Joseph Pulitzer ( ; born Pulitzer József, ; April 10, 1847 – October 29, 1911) was a Hungarian-American politician and newspaper publisher of the St. Louis Post-Dispatch and the New York World. He became a leading national figure in the Democratic Party and was elected congressman from New York.

In the 1890s the fierce competition between his World and William Randolph Hearst's New York Journal caused both to develop the techniques of yellow journalism, which won over readers with sensationalism, sex, crime and graphic horrors. The wide appeal reached a million copies a day and opened the way to mass-circulation newspapers that depended on advertising revenue (rather than cover price or political party subsidies) and appealed to readers with multiple forms of news, gossip, entertainment and advertising.

Pulitzer's name is best known for the Pulitzer Prizes established in 1917 as a result of his endowment to Columbia University. The prizes are given annually to recognize and reward excellence in American journalism, photography, literature, history, poetry, music, and drama. Pulitzer founded the Columbia School of Journalism by his philanthropic bequest; it opened in 1912.

Early life
He was born as Pulitzer József (name order by Hungarian custom) in Makó, about 200 km south-east of Budapest, the son of Elize (Berger) and Fülöp Pulitzer (born Politzer). The Pulitzers were among several Jewish families living in the area and had established a reputation as merchants and shopkeepers. Joseph's father was a respected businessman, regarded as the second of the "foremost merchants" of Makó. Their ancestors emigrated from Police in Moravia to Hungary at the end of the 18th century.

In 1853, Fülöp Pulitzer was rich enough to retire. He moved his family to Pest, where he had the children educated by private tutors, and taught French and German. In 1858, after Fülöp's death, his business went bankrupt, and the family became impoverished. Joseph attempted to enlist in various European armies for work before emigrating to the United States.

Civil War service

Pulitzer tried to join the military but was rejected by the Austrian Army, he then tried to join the French Foreign Legion to fight in Mexico but was similarly rejected, and then the British Army where he was also rejected. He was finally recruited in Hamburg, Germany, to fight for the Union in the American Civil War in August 1864. Pulitzer could not speak English when he arrived in Boston Harbor in 1864 at the age of 17, his passage having been paid by Massachusetts military recruiters. Learning that the recruiters were pocketing the lion's share of his enlistment bounty, Pulitzer left the Deer Island recruiting station and made his way to New York. He was paid $200 to enlist in the Lincoln Cavalry on September 30, 1864. He was a part of Sheridan's troopers, in the 1st New York Cavalry Regiment in Company L, joining the regiment in Virginia in November 1864, and fighting in the Appomattox Campaign, before being mustered out on June 5, 1865. Although he spoke German, Hungarian, and French, Pulitzer learned little English until after the war, as his regiment was composed mostly of German immigrants.

Early career in St. Louis
After the war, Pulitzer returned to New York City, where he stayed briefly. He moved to New Bedford, Massachusetts, for the whaling industry, but found it was too boring for him. He returned to New York with little money. Flat broke, he slept in wagons on cobblestone side streets. He decided to travel by "side-door Pullman" (a freight boxcar) to St. Louis, Missouri. He sold his one possession, a white handkerchief, for 75 cents.

When Pulitzer arrived at the city, he recalled, "The lights of St. Louis looked like a promised land to me." In the city, his German was as useful as it was in Munich because of the large ethnic German population, due to strong immigration since the revolutions of 1848. In the Westliche Post, he saw an ad for a mule hostler at Benton Barracks. The next day he walked four miles and got the job, but held it for only two days. He quit due to the poor food and the whims of the mules, stating "The man who has not cared for sixteen mules does not know what work and troubles are." Pulitzer had difficulty holding jobs; he was too scrawny for heavy labor and likely too proud and temperamental to take orders.

He worked as a waiter at Tony Faust, a famous restaurant on Fifth Street. It was frequented by members of the St. Louis Philosophical Society, including Thomas Davidson, the German Henry C. Brockmeyer; and William Torrey Harris. Pulitzer studied Brockmeyer, who was famous for translating Hegel, and he "would hang on Brockmeyer's thunderous words, even as he served them pretzels and beer." He was fired after a tray slipped from his hand and a patron was soaked in beer.

Pulitzer spent his free time at the St. Louis Mercantile Library on the corner of Fifth and Locust, studying English and reading voraciously. He made a lifelong friend there in the librarian Udo Brachvogel. He often played in the library's chess room, where Carl Schurz noticed his aggressive style. Pulitzer greatly admired the German-born Schurz, an emblem of the success attainable by a foreign-born citizen through his own energies and skills. In 1868, Pulitzer was admitted to the bar, but his broken English and odd appearance kept clients away. He struggled with the execution of minor papers and the collecting of debts. That year, when the Westliche Post needed a reporter, he was offered the job.

Soon after, he and several dozen men each paid a fast-talking promoter five dollars, after being promised good-paying jobs on a Louisiana sugar plantation. They boarded a steamboat, which took them downriver 30 miles south of the city, where the crew forced them off. When the boat churned away, the men concluded the promised plantation jobs had been a ruse. They walked back to the city, where Pulitzer wrote an account of the fraud and was pleased when it was accepted by the Westliche Post, edited by Emil Preetorius and Carl Schurz, evidently his first published news story.

On March 6, 1867, Pulitzer became a naturalized American citizen.

Entry to journalism and politics

In the Westliche Post building, Pulitzer made the acquaintance of attorneys William Patrick and Charles Phillip Johnson and surgeon Joseph Nash McDowell. Patrick and Johnson referred to Pulitzer as "Shakespeare" because of his extraordinary profile. They helped him secure a job with the Atlantic and Pacific Railroad. His work was to record the railroad land deeds in the twelve counties in southwest Missouri where the railroad planned to build a line. When he was done, the lawyers gave him desk space and allowed him to study law in their library to prepare for the bar.

Pulitzer displayed a flair for reporting. He would work 16 hours a dayfrom 10 am to 2 am. He was nicknamed "Joey the German" or "Joey the Jew". He joined the Philosophical Society and frequented a German bookstore where many intellectuals hung out. Among his new group of friends were Joseph Keppler and Thomas Davidson.

Missouri State Representative
Pulitzer joined Schurz's Republican Party. On December 14, 1869, Pulitzer attended the Republican meeting at the St. Louis Turnhalle on Tenth Street, where party leaders needed a candidate to fill a vacancy in the state legislature. After their first choice refused, they settled on Pulitzer, nominating him unanimously, forgetting he was only 22, three years under the required age. However, his chief Democratic opponent was possibly ineligible because he had served in the Confederate army. Pulitzer had energy. He organized street meetings, called personally on the voters, and exhibited such sincerity along with his oddities that he had pumped a half-amused excitement into a campaign that was normally lethargic. He won 209–147.

His age was not made an issue and he was seated as a state representative in Jefferson City at the session beginning January 5, 1870. During his time in Jefferson City, Pulitzer voted in favor of the adoption of the Fifteenth Amendment and led a crusade to reform the corrupt St. Louis County Court. His fight against the court angered Captain Edward Augustine, Superintendent of Registration for St. Louis County.

Their rivalry became so heated that on the night of January 27, Augustine confronted Pulitzer at Schmidt's Hotel and called him a "damned liar." Pulitzer left the building, returned to his room, and retrieved a four-barreled pistol. He returned to the parlor and approached Augustine, renewing the argument. When Augustine advanced on Pulitzer, the young Representative aimed his pistol at the Captain's midriff. Augustine tackled Pulitzer, and the gun fired two shots, tearing through Augustine's knee and the hotel floor. Pulitzer suffered a head wound. Contemporary accounts conflict on whether Augustine was also armed.

While in Jefferson City, Pulitzer also moved up one notch in the administration at the Westliche Post. He eventually became its managing editor, and obtained a proprietary interest.

Break from the Republican Party and Schurz

On August 31, 1870, Schurz (now a U.S. Senator), Pulitzer, and other reformist anti-Grant Republicans bolted from the state convention at the Capitol and nominated a competing Liberal Republican ticket for Missouri, led by the former Senator Benjamin Gratz Brown. Brown was successful in the November election over the mainline Republican ticket, presenting a serious threat to President Grant's re-election chances. On January 19, 1872, Brown appointed Pulitzer to the St. Louis Board of Police Commissioners.

In May 1872, Pulitzer was a delegate to the Cincinnati convention of the Liberal Republican Party, which nominated New York Tribune editor Horace Greeley for the presidency with Gratz Brown as his running mate. Pulitzer and Schurz were expected to boost Governor Brown for the presidential nomination, but Schurz preferred the more idealistic Charles Francis Adams Sr. A loyal Brown man alerted the Governor of this betrayal, and Governor Brown and his cousin Francis Preston Blair sped to Cincinnati to rally their supporters to Greeley.

While in Cincinnati, he met fellow reformist newspapermen Samuel Bowles, Murat Halstead, Horace White, and Alexander McClure. He also met Greeley's assistant and campaign manager Whitelaw Reid, who would become Pulitzer's journalistic adversary. However, Greeley's campaign was ultimately a disaster, and the new party collapsed, leaving Schurz and Pulitzer politically homeless.

In 1874, Pulitzer promoted a reform movement christened the People's Party, which united the Grange with dissident Republicans. However, Pulitzer was disappointed with the party's tepid stances on the issues and mediocre ticket, led by gentleman farmer William Gentry. He returned to St. Louis and endorsed the Democratic ticket. Pulitzer's own views were in line with Democratic orthodoxy on low tariffs, and limited federal powers; his prior opposition to the Democrats was out of disgust for slavery and the Confederate rebellion. Pulitzer campaigned for the Democratic ticket throughout the state and published a damaging rumor (leaked by future Senator George Vest) that Gentry had sold a slave.

