Chaim Gross (March 17, 1902 – May 5, 1991) was an American sculptor and educator of Ukrainian Jewish origin. Gross studied and taught at the Educational Alliance Art School in New York City's Lower Manhattan.  He summered for many years in Provincetown.

Childhood
Gross was born to a Jewish family in Austrian Galicia, in the village of Wolowa (now known as Mizhhiria, Ukraine), in the Carpathian Mountains. In 1911, his family moved to Kolomyia (which was annexed into the Ukrainian SSR in 1939 and became part of newly independent Ukraine in 1991). During World War I, Russian forces invaded Austria-Hungary; amidst the turmoil, the Grosses fled Kolomyia. They returned when Austria retook the town in 1915, refugees of the war. When World War I ended, Gross and brother Avrom-Leib went to Budapest to join their older siblings Sarah and Pinkas.  Gross applied to and was accepted by the art academy in Budapest and studied under the painter Béla Uitz, though within a year a new regime under Miklós Horthy took over and attempted to expel all Jews and foreigners from the country.  After being deported from Hungary, Gross began art studies at the Kunstgewerbeschule in Vienna, Austria shortly before immigrating to the United States in 1921.

Emigration from Austria to U.S.
Gross' brother Naftoli had arrived in New York City in 1914.  He sent money to his brothers Chaim and Avrom-Lieb, who traveled from Vienna to Le Havre, France, where they took a boat to New York City in March 1921.

Early Career 1921-1933
Gross's studies continued in the United States at the Beaux-Arts Institute of Design, where he studied with Elie Nadelman and others, and at the Art Students League of New York, with Robert Laurent.  He also attended the Educational Alliance Art School, studying under Abbo Ostrowsky, at the same time as Moses Soyer, Raphael Soyer, Adolph Gottlieb, and Peter Blume.

In 1926, Gross began teaching at The Educational Alliance, and continued teaching there for the next 50 years.  Louise Nevelson was among his students at the Alliance (in 1934), during the time she was transitioning from painting to sculpture.

Gross began exhibiting sculpture in group shows of students at the Educational Alliance, and then at the Jewish Art Center in the Bronx. In the late 1920s and early 1930s he exhibited at the Salons of America exhibitions at the Anderson Galleries and, beginning in 1928, at the Whitney Studio Club (the precursor to the Whitney Museum of American Art).

In 1929, Gross experimented with printmaking, and created an important group of 15 linocuts and lithographs of landscapes, New York City streets and parks, women in interiors, the circus, and vaudeville. The entire suite is now in the collection of the Philadelphia Museum of Art. Gross returned to the medium of printmaking in the 1960s, and produced approximately 200 works in the medium over the next two decades.

In March 1932, Gross had his first solo exhibition at Gallery 144 in New York City.  For a short time they represented Gross, as well as his friends Milton Avery, Moses Soyer, Ahron Ben-Shmuel and others.

Gross was primarily a practitioner of the direct carving method, with the majority of his work being carved from wood. Other direct carvers in early 20th-century American art include William Zorach, Jose de Creeft, and Robert Laurent. Works by Chaim Gross can be found in major museums and private collections throughout the United States, with substantial holdings (27 sculptures) at the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden. A key work from this era, now at the Smithsonian American Art Museum, is the 1932 birds-eye maple Acrobatic Performers,  which is also only one and one quarter inch thick. His work was also part of the sculpture event in the art competition at the 1932 Summer Olympics.

Maturity 1933-1957
In 1933 Gross joined the government's PWAP (Public Works of Art Project), which transitioned into the WPA (Works Progress Administration), which Gross worked for later in the 1930s.  Under these programs Gross taught and demonstrated art, made sculptures that were placed in schools and public colleges, made work for Federal buildings including the Federal Trade Commission Building, and for the France Overseas and Finnish Buildings at the 1939 New York World's Fair. Gross was also recognized during these years with a silver medal at the Exposition universelle de 1937 in Paris, and in 1942, with a purchase prize at the Metropolitan Museum of Art's "Artists for Victory" exhibition for his wood sculpture of famed circus performer Lillian Leitzel.

In 1938 filmmaker and historian Lewis Jacobs made a 30-minute feature of Gross carving, called Tree Trunk to Head, showing Gross at work in his East Village studio on a portrait of his wife Renee, who models in the film.

In 1949 Gross sketched Chaim Weizmann, President of Israel, at several functions in New York City where Weizmann was speaking.  Gross began a portrait in clay and then traveled to Israel in the summer of that year hoping to be able to meet Weizmann and have him sit for a portrait.  Weizmann was too ill, but Gross completed the bust in bronze later that year.  Gross returned to Israel for three months in 1951 (the second of many trips there in the postwar years) to paint a series of 40 watercolors of life in various cities. This series was exhibited at the Jewish Museum (Manhattan) in 1953.

Chaim Gross, Sculptor by Josef Vincent Lombardo, the first major book on Gross, came out in 1949. It included a catalogue raisonne of his sculpture.

In the 1950s Gross began to make more bronze sculptures alongside his wood and stone pieces, and in 1957 and 1959 he traveled to Rome to work with famed bronze foundries including the Nicci foundry.  At the end of the decade Gross was working primarily in bronze, which allowed him to create open forms, large-scale works and of course, multiple casts. Gross's large-scale bronze The Family, donated to New York City in 1991 in honor of Mayor Ed Koch, and installed at the Bleecker Street Park at 11th street, is now a fixture of Greenwich Village.

Later Career 1957-1991

In 1957, Gross published The Techniques of Wood Sculpture, an influential how-to book with photographs of him at work by famed photographer Eliot Elisofon. In 1959, a survey of Gross's sculpture in wood, stone, and bronze was featured in the exhibit Four American Expressionists curated by Lloyd Goodrich at the Whitney Museum of American Art, with work by Abraham Rattner, Doris Caesar, and Karl Knaths. In 1963, Gross and his family moved from their longtime residence at 30 W. 105th Street to Greenwich Village, following the purchase of a four-story historic townhouse and studio at 526 LaGuardia Place. The townhouse is now the Renee and Chaim Gross Foundation, winner of a 2015 Village Award from the Greenwich Village Society for Historic Preservation, and open to the public.

In 1974, the Smithsonian American Art Museum held the exhibition, Chaim Gross: Sculpture and Drawings, organized by Janet A. Flint, Smithsonian Curator of Prints and Drawings. In 1976, a selection from Gross's important collection of historic African sculpture, formed since the late 1930s, was exhibited at the Worcester Art Museum in the show The Sculptor's Eye: The African Art Collection of Mr. and Mrs. Chaim Gross.

In 1977, Gross had three retrospective exhibitions: at the Lowe Art Museum at the University of Miami, followed by the Montclair Art Museum; and the Jewish Museum (Manhattan). The Jewish Museum's exhibition catalog featured an important essay on Gross by art historian and modern American sculpture specialist Roberta K. Tarbell, Professor Emeritus at Rutgers University.

Gross received multiple honorary doctorates in the 1970s and 80s: from Franklin and Marshall College (1970); Yeshiva University (1978); Adelphi University (1980); Hebrew Union College (1984); and Brooklyn College (1986). In 1979 Gross was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Associate member, and became a full Academician in 1981. In 1984, he was inducted into the American Academy of Arts and Letters, with Jacob Lawrence and Lukas Foss. Gross died at Beth Israel Hospital in May 1991 and was buried at Mount Lebanon Cemetery in Queens, New York. In the fall of 1991, Allen Ginsberg gave an important tribute to Gross at the American Academy of Arts and Letters, which is published in their Proceedings. In 1994, Forum Gallery, which now represents the Chaim Gross estate, held a memorial exhibition featuring a sixty-year survey of Gross's work.

Teaching
Gross was a professor of printmaking and sculpture at both the Educational Alliance and the New School for Social Research in New York City, as well as at the Brooklyn Museum Art School, the MoMA art school, the Art Student's League and the New Art School (which Gross ran briefly with Alexander Dobkin, Raphael Soyer and Moses Soyer).

Gross was a member of the New York Artists Equity Association and the Federation of Modern Painters and Sculptors. He was a founder and served as the first president of the Sculptors Guild.

Personal life
In 1932 Gross married Renee Nechin (d. 2005), and they had two children, Yehuda and Mimi.  Mimi Gross is a New York-based artist. She was married to the artist Red Grooms from 1963-1976.

Gallery

Notes

See also
Chaim Gross A Celebration / American Art

References
 Brummé, C. Ludwig, Contemporary American Sculpture, Crown Publishers, New York,  1948
 Lombardo, Josef Vincent, Chaim Gross: Sculptor, Dalton House, Inc., New York,  1949
 Opitz, Glenn B, Editor, Mantle Fielding's Dictionary of American Painters, Sculptors & Engravers,  Apollo Book, Poughkeepsie NY, 1986

External links

General
 The Renee and Chaim Gross Foundation
 Bronze sculpture Isaiah by Chaim Gross  A gift to the College of the Holy Cross, 1979

1902 births
1991 deaths
People from Kolomyia
Ukrainian Jews
Jewish sculptors
Jews from Galicia (Eastern Europe)
Art Students League of New York alumni
Austrian Jews
Austrian sculptors
Austrian male sculptors
Ukrainian male sculptors
Austrian emigrants to the United States
American people of Ukrainian-Jewish descent
Jewish American artists
20th-century American sculptors
20th-century American male artists
American male sculptors
Sculptors Guild members
Sculptors from New York (state)
Beaux-Arts Institute of Design (New York City) alumni
Olympic competitors in art competitions
20th-century American Jews
Members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters

Chaim Gross


Carolyn Joyce Hunt (née Leonard; born July 3, 1937) is an American educator and politician who, as the wife of Jim Hunt, served as the Second Lady of North Carolina from 1973 to 1977 and twice-served as the First Lady of North Carolina, from 1977 to 1985 and again from 1993 to 2001. She is the longest serving first lady in North Carolina history and she and her husband were the first governor and first lady to serve two four-year terms in North Carolina. As first lady, she served as the Chairwoman of the advisory council for the Governor's Office of Citizen Affairs, which promoted volunteerism throughout the state, and as Chairwoman of the North Carolina Friendship Force Program, a chapter of Friendship Force International, which promoted international student exchange programs in state public schools. In between her terms as first lady, she served on the board of directors and the executive committee of Friendship Force International and, in 1986, was elected to the Wilson County Public School Board.

Early life and education
Hunt was born Carolyn Joyce Leonard on July 3, 1937, in Mingo, Iowa, to Carl Avery Leonard and Norma Henderson Leonard. In her youth, she spent time living in Germany as an exchange student. She met her future husband, James Baxter Hunt II, at a National Grange of the Order of Patrons of Husbandry Youth Conference in Hamilton, Ohio. She was a member of the National Grange Youth Committee and he was serving as the president of the North Carolina Grange Youth Chapter. Hunt attended Iowa State Teachers College until she became engaged. She moved to Raleigh, North Carolina, where she earned a bachelor's degree in primary education from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.

