tables in 2000 for air, nitrox and trimix for both open and closed-circuit diving. Recreational RGBM no-calculation tables were published in 2001 exclusively for NAUI for sea level through 10,000 feet, no-stop diving.

Accreditation and affiliations
The Chinese Underwater Association (CUA), in conjunction with the China Water Sports Administration (CWSA), officially legitimized NAUI to provide translated diver training materials and diver training in the People's Republic of China.

The Malaysian Sport Diving Association (MSDA)] officially adopted NAUI standards for use in their diver training in Malaysia.

NAUI is the diver training organization of choice of NASA's Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory at the Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas (USA). NAUI's alliance with the Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory provides training materials, certification cards and collateral materials for their scuba program.

NAUI is a member of the Universal Referral Program (URP), a worldwide customer service program that allows instructors to refer their students for certification dives with either NAUI or other diver training agencies. The URP was developed in 1998 through the cooperative efforts of IDEA, NASDS, NAUI, PDIC, SSI, and YMCA. PADI Instructors and facilities can also receive students and be registered as referral instructors and locations under the URP.

See also

References

External links
NAUI Worldwide website
NAUI Europe website
NAUI Pacific Rim website
For quality assurances purposes, NAUI lists names of individuals whose membership has been suspended, revoked or reinstated by NAUI Worldwide, those who have voluntarily resigned their membership and those individuals or dive businesses who have not ever been affiliated with NAUI.

1959 establishments in the United States
Underwater diving training organizations
Organizations established in 1959


Attack, also known as Attack!, is a 1956 American war film directed by Robert Aldrich and starring Jack Palance, Eddie Albert, Lee Marvin, William Smithers, Robert Strauss, Richard Jaeckel, Buddy Ebsen and Peter van Eyck. The cinematographer was Joseph Biroc.

"A cynical and grim account of war", the film is set in the latter stages of World War II and tells the story of a front-line combat unit led by a cowardly captain clearly out of his depth, as well as a tougher subordinate and an executive officer who both threaten to do away with him. As the official trailer put it: "Not every gun is pointed at the enemy!"

The film won the 1956 Italian Film Critics Award.

Plot
Europe 1944: Fox company (call sign "Fragile Fox") is a US Army National Guard infantry unit based in a Belgian town near the front line. They are led by Captain Erskine Cooney (Eddie Albert), who appears to be better at handling red tape than combat. When Lieutenant Joe Costa (Jack Palance) sends a squad to take a pillbox, Cooney agrees to provide covering fire but freezes at the critical moment leading to the slaughter of Costa's squad.

The executive officer, Lt. Harold Woodruff (William Smithers, in his first credited screen role), is the "voice of reason" who tries to keep the peace between Cooney and Costa. Woodruff approaches battalion commander Lieutenant Colonel Clyde Bartlett (Lee Marvin), who is a career officer intent on leveraging Cooney's family ties for political gain when the war ends. When Woodruff tries to appeal to Bartlett's honour and claims that Cooney is not capable of leading the unit and should be reassigned to a desk job, Bartlett dismisses him. Woodruff is promised that the war is coming to an end and it is highly unlikely that the platoon will ever see combat again. It is well known that Cooney owes his position to Bartlett, who has known the Cooney family since he was a 14-year-old clerk in the office of Cooney's father, a politically powerful judge. The judge's influence could be very useful to Bartlett's post-war political ambitions.

When the Germans launch the Battle of the Bulge, Bartlett orders Cooney to seize the town of La Nelle. Woodruff recommends a two-pronged attack but is over-ruled by Cooney who orders Costa to lead a reconnaissance mission. Costa agrees, provided that  both Cooney and Woodruff promise to send reinforcements if his squads encounter heavy resistance. As the platoon approaches La Nelle, the men come under fire – the town, as it turns out, is strongly held by German troops backed up by mortars and tanks.

Most of Costa's platoon are killed or wounded. He and the survivors (Platoon Sergeant Tolliver, Private First Class Bernstein, Pfc. Ricks and Pvt, Snowden) take refuge in a farmhouse. When Costa calls for reinforcements, Cooney ignores his request and begins drinking. Costa and his men capture a German SS officer and a soldier.  But when tanks start shelling the house, he has no choice but to retreat. He furiously tells Woodruff over the radio to warn Cooney that he's "coming back!"

As the survivors flee, Ricks is shot and badly injured, Tolliver, Snowden and Bernstein each run past the man but Costa is unable to leave him behind and attempts to carry Ricks to safety. Ricks dies in Costa's arms and in the ensuing barrage Costa goes missing in action. The rest of the men manage to get back to town. The men show their contempt for Cooney. Bartlett reprimands Cooney for failing to send in his entire company to take La Nelle. As a result, the Germans are advancing on their position; he tells Woodruff and Cooney that they must hold. Bartlett threatens to arrest Cooney if he falls back, as it would leave another company unprotected and the Germans would be able to "roll up the entire front line". When Cooney begs to be reassigned, an enraged Bartlett strikes him.

Woodruff threatens Bartlett saying he will tell the commanding general, Gen. Parsons, the whole story. With the pressure building up inside him, Cooney turns to drink again, but Woodruff smashes the bottle. After that, Cooney has a mental breakdown. Feeling sorry for him, Woodruff tells him to sleep it off and is about to assume command when Costa suddenly reappears, determined to kill Cooney. As they argue, they are told by Corporal Jackson (Jon Shepodd) that the town is being overrun and that the surviving members of Costa's squad are cut off. Costa takes it on himself to save his men and grabs a bazooka, he manages to disable one tank but is gravely wounded when another tank he disables drives over his arm, crushing it and pinning him down.

Woodruff, Tolliver, Bernstein, Jackson and Snowden (Richard Jaeckel) take refuge in a basement, followed shortly afterward by Cooney. Bernstein's leg is broken when a beam falls on it. As the men try to get back to their own lines they discover that they are surrounded. Cooney orders the men to surrender and just as he steps out of the basement to do so he is met by a severely injured Costa, his grievously mangled and bloody arm dangling uselessly. It is clear that Costa is gravely wounded and, as he collapses to the ground in front of Cooney, he appeals to God to give him enough strength to kill Cooney.  Before Costa dies, Cooney mocks him by kicking his pistol away. Cooney then orders the remaining survivors to surrender, even though they have not been discovered. Woodruff angrily refuses, as there are members of the SS in the advancing German troops, and Bernstein is Jewish and injured. Surrendering would be a guaranteed death sentence for Bernstein as Woodruff knows the SS will not honour his POW rights.

Woodruff demands that Cooney relent, and threatens to shoot his commanding officer if he tries to proceed. When Cooney continues, Woodruff, with no other choice, shoots and kills the captain. Feeling remorse, Woodruff instructs Tolliver to place him under arrest, but Tolliver and the other GIs reject his command. Each man, except Snowden, steps forward and shoots Cooney to prevent Woodruff from taking the blame. Snowden returns to report that the town is empty and American reinforcements are arriving with the Germans in full retreat.

Bartlett finds the men and demands to speak to Cooney; the men point to his body. The men then intervene before Woodruff can confess and inform the Colonel that Cooney was killed by the Germans, but Bartlett senses immediately that they are covering for Woodruff. He dismisses the men and, alone with Woodruff, tries to bribe the younger officer with a field promotion to captain. Woodruff reluctantly seems to go along until Bartlett then announces that he is going to nominate Cooney for the Distinguished Service Cross award. Outraged, Woodruff accuses Bartlett of orchestrating the whole thing in order to get rid of Cooney and gain favour with his powerful father. Bartlett remarks that Woodruff has too much to lose if he makes the whole affair public, and leaves after promising to get a medal for Costa too. As he leaves Woodruff decides to do the right thing to honour Costa, and calls the commanding general, Gen. Parsons, on the radio to file a full report.

Cast

 Jack Palance as Lt. Joe Costa
 Eddie Albert as Capt. Erskine Cooney
 Lee Marvin as Lt. Col. Clyde Bartlett
 William Smithers as Lt. Harold "Harry" Woodruff
 Robert Strauss as Pfc. Bernstein
 Richard Jaeckel as Pvt. Snowden
 Buddy Ebsen as T/Sgt. Tolliver
 Jon Shepodd as Cpl. John Jackson
 Peter van Eyck as SS Captain
 James Goodwin as Pfc. Ricks
 Steven Geray as Otto, German NCO
 Jud Taylor as Pvt. Jacob R. Abramowitz (credited as Judson Taylor)
 Strother Martin as Sgt. Ingersol

Production
The film was based on Norman Brooks' stage play Fragile Fox. It was directed by Herbert Bayard Swope, Jr. and starred Dane Clark as Lt. Costa, Don Taylor as Lt. Woodruff, James Gregory as Lt. Col Bartlett, Andrew Duggan as Capt. Cooney, Crahan Denton as T/Sgt Tolliver, Robert McQueeney as Pvt. Sneider, Clement Fowler as Pvt. Bernstein and Jason Wingreen as PFC. Snowden. The play toured Cincinnati and Philadelphia then came into New York at the Belasco Theatre where after six weeks  it folded.