He also served as a delegate to the 1874 Missouri Constitutional Convention representing St. Louis, arguing successfully for true home rule for the city.

In 1876, Pulitzer, by now completely disillusioned with the corruption of the Republicans and their nomination of Rutherford B. Hayes, gave nearly 70 speeches in favor of Democratic candidate Samuel J. Tilden throughout the country; Schurz, who saw Hayes as a reformer with integrity, returned to the Republican fold. In his speeches, Pulitzer denounced Schurz and urged reconciliation between North and South. While on his speaking tour, Pulitzer also wrote dispatches to the New York Sun on behalf of the Samuel Tilden 1876 presidential campaign. After Tilden's narrow defeat under dubious circumstances, Pulitzer became disillusioned with his candidate's indecision and timid response; he would oppose Tilden's 1880 run for the Democratic nomination. For now, he returned to St. Louis to practice law and search for future opportunities in news.

St. Louis Post-Dispatch
On his thirtieth birthday, Pulitzer's home at the Southern Hotel burned to the ground, likely destroying most of his personal belongings and papers.

On December 9, 1878, Pulitzer bought the moribund St. Louis Dispatch and merged it with John Dillon's St. Louis Post, forming the St. Louis Post and Dispatch (soon renamed the Post-Dispatch) on December 12. With his own paper, Pulitzer developed his role as a champion of the common man, featuring exposés and a hard-hitting populist approach. The paper was considered a leader in the field of sensational journalism.

The circulation of the Post-Dispatch steadily rose during Pulitzer's early tenure (aided by the collapse of the city's other daily English-language paper, the Star). At the time of merger, the Post and Dispatch had a combined circulation of under 4,000. By the end of 1879, circulation was up to 4,984 and Pulitzer doubled the size of the paper to eight pages. By the end of 1880, circulation was up to 8,740. Circulation rose dramatically to 12,000 by March 1881 and to 22,300 by September 1882. Pulitzer bought two new presses and increased staff pay to the highest in the city, though he also crushed an attempt to unionize.

Political activism
Pulitzer's primary political rival at this time was Bourbon Democrat William Hyde, publisher of the (misleadingly named) Missouri Republican. Pulitzer's much smaller paper won a series of early political skirmishes over Hyde. First, George Vest was elected to the Senate in 1879 with Pulitzer's backing over Bourbon Samuel Glover. Next, Pulitzer secured election for an anti-Tilden delegation (including himself) to the 1880 Democratic National Convention, over Hyde's objection. Though Pulitzer could not convince Horatio Seymour, his preferred candidate, to run, the Democrats did not renominate Tilden. In March 1880, the two men even came to physical blows on Olive Street but were separated by a crowd before either was injured.

In 1880, Pulitzer made a second run for public office, this time for United States Representative from Missouri's second district. However, he was resoundingly defeated for the Democratic nomination (tantamount to victory in heavily Democratic St. Louis) by Bourbon Thomas Allen, 4,254 to 709.

Killing of Alonzo Slayback

When Thomas Allen died during his first term, Pulitzer's Post-Dispatch strongly opposed the Republican endorsed candidate, James Broadhead, an attorney working for Jay Gould. The election became heated, and Post-Dispatch managing editor John Cockerill called Broadhead's law partner Alonzo Slayback a "coward." Slayback entered the Post-Dispatch offices on October 13, armed with a gun, and threatened Cockerill; Cockerill shot him dead. The story became a national sensation and turned many conservative Democrats vehemently against Pulitzer and the Post-Dispatch. After a grand jury inquest, Cockerill was never put on trial. Pulitzer replaced him with John Dillon, former owner of the Post and unlike Pulitzer and Cockerill, a well-respected, conservative native of the city. However, the incident permanently damaged Pulitzer's reputation in the city, and he began to seek opportunities elsewhere.

New York World

In April 1883, the Pulitzer family traveled to New York, ostensibly to start a European vacation, but actually so that Joseph could make an offer to Jay Gould for ownership of the morning New York World. Gould had acquired the newspaper as a throw-in in one of his railroad deals, and it had been losing about $40,000 a year, possibly due to the stigma Gould's ownership brought. In return for the paper, Gould asked Pulitzer for a sum well over a half-million dollars, as well as the retention of the World's staff and building. After some frustration at this demand and disagreement with his brother Albert, Pulitzer was prepared to give up. At the urging of his wife Kate, however, he returned to negotiations with Gould. They agreed to a sale of $346,000 with Pulitzer retaining full freedom in the selection of staff.

The Pulitzers moved to New York full time, leasing a home in Gramercy Park. The World immediately gained 6,000 readers in its first two weeks under Pulitzer and had more than doubled its circulation to 39,000 within three months.

As he had in St. Louis, Pulitzer emphasized sensational stories: human-interest, crime, disasters, and scandal. Under Pulitzer's leadership, circulation grew from 15,000 to 600,000, making the World the largest newspaper in the country. Pulitzer emphasized broad appeal through short, provocative headlines and sentences; the World's self-described style was "brief, breezy and briggity." His World featured illustrations, advertising, and a culture of consumption for working men. Crusades for reform and entertainment news were two main staples for the World.

In 1887, he recruited the famous investigative journalist Nellie Bly.

Pulitzer also constructed the New York World Building, designed by George B. Post and completed in 1890. Pulitzer dictated several aspects of the design, including the building's triple-height main entrance arch, dome, and rounded corner at Park Row and Frankfort Street.

In 1895, the World introduced the immensely popular The Yellow Kid comic by Richard F. Outcault, one of the first strips to be featured in the newly launched Sunday color supplement shortly after.

After the World exposed an illegal payment of $40,000,000 by the United States to the French Panama Canal Company in 1909, Pulitzer was indicted for libeling Theodore Roosevelt and J. P. Morgan. The courts dismissed the indictments.

Newspaper writer and editor of The San Francisco Call, John McNaught went to New York to work under Pulitzer as his personal secretary from 1907 to 1912. When McNaught left The Evening World, he became editor of the New York World, through 1915.

Early political activism
When Pulitzer purchased the World, New York City, though overwhelmingly Democratic, did not have a major Democratic newspaper. The Tribune (under Whitelaw Reid) and Times were ardently Republican and the Sun (under Charles Dana) and Herald were independent In the first issue under his ownership, Pulitzer announced the paper would be "dedicated to the cause of the people rather than that of purse-potentates."

In 1884, he joined the Manhattan Club, a group of wealthy Democrats including Tilden, Abram Hewitt, and William C. Whitney. Through the World, he supported the campaign of New York Governor Grover Cleveland for president. Pulitzer's campaign for Cleveland and against Republican James G. Blaine may have been pivotal in securing the presidency for Cleveland, who won New York's decisive votes by just 0.1%. The campaign also boosted the World circulation dramatically; by Election Day, it averaged about 110,000 copies per day and its Election Day special ran 223,680 copies.

Pulitzer also attacked young Republican Assemblyman Theodore Roosevelt as a "reform fraud," beginning a long and heated rivalry with the future President.

United States House of Representatives
In 1884, Pulitzer was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives from New York's ninth district as a Democrat and entered office on March 4, 1885.

Though inundated with office-seekers hoping for appointment by President-elect Cleveland, Pulitzer recommended only the appointments of Charles Gibson for Minister to Berlin and Pallen as consul general in London. But Pulitzer did not secure a meeting with the President-elect, and neither man was appointed.

During his term in office, Pulitzer led a crusade to place the newly gifted Statue of Liberty in New York City. He was a member of the Committee on Commerce.

During his time in Washington, Pulitzer lived at the luxurious hostel run by John Chamberlin at the corner of 15th and I Streets. However, Pulitzer soon determined that his position at the World was both more powerful and more enjoyable than Congress. He began to spend less and less time in Washington, and ultimately resigned on April 10, 1886, after little over a year in office.

Rivalry with William Randolph Hearst
In 1895, William Randolph Hearst purchased the rival New York Journal, which at one time had been owned by Pulitzer's brother, Albert. Hearst had once been a great admirer of Pulitzer's World. The two embarked on a circulation war. This competition with Hearst, particularly the coverage before and during the Spanish–American War, linked Pulitzer's name with yellow journalism.

Pulitzer and Hearst were also the cause of the newsboys' strike of 1899, a youth-led campaign to force change in the way that Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst's newspapers compensated their child newspaper hawkers.

Other rivals
Charles A. Dana, the editor of the rival New York Sun and personal enemy of Grover Cleveland, became estranged from Pulitzer during the 1884 campaign. Dana's Sun endorsed Greenback nominee Benjamin Butler, a major blow in swing state New York. He attacked Pulitzer in print, often calling him "Judas Pulitzer." After Cleveland's victory, the Sun's circulation had been halved and the World replaced it as the largest Democratic paper in the country.

Leander Richardson, a former employee who left the World to run The Journalist, was even more directly antisemitic, referring to his former boss only as "Jewseph Pulitzer."

Whitelaw Reid frequently sparred with Pulitzer, both in person and in their respective papers.

Declining health and resignation
Pulitzer's health problems (blindness, depression, and acute noise sensitivity) caused a rapid deterioration, and he had to withdraw from the daily management of the newspaper. He continued to manage the paper from his New York mansion, his winter retreat at the Jekyll Island Club on Jekyll Island, Georgia, and his summer vacation retreat in Bar Harbor, Maine.