Career and public life
In 1964 the Hunt family moved to the Kingdom of Nepal, where her husband served as a Ford Foundation economic adviser to the government. The family lived there until 1966. During this time, Hunt worked as a teacher at an international school. When they returned to the United States, Hunt continued to teach while her husband practiced law.

In 1972 her husband was elected lieutenant governor of North Carolina. In 1976 her husband was elected to his first term as governor. Her inauguration gown, a dress of pale gold organza designed by Mary Dixon, was placed in a collection of the North Carolina Museum of History. During her time as first lady, Hunt inspired her husband to create the Governor's Office of Citizen Affairs, in order to promote volunteer initiatives across the state. She was named chairwoman of the advisory council of the office, and promoted volunteerism throughout North Carolina. Hunt organized the "Right to Read" project in Wilson County, promoting child literacy in public schools. Once a week, she assisted fifth-graders in reading and comprehension skills at Wiley Elementary School in Raleigh. In 1977, while attending the National Governor's Conference, Hunt was introduced to the Friendship Force International, an international exchange project promoting world peace through sharing cultures. In 1979 she was appointed as the North Carolina Friendship Force Program's Chairwoman. Through the program, Hunt and her youngest daughter spent ten days with a family in Newcastle-upon-Tyne in England, before hosting the family in North Carolina.

Hunt did not initially make many changes to the North Carolina Executive Mansion during her husband's first term, with the exception of adding storm windows to the exterior and dampers in the fireplaces. She later proposed a revision to the North Carolina General Assembly's statute governing the Executive Mansion Fine Arts Committee, which was approved. After the passing of the proposal, Hunt renovated and redecorated the governor's library and had the screen porch made into a glass-enclosed morning room. She oversaw renovations to the institutional kitchen, added a first-floor waiting room, installed an automated lift at the front porch for handicapped guests, and restored and repaired antique furniture. Hunt also acquired new pieces for the mansion, including twelve Chippendale-style side chairs featuring needlepoint seats made by women throughout North Carolina. She located and framed photographs of all former North Carolinian first ladies who had lived in the mansion, putting them on display on a gallery wall.

On October 20, 1979, the Hunt's oldest daughter, Rebecca, married Jimmy Hawley at the Executive Mansion. Hunt sewed the bridesmaids dresses that were worn during the ceremony. She had previously designed and made two of her daughters' dresses for her husband's first inaugural ball. When their youngest daughter, Elizabeth, married Kevin Amigh on September 9, 1995 at the mansion, Hunt designed the outfits for the bridal attendants. Hunt established the Bailey-Tucker House, a historic mansion near downtown Raleigh, as the state's official guest residence. During the 400th anniversary of the settlement of Roanoke Island, she christened a replica ship of Queen Elizabeth 2 and hosted Anne, Princess Royal.

After his first term, her husband was succeeded by Republican James G. Martin. Returning to life as a private citizen, Hunt continued to work with the Friendship Force and led a student exchange to Russia. She also served on the board of directors and the executive committee for Friendship Force International. In 1986 she was elected to the Wilson County Public School Board and served in that capacity until 1990.

When her husband was reelected as governor in 1993, Hunt used her position as first lady to focus on education, early childhood health, volunteerism, and women's health issues. She volunteered weekly in local soup kitchens, hosted volunteering events at the Executive Mansion, and volunteered as a tutor and mentor at Lucille Hunter Elementary School and Fred J. Carnage Middle School in Raleigh. As a supporter of Smart Start, a statewide school-readiness initiative started by her husband, Hunt traveled to counties throughout North Carolina to visit daycare centers and preschools to meet with care providers and early childhood educators. Because of her efforts to improve early childhood education resources, she was appointed as the honorary chair of the North Carolina Partnership for Children. In 1993 she had an official portrait of her predecessor, First Lady Dottie Martin, removed from the Executive Mansion and sent to the North Carolina Museum of Art. She replaced the portrait with another of former First Lady Jeanelle C. Moore.

Hunt displayed schoolchildren's artwork during tours of the Executive Mansion and, in 1993, implemented tours of the residence for blind visitors. In 1996 she served as a member of the advisory committee for the U.S. Women's Open Golf Tournament in Pinehurst, North Carolina. She and her husband made international visits to promote education. While in Israel, she met with Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin and his wife, Leah Rabin, to discuss children's education and rights. She visited several schools in Israel, and began a cultural exchange between an Israeli elementary school and a Raleigh school.

Personal life
Hunt married Jim Hunt on August 20, 1958 and had four children: Rebecca Joyce Hunt, James Baxter Hunt III, Rachel Henderson Hunt, and Elizabeth Brame Hunt. The family owned a farm near Rock Ridge in Wilson County, North Carolina, where she and her children would spend at least two months every summer to have time away from the North Carolina Executive Mansion in Raleigh. On their farm, the family maintained two gardens, and Hunt would freeze and can vegetables grown in their gardens.

In 2015, Hunt and her husband received the Public School Forum of North Carolina's Annual Jay Robinson Education Leadership Award.

References

Living people
1937 births
20th-century American educators
20th-century American women politicians
American women educators
Education in Wilson County, North Carolina
First ladies and gentlemen of North Carolina
Carolyn
National Grange of the Order of Patrons of Husbandry
People from Jasper County, Iowa
School board members in North Carolina
Schoolteachers from Iowa
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill alumni
University of Northern Iowa alumni
Women in North Carolina politics
20th-century American politicians
21st-century American women

Carolyn Hunt


Gaius Cassius Longinus (before 85 BC – October 42 BC) was a Roman Senator, a leader of the plot to kill Julius Caesar, and the brother in-law of Brutus.

Biography

Early life
Little is known of Gaius Cassius's early life. He studied philosophy at Rhodes and became fluent in Greek. He was married to Tertulla, who was a half-sister of his co-conspirator, Brutus. They had one son.

Quaestorship and Parthia
Cassius's first office was as quaestor under Marcus Licinius Crassus in 53 BC, and he proved a good military leader. He travelled with Crassus to the province of Syria, and attempted to dissuade him from attacking Parthia, suggesting that they secure a base at the Euphrates.

Crassus ignored Cassius and led the army into the Battle of Carrhae, during which he also ignored Cassius' plans for strengthening the Roman line. The result was the most famous Roman rout since the Second Punic War.

Cassius managed to save the remnants of the army with the help of Crassus' legate Gaius Octavius. Crassus was killed, but Cassius managed to escape with 500 cavalry and meet up with the surviving legionaries.

For two years afterwards, Cassius governed the province of Syria as Proquaestor, defending the border against Parthian incursions until the new proconsul arrived. The last incursion resulted in the death of the Parthian commander Osaces, and split the Parthian troops. Cicero, then governor of Cilicia, sent Cassius a note of congratulations for the victory.

Civil war
Cassius returned to Rome two years later. The outbreak of the civil war between Julius Caesar and Pompey the Great saved Cassius from being brought to trial by his enemies for extortion in Syria. Cassius was elected Tribune of the Plebs in 49 BC, and threw in his lot with Pompey, fleeing Italy as Caesar crossed the Rubicon. He met Pompey in Greece, and was made commander of his fleet.

In 48 BC, Cassius sailed his ships to Sicilia where he attacked and burned a large part of Caesar's navy. He then proceeded to harass ships off the Italian coast. News of Pompey's defeat at the Battle of Pharsalus caused Cassius to head for the Hellespont. Cassius was overtaken by Caesar en route, and was forced to surrender unconditionally.

Caesar made Cassius a legate, employing him in the North Africa, but Cassius refused to join in the fight against Cato and Scipio in Africa, choosing instead to retire to Rome.

Conspiracy
Cassius spent the next two years without office, and apparently tightened his friendship with Cicero.  In 44 BC he became praetor peregrinus with the promise of the Syrian province for the ensuing year. The appointment of his junior, Brutus, as praetor urbanus deeply offended him.

Although Cassius was "the moving spirit" in the plot against Caesar, winning over the chief assassins, Brutus became their leader. On the Ides of March, 44 BC, Cassius urged on his fellow liberators and struck Caesar in the face. He and his fellow conspirators referred to themselves as the "Liberators" (Liberatores).

Although they succeeded in assassinating Caesar, the celebration was short-lived. Mark Antony seized power and turned the public against them. In letters written during 44 BC, Cicero frequently complains that Rome was still subjected to tyranny, because the "Liberators" had failed to kill Antony.  According to some accounts, Cassius had wanted to kill Antony at the same time as Caesar, but was dissuaded by Brutus.

Post-assassination
Cassius's reputation in the East made it easy to amass an army from other governors in the area. By this point the Senate had split with Antony and cast its lot with Cassius, making him as governor of Syria. Cassius was now secure enough to march on Egypt, but on the formation of the triumvirate, Brutus requested his assistance. Cassius quickly joined Brutus in Smyrna with most of his army, leaving his nephew behind to govern Syria.

The conspirators decided to attack the triumviri's allies in Asia. Cassius set upon and sacked Rhodes, while Brutus did the same to Lycia. They regrouped the following year in Sardis, where their armies proclaimed them 'emperor'. They crossed the Hellespont, marched through Thrace, and encamped near Philippi in Macedon.

Octavian (later known as Augustus) and Mark Antony soon arrived. Cassius planned to starve them out, by using his superior position in the country. However, they were forced into a pair of battles by Antony, in the Battle of Philippi. Brutus was successful against Octavian, and took his camp. Cassius, however, was defeated and overrun by Antony. Cassius, unaware of Brutus' victory, committed suicide. He was mourned by Brutus as "the Last of the Romans". Brutus, like Octavian, was not an experienced military commander and, ten days later, Antony completed the victory. Brutus also committed suicide.

Epicureanism
"Among that select band of philosophers who have managed to change the world," writes David Sedley, "it would be hard to find a pair with a higher public profile than Brutus and Cassius — brothers-in-law, fellow-assassins, and Shakespearian heroes," adding that "it may not even be widely known that they were philosophers".

Cassius converted to the school of thought founded by Epicurus. Arnaldo Momigliano called Cassius' conversion a "conspicuous date in the history of Roman Epicureanism," a choice made not to enjoy the pleasures of the Garden, but to provide a philosophical justification for assassinating a tyrant.

The inconsistencies between traditional Epicureanism and an active approach to securing freedom could not be resolved, and during the Empire, the philosophy of political opposition tended to be Stoic. This circumstance, Momigliano argues, helps explain why historians of the Imperial era found Cassius more difficult to understand than Brutus, and less admirable.