Director Aldrich bought the rights when he failed to obtain those for Irwin Shaw's The Young Lions and Norman Mailer's The Naked and the Dead.

Aldrich never saw the play on stage but had read it and liked what it said about war.

Owing to the nature of the film, which cast some officers as either cowards or Machiavellian manipulators, the US Defense Department refused to grant production assistance. Critics attacked this attitude, pointing out the heroic and noble behaviour of other officers like Costa and Woodruff who were "more representative of the Army than the cowardly captain, who is clearly an exception."

Aldrich said, "The Army saw the script and promptly laid down a policy of no cooperation, which not only meant that I couldn't borrow troops and tanks for my picture - I couldn't even get a look at Signal Corps combat footage. I finally had to buy a tank for $1,000 and rent another from 20th Century-Fox."

Rehearsals began on 5 January and filming started on 15 January.

Aldrich directed Attack! without the big budget that other war productions were getting at the time. It was shot in 32 days on the back lot of RKO Studios with a small cast and budget and a few pieces of military equipment, including the two muchmodified US M3 light tanks that inadequately portrayed German tanks. Also, German troops wear WWI Stahlhelme.

The opening title sequence depicting off-duty soldiers was created by Saul Bass.

Eddie Albert, who played the cowardly Cooney, was in reality a decorated hero in the World War II Pacific Theater. Before the war he was secretly working for US Army intelligence, photographing German U-boats in Mexico. He was awarded the Bronze Star for heroism, rescuing US Marines during the Battle of Tarawa while under heavy gunfire in 1943. He also lost a portion of his hearing from the noise of the battle.

Reception
According to Aldrich the film made money but because the profits were "cross collateralized" against The Big Knife "nobody saw any of the money."

Accolades
The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
 2001: AFI's 100 Years...100 Thrills – Nominated

Home media
Attack was released to DVD by MGM Home Video on May 20, 2003 as a Region 1 fullscreen DVD and to Blu-ray on May 2, 2013 by the French company Filmedia (under license from MGM) as a Region 2 Blu-ray DVD.

See also
List of American films of 1956

References

External links
Norman A. Brooks papers at the University of Wyoming – American Heritage Center

 "Universal Backlot"

1956 films
1956 war films
American black-and-white films
American war films
Belgium in fiction
1950s English-language films
Films directed by Robert Aldrich
Films scored by Frank De Vol
American films based on plays
Films set in Belgium
Films with screenplays by James Poe
United Artists films
American World War II films
Western Front of World War II films
1950s American films
English-language war films

Attack (1956 film)


Multiple realizability, in the philosophy of mind, is the thesis that the same mental property, state, or event can be implemented by different physical properties, states, or events.

Philosophers of mind have used multiple realizability to argue that mental states are not the same as — and cannot be reduced to — physical states. They have also used it to defend or criticize many versions of functionalism, especially machine-state functionalism.

The notion of multiple realizability
The multiple realizability thesis in the philosophy of mind is the thesis that the same mental state can be realized by different physical states; another way of putting it is that there is a many-to-one mapping from physical states to mental states. Multiple realizability in general is not restricted to the multiple realizability of mental states. Many kinds of things can be realized by numerous physical devices. A wide variety of physical devices can serve as corkscrews, for example. Mental states can also be realized in a variety of ways. Just as the logical states of a Turing machine can be realized by different structural states in different mechanisms, so, by analogy, the mental states of a human being can be realized by different physical states in different individuals. Pain, for example, is correlated with different physical states of the nervous system in different organisms, but the organisms all experience the mental state of "being in pain."

Mental states have been claimed to be multiply realizable not only across species and between individuals but also within individuals. At different times, the same individual may realize the same mental states in physically different forms. Neural plasticity — the fact that areas of the brain can assume the functions of other parts that have been damaged as the result of traumatic injury, pathology, natural biological development, or other processes — has long been considered to be an example. But so are more mundane facts about neurophysiology, such as the fact that neurons die and connections between them are rewired. The argument that neural plasticity supports multiple realizability has also been contested.

Gualtiero Piccinini differentiates three related properties: variable realizability, multiple realizability, and medium independence.

 A property is variably realizable if it can be instantiated by different realizers. For example, both a winged corkscrew and a waiter's corkscrew have the property of removing corks and do so through the same mechanism — a screw and pull mechanism.  Because the mechanism is fundamentally unchanged, the property is variably realizable.
 For a property to be multiply realizable, the property must be able to be instantiated by different realizers and different mechanisms. The classic spring mousetrap and the glue mousetrap instantiate the same property, the ability to trap mice, but they do so through different mechanisms. As such, the property is multiply realizable.
 A property is medium independent if it can be instantiated by different realizers and different mechanisms and if the inputs and outputs of the mechanisms are also multiply realizable. A mousetrap is not medium independent; it must take a mouse as an input. A computer, though, is medium independent.  A computer can be constructed from different parts assembled into different mechanisms and can take different types of inputs and outputs. In typical digital computers, the inputs and outputs are voltages, but in quantum computers, the inputs and outputs would be different.

The significance of multiple realizability
Multiple realizability has been used as an argument against type-identity theory, against reductionist theories of mind in general, for functionalist theories of mind, and even against functionalist theories of mind.

Starting in the 1960s, Hilary Putnam used multiple realizability as an argument against type-identity theory. Specifically, Putnam noted that the multiple realizability of pain entails that, contrary to type-identity theory, pain is not identical to C-fibre firing. More generally, multiple realizability shows that psychological attributes are not the same as physical attributes. Psychological attributes, rather, are disjunctions of physical attributes. Fodor, Putnam, and others noted that, along with being an effective argument against type-identity theories, multiple realizability implies that any low-level explanation of higher-level mental phenomena would be insufficiently abstract and general.

Jerry Fodor (1975) deployed multiple realizability more generally as an argument against any reductionist account of the relation between higher-level sciences and physics.  Fodor also uses multiple realizability to argue against reductionism not only of psychology but of any special sciences (that is, any sciences that are "higher level" than physics). In his characterization of reductionism, all mental kind predicates in an ideal and completed psychology must correspond with physical kind predicates in an ideal and completed physics. He suggests taking Ernest Nagel's theory of reduction, which insists on the derivability of all terms in the theory to be reduced from terms in the reducing theory and the bridging laws, as the canonical theory of reduction. Given generalized multiple realizability, the physical science part of these psychophysical bridge laws will end up being a (possibly infinite) disjunction of all the terms referring to possible physical realizations of a mental kind. This disjunction cannot be a kind-predicate and therefore the entire statement cannot be a law of physics. The special sciences therefore cannot be reduced to physics.

Functionalism, which attempts to identify mental kinds with functional kinds that are characterized exclusively in terms of causes and effects, abstracts from particle physics and hence seems to be a more suitable explanation of the relation between mind and body. As a result of these arguments and others that build upon them, the dominant theory in philosophy of mind since the 1960s has been a version of non-reductive physicalism based on multiple realizability.

In 1988, Hilary Putnam used multiple realizability to argue against functionalism. Noting that functionalism is essentially a watered-down reductionist or identity theory in which mental kinds are ultimately identified with functional kinds, Putnam argues that mental kinds are probably multiply realizable over functional kinds. The same mental state or property can be implemented or realized by different states of a universal Turing machine.

Arguments for multiple realizability

The conceivability argument
Putnam asks whether alien beings, artificially intelligent robots, and silicon-based life forms should be considered a priori incapable of experiencing pain merely because they do not have the same neurochemistry as humans. We can imagine that they might share our psychological states despite being made of different stuff. Our ability to conceive of that possibility means that multiple realizability is possible.

The likelihood argument
Putnam cites examples from the animal kingdom as evidence for the multiple realizability of mental states. Evolutionary biology — including evolutionary neuroscience — and comparative neuroanatomy and neurophysiology have demonstrated that mammals, reptiles, birds, amphibians, and mollusks have different brain structures. These animals can only share the same mental states and properties if these mental states and properties can be realized by different physical states in different species.  Putnam concludes that type-identity and other reductive theories make an extremely "ambitious" and "highly implausible" conjecture that can be disproven with just one example of multiple realizability. On the contrary, it is likely that creatures that cannot be in identical physical states, due to their different composition and structure, can nevertheless be in identical psychological states. Some philosophers refer to this argument — that multiple realizability is much more likely than reductionism — as the likelihood argument.