After he hired Frank I. Cobb (1869–1923) in 1904 as the editor of the New York World, the younger man resisted Pulitzer's attempts to "run the office" from his home. Time after time, they battled each other, often with heated language.

When Pulitzer's son took over administrative responsibility in 1907, Pulitzer wrote a carefully worded resignation. It was printed in every New York paper except the World. Pulitzer was insulted but slowly began to respect Cobb's editorials and independent spirit. Their exchanges, commentaries, and messages increased. The good rapport between the two was based largely on Cobb's flexibility. In May 1908, Cobb and Pulitzer met to outline plans for a consistent editorial policy but it wavered on occasion.

Pulitzer's demands for editorials on contemporary breaking news led to overwork by Cobb. Pulitzer sent him on a six-week tour of Europe to restore his spirit. Cobb continued the editorial policies he had shared with Pulitzer until Cobb died of cancer in 1923.

In a company meeting, Professor Thomas Davidson said, "I cannot understand why it is, Mr. Pulitzer, that you always speak so kindly of reporters and so severely of all editors." "Well", Pulitzer replied, "I suppose it is because every reporter is a hope, and every editor is a disappointment." This phrase became an epigram of journalism.

Marriage and family
In 1878 at the age of 31, Pulitzer married Katherine "Kate" Davis (1853–1927), a woman of high social standing from Georgetown, District of Columbia. She was five years younger than Pulitzer, from an Episcopal family, and rumored to be a distant relative of Jefferson Davis. They married in an Episcopal ceremony at the Church of the Epiphany in Washington, D.C. He did not reveal his Jewish heritage to Katherine or her family until after their marriage, to her shock.

Of seven children, five lived to adulthood: Ralph, Joseph Jr. (father of Joseph Pulitzer III), Constance Helen (1888–1938), who married William Gray Elmslie, D.D. Edith (1886–1975), who married William Scoville Moore, and Herbert, eventually his brother Ralph's partner at the Post. Their daughter, Katherine Ethel Pulitzer, died of pneumonia in May 1884 at age 2. On December 31, 1897, their older daughter, Lucille Irma Pulitzer, died at the age of 17 from typhoid fever. An Irish immigrant named Mary Boyle largely raised the children while their parents were busy.

Pulitzer's grandson, Herbert Pulitzer, Jr. was married to the American fashion designer and socialite Lilly Pulitzer.

Following a fire at his former residence, Pulitzer commissioned Stanford White to design a limestone-clad Venetian palazzo at 11 East 73rd Street on the Upper East Side; it was completed in 1903. Pulitzer's thoughtful seated portrait by John Singer Sargent is at the Columbia School of Journalism that he endowed.

The family continued to be involved in the operation of the Post-Dispatch and other newspapers under the Pulitzer Publishing Company until selling them to Lee Enterprises in 2005. The Pulitzer group also comprised television stations, which would ironically be sold to Hearst Communications, owned by the descendants of William Randolph Hearst.

Death
For six months during 1908, Pulitzer was attended to by his personal physician C. Louis Leipoldt aboard his yacht Liberty. While traveling to his winter home at the Jekyll Island Club on Jekyll Island, Georgia, in 1911, Pulitzer had his yacht stop in Charleston Harbor, South Carolina. On October 29, 1911, Pulitzer listened to his German secretary read aloud about King Louis XI of France. As the secretary neared the end, Pulitzer said in German: "Leise, ganz leise" (English: "Softly, quite softly"), and died. His body was returned to New York for services and interred in the Woodlawn Cemetery in The Bronx.

Legacy

Journalism schools
In 1892, Pulitzer offered Columbia University's president, Seth Low, money to set up the world's first school of journalism. The university initially turned down the money. In 1902, Columbia's new president Nicholas Murray Butler was more receptive to the plan for a school and journalism prizes, but it would not be until after Pulitzer's death that this dream would be fulfilled.

Pulitzer left the university $2,000,000 in his will. In 1912, the school founded the Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism. This followed the Missouri School of Journalism, founded at the University of Missouri with Pulitzer's urging. Both schools remain among the most prestigious in the world.

Pulitzer Prize
In 1917, Columbia organized the awards of the first Pulitzer Prizes in journalism. The awards have been expanded to recognize achievements in literature, poetry, history, music, and drama.

Legacy and honors
 The U.S. Post Office issued a 3-cent stamp commemorating Joseph Pulitzer in 1947, the 100th anniversary of his birth.
 The Pulitzer Arts Foundation in Saint Louis was founded by his family's philanthropy and is named in their honor.
 In 1989 Joseph Pulitzer was inducted into the St. Louis Walk of Fame.
 He is featured as a character in the Disney film Newsies (1992), in which he was played by Robert Duvall, and the Broadway stage production (Newsies) adapted from it which was produced in 2011.
 In the 2014 historical novel, The New Colossus, by Marshall Goldberg, published by Diversion Books, Joseph Pulitzer gives reporter Nellie Bly the assignment of investigating the death of poet Emma Lazarus.
 The Hotel Pulitzer in Amsterdam was named after his grandson Herbert Pulitzer.
 Mount Pulitzer in Washington state is named for him.

See also

 Joseph Pulitzer House
 Place des États-Unis
 Pulitzer Arts Foundation
 List of Jewish members of the United States Congress

Notes

References

 Sources

 Ireland, Alleyne. Joseph Pulitzer: Reminiscences of a Secretary (1914)

 Morris, James McGrath. "The Political Education of Joseph Pulitzer," Missouri Historical Review, Jan 2010, Vol. 104 Issue 2, pp. 78–94
  Retrieved on 2008-11-06

 Rammelkamp, Julian S.  Pulitzer's Post-Dispatch 1878–1883 (1967)

External links

 Original New York World articles at Nellie Bly Online
 NY Times – Harper's Weekly political cartoon American Editors. II. – Joseph Pulitzer; includes in-depth biographical information
 Lambiek Comiclopedia article.

1847 births
1911 deaths
People from Makó
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Jewish members of the United States House of Representatives
Columbia University people
19th-century American newspaper publishers (people)
19th-century Hungarian people
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Members of the Missouri House of Representatives
Politicians from St. Louis
People of New York (state) in the American Civil War
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Joseph
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Union Army soldiers
Burials at Woodlawn Cemetery (Bronx, New York)
Statue of Liberty
19th-century American politicians
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Joseph Pulitzer


This is a list of minor warships of World War II. It contains minor combat vessels that are generally under 1,000 t standard displacement, and includes fast attack craft, submarine chasers, gunboats, missile boats, torpedo boats and patrol boats. It also contains similar vessels, over 1,000 t, such as patrol vessels or patrol ships.

The List of ships of the World War II contains military vessels of the war, arranged alphabetically and by type. The list includes armed vessels that served during the war and in the immediate aftermath, inclusive of localized ongoing combat operations, garrison surrenders, post-surrender occupation, colony re-occupation, troop  and prisoner repatriation, to the end of 1945. For smaller vessels, see also List of World War II ships of less than 1000 tons. Some uncompleted Axis ships are included, out of historic interest. Ships are designated to the country under which they operated for the longest period of the World War II, regardless of where they were built or previous service history.

See also
 List of major World War II warships built by minor powers

References

Bibliography

World War II naval ships
Minor warships

List of minor warships of World War II


The Custody of the Holy Land (Latin: Custodia Terræ Sanctæ) is a custodian priory of the Order of Friars Minor in Jerusalem, founded as the Province of the Holy Land in 1217 by Saint Francis of Assisi, who had also founded the Franciscan Order in 1209. In 1342, the Franciscans were declared by two papal bulls as the official custodians of the Holy Places in the name of the Catholic Church.

The Custody headquarters are located in the Monastery of Saint Saviour, a 16th-century Franciscan monastery near the New Gate in the Old City of Jerusalem. The office can bestow—only to those entering its office—the Jerusalem Pilgrim's Cross upon deserving Catholic visitors to the city.

The Franciscans trace their presence in the Holy Land to 1217. By 1229, the friars had a small house near the fifth station of the Via Dolorosa and in 1272 were permitted to settle in the Cenacle on Mount Zion. In 1309 they also settled in Bethlehem and the Holy Sepulchre along with the Canons Regular.

After the final fall of the second Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem in 1291, the title of Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem was vested in the Custody ex officio in Rome, while resuming its activities in the Holy Land, including surveilling the accolades of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre 1342–1489 until its Grand Magistry was vested in the papacy. Following the restoration of the Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem as residential episcopal see in 1847, the Patriarch henceforth additionally assumed the position of the order's ecclesiastical superior, eventually supplanting the Custody of the Holy land as Grand Prior of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre.

The Custody of the Holy Land has repeatedly expressed concern about the survival of the Christians in the Holy Land, including the strained situation for Christians in the rest of the Middle East. Between 2004 and 2016, the Custodial Curia was led by Custos Fr. Pierbattista Pizzaballa. Since 2016, the chief custodian has been .

Mission
The mission of the Custody of the Holy Land is to guard "the grace of the Holy Places" of the Holy Land and the rest of the Middle East, "sanctified by the presence of Jesus", as well as pilgrims visiting them, on behalf of the Catholic Church.

History

An online history, The Franciscan Presence in the Holy Land, has been prepared by the Custodian Emeritus (later Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem), Pierbattista Pizzaballa, OFM.

The Franciscan presence in the Holy Land started in 1217, when the province of Syria was established, with Frater (Brother) Elias of Cortona as Minister. By 1229, the friars had a small house near the fifth station of the Via Dolorosa. In 1272 the Sultan Baibars of Egypt permitted the Franciscans to settle in the Cenacle (also called the Upper Room) on Mount Sion. Later on, in 1309, they also settled in Bethlehem and in the Holy Sepulchre, along with the Canons Regular.