In literature
In Dante's Inferno, Cassius is one of three people deemed sinful enough to be chewed in one of the three mouths of Satan, in the very center of Hell, for all eternity, as a punishment for killing Julius Caesar. The other two are Brutus, his fellow conspirator, and Judas Iscariot, the Biblical betrayer of Jesus Christ. (Canto XXXIV) In Shakespeare's play Julius Caesar he is depicted as a ruthless manipulator. Caesar says of him, "Yon Cassius has a lean and hungry look; He thinks too much: such men are dangerous". (I. ii. 190-195)

References

Roman generals
42 BC deaths
80s BC births

Gaius Cassius Longinus


Here is a list of characters from the manga series Jojo's Bizarre Adventure by Hirohiko Araki.

Characters

Joestar Bloodline
The Joestar Family is a family with English roots with a majority of its members bearing a star-shaped birthmark above their left shoulder blade. In the original universe depicted in Parts 1-6, the Joestar bloodline was inherited by the Kujo Family and Josuke Higashikata. Dio, having stolen Jonathan's body at the end of Part 1, fathered a few sons bearing the Joestar bloodline while awakening use of Stands in Jonathan's descendants. In the universe depicted in Parts 7 and 8, Johnny Joestar married Rina Higashikata with the Higashikata Family becoming a distant branch of the Joestar family.

 Jonathan Joestar: The main protagonist of Phantom Blood, which takes place in 1880s England. A proper Victorian son of a rich Englishman named George Joestar, Jonathan strives to be gentleman and fights fair. Jonathan's life become miserable when Dio Brando lives with his family, eventually resulting his father's death as Dio became a vampire. This motivated Jonathan to learn to utilize Hamon energy from Zeppeli to stop Dio. Though Jonathan defeated Dio and married Erina, who bore his son George Joestar II, he ended up fatally wounded when Dio's severed head attempted to take his body and he died in a final attempt to stop him. But as revealed in Stardust Crusaders, Dio managed to take Jonathan's body as his own and caused the awakening of Stands in Jonathan's descendants.

 Joseph Joestar: Jonathan's grandson and the protagonist of Battle Tendency, which takes places in the 1930s. Raised by his grandmother Erina and Speedwagon, Joseph shared his grandfather's nobility through he has a coarser and more rebellious attitude. While able to use Hamon like his grandfather, Joseph was not initially as skilled in its use until he trained under Lisa Lisa. He initially uses a pair of Hamon-empowered clackers in battle, but he relies more on his wits than brute strength in fights, employing his uncanny ability to predict his opponent's actions down to what they say. Joseph returns as a main character in Stardust Crusaders, acquiring the vine-like Stand "Hermit Purple" which he uses to fight or perform predictions using electronic equipment, and as a supporting character in Diamond Is Unbreakable.

 Jotaro Kujo: The delinquent grandson of Joseph through Holy Joestar–Kujo and the protagonist of Stardust Crusaders, which takes place in the 1980s. His Stand is "Star Platinum", which possesses incredible strength and precision along with the ability to stop time. Jotaro later returns in Diamond Is Unbreakable, Vento Aureo, and Stone Ocean.

 Josuke Higashikata: The protagonist of Diamond Is Unbreakable, he is a freshman in Morioh who is the illegitimate son of Joseph Joestar. His Stand is Crazy Diamond, which that can fix things and heal people.

 Giorno Giovanna: The protagonist of Vento Aureo, born Haruno Shiobana, Giorno is the illegitmate son of Dio Brando and technically a Joestar as the vampire possessed Jonathan's body at the time. Bearing similarity to both men both in terms of appearance and personality, initially observed by Jotaro and Polnareff in case he was anything like Dio, Giorno dreams of becoming a "Gang-Star" (combining "Gangster" and "Superstar"). Over time, Giorno became calm, highly self-confident and prone to careful strategics. He then aspires to overthrow Passione's Boss in order to turn the gang into an organization which helps the people of Italy. His Stand "Gold Experience" can turn objects into plants and animals, later evolving to "Gold Experience Requiem" with the ability to nullify any desired action.

Jolyne Cujoh: The protagonist of Stone Ocean, Jolyne Cujoh is the daughter of Jotaro Kujo who went to prison for a crime she did not commit per the designs of another. Her Stand "Stone Free" allows her to turn her body into elastic thread.

 Johnny Joestar: An alternate version of Jonathan Joestar who is the protagonist of Steel Ball Run, which takes place in an alternate universe. Initially a horse racing prodigy who got paralyzed from the waist down, he regained his mobility by using Spin from Gyro Zeppeli while participating in the Steel Ball Run while developing his Stand "Tusk". In Jojolion, Johnny is revealed to have married a Japanese woman named Rina Higashikata with both the Higashikata Family and his universe's version of Yoshikage Kira as his descendants.

 Josuke Higashikata/Josefumi Kujo: The protagonist of Jojolion who was formerly known as Josefumi Kujo, who helped his universe's version of Yoshikage Kira steal a Locacaca Tree branch for his mother Holy Joestar–Kira. But it resulted with Kira fatally wounded before he and Josefumi were buried alive with a Locacaca fruit during the 2011 Tohoku earthquake and tsunami, the Locacaca's swap properties transferring various traits of Kira over to Josefumi until he became a new person with no memory of his past by the time he was found by Yasuho. Once learning his origin, Josuke decides to continue Kira's task of saving Holy. Josuke uses the Stand "Soft & Wet", which allows him to produce soap bubbles that upon contact with an object to steal an object's aspect for use.

Dio Brando
The principle antagonist of the series, mentioned to be pure evil. The son of Dario Brando, Dio becomes a member of the Joestar household with the intent of inheriting it for himself by poisoning George Joestar. When this ultimately fails after Jonathan catches him in the act, Dio uses the Stone Mask to transform himself into a vampire with aspirations of taking over England then the world. Though Jonathan stops his scheme by destroying his body, Dio's disembodied head claims Jonathan's body despite his rival's final attempt to destroy him by sinking the ship they were in. But Dio resurfaced a century later after being found by sailors, referring to himself as DIO while taking residence in Cairo with an army of Stand users as his command. He also awakened his own Stand "The World", causing those descended from Jonathan to acquire their own Stands with DIO destroyed by Jotaro Kujo. Despite his death, DIO remained a presence in the storyline until the events of ''Stone Ocean''.

Parts 1 and 2

Robert E.O. Speedwagon
A former street thug from the London's Ogre Street who befriends Jonathan after being bested and spared by him, becoming an ally in his battle against Dio despite lacking the ability to use Hamon. Before the events of Battle Tendency, Speedwagon became rich after finding oil in the United States and establishes the Speedwagon Foundation, which continues to help the Joestar family after his passing.

William Anthonio Zeppeli
An Italian user of Hamon who trained in Tibet, becoming Jonathan's mentor so they can destroy the stone mask in Dio's possession. Zeppeli ultimately dies during the series of battles, passing his Hamon to Jonathan.

Erina Pendleton Joestar
Jonathan's childhood friend who he eventually married, raising their son George Joestar II and then Joseph, even going so far as to provide shelter to Smokey Brown, friend of Joseph Joestar.

George Joestar
Jonathan's father and died protecting his son from Dio.

Dario Brando
Dio's abusive father, an alcoholic thief who Dio poisoned on the notion that he deserved to die for working his mother to death. Prior to that, even after being exposed as a con-man, Dario won George's favor and enabled Dio to be welcomed into the Joestar estate.

Smokey Brown
An ordinary New York pickpocket whose friendship with Joseph places him at the spectator's seat of the battle against the Pillar Men. He later grows up to becomes a mayor in Georgia.

Caesar Zeppeli
Joseph's best friend and a Hamon user, the grandson of William Anthonio Zeppeli. He helps fight the Pillar Men and died to give Joseph the antidote to Wamuu's poison.

Lisa Lisa
Joseph and Caesar's Hamon coach, revealed to be the former's mother Elizabeth Joestar who was saved by Erina on the day that Jonathan died. Elizabeth was raised by the Hamon master Straizo and eventually married George Joestar II. But she avenged her husband's death by one of Dio's surviving zombies who infiltrated the Royal Airforce, Elizabeth was forced to go into hiding in Italy under an alias while becoming the current guardian of the Red Stone of Aja.

Rudol von Stroheim
A German commander from Nazi-occupied Germany who discovered Santana in Mexico, proving to be honorable in his right as he saved Speedwagon for intel and blew himself up to give Joseph a chance to defeat Santana. He returns later as a cyborg to assist in the fight against Kars and his army, later revealed to have died in battle during the second World War.

Suzie Q Joestar
Lisa Lisa's maid who Joseph falls in love with, the two eventually married and raised their daughter Holly Joestar together.

Kars
The main antagonist of Battle Tendency and one of the surviving Pillar Men, a race of humanoids revered as deities and demons in the New World that petrify while in sunlight and digest other lifeforms through physical contact due to their cells containing acidic enzymes and euphoria-inducing enzymes that keep the prey from realizing they are being eaten alive. Kars created the Stone Masks to prevent his race's extinction while evolve them into the Ultimate Being, ultimately forced to slaughter his people when they deemed his actions against nature. When Kars learn he needs a Super Aja to complete, he, Wamuu, and Esidisi traveled to Eursia and eventually entered a deep slumber in Rome before awaking in the 1930s to resume their search. Having fought ancient Hamon users, Kars develops his Light Mode where he produces saw-bladed appendages from his body. Kars ultimately acquires the stone and become the Ultimate Being, immune to sunlight with ability to produce Hamon and manipulate his body at a cellular level to manifest the traits of various creatures. But Kars's obsession of killing Joseph proved his downfall, being blasted out of Earth's orbit through a volcanic eruption and drifting into space.

Wamuu
A Pillar Man and one of Kars's subordinates, possessing a warrior's code of honor as he considered Joseph a worthy opponent. The Wind Mode he developed to counter Hamon users allows him to control the air in his lungs from his Divine Sand Storm attack to rendering himself invisible.

Esidisi
A Pillar Man and Kars's right-hand, having aided him in the genocide of their people. The Inferno Mode he developed to counter Hamon users allows him to turn his blood into superheated acid to melt down his foes. Though his body was destroyed by Joseph, Esidisi's nervous system survived and takes control of Suzie Q's body to send the Super Aja to Kar while intending to use her as a sacrificial distraction before being safely removed and destroyed for good.

Santana
The first of the Pillar Men Joseph encounters, named by Rudol von Stroheim after being recovered and revived on human blood. But Santana goes on a rampage before being defeated by Joseph with his remains placed in custody of the Speedwagon Foundation under contact UV lighting.

Part 3 - Stardust Crusaders

Muhammad Abdul or (Avdol)
An Egyptian fortune-teller who is friends with Joseph, possessing the fire-based Stand Magician's Red. He helps in the journey to defeat DIO, only to be ultimately killed by Vanilla Ice.

Noriaki Kakyoin
A high-schooler who became friends with Jotaro whose Stand is Hierophant Green. He was once under the control of DIO, but joins the fight against him and dies during the final battle.