The a priori argument
Putnam also formulates a complementary argument based on functional isomorphism. He defines the concept in these terms: "Two systems are functionally isomorphic if there is a correspondence between the states of one and the states of the other that preserves functional relations." Two computers, for example, are functionally isomorphic if the  sequential relations among states in one are exactly mirrored by those in the other. A computer made of electrical components and a computer made of cogs and wheels can be functionally isomorphic even though they are constitutionally different. Functional isomorphism implies multiple realizability. Some philosophers refer to this as the a priori argument.

Arguments against multiple realizability
Some philosophers deny that mental states are multiply realizable. A detailed examination of how brain areas are identified in neuroscience shows that psychological functions are not, in fact, multiply realizable.

Arguments against the significance of multiple realizability
Some philosophers accept the thesis that mental states are multiply realizable but deny that multiple realizability gives rise to functionalism or other forms of non-reductive physicalism.

Reductionism in other sciences
Early objections to multiple realizability were limited to the narrow, "across structures-type" version. Starting with David Kellogg Lewis, many reductionists argued that it is very common in scientific practice to reduce one theory to another via local, structure-specific reductions. A frequently cited example of this sort of intertheoretic reduction is temperature. The temperature of a gas is identical to mean molecular kinetic energy. Temperature in a solid is identical to mean maximal molecular kinetic energy because the molecules of a solid are more restricted in their movements. Temperature in a plasma is a mystery because the molecules of a plasma are torn apart. Therefore, temperature is multiply realized in a diversity of microphysical states.

Disjunction
Jaegwon Kim argues that disjunction — the idea that the physical realization of a particular mental state is not a particular physical state but the disjunction of the physical states that realize that mental state — creates problems for multiple realizability. Putnam also argued against this "disjunctive" possibility in later work. Block and Fodor had also argued against it.

Causal closure of the physical
Kim has also argued against non-reductive physicalism on the grounds that it violates the causal closure of the physical, which assumes that physics provides a full explanation of physical events. If mental properties are causally efficacious, they must either be identical to physical properties or there must be widespread overdetermination. The latter is often held to be either unlikely or even impossible on conceptual grounds. If Kim is right, then the options seem to be either reduction or elimination.

Insufficient generalizability
One criticism of multiple realizability is that any theory that attempts to address the possibility of generalized multiple realizability must necessarily be so local and context-specific in nature (referring exclusively to a certain token system of a certain structure-type at a certain time) that its reductions would be incompatible with even a minimally acceptable degree of generality in scientific theorizing. Any psychology that is sufficiently narrow to accommodate this level of multiple realizability required to account for neural plasticity will almost certainly not be general enough to capture the generalizations needed to explain human psychology.

Some reductionists reply that this is not empirically plausible. Research and experimentation in the neurosciences requires that some universal consistencies in brain structures must either exist or be assumed to exist. The similarity (produced by homology or convergent evolution) of brain structures allows us to generalize across species. If multiple realizability (especially the generalized form) were an empirical fact, then results from experiments conducted on one species of animal (or one organism) would not be meaningful or useful when generalized to explain the behavior or characteristics of another species (or organism of the same species; or in the generalized form, even the same organism).

Sungsu Kim has recently responded to this objection using the distinction between homology of brain structures and homoplasy. Homologies are characteristics of physiology, morphology, behavior, or psychology shared by two or more species and inherited from a common ancestor. Homoplasies are similar or identical characteristics shared by two or more species but not inherited from a common ancestor, having evolved independently. The feet of ducks and platypuses are an example of homoplasy, while the hands of humans and chimps are an example of homology. The fact that brain structures are homologous provides no evidence either for or against multiple realizability. The only way to empirically test the thesis of multiple realizability would be to examine brain structures and determine whether some homoplasious "psychological processes or functions might be 'constructed' from different material" and supported by different brain structures just as the flight capacities of bats and birds emerge from different morphophysiologies. The emergence of similar behavioral outputs or psychological functions brought about by similar or identical brain structures in convergent evolutionary lineages would provide some evidence against multiple realizability, since it is highly improbable that this would happen, if not for constraints on the type of physical system that can realize mental phenomena. This, however, would not completely refute the possibility of realizability of mental states in radically different physical systems such as non-carbon based life forms or machines.

Historical note
Observations of multiple realizability — and of its relation to functionalism — predate their use in philosophy beginning in the 1960s. Alan Turing remarked on multiple realizability in 1950, for example, writing: "The fact that Babbage's Analytical Engine was to be entirely mechanical will help us rid ourselves of a superstition. Importance is often attached to the fact that modern digital computers are electrical, and the nervous system is also electrical. Since Babbage's machine was not electrical, and since all digital computers are in a sense equivalent, we see that this use of electricity cannot be of theoretical importance. ... If we wish to find such similarities we should look rather for mathematical analogies of function."

Notes

References
Putnam, Hilary. Representation and Reality. 1988. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Fodor, Jerry. The Language of Thought. 1975. New York. Thomas Cromwell.

Further reading

External links
PhilPapers bibliography on multiple realizability

Arguments in philosophy of mind
Cognitive science
Concepts in the philosophy of mind
Metaphysics of mind

Multiple realizability


Kirsana () is a town in northwestern Syria. Kirsana is administratively part of the Latakia Governorate, located north of Latakia. Nearby localities include Al-Shamiyah and Burj Islam to the north, Burj al-Qasab to the southwest and Sitmarkho to the south. According to the Syria Central Bureau of Statistics, Kirsana had a population of 5,499 in the 2004 census. Its inhabitants are predominantly Alawites.

References

Populated places in Latakia District
Alawite communities in Syria

Kirsana


Charles Hallock  (March 13, 1834 – December 2, 1917) was an American author and publisher born in New York City to Gerard Hallock and Elizabeth Allen. On September 10, 1855 he married Amelia J. Wardell.

He studied at Yale, 1850–51, and Amherst College.  He was assistant editor of the New Haven Register, 1854–56; proprietor and associate editor of the New York Journal of Commerce, of which his father was editor, 1856-62. He was founder and publisher, from 1873–80, of Forest and Stream, which was later incorporated into its main competitor Field and Stream.

He experimented in Sunflower cultivation, using the seed for oil; in sheep raising on Indian reservations; in establishing a reservation for sportsmen in Minnesota; in the development of Alaska and Florida, and of special industries in North Carolina; and in various other sanitary and economic schemes.

He originated the code of uniform game laws and incorporated with Fayette S. Giles and others the first great American game preserve at Blooming Grove, Pike County, Pennsylvania

Hallock, Minnesota was named after him.

Works
Recluse of the Oconee 1854
Life of Stonewall Jackson 1863
The Fishing Tourist 1873 Online Version
Camp Life in Florida 1875 Online Version
The Sportsman's Gazetteer 1877  Online Version
Vacation Rambles in Michigan 1877
American Club List and Glossary 1878
Our New Alaska 1886
The Salmon Fisher 1890 Online Version
Origin of the American indigenes 1902
Luminous Bodies Here and Hereafter 1906 Online Version
An Angler's Reminiscences. A Record of  Sport, Travel and Adventure. With Autobiography of the Author 1913 Online Version

References

"Hallock, Charles" American Authors 1600-1900, The H. W. Wilson Company, 1938
Swanson, Gloria. (April 1979)  A Man Named Hallock City of Hallock Retrieved March 21, 2008
Dyer, Charles N. History of the Town of Plainfield, Hampshire County, Mass., From Its Settlement to 1891, Including a Genealogical History of Twenty Three of the Original Settlers and Their Descendants, with Anecdotes and Sketches. (p. 154)  Northampton, Mass: Press of Gazette Print. Co, 1891.  googlebooks Accessed March 21, 2008
Hallock, Charles. An Angler's Reminiscences; A Record of Sport, Travel and Adventure, with Autobiography of the Author.'' Cincinnati: Sportsmen's Review Pub. Co, 1913. googlebooks Retrieved March 21, 2008

External links
Forest & Streams website

1834 births
1917 deaths
Amherst College alumni
19th-century American writers
Angling writers
Kittson County, Minnesota
American magazine publishers (people)
American editors
Yale University alumni
19th-century American businesspeople

Charles Hallock


Aditya Thyagarajan (born 7 November 1978) is an Indian born American cricketer. Thyagarajan is a right-handed batsman who bowls leg break. Thyagarajan currently represents the United States national cricket team.

Thyagarajan made his debut for the United States against Mozambique. Thyagarajan played eight matches for the United States in that tournament.