During the difficult years of the Great War, many friars belonging to the enemy nations fighting against the Ottomans and Germans were deported. In 1917, when the Italian friars were just about to be sent away, reprieve came in the last minute, which was attributed to the triduum celebrated that year in honour of St Anthony of Padua, a saint venerated for his miracles. Consequently, in 1920, St Anthony was chosen as the patron saint of the Custody.

In 1333, Robert d'Anjou, King of Naples, and his wife, Sancia of Majorca, bought the Cenacle from the Sultan of Egypt and gave it to the Franciscans. In 1342, Pope Clement VI, by the Papal bulls Gratiam agimus and Nuper charissimae declared the Franciscans as the official custodians of the Holy Places in the name of the Catholic Church. A portion reads:

A short time ago good news from the king and queen reached our Apostolic See relating that, at great cost and following difficult negotiations, they had obtained a concession from the Sultan of Babylon [that is, Cairo], who to the intense shame of Christians occupies the Holy Sepulchre of the Lord and the other Holy Places beyond the sea that were sanctified by the blood of this same Redeemer, to wit that friars of your Order may reside continuously in the church known as the Sepulchre and celebrate there Solemn Sung Masses and the Divine Office in the manner of the several friars of this Order who are already present in this place; moreover, this same Sultan has also conceded to the King and Queen the Cenacle of the Lord, the chapel where the Holy Spirit was manifested to the Apostles and the other chapel in which Christ appeared to the Apostles after his resurrection, in the presence of Blessed Thomas; and also the news of how the Queen built a convent on Mount Zion where, as is known, the Cenacle and the said chapels are located; where for some time she has had the intention of supporting twelve friars of your Order to assure the divine Liturgy in the church of the Holy Sepulchre, along with three laymen charged with serving the friars and seeing to their needs.

The Custodian was described as the "Guardian of Mount Zion in Jerusalem". Between 1342 and 1489, the Custodian was the head of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre and held the ex officio title of Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem. From 1374, he was based at the Basilica di San Lorenzo fuori le Mura in Rome.

In 1489, Pope Innocent VIII suppressed the Order of the Holy Sepulchre and ruled that it was to be merged with the Knights Hospitaller. In 1496, Pope Alexander VI, restored the Order of Holy Sepulchre to independent status, but the Custodian ceased to be the head of the Order. Instead, a Grand Master of the Order was created, and the office vested in the papacy. The Custodian continued to act as the Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem ex officio until 1830, and by being appointed to both offices until 1905. The office of Grand Master remained vested in the papacy until 1949. On 29 August 2011, Archbishop Edwin Frederick O'Brien was appointed by Pope Benedict XVI Grand Master to succeed Cardinal John Patrick Foley, who resigned the office on 24 February 2011 due to ill health. The Order is a member of many international bodies and has observer status at others (such as the United Nations). The Grand Master is a papal viceroy who assists Vatican diplomacy with procedural support for making motions, proposing amendments and requiring votes in the sphere of international diplomacy.

Franciscan friars cared for the Cenacle, restoring also the building with Gothic vaults, until the Ottoman Empire captured Jerusalem and banished all Christians. After the Franciscan friars' eviction, the Cenacle was transformed into a mosque. Christians were not allowed to use the room for prayer until the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948.

In 1623, the Latin Province of the Holy Land was split into a number of smaller entities, called Custodies – creating Custodies of Cyprus, Syria, and the Holy Land proper. The Custody of the Holy Land included the monasteries of Saint-Jean-d'Acre, Antioch, Sidon, Tyre, Jerusalem and Jaffa.

In 1847, a resident Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem was restored in the Holy Land, together with the Order of the Holy Sepulchre. The Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem became the ecclesiastical superior of the Order, and eventually assumed the title Grand Prior, supplanting the Custodian. The office of Grand Master still remained vested in the papacy.

In 1937, Alberto Gori was appointed Custodian of the Holy Land, an office he would occupy until 1949, when he was appointed Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem, an office he held until 1970. In Gori's reports to the Vatican in the 1940s, he was critical of Jewish and later Israeli forces, whom he accused of destruction of holy places. Despite repeated Israeli assurances that Israel will guarantee freedom of religion and safeguard the Holy Places of all religions, Pope Pius XII issued several encyclicals expressing concerns about the holy places as well as access. In 1949, at the time of appointing Gori to the office of Latin Patriarch, Pius XII also relinquished the title of Grand Master.

Organisation

On 15 May 2004, Fr. Pierbattista Pizzaballa was appointed Custodian of the Holy Land, succeeding Giovanni Battistelli, who held the office for six years. On Friday, 28 June 2013, Pope Francis confirmed that he would continue as Custodian for at least a further three years. Pierbattista Pizzaballa was born in Cologno al Serio, Italy, on 21 April 1965. He was ordained a priest in September 1990. Since 2016, the chief custodian has been Francesco Patton.

The Custodian of the Holy Land, also called the International Custodian of the Holy Land, is appointed by the General Definitorium of the Order of Friars Minor (OFM) of the Franciscans and approved by the Pope and the Holy See.

The Custodian has the role of Minister Provincial (i.e. major superior) of the Franciscans living in Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, parts of Egypt, Cyprus and Rhodes. The Custody has about 300 friars and about 100 sisters in these countries. The Franciscans serve the principal Christian shrines, including the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, Basilica of the Nativity in Bethlehem and the Basilica of the Annunciation in Nazareth.

During the later Middle Ages and early modern times the Custody was official provider of hospitality for Latin pilgrims to the Holy Land, i.e. Westerners be they Catholic or Protestant. Such facilities existed primarily at Jaffa and in Jerusalem

Properties in the Holy Land

The Franciscan order owns a great deal of property in the Holy Land, second only to the Orthodox Church of Jerusalem. In addition to the major shrines of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem and the Basilica of the Nativity in Bethlehem, which the Franciscans own and administer in common with the Jerusalem Orthodox and Armenian Orthodox patriarchates, the Custodian also cares for 74 shrines and sanctuaries throughout the Holy Land, including properties in Syria and Jordan.

In 1909, in the territory of the Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem, re-instituted in 1847, the Franciscans had 24 convents and 15 parishes, including numerous schools.

The Custodian's offices are at the Monastery of St Saviour, a 16th-century Franciscan monastery near New Gate in the Old City of Jerusalem.

Activities

Education
Schools founded by the Franciscan friars include Terra Santa College in Nicosia, Cyprus and
Magnificat Institute in Jerusalem.

Media centre
The Custody has a communications department in charge of the official media in the Holy Land, which is based at the Terra Sancta College in Jerusalem and includes a multimedia centre broadcasting news programmes in different languages, and the editorial office of the Christian Media Center and of the French-language Terre Sainte Magazine.

Current issues
Fr. Pizzaballa expressed concern view that many Christians were leaving the region, especially the Christians of the Palestinian Territories, and that housing assistance was being offered to discourage emigration. He attributed the exodus to lack of prospects for the future and the political situation.

In 2011, the Catholic News Service (CNS) website aired an interview on Vatican Radio in which Father Pizzaballa alluded to the tense situation for Christians in Syria and Egypt.

List of Sanctuaries
The order manages 50-55 "sanctuaries" across the region. Most of these churches were built in the 19th and 20th centuries, and a significant number were designed by Antonio Barluzzi.

List of Custodians

13th century
 1217 – Elia da Cortona

14th century

15th century

16th century

17th century

18th century

19th century

20th century

21st century

See also
 Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem
 Catholic Church in Palestine
 Catholic Church in Israel
 Palestinian Christians
 Holy See–Israel relations
 Order of the Holy Sepulchre
 Brotherhood of the Holy Sepulchre
 ATS Association of the Holy Land

References

Further reading
 Masha Halevi, Between Faith and Science: Franciscan Archaeology in the Service of the Holy Places, Middle Eastern Studies, Volume 48, Issue 2, 2012, pp. 249–267

External links
 Official website of the Custody of the Holy Land

Custody of the Holy Land


John McEntee Bowman (1875 – October 28, 1931) was a Canadian-born businessman, American hotelier and horseman, and the founding president of Bowman-Biltmore Hotels Corp.

Biography
Born in Toronto, Ontario, Bowman began his American working life in a men's clothing store in Yonkers, New York, but learned the hotel business at New York City's Holland House Hotel. When the owner died in 1913, Bowman bought his new Biltmore hotel from his estate and built it into a chain of one of the most recognized hotel names in the world. Bowman was responsible for the building of the Westchester Country Club in Rye, New York
, and counted the Coral Gables Biltmore Hotel in Coral Gables, Florida, the Millennium Biltmore Hotel in Los Angeles, California, the New York Biltmore Hotel in New York City and the Sevilla-Biltmore Hotel in Havana, Cuba, as part of his extensive hotel holdings.

A horse lover and Thoroughbred racing enthusiast, Bowman was president of the United Hunts Racing Association and the National Horse Show and for a time served as the president of the Havana-American Jockey Club that operated the Oriental Park Racetrack in Marianao, Cuba.

Bowman died in Manhattan, New York, at the age of 56, after an operation to remove gallstones.

References

External links

1875 births
1931 deaths
American hoteliers
Bowman-Biltmore Hotels
American horse racing industry executives
People from Old Toronto
Canadian emigrants to the United States

John McEntee Bowman


Ruins is a two-issue comic book miniseries, written by Warren Ellis with painted artwork by Terese Nielsen, her husband Cliff Nielsen, and Chris Moeller, who took over for the last 17 pages of the second issue.