Jean-Pierre Polnareff
A French man whose Stand is Silver Chariot, an armored knight wielding a rapier that can boost its blinding speed further by casting off its armor while producing a series of afterimages. Polnareff's desire to avenge his younger sister's rape and murder by J. Geil led to him ending up being under DIO's control before being freed by the Joestar Group, eventually joining the group officially after finally exacting his revenge. He suffered injuries during his fight with Vanilla Ice. Polnareff later acquired the Bow and Arrow before being crippled by Diavolo during the events of Vento Aureo, forced to use the Arrow on himself at the time of his to evolve his Stand into the soul manipulating Chariot Requiem to protect the Arrow while Polnareff's soul was transferred into a turtle.

Hol Horse
A recurring minor antagonist whose Stand Emperor takes the form of a gun that fires bullets that can change their transjectory in midflight, preferring to work with other Stand users. Hol Horse previously encounters the Joestar group in India alongside J. Geil, nearly killing Abdul. When the Joestars reach Cairo, Hol Horse teamed up with Boingo in a final attempt to kill the Joestar group and ends up being hospitalized.

Enyaba Geil
Also known as Enya the Hag, she is the oldest of DIO's confidents and is responsible for awakening his ability to use a Stand through the Stand-granting Bow and Arrow. Her own Stand is Justice, which takes the form of a mist that takes control over anyone with an open wound and manipulate them like puppets. Enya went after the Joestar group after Polnareff killed her son J. Geil, only to be captured and assassinated by her allies while resolute to take her knowledge of DIO's Stand to her grave.

Vanilla Ice
One DIO's most loyal servants, possessing the Stand Cream which can turn itself invisible and disintegrate anything that enters the void within its mouth save its user. After being turned into a vampire by DIO after killing himself in a gesture of self-sacrifice to provide his master with blood, Vanilla Ice obliterates Abdul and battles Polnareff and Iggy being exposed to sunlight and destroyed.

Part 4 - Diamond is Unbreakable

Koichi Hirose
A 15-year-old boy who is shot with the Arrow, and gets the Stand Echoes. He is timid, but learns to stand up for himself. His Stand went through 2 transformations, giving him access to Act 1, Act 2 and Act 3.

Okuyasu Nijimura
A high-schooler who uses a Stand called The Hand. He does not think he is smart, and he loves his older brother, Keicho.

Keicho Nijimura
A high-schooler who uses the Arrow to give people Stands, hoping that one can save his father, who became a monster.

Tamami Kobayashi
A con-artist who uses his Stand, The Lock, to weigh down people's hearts when they feel guilt.

Yukako Yamagishi
A girl who fell in love with Koichi and kidnaps him. Her Stand is called Love Deluxe, and it lets her fight with her long hair.

Hazamada Toshikazu
A social outcast who acts violently. His Stand is called Surface.

Shizuka Joestar
A baby who can turn invisible with her Stand, Achtung Baby. Because her mother was never found, Joseph adopted her later on.

Rohan Kishibe
A manga artist who uses his Stand, Heaven's Door, to turn people into books and read about their lives. He would later realize he has a history with Reimi Sugimoto as he was four at the time Kira murdered her.

Reimi Sugimoto
A ghost who lives in an phantom alley with her dog, Arnold. She was Rohan's babysitter, and pushed him out the window when her and her family were killed by Kira. She is his first victim with scars inflicted on her back, desiring justice for herself and Kira's other victims while gaining allies Josuke's group as they can see her.

Yoshikage Kira
The main antagonist of Diamond is Unbreakable, a 33-year-old office worker who is also a serial killer with a hand fetish. This is reflected in him using his Stand Killer Queen to destroy all but the hand of his victim to caress as his leisure before eventually destroying it. His killing spree ultimately came to an end when pursued by Josuke's group after attempting to hide from them under a stolen identity, ending up with his face being crushed under an ambulance.

Part 5 - Vento Aureo

Bruno Bucciarati
A caporegime (captain) within the Italian Mafia known as Passione whose Stand, Sticky Fingers, allows him to make zippers that he can enter, leading his group to escort Trish Una to their boss before resolving to turn on him. breathes.

Pannacotta Fugo
Bucciarati's right-hand man with erratic in mood that is reflected in his Stand Purple Haze, which indiscriminately releases a flesh-eating virus that rapidly friends and enemies alike. Because of Purple Haze's dangerous ability, Fugo tends to avoid using it until he runs out of other options in a fight. Pannacotta left the group when they resolve to oppose the boss.

Guido Mista
A member of Bucciarati's group who uses the Stand Sex Pistols to direct his bullets at a target. He hates the number 4.

Narancia Ghirga
A member of Bucciarati's group who is 17-year-old dropout with a 3rd Grade-level education. His Stand Aerosmith is a mini airplane that hones on a target's carbon emission.

Leone Abbachio
A former cop who joined Bucciarati's group after being discharged in the aftermath of getting his partner killed by a criminal he took a bribe from. His Stand is called Moody Blues, having the ability to play back events in a location as he played a role in revealing the boss's face to his group before being killed.

Trish Una
Diavolo's daughter who her father marked for death to conceal his identity at all costs. She eventually developed her Stand Spice Girl.

Diavolo
The main antagonist of Vento Aureo, the Boss of Passione with an unnatural body and two souls whose Stand King Crimson can erase a moment in time. He makes the ambiguity of his identity vital to his needs, solving to kill Trish and Buccairatti's group when they opposed him.

Doppio Vinegar
Diavolo's split personality and Passione's underboss, an eccentric youth loyal to his other personality, often calling Diavolo in random items he mistakes for A phone. His soul ends up separated from Diavolo and dies in Bucciarati's body.

Part 6 - Stone Ocean

Hermes Costello
A prisoner who befriends Jolyne. Her stand is Kiss.

Foo Fighters
She's a colony of plankton who becomes allies with Jolyne. She is the stand, and also has the same name as him.

Weather Report
A prisoner who becomes allies with Jolyne and the gang, and is also Pucci's twin. His stand also has the same name as him, Weather Report.

Emporio Alniño
A young boy who lives in the prison Jolyne is imprisoned in. He ultimately kills Pucci at the end. His stand is called Burning Down the House.

Narciso Anasui
A prison inmate who has a crush on Jolyne, and also wants to marry her. His stand is Diver Down.

Enrico Pucci
The main antagonist of Stone Ocean, a priest who is one of DIO's remaining followers and sought to see DIO's vision of the world realized. His Stand was originally Whitesnake, which extracts people's spirits and memories, even Stands, in the form of compact disks that can be freely inserted into other people and objects. Enrico later evolves his Stand with a fragment of The World into the gravity manipulating C-Moon by absorbing a homunculus created from DIO's bone (which contained a fragment/piece of The World), later evolving it further into Made in Heaven to reboot the universe into one where Joestar bloodline never existed. But he ends up being killed by Emporio, with the universe rebooted once more.

Part 7 - Steel Ball Run

Gyro Zeppeli
A jockey who uses the Spin, which is like Hamon. He is Johnny's best friend.

Funny Valentine
The main antagonist of Steel Ball Run, a dishonorably discharged American soldier who became the 23rd President of the United States and seeks the power of the Saint Corpse for world dominion. He inserted the Saint Corpse's heart into his body to manifest his dimension-traveling Stand D4C, using it to transfer his mind to an alternate version and able to summon others from alternate realities, though only he and his counterparts are immune to the universal law where two iterations of the same person cannot be in physical contact with each other.

Part 8 - Jojolion

Yasuho Hirose
A young woman who discovers Josuke and helps him search for his true identity. She uses the Stand Paisley Park to direct things around her, although Paisley Park acts on Yasuho's subconscious needs rather than her being able to directly control her abilities.

Rai Mamezuku
A plant appraiser and fruit grower who works for Norisuke's fruit company. He uses the Stand Doggy Style to peel his flesh like an apple, turning it into a ribbon that he can manipulate.

Yoshikage Kira
An alternate reality version who is a descendant of Johnny Joestar through his mother Holy Joestar-Kira and thus a distant relation to the Higashikata family. He was also a friend of Josefumi Kujo, who attempted to help him save Holy's life by stealing a Locacaca Branch to use its fruit. But it ended with Yoshikage fatally wounded by the Rock People with Josefumi attempting to save him with last of the Locacaca Fruit they stole before the two were buried alive by the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami. The fruit takes effect with Kira's body parts and traits of his Stand Killer Queen being swapped with Josefumi's to turn him into Josuke, with what remained of Yoshikage's body uncovered a few days after Josuke was found.

Tooru
The main antagonist of Jojolion, leader of the Rock Human race that is undercover at the hospital Holy is in and seeks the Locacaca fruit at any cost to make his people the dominant species. His Stand is Wonder of U, which assumed human form as T.G University Hospital's head doctor Satoru Akefu.

Norisuke Higashikata
Head of the Higashikata family and owner of the Higashikata Fruit Company. His Stand is called King Nothing.

Jobin Higashikata
Norisuke's oldest son.

Hato Higashikata
Norisuke's oldest daughter. She works as a model.

Daiya Higashikata
Norisuke's youngest daughter. She's a 16-year-old with a Stand called California King Bed. She loves Josuke and can't see very well.

Joshu Higashikata
Norisuke's son. He is spoiled and somewhat mean. He's an atheist.

JoJo's Bizarre Adventure
Lists of fictional characters
Anime characters

List of JoJo's Bizarre Adventure characters


Jak and Daxter: The Precursor Legacy is a 2001 platform video game developed by Naughty Dog and published by Sony Computer Entertainment for the Sony PlayStation 2 on December 4, 2001, as the first game of the Jak and Daxter series.

The game follows the protagonist, a young teenager named Jak, as he tries to help his friend Daxter after he is transformed into an ottsel, a fictional hybrid of an otter and a weasel. With the help of Samos the Sage, a master of the mysterious energy called 'Eco' created by an ancient race known as the Precursors, the pair learn that they must save their world from the rogue sages Gol and Maia Acheron, who plan to flood the world with "Dark Eco", a mysterious substance which corrupts all it touches.

The game offers a large range of missions, collectibles and objectives often in the form of minigames which provide a variety of gameplay experiences, as well as puzzles and platforming stages which are completed by the player to proceed the story. The title is often credited as being one of the first games with 'no' loading screens, with players able to traverse from the starting location to the final battle, and all interconnected levels in-between, without breaking away from gameplay.

Development began in January 1999, following the fourth installment of Naughty Dog's Crash Bandicoot franchise for the PlayStation. Jak and Daxter received critical acclaim upon release, with most critics praising the game's variety. Many critics agreed that the game had some of the best-looking graphics at the time of its release. By 2002, the game had sold a total of over one million copies worldwide, and by 2007, it had sold two million in the United States alone.

In 2012, it was one of the remastered ports in the Jak and Daxter Collection for the PlayStation 3, and for the PlayStation Vita in 2013. It was released as a "PS2 Classic" port for the PlayStation 4 on 22 August 2017, the same day as the release of Uncharted: The Lost Legacy. In 2022, a PC port   was released by fans.