Thyagarajan made his List-A debut for the United States against Barbados in the 2008/09 West Indies Cricket Board Cup. Thyagarajan made two further appearances for the United States in that tournament against Trinidad and Tobago and the Combined Campuses and Colleges. The United States lost all three matches.

Later in 2008 Thyagarajan represented the United States in the 2008 ICC Americas Championship Division One, where he played three matches against Suriname, Argentina and the Cayman Islands, Bermuda and Canada, as the United States went on to win the tournament.

In 2010 he made his unofficial Twenty20 debut for the United States against the UAE in a pre-tournament warm up match for the 2010 ICC World Twenty20 Qualifier. During the tournament Thyagarajan made his full Twenty20 debut against Ireland, where he scored 72 not out. Thyagarajan played one further match against Afghanistan in the tournament, both matches he played in the United States lost.

Later in February 2010, Thyagarajan represented the United States in the 2010 ICC World Cricket League Division Five, where he helped the United States gain promotion to the 2010 ICC World Cricket League Division Four in Italy.

After making a comeback from a knee injury, which he suffered at 2011 ICC Cricket World League Division Three, in 2012 Thyagarajan was selected for the 2012 ICC World Cricket League Division Four which takes place from 3 to 10 September 2012 in Malaysia.

References

External links

1978 births
Living people
American cricketers
Indian emigrants to the United States
Cricketers from Bangalore
American sportspeople of Indian descent

Aditya Thyagarajan


Arch'il (), of the Chosroid Dynasty, was the king of Iberia (Kartli, eastern Georgia) from c. 411 to 435. He was the son and successor of King Mirdat IV.

The two principal medieval Georgian chronicles – The Conversion of Kartli, and The Life of Kartli, – relate conflicting versions of Archil's reign. The former story is extremely brief but regretfully indicates that the positions of Zoroastrianism, an official Sasanid religion, was firm in Christian Iberia, a testimony to the effectively unchallenged Sasanid hegemony over the country. The other chronicle informs us of Archil's successful rebellion against Iran, his victory over a punitive force and a retaliatory raid into Arran. The authenticity of this latter account has been questioned by modern scholars.

Arch'il is also attested in two Armenian sources: Koryun's The Life of Mashtots, cap. 18; and Moses of Chorene, III.60.

References

Chosroid kings of Iberia
Year of birth missing
435 deaths
5th-century monarchs in Asia
Vassal rulers of the Sasanian Empire
Georgians from the Sasanian Empire

Archil of Iberia


John Morris, SJ (4 July 1826 – 22 October 1893), was an English Jesuit priest and scholar of Church history.

Life

Early life
Morris was born in Ootacamund, Tamil Nadu, then under the British Raj. He was a son of John Carnac Morris, FRS, an official of the East India Company who was also a noted scholar of Telugu, and of his wife, Rosanna Curtis. He was educated partly in India, partly at Harrow School, partly in reading for Cambridge with Dean Alford, the New Testament scholar. Under him a great change passed over Morris's ideas. Giving up the thought of taking the law as his profession, he became enthusiastic for ecclesiastical antiquities, took a deep interest in the Tractarian movement, and resolved to become an Anglican clergyman.

Going up to Trinity College, Cambridge, in October 1845, Morris became the friend, and then the pupil of F. A. Paley, grandson of the well-known divine, and already one of the leading Greek scholars of the university. The conversion to Catholicism of John Henry Newman, followed by many others, impressed him, and he was converted  by Bishop Wareing, 20 May 1846.

A storm followed, beginning in The Times, which made itself felt even in Parliament. Paley had to leave Cambridge (which led to his subsequently joining the Catholic Church), while Morris was practically cast off by his family. He then went to the English College, Rome, under Dr. Thomas Grant, and was there during the Revolutions of 1848. He was ordained a Catholic priest the following year, and returned to England.

Jesuit priest
When Morris returned to England, he was initially stationed in Northampton, and later in Marlow, Buckinghamshire. Soon after the restoration of the English Catholic hierarchy in 1850, he was named a canon of the new Diocese of Northampton. He returned to Rome to serve as the Vice-Rector of the English College (1853–1856). During this period, he became postulator for the English Martyrs, whose cause for beatification he greatly advanced. Returning to England, he took part in the third Synod of Westminster, became secretary to Cardinal Nicholas Wiseman, whom he nursed on his death-bed, and then served under Wiseman's successor, Henry Edward Manning, until he left to become a Jesuit in 1867.

Morris went to Belgium where he was admitted to the novitiate of the Society of Jesus in Louvain, and professed simple vows in 1869. He was then assigned to the Jesuit community in Roehampton, and became the first Superior of the Jesuit Mission in Oxford. He taught Church History from 1873–1874 at the College of St. Beuno, in Tremeirchion, Wales; he was the founding Rector of St. Ignatius of Loyola College in Luqa, Malta, in 1877. He returned to England in 1880 to serve as the Master of novices for the newly established English Jesuit Province, serving in that position until 1886. He was named a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London in 1889  and in 1891 he became the director of the staff of Jesuit writers at the Immaculate Conception Church, Farm Street, operated by the Jesuits in Mayfair.

Morris retired to Wimbledon, London, in 1893. He died there while preaching in the pulpit, uttering the words, "Render to God the things that are God's."

Works

Morris's major works were:

The Life and Martyrdom of St. Thomas Becket (London, 1859 and 1885);
The Life of Father John Gerard (London, 1881), translated into French, German, Spanish, and Polish;
Troubles of our Catholic Forefathers (3 vols., London, 1872–1877);
Letter-books of Sir Amias Poulet (London, 1874);

He contributed to The Month, The Dublin Review, Archæologia, and other periodicals.

References

Attribution
 The entry cites:
John Hungerford Pollen, Life and Letters of Father John Morris (London, 1896);
John Morris, Journals kept during Times of Retreat (London, 1895);
Carlos Sommervogel, Bibl. de la C. de Jésus, V, p. v-viii; IX, 692.

1826 births
1893 deaths
People from Ooty
British people in colonial India
People educated at Harrow School
Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge
Converts to Roman Catholicism from Anglicanism
English College, Rome alumni
19th-century English Jesuits
Historians of the Catholic Church
Fellows of the Society of Antiquaries of London
19th-century English historians

John Morris (Jesuit)


The popular American video sharing platform YouTube has become widely used in educational settings.

History
YouTube was founded as a video distribution platform in 2005 and is now the most visited website in the US as of 2019.  Almost immediately after the site's launch, educational institutions, such as MIT OpenCourseWare and TED, were using it for the distribution of their content. Soon after, many independent creators began to experiment with science learning. Some of the most popular early educators are listed below:

Khan Academy
Khan Academy creates tutorials in almost all areas of science and mathematics, as well as providing official SAT preparation. The YouTube channel was founded in 2006 by Sal Khan who at the time was working as a financial analyst. The videos he created reached unprecedented levels of popularity, with hundreds of millions of views in the first few years of operation. This lead Khan to start the Khan Academy Non-profit Organization in 2008 and quit his job to focus on education in 2009. To date, Khan Academy has produced over 20,000 videos with over 1.7 billion views on YouTube.

Smarter Every Day
Destin Sandlin, the creator of the YouTube channel "Smarter Every Day", has been posting educational videos on the site since 2007. Each episode of the series poses a specific question or topic. Over the course of about a half an hour, Destin meets with experts and experiments with different concepts in order to gain an in depth understanding of the topic, and presents it to the YouTube audience. Destin's videos covers everything from in depth rocket science to understanding the way our brain works by training to use a "backwards bike".

Vsauce
Vsauce began in the mind of Michael Stevens in 2010, with the name itself coming from a random name generator. The channel originally focused on shows such as DONG (Do Online Now Guys) which showcased cool and interesting websites. However, the main videos on the Vsauce channel that gained a massive amount of attention came with the educational videos. In these short videos, Michael takes a simple question and uses math, physics, and even psychology to deconstruct the question and pose an interesting conclusion to the topic through the lens of analytic thinking. Today, Vsauce is now one of the most popular educational channels on the platform, and has led to the creation of other channels such as Vsauce 2 and 3, hosted by Kevin Lieber and Jake Roper respectively. Michael also co-hosted a live show called Brain Candy Live! with Mythbusters' former host Adam Savage which toured across the United States in 2017.

YouTube EDU
YouTube created YouTube EDU in 2009 as a repository for its educational content. As of 2015, over 700,000 videos were part of YouTube EDU. Content within YouTube EDU is produced by PBS, Khan Academy, Steve Spangler Science, Numberphile, and TED, among others.