The series, conceived by Ellis as a parody of the Marvels series by Kurt Busiek and Alex Ross, is set in a dystopian version of the Marvel Universe. Like Marvels, the comic features reporter Phil Sheldon as the main character and was published in prestige format, with fully painted artwork and acetate covers, further creating the impression that it is a more twisted companion piece.

In the Marvel Multiverse, the Earth of the Ruins universe is listed as Earth-9591.

Plot

Issue #1
Former Daily Bugle reporter Phil Sheldon explores a dystopian version of the Marvel Universe where in his own words "everything that can go wrong  go wrong." In this world, the myriad experiments and accidents which led to the creation of superheroes on Earth-616 have instead here resulted in horrible deformities and painful deaths. Sheldon tours the country, investigating the aftermath of these events and researching a book about the strange phenomena in order to prove that the world has taken a wrong turn somewhere.

In this reality, the Avengers were a radical secessionist rebel group from California rebelling against an oppressive United States government led by 'President X'. Sheldon witnesses the destruction of the last Avengers Quinjet with a Patriot missile, killing Captain America, Ant-Man, the Wasp, and Iron Man. He encounters a decaying Wolverine, whose flesh is slowly falling off due to the toxicity of his adamantium bone structure. Sheldon proceeds to a Kree internment camp in Nevada, situated on a nuclear test site, where the last survivors of a Kree invasion fleet are slowly dying of cancer. Sheldon interviews Captain Mar-Vell, one of the Kree prisoners, who tells him why their invasion failed: the Kree had encountered the Silver Surfer (who had gone mad and torn open his own chest in a futile attempt to experience respiration again) only to discover that the Power Cosmic emanating from the Surfer's body had disabled their cloaking devices and interfered with their scanners, allowing humanity to detect their ships and preventing the Kree fleet from detecting a nuclear barrage which subsequently destroyed ninety percent of their warships. After his interview with Mar-Vell, Sheldon goes to Washington, D.C. where he meets government agent Nick Fury, who attacks and almost shoots him, insisting that he 'proved he was clean' and claiming that Captain America introduced him to cannibalism. They are interrupted by Jean Grey, a prostitute, who offers herself to the two men for $20. Fury murders her on the spot before shooting himself. After his encounter with Fury, Sheldon visits Chicago, Illinois and interviews Rick Jones, a morphine addict living with fellow addict Marlo Chandler, who tells the story of when Bruce Banner saved him from a gamma radiation blast—the blast transformed Banner into a monstrous green mass of pulsating tumors. Leaving the apartment, Sheldon trips over the corpse of the Punisher in the snow. Sheldon begs on his knees to be allowed to show the world how this state of affairs came to pass.

Issue #2
Sheldon is seated on a plane next to Raven Darkhölme, who has developed dissociative identity disorder from assuming too many different identities through her shapeshifting abilities. Having neglected to take her prescribed pills, she begins shapeshifting uncontrollably and dies. When the plane lands, government agents take her body away while a protest against President X's government is underway. An agent bumps into a hippie named Max Eisenhardt, damaging a magnetic dampening device that he carries to nullify his powers, which causes all metal objects nearby to attach to him, killing him and several others and inflicting massive damage to the airport and plane. Later, Sheldon visits a special prison in Texas run by Wilson Fisk which houses many mutants. Scott Summers was blinded in order to control his eye beams, Katherine Pryde died after attempting to phase through the bars of her cell only to become stuck, Kurt Wagner is self-cannibalizing, and Pietro Maximoff has had all four of his limbs amputated to prevent him from using his super speed powers. Fisk informs Sheldon that the only reason he was allowed to see the prison is because President X knows he is dying and wants to grant a dying man his wish. Sheldon visits a carnival where Johnny Blaze performs and commits suicide by setting his face on fire. Sheldon interviews Ben Grimm, who describes the painful deaths of this world's counterparts of the Fantastic Four and Victor von Doom when their spaceship flew through a cloud of cosmic radiation: Grimm had refused to pilot the ship due to safety concerns, so Reed Richards hired von Doom instead. Sheldon decides to begin writing his book, which he will title Marvels. However, he discovers that he has run out of the medication he has been taking; he has been infected with a virus passed on to him by his former Daily Bugle co-worker Peter Parker, caused by an irradiated spider that Parker experimented on that resulted in a highly infectious rash developing over his entire body. The virus kills Sheldon, and he is ignored by passerby as his notes scatter in the wind.

Fates of other characters
Throughout the story, there are breaks within scenes that briefly describe the lives of other would-be Marvels; such as a version of Dr. Donald Blake, a cult leader who believes he can channel the entity Thor through his body after becoming addicted to fly-agaric mushrooms. Thor's hammer is seen to be recovered at the site of the destroyed Quinjet at the start, hinting that the two are possibly different people. Warren Worthington III serves President X in exchange for keeping his mutant nature a secret. Bucky Barnes, Jack Munroe, and Victor Creed are part of a fascist cannibalistic militia from Oklahoma. Matt Murdock died as a child after a crashing truck caused radioactive material to strike him in the face. Doctor Strange, a founding member of the Avengers, is missing. Beaubier twins Jeanne-Marie and Jean-Paul are homeless and fused together by their elbows; Jeanne-Marie is unaware that her brother is dead. Amora is a porn star accused of killing her producer with "magic". Emma Frost owns the Church of the Next Generation, where she legally adopts the children of her followers and has them undergo surgery to unlock their "psychic abilities". Zelda DuBois is a circus performer who performs illegal acts with a python. Hawkeye is executed due to being a member of the Avengers. T'Challa is imprisoned due to his affiliation with the Black Panther Party. The Scarlet Witch (a former member of the Avengers) is the one who betrays the Avengers for government protection after turning in state's evidence against the team. Galactus, who is thought to have been a god by the media, is found dead with his floating corpse being identified near Mars.

Collected editions
In 2009, the series was collected into a single volume.

Notes

References

External links
Ruins at the Marvel Database Project
Warren Ellis' not so Mighty World Of Marvel, Forbidden Planet International Blog Log, May 27, 2009

Cannibalism in fiction
Marvel Comics dimensions
Dystopian comics
Satirical comics

Ruins (comics)


Pigeon Forge is a mountain resort city in Sevier County, Tennessee, United States. As of the 2020 census, the city had a total population of 6,343. Situated just 5 miles (8 km) north of Great Smoky Mountains National Park, Pigeon Forge is a tourist destination that caters primarily to Southern culture and country music fans. The city's attractions include Dollywood and Dollywood's Splash Country as well as numerous gift shops, outlet malls, amusement rides, and musical theaters.

History

Early history

The name "Pigeon Forge" comes from an iron forge built by Isaac Love (1783–1854) some time around 1820. The name of this forge referred to its location along the Little Pigeon River, in the vicinity of what is now the Old Mill. The name of the river comes from the flocks of passenger pigeons that frequented its banks at the time of the first Euro-American settlers' arrival.

For centuries, the Cherokee used the valley where Pigeon Forge is now located as a hunting ground. A Cherokee footpath known as "Indian Gap Trail" crossed the Great Smokies from North Carolina and passed through the Pigeon Forge valley en route to its junction with Great Indian Warpath in modern Sevierville. (US-441 closely parallels this ancient trail, although it crests the mountains at Newfound Gap rather than Indian Gap). From Sevierville, Great Indian Warpath headed west toward the Overhill Cherokee towns along the Little Tennessee River.

18th century
Indian Gap Trail brought the first Europeans to the Pigeon Forge area in the early 18th century. Along with hunters and trappers from North Carolina, traders from Virginia passed through the valley before 1750. Some time after 1783, Colonel Samuel Wear became one of the first permanent white settlers in the Pigeon Forge area. A veteran of the American Revolution, Wear erected a stockade near the confluence of Walden Creek and Little Pigeon River (now Pigeon Forge City Park) in 1792. This "fort" provided a safe stopover for early pioneers in the Sevier County area. Wear later served as a member of the committee that drafted Tennessee's state constitution.

In 1785, Cherokee signed the Treaty of Dumplin Creek, ceding much of what is now Sevier County to the United States. Among the first to take advantage of this was Robert Shields (1740–1802), who received a survey for a tract of land in the Pigeon Forge area from the Watauga Land Office in 1786. Shields, who was also a veteran of the Revolution, established a small fort along Middle Creek near what is now Dollywood. Shields' son later wrote that the fort was  long and  wide, with  walls constructed with "heavy logs." The fort contained living quarters for six families, with a common kitchen at one end and a common living room at the other. As his family grew, Shields constructed separate houses for his children, one of which was purchased by Horatio Butler in 1797 and remained with his descendants until it was torn down in 1994.

Although the Shields Fort was too far from the main Cherokee trails to ever experience a serious assault, the Wear Fort straddled Indian Gap Trail, making it a target for small bands of Cherokee warriors. After the Cherokee attacked his fort in 1793, a frustrated Wear led a band of 60 frontiersmen across the northwestern Smokies into the Overhill Cherokee region, where they attacked and destroyed the town of Tallassee (near modern-day Calderwood Dam), killing at least 15 Cherokees and capturing several others. In 1794, the Cherokee fired on Wear and his two sons just outside Calvin's Blockhouse (near Maryville), but they both escaped unharmed.

Although treaties negotiated at Tellico Blockhouse in 1794 and 1798 brought calm to the region, sporadic fighting between Cherokees and the settlers continued. One notable incident occurred in 1802, when Tavenor Runyan (1787–1802), the son of Isaac Barefoot Runyan (1749–1845) and Margaret Rambo (who had settled near the heart of modern Pigeon Forge), was killed by a Cherokee warrior. The recently elected Governor Archibald Roane was forced to personally intervene to prevent retaliatory strikes.