Gameplay
Jak and Daxter: The Precursor Legacy is a 3D platformer in which the objective is to gather items to progress through the levels. The player controls Jak, who has access to abilities such as double jumping, a rapid spinning kick, and glide punching. Injuries are accounted for by way of a life meter, which decreases whenever Jak is hit by enemies, falls from long distances, or makes contact with hazardous surfaces.

The Precursor Legacy offers several collectibles for the player to gather. The main objects are power cells, which are used to energize machinery to reach new levels. Power cells can be earned in many ways, such as fighting enemies, performing tasks for other characters, completing platforming challenges, and paying for them via Precursor orbs. Precursor orbs are egg-shaped collectables found scattered throughout the world, some in plain sight, and some hidden. Another collectible, scout flies, appear on every level. Collecting all seven scout flies in a level rewards the player with a power cell.

A large part of the gameplay revolves around eco, a type of colored mysterious energy that comes in six different forms. The player is able to utilize eco powers by either collecting small amounts of glowing eco particles or fully charging through eco vents. Green eco, the most common of the six types of eco, restores health. Blue eco increases Jak's speed; breaks nearby boxes (except strong boxes); attracts Precursor orbs, scout flies, and small clusters of blue and green eco towards him; and activates certain machinery. Red eco increases attack power, while yellow eco allows the player to shoot ranged bursts of energy through Jak's hands. Dark eco also exists in the game, but as an obstacle that damages Jak, rather than an item that is collected. Light eco is also used exclusively in the game's final boss battle.

The game contains three bosses whose defeat earns the player power cells or allows the player some method of progressing further in the game. However, not all bosses are mandatory. The first boss, the dark eco plant, is only defeated in order to gain a power cell and to remove hazardous spiked tentacles from the jungle area. The second boss, a cyborg Lurker named Klaww, must be defeated in order to enter the Mountain Pass. To do so, players must collect enough power cells to utilize a levitation device and unblock a path, allowing access to him. Once he is defeated, the areas beyond his lair are accessible. The final boss is an ancient giant robot, which has been restored to working order by the game's villains, Gol and Maia. Defeating the robot is the final task in the game; once it has been defeated, the end cutscene plays.

Plot

Setting

The game is set on a fictional planet incorporating fantasy elements, which consists of small and not very technologically advanced settlements, surrounded by varying environments and abandoned ruins. One major hub is Sandover Village, home of the two protagonists: Jak, a mute 15-year-old teenager, and his best friend, Daxter (Max Casella), a loudmouth who is transformed at the beginning of the game into a fictional hybrid of an otter and a weasel, called an ottsel.

Eco is a type of energy which dominates the world and was created by an ancient race of beings known only as "Precursors", implied by Samos Hagai (Warren Burton) at the beginning to be the masters of the universe and creators of all life on the planet. The two boys live with Samos, the Sage of green eco, and father of Keira (Anna Garduño), who is implied to be Jak's love interest. She builds the flying Zoomer vehicle that Jak and Daxter use multiple times throughout their adventure.

The primary enemies of the game consist of beasts known as "Lurkers" led by the antagonists Gol Acheron, the Dark Sage (Dee Snider), and his sister, Maia (Jennifer Hagood), who have been turned evil by the effects of the dark eco they studied. Their goal is to open a giant silo full of dark eco and use it to shape the universe to their liking. Other characters are the Blue (John Di Crosta), Red (Sherman Howard), and Yellow (Jason Harris) Sages, all of whom are masters of the eco from which they take their name.

Story
Against Samos' warnings, Jak and Daxter make their way to the forbidden Misty Island. There, they see two unknown figures ordering the Lurkers to gather eco and Precursor artifacts. The duo, worried by what they are seeing, prepare to leave, but are soon discovered by a Lurker guard. Jak manages to kill it with an explosive device they found, but the resulting explosion sends Daxter into a pool of dark eco. He emerges transformed into an ottsel (a fictional hybrid of an otter and a weasel), but is otherwise unharmed. Returning to their home of Sandover Village, they seek help from Samos. Samos explains that only Gol Acheron, the Dark Sage, can reverse the transformation.

As Gol lives to the north, the boys look for a means of crossing the deadly Fire Canyon. Samos's beautiful daughter Keira, a skilled engineer, offers to let them use her Zoomer (essentially a hoverbike) in exchange for enough power cells to operate it. Jak and Daxter begin their training in a nearby island called Geyser Rock, where they collect a few cells. Then they return to Sandover Village and explore a neighboring jungle, a beach off the village's coast, and Misty Island (which is accessible via speedboat after helping a local fisherman). After collecting enough cells, the heroes make their way through the Fire Canyon to Rock Village, the home of the Blue Sage. To their horror, the village has been attacked by a massive Lurker known as Klaww, and the Blue Sage has vanished. With the path forward blocked by Klaww, the boys look for more cells and explore an abandoned underwater Precursor city, an elevated basin filled with Precursor technology, and a swamp across the village bay. Using the collected cells, Keira clears the path, allowing Jak and Daxter to defeat Klaww, cross the Mountain Pass, and make their way into the ancient Volcanic Crater where the Red Sage dwells.

With the Red Sage missing as well, Samos sends the boys to hunt for enough cells so Keira can upgrade the Zoomer's heat shield. At this time, the truth is revealed: The Blue, Red, and Yellow Sages have been abducted by Gol and his sister Maia (who were also the figures Jak and Daxter saw on Misty Island), who intend to harness their combined power to extract the dark eco in their possession and use it to remake the world. However, Samos warns that if they open the silos containing the vast stores of dark eco deep underground, the dark eco will twist and destroy everything it touches. Jak and Daxter continue to look for more cells, exploring a dark cave filled with Lurker spiders and a mountainous tundra by the volcano's summit.

Making their way through the lava tunnels leading to Gol and Maia's citadel, the boys run into Keira, who reveals that Samos has also been captured. With the four Sages now under their control, the Acheron siblings begin restoring their excavated automaton so that they can release the dark eco from its silo. After rescuing the Sages from captivity, Jak and Daxter intercept the machine and engage it in battle. However, they only manage to destroy its eco weapons. Realizing that a greater power is needed to defeat Gol and Maia, Samos and the Blue, Red, and Yellow Sages combine the four different types of eco into one, creating light eco. Daxter contemplates using the light eco to return himself to normal, but ultimately allows Jak to use it instead.

Unable to escape the cockpit of their destroyed machine, Gol and Maia plunge into the silo and are presumed dead. With the world saved, the group focuses its attention on unlocking the fabled Precursor Door, which can only open with the energy of 100 power cells. Once the door is opened, it reveals a large, mysterious object enveloped in a blinding light. The object itself is kept a mystery until the second game.

Development

Development on Jak and Daxter began in January 1999 as "Project Y". As the rest of the Naughty Dog team were working on Crash Team Racing, only two programmers were allocated to the project. The rest of the team began work on Jak as well after the release of the PlayStation 2; eventually 35 developers worked on the game. Because of the PS2's status as a new console, Naughty Dog felt they had to create a unique character for it. Before the main development of Jak and Daxter, Naughty Dog confirmed the idea with Sony Computer Entertainment, and after showing them a character they dubbed "Boxman" to demonstrate their animation engine, they came up with Jak and Daxter.

Jason Rubin stated in an interview with Play (US Magazine) that the 40 minutes of animation in the game required 6 full-time animators and 4 support animators. In some cases the animators came from outside of the video game industry from companies such as Disney and Nickelodeon.

The game was in development for almost three years, and throughout this time, numerous changes were made to almost every aspect of the game, while the various engines used in the game were all tweaked to optimize their performance. The engine tweaks allowed Jak and Daxter to have no loading times or fogging and be able to display high-quality textures in a seamless, multi-level world.

Due to each area of the game being 3–6 million polygons, the 3D computer graphics application Maya would stop working even on cutting-edge PCs. To combat this issue, the team had to use references and proxies as Maya and other current tools available were not capable of handling the entire area all at once.

The main characters also went through changes. Originally, there was going to be a third main character that would develop as the game was played in a Tamagotchi style. Instead, Naughty Dog concentrated their efforts on two main characters in order to create the exact characters they wanted. In an interview, Naughty Dog stated: "The character inspiration was more Joe Madureira who did Battle Chasers, the comic book, than anything else…" The game was announced at E3 2001. After the release of The Precursor Legacy, Naughty Dog was prepared to create a sequel as long as the first did well enough to warrant it. After the game did go on to sell admirably, development of Jak II was begun shortly thereafter.

The voice-acting was recorded in the New York City-based Howard Schwartz Recording facility. The game's soundtrack was composed entirely by multi-instrumentalist Josh Mancell. The album was produced by Devo's singer Mark Mothersbaugh and was recorded at Mutato Muzika Studios.

A Java game was developed and released in 2001 to promote the game which was restored and made playable by archivists and fans of the Jak and Daxter series.

In 2022, a fan project called OpenGOAL was released which decompiles The Precursor Legacy and then recompiles it for x86-64, making it playable natively on PC.

Reception

Jak and Daxter: The Precursor Legacy received "universal acclaim", according to review aggregator Metacritic. Before its release, SCEA gave IGN a demo build of Jak and Daxter. Douglass C. Perry, a member of IGN staff said, "…Jak and Daxter is a breath of fresh air, a funny, light-hearted, but no less epic action-adventure game all its own…" after reviewing the demo build for twelve hours. GameSpot gave a score of 8.8 out of 10, praising its tight execution and heavy action elements which "ensure that things never become dull," and continued, "Next to Rayman 2, Jak and Daxter is the best 3D platformer available for the PlayStation 2." Game Informer gave the game a high score of 9.25 out of 10, and also offered praise to its graphics and the absence of load times, saying: "On several occasions, I found myself staring in awe at the little details Naughty Dog so meticulously included." At the 2002 Game Developers Choice Awards, Daxter from Jak and Daxter: The Precursor Legacy won the Original Game Character of the Year award. It was a runner-up for GameSpot annual "Best Platform Game" award among console games, which went to Conker's Bad Fur Day. During the 5th Annual Interactive Achievement Awards, the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences nominated Jak and Daxter for the "Console Action/Adventure" and "Game Design" awards.

After its release in late 2001, the game went on to sell over 1 million copies, promoting it to "Greatest Hits" and reducing the price. By July 2006, it had sold 1.7 million copies and earned $49 million in the United States, and had become the best-selling Jak and Daxter game in that country. Next Generation ranked it as the 19th highest-selling game launched for the PlayStation 2, Xbox, or GameCube between January 2000 and July 2006 in the United States. Combined sales of Jak and Daxter games reached 4 million units in the United States by July 2006. As of 2007, Jak and Daxter has sold almost 2 million copies (1.97 million) in the United States alone. Jak and Daxter received a "Gold Prize" in Japan for sales of over 500,000 units. The game is also the 17th best-selling game on the PlayStation 2.