Medical education
YouTube videos have been used to teach medical content. In an anatomy course incorporating YouTube, 98% of students watched the assigned videos and 92% stated that they were helpful in teaching anatomical concepts. A 2013 study focused on clinical skills education from YouTube found that the 100 most accessible videos across a variety of topics (venipuncture, wound care, pain assessment, CPR, and others) were generally unsatisfactory.

The value of YouTube in relation to dentistry and dental education has also been evaluated. Dentistry videos specifically categorized as "education" were rated as having a much higher value to dentistry students compared to videos in the more broad "all" category. Most of the videos marked as "education" were viewed as remarkably high quality by dental experts.

See also
StudyTube
Social impact of YouTube
Science communication
Science education

References

YouTube
Educational websites
Education-related YouTube channels
Science communication
Open educational resources

YouTube in education


César Diop (born November 10, 1983 in Thiès) is a Senegalese footballer who plays for Carnoux FC in France, as a defensive midfielder.

Club career
Diop started his professional career in Senegal for ASC Police Dakar, where he played one professional season. he played for Amiens SC youth club. In July 2006, he moved to French fourth division team Gap FC. He spent two seasons at the club.

In the start of the 2008–09 season, he signed with French third level club SO Cassis Carnoux. He played 25 matches for SO Cassis Carnoux, but did not score a goal.

On 27 July 2009, Diop moved to Spain and signed with Gimnàstic de Tarragona, in the Segunda División. He was announced as one of eight signings for the 2009–10 season.

In his first season with the Catalans. His contract was not renewed at the end of the season and he being released from Nàstic.

After being released in July, Diop became a free agent and stay in this condition until January 2011, when he signed with new founded club Lorca Atlético CF. Six months later, he signed with CD Atlético Baleares.

References

External links

1983 births
Living people
Senegalese men's footballers
Men's association football midfielders
Gimnàstic de Tarragona footballers
CD Atlético Baleares footballers
Senegalese expatriate men's footballers
Expatriate men's footballers in France
Expatriate men's footballers in Spain
SO Cassis Carnoux players
Amiens SC players
Gap HAFC players
US Feurs players
Footballers from Thiès
Lorca Atlético CF players

César Diop


United States v. Dunn, 480 U.S. 294 (1987), is a U.S. Supreme Court decision relating to the open fields doctrine limiting the Fourth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution.

Background
Drug Enforcement Agents began investigating the defendant when he purchased large quantities of chemicals used in the production of illegal drugs. The officers then witnessed the defendant placing these chemicals in a barn on his private ranch. The ranch was completely encircled by a perimeter fence, and contained several interior barbed wire fences, including one around the house approximately  from the barn, and a wooden fence enclosing the front of the barn, which had an open overhang and locked, waist-high gates. Without a warrant, officers crossed the perimeter fence, several of the barbed wire fences, and the wooden fence in front of the barn. They were led there by the smell of chemicals, and, while there, could hear a motor running inside. They did not enter the barn but stopped at the locked gate and shined a flashlight inside, observing what they took to be a drug laboratory. They then left the ranch, but entered it twice the next day to confirm the laboratory's presence.

They obtained a search warrant and executed it. The equipment was feeding off the mains. The DEA arrested the respondent, seizing chemicals and equipment, as well as bags of amphetamines they discovered in the house. After the District Court denied the defendant's motion to suppress all evidence seized pursuant to the warrant and the defendant was convicted of conspiracy to manufacture controlled substances and related offenses. However, the Court of Appeals reversed that decision, holding that the barn was within the residence's curtilage and therefore within the Fourth Amendment's protective ambit.

Opinion of the Court
In an opinion for the majority by Justice White, the Supreme Court overturned the appeals court's decision by finding that the barn was outside the curtilage and all evidence obtained by the officers while standing outside the barn and looking in was admissible. Looking at whether the barn was inside the curtilage or rather in an open field, the Court stated:

[C]urtilage questions should be resolved with particular reference to four factors: the proximity of the area claimed to be curtilage to the home, whether the area is included within an enclosure surrounding the home, the nature of the uses to which the area is put, and the steps taken by the resident to protect the area from observation by people passing by.  We do not suggest that combining these factors produces a finely tuned formula that, when mechanically applied, yields a "correct" answer to all extent-of-curtilage questions. Rather, these factors are useful analytical tools only to the degree that, in any given case, they bear upon the centrally relevant consideration — whether the area in question is so intimately tied to the home itself that it should be placed under the home's "umbrella" of Fourth Amendment protection. Applying these factors to respondent's barn and to the area immediately surrounding it, we have little difficulty in concluding that this area lay outside the curtilage of the ranch house."

See also
List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 480
List of United States Supreme Court cases
Lists of United States Supreme Court cases by volume
List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Rehnquist Court

References

Further reading

External links

United States Fourth Amendment case law
United States Supreme Court cases
United States Supreme Court cases of the Rehnquist Court
1987 in United States case law

United States v. Dunn


Mahmoud Aslan (Arabic: محمد أصلان), (1902 – after 1971) was an active participant in literary life during the French protectorate of Tunisia. He produced numerous novels, short stories, and plays. He was also the founder of the journal "Tunis littéraire et artistique"  and the weekly newspaper "Le Petit Tunisien" which was devoted to Franco-Muslims.

Biography
Aslan was born on May 14, 1902, in Tunis, Tunisia to a family of merchants who were of Turkish origin.  He spent his childhood in Souk el Arba, which is now known as Jendouba, and attended a Franco-Arab primary school. By 1917 he studied his secondary education at the Lycee Carnot in Tunis. Aslan went to Paris in 1923, working as an employee of Commerce, and then returning to Tunis. He returned to Paris in 1925 and 1926 and married a Parisian. In 1927, he settled in Tunis and joined the Department of Justice where he worked for thirty years. During this period, he devoted himself to journalism and literature. Several of his books were published during his administrative career as well as two monthly newspapers which were directed by him: Tunis littéraire et artistique ("Literary and Artistic Tunis") and Le Petit Tunisien ("The Little Tunisisen"). He also wrote for the La Presse de Tunisie and contributed to the L'Action tunisienne until the end of 1972.

References

Bibliography

.
.

1902 births
Year of death missing
Tunisian people of Turkish descent
Tunisian journalists
Tunisian writers
Writers from Tunis
People from Jendouba Governorate
Tunisian male writers

Mahmoud Aslan


Hassan Hamdy was the 12th and president of the Egyptian Al Ahly Sporting Club. He was the vice president of the club during Saleh Selim's presidency and the chairman of Al-Ahram advertising agency which is part of the Al-Ahram association and the president of the International Advertising Association (IAA)'s Cairo branch. He also played for Al Ahly football team as a midfielder/defender in 1960 and 1970, and was the 20th captain of the squad.
He played for Egypt national football team from early seventies to late seventies of the last century.

Director of Football
Hassan Hamdy took the post of Director of the Game momentarily caught up on June 17, 1979 and was preparing youngest holder of this office in Egypt, where Egyptian clubs had not completed general session, after which time many felt it to be one of the difficult tasks, which are the responsibility of the leadership of the largest and most powerful group in Egypt. Because Hamdy succeeded in taking command of Al Ahly for many championships where he won the football league seasons 7 times, and the Copa Egypt 4 times the years 1981, 83 and 84, 1985. He also achieved the Dome of the first African to win the Copa Clubs Champions league in 1982 and Champions Cup three times years 84, 85, 1986.

Hamdy took a decision to have a meeting between Al Ahly and Zamalek in the role of 8 Egypt Cup in 1985. Al Ahly defeated El Zamalek on August 4, 1985. Hamdy returned in the elections held on November 15, 1996 and was elected as an agent and won 6219 votes, the highest votes in the history of the club elections. In the November 2000 elections, Hamdy returned to assert his position inside the Ahli Club, where he was elected vice-president by a significant margin over his closest rivals.

President of Al Ahly
After the death of Saleh Selim on May 6, 2002, Hassan Hamdi submitted a nomination for the presidency. The club members renewed their confidence in  Hasan Hamdi in the elections of December 17, 2004. This was announced by the overwhelming support for Hamdi and the full list of the club's leadership of the new electoral witness celebrate National occasion of the centenary of the foundation.

See also

Al Ahly
Hassan Hamdi's Profile (Arabic)

References

Egyptian men's footballers
Al Ahly SC players
1949 births
Living people
Men's association football defenders
Egyptian Premier League players
Footballers from Cairo

Hassan Hamdy


Multiple referral is the process through which a bill is referred to a second committee after the first is finished acting.

In the United States House of Representatives, proposed legislation can be sent to more than one Congressional committee due to a 1975 rules change.  Reasons for referring legislation to more than one committee can include: a change in the most important issues; complexity of the legislation; or problems fitting the bill into the jurisdiction of only one committee.