19th century

Like many Appalachian communities, religion played a major role in the early history of Pigeon Forge. In the early 19th century, circuit riders preached in the valley, creating a large Methodist following that remains to the present day. On October 20, 1808, Bishop Francis Asbury delivered a sermon at what is now Shiloh Memorial Cemetery in the northern half of Pigeon Forge, where a crude log church was erected. The first "tourists" to visit Pigeon Forge came for the extended revivals that were held in the Middle Creek area on the grounds of what is now Middle Creek Methodist Church as early as 1822. These revivals could last for weeks at a time.

In 1810, Revolutionary War veteran Mordecai Lewis obtained a  land grant along the Little Pigeon River near the heart of what is now Pigeon Forge. In 1817, Lewis' son-in-law, Isaac Love (1783−1854), established the iron forge for which the city was eventually named. The complex included a bloomery furnace and water-powered trip hammer to smelt and mold ore into iron bars. Love erected the Pigeon Forge Mill in 1830, and on May 29, 1841, Love's son, William, established a post office – which he named "Pigeon Forge" – for the mill and the small community that had developed in its vicinity. Local businessman John Sevier Trotter (1807−1884) purchased the mill and furnace in 1849 and subsequently made numerous modifications, including the addition of a sawmill. Although the iron furnace was sold and relocated in the 1880s, the Pigeon Forge Mill – usually called "Old Mill" – still stands and has been placed on the National Register of Historic Places.

In the 1870s, a health resort was established in Pigeon Forge at Henderson Springs, adjacent to the Fort Wear site on the town's north side. It was common during this period for the residents of large urban areas to visit mountain springs, the waters of which were believed to have health-restoring qualities.

20th century
In the early 20th century, Pigeon Forge was an isolated mountain hamlet with no major roads. The nearest railroad station was in Sevierville. Bridges were also rare, with the only major water crossings being a string of fords along the Little Pigeon.

When Great Smoky Mountains National Park opened in 1934, the Tennessee Valley Authority reported no tourism-oriented businesses in Pigeon Forge. By the 1950s, improvements to US-441 led to the establishment of a few campgrounds and lodges, but they did not generate major revenue. During this period, however, two factors in nearby Gatlinburg led to the eventual commercial boom Pigeon Forge experienced in the latter half of the 20th century. First, surrounded by high mountain ridges, Gatlinburg had limited land resources. Second, its land resources were largely controlled by a few local families who thwarted attempts by outside businesses to take advantage of the town's prime location. Thus, outside entrepreneurs were forced to look elsewhere. Pigeon Forge, located just north of Gatlinburg along US-441, became a target.

In 1961, shortly after Pigeon Forge officially incorporated, North Carolina brothers Grover and Harry Robbins opened Rebel Railroad in the town's Middle Creek area. The railroad simulated a ride on a Confederate steam train that was under attack by Union soldiers during the Civil War, playing upon the centennial anniversary of the war. After the Union assault was beaten back, the railroad came to a stop at a mock frontier mountain town, complete with blacksmith shop, general store, and saloon. By 1964, interest in the Civil War Centennial was beginning to die down, so the Robbins brothers decided to rename the railroad Goldrush Junction. The attraction was reworked with a "Wild West" theme replacing the Civil War theme, in a similar fashion to the Robbins' other tourist train ride in North Carolina, Tweetsie Railroad. Goldrush Junction was much more successful than Rebel Railroad, prompting the Robbinses to buy a log flume amusement ride and erect it on the property in 1967. According to a park tourist brochure from the time, the ride was "brought to Goldrush Junction from the New York World's Fair, where it was one of the most successful attractions."

In 1969, after Pigeon Forge issued a zoning plan assigning the entire strip along US-441 for tourism use, Art Modell (owner of the Cleveland Browns) purchased Goldrush Junction. In 1976, Modell sold it to the Herschend Brothers of Branson, Missouri. The Herschends renamed the park Silver Dollar City after their successful theme park in Branson. The Ozark mountain theme of the Branson location was easily reapplied as an Appalachian theme in Pigeon Forge, and the park's attendance began to climb.

In 1982, hoping to capitalize on the publicity generated by the Knoxville World's Fair, Pigeon Forge initiated an aggressive economic plan that centered around theme parks, outlet malls, and live music venues. The first outlet mall, Factory Merchants, opened that same year. By 1987, there were four outlet malls in Pigeon Forge, and by the early 1990s, outlet malls provided 44% of the town's gross revenue.

The increasing number of tourist attractions brought competition for Silver Dollar City and its chief competitor in Pigeon Forge, Magic World, which had constructed a theme park on the slopes of Pine Mountain in the city's south section. In 1985, the Herschends approached entertainer Dolly Parton (who was born in nearby Sevierville) with a proposal for a partnership in the promotion and operation of Silver Dollar City. After lengthy negotiations, Parton became a majority partner in the enterprise, and Silver Dollar City was renamed Dollywood to launch a major marketing campaign. Magic World folded in 1994.

21st century

Although the commercial boom in Pigeon Forge vastly increased the town's revenue, it had several undesirable effects. As land value increased, many farmers could no longer afford the accompanying high property taxes and were forced to sell their land. The high cost of living in Pigeon Forge is difficult to offset with the low wage jobs that often accompany the tourist industry.

Dollywood continued expansion into the 21st century, adding a separate water park in 2001.

In 2016, the area was affected by the 2016 Great Smoky Mountains wildfires.

Registered historic sites
 Pigeon Forge Mill: Listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1975, this working gristmill, also known as Old Mill, is on the West Fork of the Little Pigeon River (along its east bank), and is accessible via Old Mill Drive (which intersects the Parkway at Light #7). The site includes a millhouse, milldam, and breastshot wheel.

Geography

Pigeon Forge is located on the West Fork of the Little Pigeon River. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 11.6 square miles (30.0 km), all of which is land.

The West Fork of the Little Pigeon River flows north from its source high on the slopes of Mount Collins through Sevier County before linking up with the Middle Fork in Sevierville. Pigeon Forge occupies a narrow valley along this river between Sevierville and Gatlinburg. High ridges surround Pigeon Forge on three sides, with Pine Mountain to the west, Shields Mountain to the east, and Cove Mountain to the south. A bend in the Little Pigeon provides the city's northern border with Sevierville, and a narrow gorge cut by the river between Cove Mountain and Shields Mountain acts as the city's boundary with Gatlinburg.

U.S. Route 441, known as "The Parkway", runs through the middle of Pigeon Forge en route to Gatlinburg and Great Smoky Mountains National Park, where it crests at Newfound Gap before descending to Cherokee, North Carolina. The six-lane strip along US-441 contains most of Pigeon Forge's tourist attractions. U.S. Route 321 (known as Wears Valley Road in Pigeon Forge) connects the town with Wears Valley and Townsend to the west. Teaster Lane runs along the eastern side of the city and serves as a local four-lane road bypassing some of the Parkway and is relatively undeveloped, except a few shopping centers. TN-449 serves as a bypass for both Sevierville and most of Pigeon Forge and directly connects with Dollywood.

Climate
Pigeon Forge has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfa) with cool winters and hot summers. Precipitation is heavy year round, peaking during the months of May–July, with October being the driest month, having only 2.67 inches (68 mm) of average annual precipitation.

Demographics

2020 census

As of the 2020 United States census, there were 6,343 people, 2,346 households, and 1,712 families residing in the city.

2010 census
As of the 2010 census,  Pigeon Forge had 5,875 people, 2,238 households, and 1,482 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 5,187 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 80.6% White, 1.1% African American, 0.7% Native American, 2.1% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 13.5% from other races, and 1.9% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race accounted for 18.2% of the population.

Of the 2,238 households, 31.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.6% were married couples living together, 14.3% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.3% had a male householder with no wife present, and 33.8% were non-families. 23.7% of all households were made up of individuals living alone, and 9.4% of those living alone were 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.58, and the average family size was 2.99.

The population consisted of 23.8% of individuals under the age of 20, 8.1% from 20 to 24, 27.9% from 25 to 44, 24.8% from 45 to 64, and 15.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37.8 years. For every 100 females, there were 102.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 101 males.

According to 2012–2016 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates conducted by the U.S. Census Bureau, the median income for a household in Pigeon Forge was $34,949, and the median income for a family was $41,829. Males had a median income of $31,933 versus $20,838 for females. The per capita income for the city was $20,959. About 9.8% of families and 10.6% of the population were living below the poverty line, including 15.4% of those under age 18 and 2.7% of those age 65 or older.

Arts and culture

Besides the natural environment of the area, the attractions in Pigeon Forge draw approximately 11 million visitors each year. Attractions include the Dollywood theme park and the Stampede theater, both owned by country music superstar Dolly Parton, whose home town is Sevierville, just a few miles from Pigeon Forge.