References

External links

2001 video games
Jak and Daxter
Naughty Dog games
Platformers
PlayStation 2 games
PlayStation 2-only games
Single-player video games
Steampunk video games
Open-world video games
Video games developed in the United States
Video games scored by Josh Mancell
Video games set on fictional planets
3D platform games

Jak and Daxter: The Precursor Legacy


Washtenaw County ( ) is a county located in the U.S. state of Michigan. At the 2020 census, the population was 372,258. The county seat and largest city is Ann Arbor. The county was authorized by legislation in 1822 and organized as a county in 1826.
Washtenaw County comprises the Ann Arbor Metropolitan Statistical Area.
The county is home to the University of Michigan, Eastern Michigan University, Washtenaw Community College, and Concordia University Ann Arbor.

History

Native American Territories
The first peoples occupying the central portion of what is now Michigan included: "the Pottawattamies, the Chippewas, the Ottawas, the Wyandottes and the Hurons". Native Americans whose territories included land within the Washtenaw County boundaries are shown to have included: Myaamia (Miami), Bodéwadmiké (Potawatomi), Anishinabewaki ᐊᓂᔑᓈᐯᐗᑭ, Peoria, Meškwahki·aša·hina (Fox), and the Mississauga nation.

Etymology of Washtenaw
In the Ojibwe language, "Wash-ten-ong" or "Owashtanong" literally translates as "far away waters", and was then used by the Ojibwe as the name for the Grand River due to its great length.
At the time of the official naming of the county in 1822, the headwaters of the Grand River fell within the original boundaries of Washtenaw County, which encompassed a much larger area than the present county.

Early colonization
The earliest histories mention French trappers and traders conducting trade in the area at the Potawatomi Trail and Pontiac Trail crossings of the Huron River, and later English then American settlers. The first successful settlement was established at the present site of Ypsilanti about 1809 by French traders.

In 1822, the Legislative Council of Michigan Territory government defined the name and boundaries of the county, but attached it to Wayne County for revenue, taxation and judicial affairs. Four years after the first platting out of the county, Washtenaw was established as a separate self-administered county by an act of the Michigan Territorial Legislature, in 1826. It was attached for administrative purposes to Wayne County until (before 1829) when county government was seated. Ingham and other counties were formed from portions of territorial Washtenaw County.

Swamps were drained and farms were tiled to lower the water table. The swamp northwest of the I-94 and US-23 intersection, and areas within Waterloo Recreation Area still appear as they did to early settlers. As productive farms became established, the local deer herds grew. In the 1820s and 1830s, the events surrounding the independence of Greece from Turkey inspired construction of Greek Revival buildings, and the names of townships, towns, and children.

The "frostbitten constitutional convention" was held at Ann Arbor, the county seat, in 1835. Statehood was delayed because Michigan claimed the Toledo Strip, which was also claimed by Ohio. Following resolution of the Toledo War (1835–1836), in which Michigan Territory ceded its claim to Toledo in exchange for most of the Upper Peninsula (from the Porcupine Mountains eastward), Ohio withdrew its objection and Michigan became a state on January 26, 1837.

The constitutional convention also decided to move the capital from Detroit to a point further away from the Canadian border. After considering many existing communities, the delegates decided to build an entirely new capital city, which became Lansing. The University of Michigan, founded at Detroit in 1817, was moved to Ann Arbor in 1839 as a consolation for the city not being named the new state capital, as it had sought. The university subsequently became and remains Washtenaw County's largest employer.

In 1849, the Michigan State Normal School (now Eastern Michigan University) was established in Washtenaw's oldest settlement, Ypsilanti. It was elevated to collegiate status c. 1891 as Michigan State Normal College. The name was changed in 1956 to Eastern Michigan College, which was elevated to university status in 1959.

Geography

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of , of which  is land and  (2.3%) is water.

Adjacent counties

 Livingston County (north)
 Oakland County (northeast)
 Wayne County (east)
 Monroe County (southeast)
 Lenawee County (southwest)
 Jackson County (west)
 Ingham County (northwest)

Major highways

Demographics

As of the 2010 United States census, there were 344,791 people living in the county. 74.5% were White, 12.7% Black or African American, 7.9% Asian, 0.3% Native American, 1.2% of some other race and 3.4% of two or more races. 4.0% were Hispanic or Latino (of any race). 16.0% were of German, 7.6% English, 7.5% Irish, 6.3% American and 5.0% Polish ancestry.

Washtenaw has the highest proportion of Asian-American residents of any Michigan county.

As of the 2000 census of 2000, 17.4% of county residents were of German ancestry; 9.0% cited English, 8.4% Irish, 5.3% Polish and 5.0% American ancestry. According to Census 2000, 87.1% spoke only English at home; 2.7% spoke Spanish and 1.7% Chinese or Mandarin.

There were 125,327 households, out of which 29.20% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.40% were married couples living together, 9.30% had a female householder with no husband present, and 41.20% were non-families. 29.50% of all households were made up of individuals, and 5.90% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.41 and the average family size was 3.02.

In the county, 22.10% of the population was under the age of 18, 17.10% was from 18 to 24, 32.10% from 25 to 44, 20.60% from 45 to 64, and 8.10% were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females, there were 98.90 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.10 males.

The median income for a household in the county was $51,990, and the median income for a family was $70,393 (these figures had risen to $59,887 and $80,779 respectively as of a 2007 estimate.) Males had a median income of $49,304 versus $33,598 for females. The per capita income for the county was $27,173. About 5.10% of families and 11.10% of the population were below the poverty line, including 8.60% of those under age 18 and 5.80% of those age 65 or over.

Government

Elected officials
 Prosecuting Attorney: Eli Savit (Democrat)
 Sheriff: Jerry Clayton (Democrat)
 County Clerk/Register of Deeds: Lawrence Kestenbaum (Democrat)
 County Treasurer: Catherine McClary (Democrat)
 Water Resources Commissioner: Evan Pratt (Democrat)

The Board of Commissioners has nine members, elected from single member districts, on a partisan ballot, in November of even-numbered years. The term is two years. Information as of May 2017.

Government services

Parks and recreation

Washtenaw County operates 10 parks and one recreation center (gymnasium). One park has a water sprinkler area, one has a substantial water park component, and there is one golf course. The recreation center has a swimming pool, indoor track, basketball courts, complete set of resistance machines, a weight room, and several multipurpose rooms.

Washtenaw County is in the process of acquiring land for natural preservation. The program started in 2001, was renewed in 2010. The millage was renewed a second time in 2020 with a record high of 72% of votes supporting the renewal. Eight parcels of land had been purchased by July 2007. These parcels are of special ecological, recreational, and educational benefits. They are preserved in a natural unimproved state and are open to the public during daylight hours.

Wireless communication
In partnership with private enterprise, the county maintains a wireless network which is currently available to approximately 50% of county residents. This is the Wireless Washtenaw Project; its stated aim of this project is to provide wireless access to all county residents.

Miscellaneous
The county government operates the jail, maintains rural roads (through a largely independent road commission), operates the major local courts, records deeds and mortgages, maintains vital records, administers public health regulations, and participates with the state in providing welfare and social services. The county board of commissioners controls the budget and has limited authority to make laws or ordinances. In Michigan, most local government functions – police and fire, building and zoning, tax assessment, street maintenance, etc. – are the responsibility of individual cities and townships.

Politics

Since 1988, when Michael Dukakis won it, the county has been a Democratic stronghold in local and national elections due to the presence of Ann Arbor and the University of Michigan. In the 2020 United States presidential election it gave 72.4% of the vote to Democratic nominee Joe Biden, the highest margin for a Democrat in the county, the third-highest for any candidate in the county's history, and the highest in the state at the time as well. Between 1960 and 1988 it was generally a swing county: 1992 was the first time it voted for the same party as it did in the last election since 1960. Despite its modern-day Democratic strength, it was reliably Republican at the presidential level from 1896 to 1960, only voting Democratic once in that span in 1912 when the Republican vote was split. George McGovern's win over Richard Nixon in the county in 1972 despite the latter winning nationally by a landslide was a sign of the county's shift towards supporting the Democratic Party, though Michigander and former Wolverine Gerald R. Ford won it in 1976 & Ronald Reagan won it in 1984 among his national landslide, being the most recent Republican to win the county.

Economy

The largest employers in Washtenaw County, as of July 2018, are:

Communities

Cities
 Ann Arbor (county seat)
 Chelsea
 Dexter
 Milan (partial)
 Saline
 Ypsilanti

Villages
 Barton Hills
 Manchester

Charter townships
 Ann Arbor Charter Township
 Augusta Charter Township
 Pittsfield Charter Township
 Superior Charter Township
 York Charter Township
 Ypsilanti Charter Township

Civil townships

 Bridgewater Township
 Dexter Township
 Freedom Township
 Lima Township
 Lodi Township
 Lyndon Township
 Manchester Township
 Northfield Township
 Salem Township
 Saline Township
 Scio Township
 Sharon Township
 Sylvan Township
 Webster Township

Census-designated place
 Whitmore Lake (partial)

Other unincorporated communities

 Bridgewater
 Dixboro
 Delhi Mills
 Geddes
 Mooreville
 Paint Creek
 Salem
 Stony Creek
 Whittaker
 Willis

Ghost town
 Rawsonville (partial)

Education
School districts include:

 Ann Arbor Public Schools
 Columbia School District
 Chelsea School District
 Clinton Community Schools
 Dexter Community School District
 Grass Lake Community Schools
 Lincoln Consolidated School District
 Manchester Community Schools
 Milan Area Schools
 Northville Public Schools
 Pinckney Community Schools
 Plymouth-Canton Community Schools
 Saline Area Schools
 South Lyon Community Schools
 Stockbridge Community Schools
 Van Buren Public Schools
 Whitmore Lake Public Schools
 Ypsilanti Community Schools

Former school districts:
 Ypsilanti Public Schools
 Willow Run Community Schools

See also

 List of Michigan State Historic Sites in Washtenaw County, Michigan
 National Register of Historic Places listings in Washtenaw County, Michigan
 USS Washtenaw County (LST-1166)

References

Sources

External links

 Foodloose in Washtenaw: A Foodie's Guide to Washtenaw County, 2018
 Dexter District Library
 Washtenaw County Government
 Past and present of Washtenaw County, Michigan by Samuel W. Beakes Chicago: The S.J. Clarke publishing co., 1906
 Washtenaw Community Cafe An online discussion group for the county of Washtenaw
 Ypsilanti Historical Society

Michigan counties
Metro Detroit
Michigan placenames of Native American origin
1826 establishments in Michigan Territory
Populated places established in 1826

Washtenaw County, Michigan


Dorothy Bentinck, Duchess of Portland (née Lady Dorothy Cavendish; 27 August 17503 June 1794) was Duchess of Portland and the wife of William Cavendish-Bentinck, 3rd Duke of Portland, the Prime Minister of Great Britain. She was also a great-great-great-grandmother of Queen Elizabeth II through the queen's maternal grandmother.