However, as a result of a January 1995 change of the House rules, legislation may not be sent to multiple committees simultaneously. Under those same rules, the Speaker of the House must designate one or more primary committees in a joint referral.

In a split referral, legislation is divided into sections, with each part sent to the appropriate committee.

In a sequential referral, legislation is first sent to one committee, then to the next.

In the Senate, multiple referral can occur when jointly motioned by the leaders of both parties (almost never), or when the Senate grants unanimous consent.

References
(*) Sinclair, Barbara (1997). Unorthodox Lawmaking: New Legislative Processes in the U.S. Congress. CQ Press.

Terminology of the United States Congress

Multiple referral


Dansyl amide is a fluorescent dye that forms in a reaction between dansyl chloride and ammonia. It is the simplest representative of the class of dansyl derivatized amines, which are widely used in biochemistry and chemistry as fluorescent labels. The dansyl amide moiety is also called a dansyl group, and it can be introduced into amino acids or other amines in a reaction with dansyl chloride. The dansyl group is highly fluorescent, and it has a very high Stokes shift. The excitation maximum (ca 350 nm) is essentially independent on the medium, whereas the emission maximum strongly depends on the solvent and varies from 520 to 550 nm.

References

Chemical tests
Reagents for organic chemistry

Dansyl amide


Victoria Legal Aid (VLA), formerly the Legal Aid Commission of Victoria, is an organisation that provides information, legal advice and education with a focus on the prevention and early resolution of legal problems.

They prioritise intensive legal services, such as legal advice and representation, to those who need it the most. They also recognise the connections between legal and social issues and advocate for change.

As a statutory authority, VLA operates under the Legal Aid Act 1978 and is funded by the Australian Government for matters that fall under Commonwealth law, and the Victorian state government. The majority of Commonwealth law matters fall within the family law jurisdiction. Another source of funding is from the public purpose fund, made up of interest paid on money that is collected by the Legal Services Board from solicitors' trust accounts.

VLA also administers Commonwealth and state government funding of Community Legal Centres within Victoria. Community legal centres (CLCs) are independent community organisations that provide free advice, casework and legal education to their communities. VLA administers funding for the majority of CLCs in Victoria and the Federation of Community Legal Centres through the CLC Funding Program, ensuring that centres meet their service agreements. It also focuses on supporting the professional development of the sector through joint training initiatives.

, Louise Glanville is CEO.

History
The idea of legal aid is more than 100 years old in Victoria.

Before 1928 only prisoners or very poor people could apply to the Supreme Court for legal aid. In 1928 the government set up the Public Solicitor's Office to make legal aid more easily available. People were eligible if they did not own property worth more than 50 pounds. As more people learnt about legal aid, demand increased. This created a backlog of cases in the Public Solicitor's Office. To provide more legal aid, the Victorian state government passed the Legal Aid Act 1961 which set up the Legal Aid Committee. This committee was run by the legal profession.

In 1969, the state government passed new legislation. This Act made the Legal Aid Committee responsible for civil and minor criminal cases, and made the Public Solicitor responsible for serious criminal cases. In 1974 the Commonwealth government set up the Australian Legal Aid Office. This office provided legal aid for Federal law cases such as family law and bankruptcy. The Australian Legal Aid Office also helped people who the commonwealth had a special responsibility for, such as people receiving social security and members of the armed forces.

The Legal Aid Commission of Victoria (LACV) was set up in 1978 as an independent statutory body. The LACV took over the functions of the Australian Legal Aid Office, the Legal Aid Committee and the Public Solicitor's Office. The LACV had a wider role than the Legal Aid Committee and the Public Solicitor's Office. Its role included providing community legal education and law reform. The LACV had an 11-member board including representatives from community legal centres, welfare groups and the legal profession.

Victoria Legal Aid replaced the LACV in December 1995.

Structure
VLA has a board of directors, a chief executive officer, three large in-house legal practice directorates, an in-house advocacy team, and legal and corporate support functions.

The Board is responsible for ensuring Victoria Legal Aid meets its statutory objectives and carries out its functions and duties in accordance with the Legal Aid Act 1978. It has a Chairperson and six directors nominated by the Victorian Attorney-General and appointed by the Governor-in-Council. At least one member must have experience in financial management; at least one must have experience in public management; at least one must have experience with criminal proceedings (either as a legal practitioner or a judicial officer)  and at least one must have experience in other areas of legal practice engaged in by Victoria Legal Aid or its officers. When the position of Managing Director at VLA was changed to Chief Executive Officer in November 2018, there was a vacancy on the Board. This position has since been filled by Andrew Saunders. The Chief Executive Officer cannot be appointed to the Board.

Current programs and objectives

Civil Justice Program
Victoria Legal Aid's work in civil law aims to contribute to a more inclusive and rights-respecting community. They help people with social security, mental health, guardianship and administration, infringements, immigration, tenancy, debt, discrimination, sexual harassment and victims of crime issues.

Criminal Law Program
Victoria Legal Aid assist people charged with criminal offences and endeavour to positively influence the criminal justice system to:

– provide timely justice, the fair hearing of charges and appropriate outcomes

– ensure people charged with offences are treated fairly and are well-informed about their options

– improve understanding of criminal justice and how to best address the causes of criminal offending and keep the community safe.

Family, Youth and Children's Law Program
Victoria Legal Aid assist people to resolve their family disputes to achieve safe, workable and child-focused parenting and care arrangements. They also assist parents to build their capacity to resolve future disputes without legal assistance. They contribute to the safety of adults and children affected by family violence and assist in reducing the incidence of family violence by providing legal information, advice and representation.

VLA Chambers
Victoria Legal Aid maintains an in-house advocacy practice to ensure it has thorough and practical knowledge of the needs and challenges of jurisdictions in which legal aid services are provided. The primary function of Victoria Legal Aid Chambers (Chambers) is to provide high quality advocacy for legally aided clients in civil, criminal and family, youth and children's law matters and to conduct strategic litigation to remedy a legal problem or change a policy or process to benefit an individual client and the broader community.

See also
 Legal aid in Australia
 Consumer Action Law Centre, funded in part by Victoria Legal Aid

References

External links

 Victoria Legal Aid
 National Legal Aid
 Legal Aid ACT
 Legal Aid New South Wales
 Legal Aid Queensland
 Legal Aid Western Australia
 Northern Territory Legal Aid Commission
 Legal Aid Commission of Tasmania
 Legal Aid Commission of South Australia
 Legal Aid Act 1978 (Vic)
 Legal Services Board of Victoria
 Victorian Legal Assistance Forum
 Federation of Community Legal Centres Victoria

Legal aid
Victoria (state) law
Organisations based in Victoria (state)
Government agencies of Victoria (state)
Government agencies established in 1995

Victoria Legal Aid


Richard More (circa. 1614–1696) was a passenger on the Mayflower in 1620. He became a sailor and later a ship captain.  He saved at least one colony from starvation and helped to keep the colonies prosperous by trading goods to and from England and the West Indies.  He fought sea battles against the French in 1664.

Richard and his siblings were taken from their mother and given to the care of Mayflower passengers as indentured servants.  Only Richard survived and lived a long and prosperous life. Richard has descendants that can be traced to present day.

Mayflower voyage

The More children travelled as indentured servants to 3 of the Mayflower Pilgrims.  Ellen, age 8, was assigned to Edward Winslow.  She died soon after the ship landed. Jasper, age 7, was a servant of John Carver.  Jasper died in December of 1620 while the Mayflower was in Harbor. He was buried ashore in what is now the Provincetown area. There is a memorial with his name and that of four others who also died at sea or while the ship was anchored at Cape Cod Harbor in November and December of 1620. Mary, age 4, died soon after the ship landed. Richard resided with the William Brewster family until about mid-1627. The 3 children died of something that was called the 'common infection' because so many people died of the same illness. Only Richard survived.

More and his sisters and brother left Plymouth, England on 16 September 1620. There were 102 passengers and 30–40 crew. On 19 November 1620, the Mayflower reached land at Cape Cod hook. They landed on 21 November. They wrote the Mayflower Compact, which made rules on how they would live and treat each other. The Mayflower was supposed to land in Virginia Colony, but the ship was too damaged and they were forced to land at Cape Cod now called Provincetown Harbor.

More's life in the New World
More was 6 when the Mayflower landed at Plymouth Colony.  When he stepped on land, he worked with all of the others to help gather supplies for food and shelter and to bury the dead.  In the spring of 1621, he attended the first Thanksgiving. Nothing is known of More during the years he lived with the Brewster family from 1620 to 1627, except that his name is on a document giving adults cattle and other livestock.