Tourism
 Buttonwillow Civil War Theater
TopJump Trampoline & Extreme Arena
Crave Golf Club
Titanic Museum
Cooter's Place
Alcatraz East Crime Museum
Southern Gospel Museum and Hall of Fame
 Country Tonite Theatre
 Paula Deen's Lumberjack Feud Supper Show & Adventure Park
 Comedy Barn Theater
WonderWorks Children's Museum
Smoky Mountain Opry
 Elvis & Hollywood Legends Museum
 Hatfield and McCoy Dinner Feud
 The Tomb Escape Adventure
 Biblical Times Dinner Theater
 Red Skelton Tribute Theater
Flyaway Indoor Skydiving
NASCAR Speedpark
 Smoky Mountain Alpine Coaster
 Jurassic Jungle Boat Ride
Hollywood Wax Museum Pigeon Forge
 The Island in Pigeon Forge (featuring the Great Smoky Mountain Wheel)
 Tribute to Frank Sinatra & The Rat Pack
 The Island Show Fountains
 American Oldies Theater
 Grand Majestic Dinner Theater
 Great Smoky Mountain Murder Mystery
 Ripken Experience
 Seasonal events such as Winterfest

Car and truck shows
Pigeon Forge has various entertainment opportunities for car and truck enthusiasts. The calendar of car and truck show events varies each year and has included:

 Spring Rod Run
 Chevy/GMC Truck Nationals
 Hooter's GMC/Chevy Truckin' Nationals
 Annual Smoky Mountain Classic Chevy Roundup
 Great Smoky Mountain Truck Show
Great Smoky Mountain Jeep Invasion
 Silver Dollar Open Rod Run
 Pontiac Car Club Show
 Camaro, Chevelle, Nova Nationals
 Cobra Mustang Club
 Shades of the Past Hot Rod Roundup
 Fall Rod Run
 Smoky Mountain Model-A Car Rally
 Annual Pigeon Forge Starion/Conquest Meet
 Ford F-100 Super Nationals
 Annual Patriot Festival

Parks and recreation
The Pigeon Forge Parks and Recreation Department manages the Pigeon Forks Community Center along with  of park land and approximately 2 miles (3.2 km) of greenways.

Pigeon Forge City Park has sports fields and courts, walking trails, and large picnic areas.
Patriot Park has  and is the site of various special events, including Independence Day fireworks, Patriot Festival, and light displays during Winterfest.
Wear Farm City Park is the main park for Pigeon Forge and has sports fields and courts along with playgrounds, pavilions, and concession stands.

Government
Pigeon Forge has a City Manager-Commission form of government, in which a city manager, commission, and mayor work together to manage the city. As of 2018, the mayor is David Wear, and the City Manager is Earlene M. Teaster.

Infrastructure
The city government has  of water main piping, hundreds of fire hydrants, 20 water tanks, 19 pump stations,  of publicly maintained streets and roads,  of sanitary sewers, and approximately 234 vehicles and 272 pieces of equipment.

Transportation

Pigeon Forge is served by a mass transit system of buses that are referred to as "Fun Time Trolleys" due to their physical resemblance to early 20th-century trolleys. The system operates more than 40 vehicles and has more than 200 stops throughout Pigeon Forge as well as in neighboring Gatlinburg and Sevierville. All the trolleys are equipped with lifts for mobility aids and wheelchairs.

Utilities
The water plant in Pigeon Forge can treat  of water per day. The city storage system holds  of water. The city also supplies Gatlinburg with up to  of water per day.

Notable people

 Dolly Parton (1946–): A country music singer and songwriter, Parton has a variety of business interests in the tourism industry in Pigeon Forge, including joint ownership of attractions like Dollywood and Dolly Parton's Stampede.
 Samuel Wear (1753–1817): A Revolutionary War veteran, Wear co-founded the "Lost State of Franklin" and helped draft Tennessee's state constitution. He established a stockade called Wears Fort in the area that became Pigeon Forge.

Alcoholic beverages
Unlike neighboring Gatlinburg and Sevierville, Pigeon Forge remained a dry jurisdiction in the state (Tennessee is dry by default) for many years, with only a few select premises allowed to sell low-alcohol beers and some wines. Certain sectors of the population, including religious leaders, opposed legalizing liquor, warning of the social consequences, while others argued that the city was losing tax dollars to neighboring cities by not selling alcohol.

Referendums to permit liquor-by-the-drink sales inside the city limits failed in 2009 and 2011. Another liquor-by-the-drink referendum appeared to have won by a 100-vote margin in a contentious 2012 vote, in which the number of ballots cast exceeded the number of eligible voters by more than 300. In court depositions taken in connection with a lawsuit to overturn the election, one registrar testified that her instructions were to allow everyone listed on her roster to vote on the referendum, regardless of whether they lived inside the city limits. Poll worker Sarah Ownby said in her deposition she was "100 percent sure" ballots were cast by people not entitled to vote on the issue. Ownby also testified some voters who were eligible to vote in the referendum were not allowed to do so.

On January 10, 2013, Sevier County Chancellor Telford Forgety ruled that the 2012 liquor-by-the-drink referendum would be invalidated due to its questionable results. The chancellor ordered that a new vote be held within 45 to 60 days.

On March 13, 2013, liquor-by-the drink passed in Pigeon Forge by a vote of 952 to 798. As a result, authorized businesses can now obtain on-premise consumption licenses to sell and dispense beverages with an alcohol content greater than 8%. This includes liquors as well as high-alcohol content beers and wines.

References

External links

 City of Pigeon Forge municipal website
 Pigeon Forge Convention Center

Cities in Sevier County, Tennessee
Cities in Tennessee
Communities of the Great Smoky Mountains

Pigeon Forge, Tennessee


Robert Francis Patrick Cronin FRCPC FACP FRCP (1 September 1926 – 13 January 2007) was a cardiologist, researcher, professor, and healthcare consultant, who served as Dean of the Faculty of Medicine at McGill University from 1972 to 1977.

Cronin was born in London, the son of the celebrated Scottish writer and doctor, A.J. Cronin, and May Gibson, also a physician. His family moved to the United States at the outbreak of World War II, eventually moving to Greenwich, Connecticut. He had been a boarder at Ampleforth College in England, and upon moving to the U.S., he attended Portsmouth Abbey School.  One of his classmates there was Robert F. Kennedy, and Cronin later dated Ethel Skakel before her marriage to Kennedy.

Having skipped a few grades, he enrolled at Princeton University at the age of sixteen, though he interrupted his study when he enlisted in the Royal Canadian Air Force in 1943, training as a tail gunner at the Borden Base.  He transferred to the British Army between 1945 and 1947, where he helped with demilitarization and reconstruction in England. In January 1948, Cronin re-enrolled at Princeton and finished two more years before attending medical school at McGill and earning his MD in 1953.  He received his MRCP in 1955 and went to London to train at Hammersmith Hospital and the Brompton Hospital. Upon his return to Canada, he worked at the Montreal General Hospital as a cardiologist, an internist, and a researcher.

Cronin became widely recognized for his work in developing countries.  In the early 1960s, he initiated an exchange program between McGill and local doctors in Nairobi, Kenya, and he later worked for the Osler Medical Aid Foundation, now known as the McGill International Health Initiative. Additionally, he collaborated with the Canadian International Development Agency to set up student exchange programs with Kenya, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, Ethiopia, Pakistan and Tunisia. Known for his eye for logistics, Cronin was recruited by the Aga Khan in 1976, in an advisory capacity, to help set up a teaching hospital in Karachi.  For the next fifteen years, he continued to work for the Aga Khan Health Services, overseeing the construction and operation of hospitals and healthcare facilities in Tanzania, Pakistan, and Nairobi, as well as setting up their curriculum for educating medical personnel.

Cronin later learned that he had not received his wartime equivalency degree at Princeton, as these were only conferred upon American students. Not having his undergraduate degree always bothered him, so in 1999, at the age of seventy-three, he enrolled once again at Princeton in order to resume the Bachelor of Arts degree which he had begun fifty years earlier. He took three courses, wrote his senior thesis, and was finally awarded his degree on 30 May 2000. He received an A.B. in history after completing a 73-page long senior thesis, titled "Tainted Blood: A Brief History of Blood Transfusion from the 17th Century Onwards", under the supervision of Angela Creager. In 2005, having taken 52 years and 111 days to earn this degree, he received a citation in the Guinness Book of World Records as the student who had spent the longest time in an undergraduate program.

In 1954, Cronin married a Canadian, Sis Robertson, and they had three children. He died of pneumonia on 13 January 2007, in Territet, Montreux, Switzerland.

References

External links
McGill Reporter

1926 births
2007 deaths
20th-century English medical doctors
British Army personnel of World War II
British cardiologists
Canadian university and college faculty deans
Deaths from pneumonia in Switzerland
Fellows of the Royal College of Physicians
McGill University Faculty of Medicine alumni
Academic staff of McGill University
Medical doctors from London
Physicians from Montreal
Princeton University alumni
British emigrants to the United States
Portsmouth Abbey School alumni
Royal Canadian Air Force personnel of World War II
People educated at Ampleforth College

R. F. Patrick Cronin


The Midlothian campaign of 1878–80 was a series of foreign policy speeches given by William Gladstone, leader of Britain's Liberal Party. It is often cited as the first modern political campaign. It also set the stage for Gladstone's comeback as a politician. It takes its name from the Midlothian constituency in Scotland where Gladstone (who was of Scottish ancestry) successfully stood in the 1880 election.

When Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli attempted to distract public opinion from the economic and financial problems of Britain by calling attention to the worsening British-Ottoman relations, Gladstone in four speeches charged the government with financial incompetence, neglect of domestic legislation, and mismanagement of foreign affairs.

The Midlothian campaign unified the Liberal Party under Gladstone's leadership and probably forced the government to think in terms of dissolution sooner. It created a momentum that carried the Liberals to power in the election.

Background
In 1876, news of a series of atrocities by the Ottomans during their suppression of the Bulgarian April Uprising reached the British press, despite the strong censorship of the Turkish authorities. British public reaction was generally one of dismay, fuelled by the public prints, but the government of Benjamin Disraeli continued its policy of support for the Ottoman Empire, an ally in the Crimean War and a bulwark against possible Russian expansion in the area.