Biography
Dorothy Cavendish was born on 27 August 1750 to William Cavendish, 4th Duke of Devonshire, the Prime Minister of Great Britain and his wife Lady Charlotte Boyle, 6th Baroness Clifford.

Marriage and children
On 8 November 1766, Cavendish was married to William Cavendish-Bentinck, 3rd Duke of Portland. They were parents of six children:
 William Bentinck, 4th Duke of Portland (24 June 176827 March 1854)
 The Right Hon. Lord Charles William Cavendish Bentinck (1 July 177024 July 1770)
 Unnamed son (25 August 1771died young)
 Lord William Henry Cavendish-Bentinck (14 September 177417 June 1839)
 Lady Charlotte Cavendish-Bentinck (3 October 177528 July 1862). Married Charles Greville, and they had three sons: Charles Cavendish Fulke Greville, Algernon Greville, and Henry William Greville (1801–1872), and a daughter, Harriet (1803–1870) m. Francis Egerton, 1st Earl of Ellesmere
 Lady Mary Cavendish-Bentinck (13 March 17786 November 1843)
 Lord Charles Bentinck (3 October 178028 April 1826). Paternal grandfather of Cecilia Bowes-Lyon, Countess of Strathmore and Kinghorne
 Lord Frederick Cavendish-Bentinck (2 November 178111 February 1828) married Mary Lowther (d. 1863), daughter of William Lowther, 16 September 1820; had issue: George Cavendish-Bentinck
 A stillborn baby, birthed at Burlington House on 20 October 1786.
According to newspaper accounts, she was the mother of nine children, only four of whom were living at the time of her own death.

Later life

The duchess died at her home, Burlington House, Piccadilly, and was buried in St Marylebone Parish Church, Marylebone, London. She "died of a bowel complaint, which she had been subject to for many years, and which terminated in a mortification after a short illness. It was at first suspected, from the violent inflammation in her bowels, that her Grace had eaten water-gruel out of a copper saucepan not properly tinned; but this suspicion is certainly erroneous, as it proved on examination."

Bentinck was a great-great-great-grandmother of Queen Elizabeth II (see ancestry of Elizabeth II)

Ancestry

Arms

References

1750 births
1794 deaths
18th-century British people
18th-century British women
Dorothy
Dorothy
British duchesses by marriage
Spouses of prime ministers of the United Kingdom
Children of prime ministers of the United Kingdom
Daughters of English dukes
Daughters of barons
Burials at St Marylebone Parish Church
Deaths from digestive disease
Wives of knights

Dorothy Bentinck, Duchess of Portland


Suklenmung(1539–1552) was a king of the Ahom kingdom in medieval Assam.   Since he established his capital at Garhgaon (which would remain the capital of the Ahom kingdom till the establishment of the Tungkhungia kings), he is also called the Garhgaiya roja in the Buranjis.  It was during his reign that Madhabdev and Sankardeva's son-in-law Hari were captured and Hari executed, which precipitated the departure of Sankardeva from the Ahom kingdom.

It is frequently said that the first coins were struck during the reign of Garhgayan Raja, but is merely due to misreading of the Ahom legend on the coins of Chakradhwaj Singha (1663-1669). The first coins of the Ahom kingdom were struck during the Jayadhwaj Singha reign (1648-1663)

Ascension
Suklenmung became the king after Suhungmung, his father and the erstwhile king, was assassinated by one of his servants, Ratiman, in January 1539.  Some Buranjis suspect that Suklenmung was behind the plot even though Suklenmung tried to dispel the rumors by having the brothers of Ratiman, the assassin, executed. During the middle of the 16th century, Suklenmung  intervened against the Burmese aggression on Mong Kwang, a Shan state in Upper Burma. In return Mong Kwang ruler Chao Siu-Kwei offered his daughter, Nang Sao Seng to the Ahom king.

During his father's reign Suklen (as he was then known) offered the first defense against the Bengal invader Turbak in 1532, which he lost and in which he suffered personal injury grievous enough that he had to be replaced by the Borpatrogohain as the commander of the army.

Territory
Suklenmung consolidated the kingdom's command over the regions captured from the Kachari kingdom, by moving the Baro-Bhuyan in the Kopili river valley closer to the capital.  In 1546, the kingdom was invaded by the Koch commander, Chilarai, who advanced along a road constructed in secret by his half-brother, Gohain Kamal (and thus called Gohain Kamal Ali), along the north bank of the Brahmaputra river to establish a camp at Narayanpur in present-day North Lakhimpur district. Suklenmung was able to remove the Koch army from the northbank.

Administration
Suklenmung had the Garhgaon tank excavated, the Naga Ali constructed.

Notes

References

Ahom kings
Ahom kingdom
1552 deaths
Year of birth unknown

Suklenmung


Hsu Kun-yuan (1 May 1957 – 6 June 2020) was a Taiwanese politician. He was born in Kaohsiung, Taiwan. He was a member of the Kuomintang. He was a member of the Kaohsiung City Council from 1994 until his death. From 2010 to 2014 and again from 2018 until his death, he was Speaker of the City Council.

Hsu killed himself after jumping off his home in Kaohsiung on 6 June 2020, aged 63.

References

1957 births
2020 deaths
Suicides by jumping
Taiwanese politicians

Hsu Kun-yuan


David Colville Anderson  (8 September 1916 – 31 December 1995) was a Scottish law lecturer, advocate, Unionist MP, Solicitor General for Scotland, and judge, whose career ended in a bizarre sexual scandal. Also a naval officer during World War II, Anderson was honoured by the Norwegian king for preventing a rumoured Soviet invasion.

Early life and RNVR service
From a Fife farming family and the son of a solicitor, Anderson was educated at Trinity College, Glenalmond and Pembroke College, Oxford. He graduated from Oxford in 1938 and then went to Edinburgh University on a Thow Scholarship, where he read for a Bachelor of Laws degree.

His studies were interrupted by the outbreak of war. Anderson was well prepared, because he had enjoyed pistol shooting as a hobby (winning the Ashburton Shield at Bisley for his school in 1933) and joined the Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve in 1935, commissioned Sub Lieutenant 20 April 1938. He was a member of the Inter-Services shooting team at Bisley from 1936 to 1938. During the Second World War Anderson served on Royal Navy destroyers, being promoted Lieutenant 20 April 1940 and Mentioned in Despatches, London Gazette 11 June 1942 page 2509 for distinguished services aboard HMS Mendip, he won the Egerton Prize for Naval Gunnery in 1943.

Wartime and legal career
From 1943 to 1945 Anderson was Flotilla Gunnery Officer for the Rosyth Escort Force. He led a special operation to assist in preventing a revolt of Soviet Union troops being held as prisoners of war by the German Army in North Norway in 1945. British intelligence agencies suspected that Stalin intended to use the revolt as a pretext to launch an invasion of Norway, and Anderson was awarded the King Haakon VII Liberty Medal for the successful operation in 1946, London Gazette 4 March 1947 page 1046. After demobilisation he remained in the RNVR, awarded the Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve Officer's Decoration London Gazette 30 September 1947 page 4595 and a Clasp to the Decoration London Gazette 22 April 1958 page 2540, promoted to Lieutenant-Commander 20 April 1948, he retired from the RNVR in 1960.

Resuming his studies at Edinburgh, he obtained a Distinction in his LLB in 1946. He won the Maclagan and Dalgety Prizes at Edinburgh. Qualifying as an Advocate in the same year, he became a lecturer in Scots Law at Edinburgh from 1947 while also practising. Anderson concentrated on government instructions and became Standing Junior Counsel to the Ministry of Works in 1953, transferring to the War Office in 1955. He gave this work up on being appointed a Queen's Counsel in 1957.

Political career
Already interested in politics, Anderson had been the Unionist candidate in the safe Labour seat of Coatbridge and Airdrie in the 1955 general election and in the more marginal seat of East Dunbartonshire in 1959. He continued trying to find Unionist nominations in winnable seats.

Although not a member of parliament, Anderson was appointed Solicitor General for Scotland on 11 May 1960. This was a junior ministerial post within the government (advising the Scottish Office on legal matters) which was considered acceptable for an appointment from outside Parliament. He was also an ex-officio Commissioner for Northern Lighthouses, becoming vice-chairman in 1963.

When Niall Macpherson (Member of Parliament for Dumfriesshire) was given a Peerage at the end of 1963, Anderson was put forward to fight the seat in the ensuing by-election. It was speculated that the government's difficulty in guiding the Criminal Justice (Scotland) Bill through its Standing Committee stage in Parliament led to a decision that the Solicitor-General would be useful to have as a member of parliament. He kept the seat with a much-reduced majority of 971 after a low-key campaign.

Anderson was taken ill in March 1964 and was forced to announce his resignation from the government and from the Northern Lighthouse Board on 17 March. Initially intending to carry on as MP, a month later he gave up the candidacy and therefore left Parliament at the dissolution in September. When he recovered from illness, Anderson resumed his legal career and in 1965 was appointed Honorary Sheriff-Substitute for Lothians and Peebles. He was a chairman of Scottish Industrial Tribunals from 1971 to 1972 and was chief reporter for public inquiries and under-secretary for the Scottish Office from 1972.

Scandal and trial
However, his legal career was ended when he was fined £50 for accosting two 14-year-old girls, and asking them to walk on him and beat him up. Anderson had been in Troon on 18 December 1972, presiding over the first major public inquiry of his new post. The prosecution claimed that Anderson, finding himself out of his home town, had approached the girls and asked them to go to a quiet place with him.

The case had been controversial as the girls failed to identify Anderson and he was given an alibi by one of the staff members of the hotel where he was staying. Anderson's wife also gave evidence that the coat he was supposedly wearing on the night was being cleaned at the time. Anderson, who claimed the KGB had framed him in an act of revenge by using a lookalike to impersonate him and get in trouble, appealed the conviction but lost. He was dismissed from his posts in 1974.

Several high-profile, unsuccessful attempts were made to clear Anderson's name, including debates in the Lords and Commons and an investigation by the Scottish Criminal Cases Review Commission. He continued to press his innocence and in 1980 the playwright John Hale wrote The Case of David Anderson QC which was sympathetic to his position. The play was put on in Manchester, Edinburgh and at the Lyric Theatre in Hammersmith. Anderson had not succeeded in clearing his name by the time of his death. In September 2002 it was announced that the Scottish Criminal Cases Review Commission was looking into the case, but it concluded in February 2005 that the conviction should stand.

In her 2010 autobiography Lady Judy Steel claimed that a man had made an almost identical indecent proposal to her when she was a teenage student at Edinburgh University. In the light of subsequent events, she concluded it was Anderson. Her husband is Liberal Democrat life peer and former MP David Steel.