More was working for Isaac Allerton in 1628.  Allerton traded goods and supplies over long distances He fished near Plymouth and Maine. Later he became captain on the ships that supplied the new American colonies.

By early 1642, More joined the Salem church.  As a member of this Church he would be allowed to give his opinion and to vote on important matters in Salem.

By the age of twenty-four, More was a captain of his own small ship and traded with the colonies, the West Indies, and England.  He moved to Salem Neck Massachusetts and set up his own fishing stand. Drinking water was scarce so More dug a well for himself but allowed all others to use it. He traded tobacco and other merchandise and supplies with Virginia and the West Indies, and made voyages to England.

More took part in sea battles against the French in 1664. They were trying to prevent the early colonist from fishing and trading goods and supplies that the colonists needed to live.  This was in an area called the Hudson River region.  In 1654 More also was in another Naval battle against the French at Port Royal, Virginia.

More rescued the colonists at the new colony at Cape Fear, North Carolina in 1665..  The people there were dying because they had no food and not enough clothes to keep them warm. The waters around Cape Fear were (and still are) very dangerous for ships yet More brought a shipment of food and supplies to aid them when other captains failed or refused to try.

Richard and his wife Christian Hunter More had 7 children:  Samuel, Thomas, Caleb, Richard Jr., Joshua, Susanna, and Christian.

Christian More died March 18, 1676 in Salem.

Death and burial
More died in 1696. His gravestone gives his age as 84, but he did not know his exact birth date. More lived longer than any other male passenger of the Mayflower.  He is buried in the Charter Street Burial Ground in Salem, Massachusetts.  He is the only Mayflower passenger to have his gravestone where it was originally placed sometime in the mid-1690s. Also buried nearby in the same cemetery were his two wives, Christian Hunter More and Jane More.

In recent years, More's metal spoon was found during the excavation of the original Plymouth Colony site.  His initials were carved into it.

References

Mayflower passengers
1614 births
1696 deaths
People from Shropshire

Richard More


The major duodenal papilla (papilla of Vater) is a rounded projection in the duodenum into which the common bile duct and pancreatic duct drain. The major duodenal papilla is, in most people, the primary mechanism for the secretion of bile and other enzymes that facilitate digestion.

Structure

The major duodenal papilla is situated in the second part of the duodenum, 7–10 cm from the pylorus, at the level of the second or third lumbar vertebrae. It is surrounded by the sphincter of Oddi, a circular muscle, and receives a mixture of pancreatic enzymes and bile from the Ampulla of Vater, which drains both the pancreatic duct and biliary system.  The junction between the foregut and midgut occurs directly below the major duodenal papilla.  The major duodenal papilla projects less than a centimetre into the lumen of the duodenum. It appears rounded and is often covered by a fold on the uppermost side of the papilla; that is, the side which receives contents from the stomach.

The major duodenal papilla is seen from the duodenum as lying within a mucosal fold. The minor duodenal papilla is situated 2 cm proximal.

Variation
The major duodenal papilla is occasionally found in the junction between the descending and horizontal parts of the duodenum, or in the horizontal part of the duodenum; a case study of 1000 people demonstrated this in 12 and 8% respectively. in the third part of the duodenum, the level of the vertebrae may be L2-3, and in about 10% of people, it may not receive bile. Additionally, in a small number of people, the primary papilla for draining the pancreas may in fact be the accessory pancreatic duct.

Function
Pancreatic enzymes and bile drain into the duodenum from both the pancreatic duct and biliary system. This facilitates the digestion of food; particularly proteins (pancreatic enzymes), and fat-soluble vitamins (bile).

Clinical significance
The minor papilla drains the duct of Santorini, superior in position to the major papilla. In pancreatic divisum, in which the minor papilla drains the bulk of pancreatic secretions and major drains a minority of secretions (opposite of normal), a Santorinicele may develop leading to obstructed secretions/reflux resulting in pancreatitis.

History
The major duodenal papilla was first illustrated by Gottfreid Bidloo in 1685, although is sometimes called the papilla of Vater, after German anatomist Abraham Vater.

See also

 Sphincter of Oddi
 Common bile duct
 Pancreatic duct
 Ampulla of Vater

References

External links

Digestive system

Major duodenal papilla


Mexico Village Historic District is a national historic district located at Mexico in Oswego County, New York.  The district includes 77 contributing buildings and three contributing structures.  There are 33 residential buildings, 23 commercial buildings, and 17 outbuildings.  It includes the central part of the built-up area of the small rural village of Mexico.  Beck's Hotel (1897) is the largest building in the district.

It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1991.

References

Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in New York (state)
Historic districts in Oswego County, New York
National Register of Historic Places in Oswego County, New York

Mexico Village Historic District


Robert Kuehl Goen (born December 1, 1954) is an American game show emcee and television personality, best known for his work on Entertainment Tonight between 1993 and 2004 and as the fourth and final host of the daytime Wheel of Fortune from 1989 to 1991.

Early life and career
Goen was born in Long Beach, California, but was raised in the Los Angeles suburb of Lakewood. In a 2009 interview at the Game Show Awards Red Carpet, he stated when he was 5, he always dreamed of becoming a game show host, with the encouragement of Bob Barker, Bill Cullen, Bob Eubanks, Tom Kennedy, Geoff Edwards, Wink Martindale, Monty Hall, among many others, and his dream came true as a young adult. Goen graduated from Lakewood High School in 1972, and from San Diego State University in 1976 with a degree in telecommunications and film. In 1977, he used his college radio experience to land a part-time job at KFOX radio in his native Long Beach, which led to his first full-time job as a disc jockey/producer for KPRO in Riverside, where he was promoted to work as a director.  In 1981, he came to television, becoming a sports anchor at KESQ-TV, the ABC affiliate in Palm Springs.

Career
In the early 1980s he served as ESPN's desert-area correspondent.  After almost four years in that role, he came to Hollywood, where he has hosted several game shows, including Perfect Match (syndicated, 1986), Home Shopping Game with co-host Bob Circosta (syndicated, 1987), Blackout (CBS, 1988), The Hollywood Game (CBS, 1992), Born Lucky (Lifetime Television, 1992) and That's the Question (GSN, 2006–2007), which was based on a format from the Netherlands. His greatest success in this area came as the final host of the daytime network version of Wheel of Fortune (CBS, 1989–1991; NBC, 1991).

He had a small role in the opening of the 1988 series premiere episode of Freddy's Nightmares: A Nightmare On Elm Street: The Series, "No More Mr. Nice Guy", as a nightly news anchorman and on-scene reporter at the Springwood Municipal Courthouse for the pre-trial hearing of accused mass-murderer Fred Krueger.

He served as host for the "Name That Tune" video game released for the Philips CD-i in 1993.

He also hosted several Miss Universe pageants in 1994 (Manila, Philippines), 1995 (Windhoek, Namibia), and 1996 (Las Vegas, Nevada).

Goen also hosts the annual AKC National Championship, broadcast on Animal Planet and other channels owned by Discovery Communications.

Goen was co-host of GSN Radio with Marianne Curan, his wife. The show debuted on August 18, 2008, and aired its last episode on November 13, 2009. He and Curan moved to Cincinnati, Ohio in 2012 to work at Warm 98.

Goen has hosted live traveling versions of Family Feud and The Price Is Right. In 2012, he hosted The Price is Right LIVE in Branson, MO.

Goen has hosted a locally produced version of Let's Ask America called Let's Ask Cincinnati for Scipps' WCPO-TV in Cincinnati, Ohio featuring local Cincinnati celebrities and personalities playing for local charities in 2014.

Entertainment Tonight
On April 12, 1993, he joined Entertainment Tonight as a substitute anchor and a reporter.  When John Tesh left ET on May 30, 1996, to pursue his music career, Goen was promoted to nightly anchor alongside Mary Hart.

Between 1994 and 1996, he hosted the worldwide telecasts of Miss Universe, Miss USA and Miss Teen USA Pageants, all for CBS, replacing Dick Clark.

As ET host, he made guest appearances on two separate movies in 1999.  On September 11, 2001, he covered the attacks on the World Trade Center.  In 2003, he interviewed Suzanne Somers about the death of actor John Ritter.

In April 2005, Goen voiced a cartoon version of himself on an episode The Fairly OddParents. Goen, playing a character named Bob Glimmer, appeared with Mary Hart (whose character was named "Fairy Hart") as anchors of a show named Fairytainment Tonight. Goen also appeared as an interviewee on a 1997 episode of the cartoon mock-talk show Space Ghost Coast to Coast.