Gladstone took up the issue slowly, at first appearing uninterested. By 1878 he was publishing articles in favour of ending British economic support for the Ottoman government in response.

The campaign
By 1880, Gladstone's dogged focus on the issue had dragged it to the forefront of public attention, and in the general election of 1880, Gladstone toured a series of cities giving speeches of up to five hours on the subject. The nature of his orations has often been compared to that of sermons, and his fiery, emotive, but logically structured speeches are credited with swaying a large number of undecided voters to the Liberals in the 1880s, and ousting Disraeli's last Conservative government.

Equally important to the large scale of attendance at these meetings (several thousand came to each, and given the relatively narrow scale of the franchise, this meant Gladstone could address a large proportion of electors in each district) was the widespread reporting of Gladstone's speeches and the public reaction to them. Paul Brighton argues that it was a highly successful media event:
What was new about Midlothian was not that Gladstone spoke from the platform. This was already common-place for many front-rank politicians. It was the fact that the campaign was effectively designed as a media event, with specific attention to the deadlines and operational requirements of the journalists covering it and crafted for maximum impact in the morning and evening papers.

Content
Gladstone's speeches covered the entire range of national policy, he gave his large audiences an advanced course in the principles of government that was both magisterial and exciting. The major speeches constitute a statement of the Liberal philosophy of government, reinforced by the fervour of his own deeply-held Anglican faith. Scotland, at this time, was a nation fixated on the promotion this sort of religious and moral rectitude and probity. His focus was usually on foreign affairs. Gladstone presented his commitment to a world community, governed by law, protecting the weak. His vision of the ideal world order combined universalism and inclusiveness; he appealed to group feeling, the sense of concern for others, rising eventually to the larger picture of the unity of mankind.

See also
 Tulchan
American election campaigns in the 19th century, for contemporary campaigns

References

Further reading

 Blair, Kirstie. "The People's William and the People's Poets: William Gladstone and the Midlothian Campaign." The People's Voice (2018) online.
 Brooks, David. "Gladstone and Midlothian: The Background to the First Campaign," Scottish Historical Review (1985) 64#1 pp 42–67. online
 Brown, Stewart J. "'Echoes of Midlothian': Scottish Liberalism and the South African War, 1899-1902." Scottish Historical Review 71#191/192, (1992), pp. 156–83, online.
 Fitzsimons, M. A. "Midlothian: the Triumph and Frustration of the British Liberal Party," Review of Politics (1960) 22#2 pp 187–201. in JSTOR
 Jenkins, Roy. Gladstone (1997) pp 399–415
 Kelley, Robert. "Midlothian: A Study In Politics and Ideas," Victorian Studies (1960) 4#2 pp 119–140. online
 Matthew, H. C. G Gladstone: 1809-1898 (1997) pp 293–313
 Whitehead, Cameron Ean Alfred. "The Bulgarian Horrors: culture and the international history of the Great Eastern Crisis, 1876-1878" (PhD. Dissertation, University of British Columbia, 2014) online
 Yildizeli, Fahriye Begum. "W.E. Gladstone and British Policy Towards the Ottoman Empire." (PhD dissertation, University of Exeter, 2016) online.

Primary sources
 Gladstone, W.E. Midlothian Speeches. 1879 (Leicester University Press, 1971).
 Gladstone, William E. Midlothian Speeches 1884 with an Introduction by M. R. D. Foot, (New York: Humanities Press, 1971) online

External links
Time Traveller's Guide to Victorian Britain: Midlothian campaign

Political campaigns in the United Kingdom
History of Midlothian
19th century in the United Kingdom
William Ewart Gladstone
1870s speeches
1880s speeches

Midlothian campaign


Joseph Boyd Martin (born October 20, 1938, in Bassano, Alberta) is a Canadian physician who is the Edward R. and Anne G. Lefler Professor Emeritus of Neurobiology at Harvard Medical School. Prior to that, he served as the Dean of Harvard Medical School from 1997 before stepping down on June 30, 2007.

Career

Martin completed undergraduate studies and medical school at the University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.  He was the first in his extended family to further his education beyond high school.  He also completed some undergraduate studies at Eastern Mennonite College, since renamed Eastern Mennonite University.  Subsequent to his medical school graduation, he completed his residency in neurology at Case Western Reserve University and received his Ph.D. in anatomy from the University of Rochester.

Martin's first faculty position was at McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, where he rose to become Chair of the Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery at the young age of 38, only five years following completion of his Ph.D. He subsequently joined the faculty of Harvard Medical School, where he chaired the Department of Neurology at Massachusetts General Hospital, succeeding renowned neurologist Raymond Adams.  During his tenure at MGH, he also served as interim director of the hospital, where his administrative and leadership qualities led him to become on the short list for a number of high-ranking jobs.

In this context, Martin became Dean of the School of Medicine at the University of California, San Francisco in 1989 and then became that institution's Chancellor.  He spent a total of eight years there, during which he became less involved in benchtop science and clinical medicine, although both remained a passion.  With respect to the former, Martin's lab at MGH, under the lead direction of James F. Gusella, was the first to identify a biomarker that soon thereafter led to location of the gene for Huntington's disease, a major breakthrough at the time and one of the first demonstrations of a true connectivity between genetics and disease.  At UCSF he was instrumental in identifying new research space and building new research facilities despite limited available areas and significant neighborhood pushback, which Martin worked through with his characteristic ability to build consensus.

Following his time at UCSF, Martin returned to Harvard to become the 22nd Dean of that university's School of Medicine in 1997.  As Dean, he was instrumental in funding and building a major new research building across the street from the quad and Boston Latin School. The building bears a conference center in his name.  Beyond his various academic and financial achievements at Harvard, his tenure was notable for his advocacy of minorities and women and for his ability to ease through the contentious aftermath of the formation of disparate hospital systems affiliated with Harvard that had occurred prior to his arrival.

During his academic career he has been an editor of Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine and has published over 325 articles.  Additionally, he has served on the editorial boards of the New England Journal of Medicine, Annals of Neurology, and Science, leading journals for clinical medicine and therapeutics, neurology, and emerging science, respectively. He has also been elected a member of multiple medical and scientific societies including the Institute of Medicine of the National Academy of Sciences and is a past president of the American Neurological Association. He has also served on the Board of Directors of several companies, including Baxter International, from which he stepped down in Spring 2011.

In May 2015, Martin was honored by receiving an endowed chair at Harvard Medical School: the Martin Family Professorship in Basic Research. It was renamed the Joseph B Martin Professorship in Basic Research upon his retirement in June 2016. It is one of only 46 such endowed chairs in the quad research area at Harvard Medical School. Martin is also the recipient of eight honorary doctorate degrees.

On December 29, 2017, Martin was appointed an officer of the Order of Canada, for "his sustained and influential leadership in academic medicine, and for his contributions to building health research institutions in North America." In 2020, he was elected into the Canadian Medical Hall of Fame for "his ability to promote collaboration in building and expanding the institutional foundations of medical education and science in North America."

Personal life

Martin and his wife, Rachel (maiden name Wenger), are parents of four children and have ten grandchildren. His nephew, Jeff Shantz, was a National Hockey League player for the Chicago Blackhawks, Calgary Flames, and Colorado Avalanche.

Martin's memoir, entitled Alfalfa to Ivy, was released in August 2011.  The book chronicles his rise from rural Western Canada and a one-room schoolhouse to worldwide esteem and leadership of some of the world's leading academic institutions, while also offering perspectives on current issues facing the academic and health care landscapes.

His second book, "Science, Religion and Society: A Medical Perspective", was published in July 2017.  It consists of a series of lectures he has given on related topics since 1981, followed by a review of his perspectives on how these viewpoints align and at times conflict with the current medical landscape.

References

Further reading

1938 births
Canadian neurologists
University of Alberta alumni
University of Rochester alumni
Eastern Mennonite University alumni
Harvard Medical School faculty
Living people
Officers of the Order of Canada
Members of the National Academy of Medicine

Joseph B. Martin


Qaleh Now-ye Showkati (, also Romanized as Qal'eh Now-ye Showkatī and Qal'eh-ye Now-e Showkatī; also known as Qal'eh Nau, Qal'eh Now, and Qal'eh-ye Now) is a village in Shirvan Rural District, in the Central District of Borujerd County, Lorestan Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 350, in 87 families.

References

Towns and villages in Borujerd County

Qaleh Now-ye Showkati


Bohemia is one of the regions of the Czech Republic. Poland is to the north, Germany to the west, Austria to the south, and the Czech province of Moravia to the east. The capital city of Prague is in Bohemia.

Bohemia is well known for its glasswares and other handicrafts, its beer and its cuisine.

During the Middle Ages, Bohemia was sometimes an independent duchy or kingdom. In 1526, it came under control of the House of Habsburg. After Austria-Hungary was defeated during World War I, Bohemia became part of Czechoslovakia.

Bohemia


Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv, Ukraine, is an architectural monument built by Kievan Rus'. The former cathedral is one of the city's best known landmarks and the first heritage site in Ukraine to be on the World Heritage List along with the Kyiv Cave Monastery complex. Aside from its main building, the cathedral includes a group of supporting structures such as a bell tower and the House of Metropolitan. In 2011 the historic site was moved from the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Regional Development of Ukraine to the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Culture of Ukraine. One of the reasons for the move was that both Saint Sophia Cathedral and Kyiv Pechersk Lavra are recognized by the UNESCO World Heritage Program as one complex, while in Ukraine the two were governed by different government entities. It is currently a museum.

Saint Sophia Cathedral, Kyiv