See also
List of United Kingdom MPs with the shortest service

References

M. Stenton and S. Lees, "Who's Who of British MPs" Vol. IV (Harvester Press, 1981)
Who Was Who
Dennis Straughan, Marcello Mega, "Was QC really framed by the KGB?", Scotland on Sunday, 8 September 2002.
Kirsty Scott, "'KGB revenge' case to be reviewed after 30 years", The Guardian, 9 September 2002, p. 8.
Marcello Mega, "No pardon for QC over 1973 verdict", Scotland on Sunday, 6 February 2005.

External links

1916 births
1995 deaths
Academics of the University of Edinburgh
Alumni of Pembroke College, Oxford
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
Members of the Faculty of Advocates
Ministers in the Macmillan and Douglas-Home governments, 1957–1964
People educated at Glenalmond College
20th-century King's Counsel
Recipients of the King Haakon VII Freedom Medal
Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve personnel of World War II
Royal Navy officers of World War II
Scottish King's Counsel
Scottish legal scholars
Scottish male sport shooters
Scottish politicians convicted of crimes
Solicitors General for Scotland
UK MPs 1959–1964
Unionist Party (Scotland) MPs
British male sport shooters

David Anderson (judge)


9-9-9 or 999 (said nine-nine-nine) is the emergency telephone number for the emergency services in the United Kingdom and Ireland.

The police, fire & rescue, ambulance/paramedics, mountain rescuing, coast guard and cave rescuing, and services for deactivating and getting rid of bombs can be reached by calling 9-9-9.

999 is also the emergency medical number in Poland.

1-1-2 can also be used to call these services. 1-1-2 is the European Union-wide emergency number, and the number used by all GSM mobile telephones throughout the world.

Calling 911, North America's emergency number, will automatically redirect to 999.

Related pages
 1-1-2
 000 Emergency
 9-1-1

Emergency phone numbers
Republic of Ireland
Poland

pl:Pogotowie ratunkowe#Numery alarmowe

9-9-9


Gina Knutson Barstad (born 28 April 1986) is a Norwegian politician for the Socialist Left Party.

In the 2009 parliamentary election, Barstad who resides in Bergen was nominated as the Socialist Left's second candidate in Hordaland, behind Audun Lysbakken. Although the Socialist Left only received one representative in Hordaland, Lysbakken was picked as new Minister of Children and Equality in the Stoltenberg Cabinet, so Barstad met in parliament as a fixed deputy member until Lysbakkens resignment from the cabinet and return to parliament in March 2012. She was one of the youngest representatives in Parliament.

Prior to her entry into Parliament, Barstad was a deputy member of Bergen city council and in charge of the Socialist Left's economy. Barstad's main issue is equal pay, but she has also campaigned on environmental issues and for construction of high-speed rail in Norway. Apart from politics, Barstad is a student of French.

Her sister, Monika Ryste Barstad is also active in politics, though she represents the Progress Party in Ørsta. Despite the political differences, they remain close.

References

1986 births
Living people
Politicians from Bergen
Socialist Left Party (Norway) politicians
Members of the Storting
Women members of the Storting
21st-century Norwegian politicians
21st-century Norwegian women politicians

Gina Barstad


Lorenzo Ricci, S.J. (2 August 170324 November 1775) was an Italian Jesuit, elected the eighteenth Superior General of the Society of Jesus. He was also the last before the suppression of the Jesuits in 1773.

Early life and career
Ricci was born in Florence, Italy, into one of the most ancient, and illustrious families of Tuscany. When very young, he was sent to Prato to the Jesuits Cicognini College. He entered the Society when he was scarcely fifteen, on 16 December 1718, at the novitiate of S. Andrea at Rome.

Having completed his studies in philosophy (1722–25) and theology (1729–34) at the Roman College of Rome, he taught at Siena and Rome. He was formally professed in August 1736. From 1751 to 1755 he was spiritual Director at the Roman College. In fact this quiet and unassuming spiritual work – in particular giving the Spiritual Exercises of Ignatius of Loyola (a form of guided retreat) – seemed to have had his preference. In 1755, he was chosen secretary of the society.

Superior General
At the 19th General Congregation, in May 1758, Ricci was elected Superior General of the Society of Jesus at the second ballot. Guilio Cordara, who lived near Ricci and seems to have known him intimately, deplored this choice: "On account of his placid nature and too even temper, I regarded him as little suited for a time when disturbance and storm seem to require extraordinary application of unusual remedies to unusual evils". Ricci himself asked to be relieved of the responsibility.

Jesuits in Portugal
The crisis with the Catholic Bourbon royal courts was coming to a head. Four months after Ricci's election, an attempt was made on the life of King Joseph I of Portugal. Prime Minister Carvalho, jealous of Gabriel Malagrida's influence at court, charged the Jesuit with involvement in the plot. Malagrida was declared guilty of high treason, but, as a priest, could not be executed without the consent of the Inquisition, so he was executed for heresy instead. The Jesuits were expelled from Portugal in September 1759. The decree also included the Portuguese possessions of Brazil, Goa, and Macao.

Jesuits in France
The Jesuits in France had earned the enmity of the influential Madame de Pompadour. According to the Comtesse de Courson, in 1752 Pompadour had approached the Jesuits requesting to be openly admitted the sacraments, in hopes of strengthening her position and influence to the detriment of the Queen and the Dauphin. Suspecting her motives were less than spiritual, the priests demurred until such time as she should cease to be the King's mistress. Within a few years she became one of the most ardent promoters of the destruction of the Society; the reason for her hostility suspected by many.

Antoine de La Valette was the thirty-four-year-old Superior of the missions in Martinique, which were heavily in debt. Lavallette borrowed heavily, became over-extended, and went bankrupt when the British seized twelve of thirteen ships carrying produce from the plantations for sale in France. The Society's efforts to intervene with LaValette in Martinique were hampered by the Seven Years' War. The war had left France almost bankrupt, and the Duke de Choiseul, minister for foreign affairs and secretary of war, saw in the Jesuit assets an opportunity to rebuild crown revenue. The French Jesuits were making an effort to settle with the creditors, but when the case was brought before the courts, the whole Society was held responsible for the debt, and a decree was issued for the seizure of all their property. This rendered the Society in France bankrupt. An anonymous French author published a pamphlet supposedly of letters between Ricci and Corsican insurgents. The Society was expelled from France in 1764, from Spain and Naples in 1767, and from the Duchy of Parma in 1768. The helpless Ricci saw it all.

As long as Clement XIII was pope, the Society was somehow protected in Rome. The Pope gave a new public approval of the Society (the bull Apostolicum pascendi, of 1769). The Pope advised courage, prayer and patience to Ricci who was inexperienced in the art of governing and who had always lived apart from the world and diplomatic intrigues.

The spiritually inclined Superior General sent circular letters to the Jesuits on Fervent perseverance in Prayer (1763), On greater fervour in prayer in 1769, and just a few months before the suppression of the Society another one on a New Incentive to Prayer (February 1773). Clearly he was not in touch with what was going on. But pressure on the Holy See was increasing and at the conclave called (in 1769) to elect a successor to Clement XIII the suppression of the Jesuits was the main issue. Clement XIV was elected; it is not clear whether he made a promise to have the Society suppressed.  After his election Clement XIV took harsh and humiliating decisions against the Society in order to placate its enemies, but political pressure went on unrelentingly and the Pope finally suppressed the order (Dominus ac Redemptor of 21 July 1773), the main reason being that he wanted to 'restore peace in the Church'.

Death
Jesuit communities were disbanded, libraries confiscated, and properties looted. Under pressure from Spanish ambassador José Moñino, 1st Count of Floridablanca, Ricci was put behind bars at the Castel Sant'Angelo, Rome, where he suffered further humiliation and ill treatment (for example, he was not allowed to celebrate the mass). The charges leveled publicly against the Jesuits were never brought in a court of law: no process of justice was gone through. Before he died Ricci solemnly declared before witnesses: "I say and protest that the Society of Jesus did not give any ground warranting its suppression; nor is there any right reason why I should have been put in jail." He is buried in the crypt of the Gesù Church in Rome.

About six weeks after Ricci's death, Pope Pius VI ordered the release of Ricci's five assistants.

References

 attribution
CORDARA, De suppressione Societatis commentarii, Padua, 1923-25.
RAVIGNAN, Xavier de, Clément XIII et Clément XIV, Paris, 1856.
ROSA, I., I Gesuiti, Roma, 1957.
PASTOR, Ludwig von, Geschichte der Päpste,'' XVI,2 Herder Freiburg, 1961

1703 births
1775 deaths
Superiors General of the Society of Jesus
18th-century Italian Jesuits
Clergy from Florence

Lorenzo Ricci


Authoritarian corporatism is a form of corporatism, where the state forces everyone to join one of a limited number of corporations. The state also defines the goals these corporations try to achieve. In the 1930s, Benito Mussolini took some of the ideas from Getúlio Vargas, who ruled Brazil in an authoritarian style at the time.

Political movements

Authoritarian corporatism


Sandra Gulland (born November 3, 1944) is an American-born Canadian novelist. She is the author of The Shadow Queen and Mistress of the Sun, novels set in the court of Louis XIV, The Sun King, and a trilogy of novels based on the life of Josephine Bonaparte: The Many Lives & Secret Sorrows of Josephine B.; Tales of Passion, Tales of Woe; The Last Great Dance on Earth.

To date, Gulland's novels have been published in fifteen countries and translated into thirteen languages. The Many Lives & Secret Sorrows of Josephine B. was a bestseller in the UK.

Biography
Born November 3, 1944, in Miami, Florida, Sandra Gulland (née Zentner) was brought up in Berkeley, California. After graduating from Berkeley High School, she attended San Francisco State College, the University of California, Berkeley, and Roosevelt University in Chicago, graduating with a BA in English literature and a minor in mathematics.

She emigrated to Canada in 1969, teaching for a year in Nain, Labrador, before moving to Toronto to work as a book editor in book publishing. She was a founding member of the Editors' Association of Canada (then the Freelance Editors' Association of Canada).

In 1978, she and her family moved to rural Ontario, where she was volunteer principal of the Killaloe Alternative School and co-publisher of The Community News & Confuse. She became a Canadian citizen in 1980. She and her husband now live half the year near Killaloe, Ontario, and half in San Miguel de Allende, Mexico.

Bibliography
The Many Lives & Secret Sorrows of Josephine B. — 1995
Tales of Passion, Tales of Woe — 1998
The Last Great Dance on Earth — 2000
Mistress of the Sun — 2008
The Shadow Queen — 2014

External links
 Sandra Gulland's official website
 An interview about Mistress of the Sun

1944 births
Living people
Canadian women novelists
Canadian historical novelists
Writers from Berkeley, California
Berkeley High School (Berkeley, California) alumni
American emigrants to Canada
20th-century American novelists
21st-century American novelists
American historical novelists
American women novelists
20th-century Canadian novelists
21st-century Canadian novelists
20th-century Canadian women writers
21st-century Canadian women writers
Women historical novelists
20th-century American women writers
21st-century American women writers

Sandra Gulland