Personal life
In August 2004, after 11 years of serving as ET anchor, he left to spend more time with his new wife and to pursue other projects. Mark Steines succeeded him.

Goen was married to Sabrina in 1988, and in 1994, had a son, Max. Max is the host of "The GoenLive Podcast." The couple divorced in 1997.  In 2004, he married fellow television personality Marianne Curan.

In his spare time, Goen does annual charity work for his golfing tournament, The Bob Goen Lexus Invitational, which benefits the Make-A-Wish Foundation.

References

External links

1954 births
American game show hosts
American infotainers
People from Long Beach, California
San Diego State University alumni
Living people
People from Lakewood, California
Wheel of Fortune (franchise)
Sigma Alpha Epsilon members
Lakewood High School (California) alumni

Bob Goen


The Incandescent Ones is a science fiction novel by British astrophysicist Fred Hoyle and his son Geoffrey Hoyle. It was first published in 1977. The novel describes the eventful epic journey of the narrator, which seems to begin as a story of Cold War espionage but, involving life forces beyond Earth, finally leads to Jupiter.

Plot summary
The story is set in a future time where, after civilization decayed because of fuel shortage, the Outlanders came to Earth and provided energy from power beams, one to each of the political blocs; there is world peace because of the threat to cut off the power to either the Eastern or Western Bloc.

Peter, the narrator of the story, lives in Idaho, USA; he is a student of Byzantine art and a part-time ski instructor. His father Anaxagoras, known as Alex, was a grandson of a Russian priest; Alex taught Peter to ski; he disappeared in the mountains while skiing, presumed dead, when Peter was fifteen. Peter arranges to spend a year at a Moscow university; before going, he finds he is being recruited as a spy. In Moscow, after a sequence of planned encounters, he acquires instructions for a journey to Georgia; on the way he is instructed to cross into Turkey by ski via a mountain pass.

In the snow in the mountains of Georgia he meets his father Alex. They continue the journey; during a break Alex heats food with a battery, a source of power which he says would last billions of years. He says that he and Peter are Outlanders; there are two batteries, the one which was in America having been already removed from Earth after humans realized they could be independent of the power beams, which would threaten world peace; the remaining battery must be sent back. Alex says he will not go with him; that Peter is to go over the pass, where he will meet someone he recognizes. Telling Peter to leave and return, he turns up the battery's power and there is a huge explosion which produces a crater and melts the surrounding snow. At the centre of the crater Peter retrieves the battery and continues his journey.

After a difficult crossing of the pass, he finds a mountain hut and meets Edelstam, a physicist whom he once taught to ski back in Idaho; he must be the man Alex mentioned, and presumably an Outlander. He says that the explosion was to make the world powers think the battery was destroyed, and to delay matters with fear of radiation. To cause a diversion, Peter is to continue with a substitute pack instead of the battery, which Edelstam takes away.

In Turkey, Peter is picked up by local people in a truck; there is an explosion, seemingly caused by his replacement pack, and he later finds himself in hospital in Erzerum. Trying to leave the hospital, he is picked up outside and driven to a house in Ankara where he is interrogated by Russians. After eventually giving a muddled account of his contacts, he is given an injection which is meant to kill him; however he is revived and rescued from a coffin by another Outlander, who takes him to a farm to recover. Peter realizes that each Outlander has a particular function.

Peter is taken to a house where there is a gathering of upper-class people, some of whom he supposes are Outlanders; the host receives him as an expert on Byzantine art. He talks to another guest and realizes he is to go to Mars to take part in an energy conference.

From the Outlander space terminal in Anatolia he travels with other conference delegates to Mars; however on arrival he is unexpectedly transferred to another spaceship destined for Jupiter. On this second voyage Peter is accompanied by a Yorkshireman who plays cards extremely well but who seems unable to answer any of his questions. At the end of the journey Peter finds himself in a strange hall close to Jupiter itself.

The hall is empty except for the physicist Edelstam, who has the battery. He says that he himself is not an Outlander, but is there to learn. He says that Outlanders are like robots, each with a speciality; the real power, says Edelstam, is with the Incandescent Ones, who have been around longer than mankind; they operate the power beams, and they control the Outlanders "through ideas in the mind; ideas appear which seem spontaneous, but which are not really so." Peter is different from other Outlanders, "more complex, more all purpose, more given to responding to events as they arise." The Outlanders Peter met regarded him as their boss.

They see on a wall of the room an image of a skier on Jupiter, which seems to be a message from the Incandescent Ones. In a space suit and equipped with the two batteries (one on each ski), Peter skis on Jupiter towards a ball of light; arriving, he realizes he has come home.

Technical details

The battery
In the mountain hut in Georgia, Edelstam tells Peter that he has a notion of how the battery works, although the details are beyond him. He compares it to an ordinary battery, in which there are changes in how atoms fit themselves into molecules; in the Outlanders' battery he thinks the reconfiguration happens not amongst atoms, but in the nucleus of atoms, which has constituent particles and perhaps an unknown fine structure within that. Such reconfiguration would have the power of an H-bomb, which somehow is tightly controlled in the battery.

The battery has no visible controls; Peter was unable to operate it. Edelstam, talking to Peter near Jupiter, speculates that Alex's specialty as an Outlander was to be able to send signals to the battery.

The power beams
There are two power beams, which originate in the region of Jupiter and are directed towards the Sun. They are out of the plane of Jupiter's orbit so that they are never intercepted by another planet or asteroid; they are reflected to Earth, one directed to the Eastern Bloc and one to the West. Nuclear research is forbidden on Earth, in order to ensure reliance on the power beams.

References
 The Incandescent Ones: New American Library edition of 1978

1977 British novels
1977 science fiction novels
British science fiction novels
Novels by Fred Hoyle
Harper & Row books

The Incandescent Ones


Damnation du docteur Faust, released in the United States as Faust and Marguerite and in the United Kingdom as Faust, is a 1904 French silent film directed by Georges Méliès.

Production
The film is a fifteen-minute condensation of Faust, an 1859 opera by Charles Gounod based on the Faust legend. The previous year, Méliès had used a different musical version of the legend, Hector Berlioz's La damnation de Faust, as inspiration for his film The Damnation of Faust.

Méliès took the role of Mephistopheles. Jeanne Calvière played Siebel; she had been a stablewoman at the Cirque d'Hiver until 1900, when Méliès hired her to play Joan of Arc in his film of the same name. She remained among his core troupe of actors for several years after her debut as Joan.

Special effects in the film were created with stage machinery, pyrotechnics, substitution splices, superimpositions, and dissolves.

Release
The film was released by Méliès's Star Film Company and is numbered 562-574 in its catalogues. The film was advertised in France as a pièce fantastique à grand spectacle en 20 tableaux (d'après le roman de Goethe), and in America as "A New and Magnificent Cinematographic Opera in 20 Motion Tableaux."

A piano score of selections from the opera was sold with the film. According to recollections made in 1944 by Paul Méliès, Georges Méliès's nephew, it was his father Gaston Méliès who compiled the score, which "followed the scenes exactly". The score had to be photographed in manuscript for reproduction, because having it engraved using printing plates would have been too expensive. One of these photographically reproduced scores survives at the Centre national de la cinématographie.

A copy of the film, apparently missing some scenes, survives in the Paper Prints collection at the Library of Congress. A short fragment of a hand-colored print of the film, featuring the fifteenth and sixteenth tableaux (Walpurgis Night and the Ballet of Celebrated Women) survives in an English private collection.

References

External links

1904 films
Films directed by Georges Méliès
French silent short films
Films based on Goethe's Faust
French black-and-white films
Walpurgis Night fiction

Faust and Marguerite (1904 film)


Margie Smith (born March 20, 1960, in Winnipeg, Manitoba) is an American curler from Shoreview, Minnesota. She is a former U.S. national senior women's champion.

Smith has played in eight national championships, coming closest to winning in her first event in 1987, where she lost in the final to Washington's Sharon Good. She has also curled in the 1991, 1994, 1998, 2000, 2006, 2009 and 2011 U.S. women's championships.

While never winning the women's nationals, Smith did win the women's senior national championship in 2011. This qualified her and her team of Debbie Dexter, Rachel Orvik, and Sally Barry to represent the United States at the 2011 World Senior Curling Championships. They finished the round robin in second place with an 8–2 record, but they lost both their semi-final match and the bronze medal match, forcing them to settle for 4th place.

On top of her other successes, Smith also won the 2007 U.S. club national championship.

External links

 Margie Smith on the United States Curling Association database

1960 births
Living people
Curlers from Winnipeg
American female curlers
Canadian expatriate sportspeople in the United States
21st-century American women

Margie Smith