The Khalji or Khilji (Persian:  ) dynasty was the second dynasty which ruled the Delhi sultanate, covering large parts of the Indian subcontinent for nearly three decades between 1290 and 1320. It was founded by Jalal ud din Firuz Khalji.

Origins

The Khalji dynasty was of Turko-Afghan origin whose ancestors, the Khalaj, are said to have been initially a Turkic people who migrated together with the Hunas and Hephthalites from Central Asia, into the southern and eastern regions of modern-day Afghanistan as early as 660 CE, where they ruled the region of Kabul as the Buddhist Turk Shahis. According to R.S. Chaurasia, the Khaljis slowly inherited many Afghan habits and customs, and that they were treated as Afghans by the Turkic nobles of the Delhi Sultanate. Even to the point where Turkic nobles in the Delhi Sultanate opposed Jalal-ud-din's acension to the throne of Delhi after the Khilji revolution.

André Wink however, states that Khaljis were a Turkicized group and remnants of early Indo-European nomads such as Kushans, Hephthalites, and Sakas who later merged with the Afghans. Also, stating that "at that time they were not perceived as Turks or Mongols. Contemporary historians clearly distinguish the Khaljis from the Turks"

According to C. E. Bosworth, the Ghilzai, who make up the majority of the Pashtuns in Afghanistan, are the modern result of the Khalaj assimilation into the Pashtuns. Between the 10th and 13th centuries, some sources refer to the Khalaj people as of Turkic, but some others do not. Minorsky argues that the early history of the Khalaj tribe is obscure and adds that the identity of the name Khalaj is still to be proved. Mahmud al-Kashgari (11th century) does not include the Khalaj among the Oghuz Turkic tribes, but includes them among the Oghuz-Turkman (where Turkman meant "Like the Turks") tribes. Kashgari felt the Khalaj did not belong to the original stock of Turkish tribes but had associated with them and therefore, in language and dress, often appeared "like Turks".

Minhaj-i-Siraj Juzjani (13th century) never identified Khalaj as Turks, but was careful not to refer to them as Pashtuns. They were always a category apart from Turks, Tajiks and Pashtuns. Muhammad ibn Najib Bakran's Jahan-nama explicitly describes them as Turkic, although he notes that their complexion had become darker (compared to the Turks) and their language had undergone enough alterations to become a distinct dialect. However, the Jahan-nama describes them as "tribe of Turks" going through a language shift, speaking the Khalaj dialect, which was summarized by V. Minorsky.

History

Jalal-ud-din Khalji

Khaljis were vassals of the Mamluk dynasty of Delhi and served the Sultan of Delhi, Ghiyas ud din Balban, as a minor part of the Muslim nobility. The last major Turkic ruler, Balban, in his struggle to maintain power over his insubordinate Turkish officers, destroyed the power of the Forty. However this indirectly damaged the Turkish integrity of the nobility, which had opposed the power of the non-Turks. This left them vulnerable to the Khalji faction, which took power through a series of assassinations. One by one the Mamluk officers were murdered, and the last ruler of the Turkic Mamluk dynasty - the 17-year old Muiz ud din Qaiqabad - was killed in the Kailu-gheri Palace during the coup by Jalal ud din Firuz Khalji.

Jalaluddin Firuz Khalji, who was around 70 years old at the time of his ascension, was known as a mild-mannered, humble and kind monarch to the general public.

Jalaluddin succeeded in overcoming the opposition of the Turkish nobles and ascended the throne of Delhi in January 1290. Jalal-ud-din was not universally accepted: during his six-year reign (1290–96), Balban's nephew revolted due to his assumption of power and the subsequent sidelining of nobility and commanders serving the Mamluk dynasty. Jalal-ud-din suppressed the revolt and executed some commanders, then led an unsuccessful expedition against Ranthambhor. Jalal-ud-din used an Afghan enclave in the suburb of Delhi, Kilokhri, as his de facto capital.

He also repelled several Mongol attacks on India and was successful in destroying a Mongol force on the banks of the Sind River in central India with the help of his nephew Juna Khan.

In a plot by his nephew, Jalaluddin was assassinated by Muhammad Salim of Samana, Punjab.

Alauddin Khalji

Alauddin Khalji was the nephew and son-in-law of Jalal-ud-din. He raided the Deccan peninsula and Deogiri - then the capital of the state of Maharashtra, looting their treasure. He returned to Delhi in 1296, murdered Jalal-ud-din and assumed power as Sultan. He would appoint his allies such as Zafar Khan(Minister of War), Nusrat Khan (Wazir of Delhi), Ayn al Mulk Multani, Malik Karfur, Malik Tughlaq, and Malik Nayk(Master of the Horse)

At the beginning of his reign, defeated a major Mongol invasion, at the  Battle of Jaran-Manjur (1298). The victory consolidated Alauddin's power and prestige, thus stabilizing his position on the throne of Delhi.

To secure a route to Gujarat's trading ports, Ayn al-Mulk Multani was sent to conquer the Paramara kingdom of Malwa. Its Rai defended it with a large Rajput army, but he was defeated by Multani who became the governor of the province.

Then in 1299 Nusrat Khan was sent to conquer Gujarat itself, where he defeated its Solanki king. Nusrat Khan plundered its chief cities and sacked its temples, such as the famous temple of Somnath which had been rebuilt in the twelfth century. It was here where Nusrat Khan captured Malik Kafur who would later become a military general. Alauddin continued expanding Delhi Sultanate into South India, with the help of generals such as Malik Kafur and Khusraw Khan, collecting large war booty (Anwatan) from those they defeated. His commanders collected war spoils from conquered kingdoms and paid khums (one fifth) on ghanima (booty collected during war) to Sultan's treasury, which helped strengthen the Khalji rule.

Alauddin Khalji reigned for 20 years. He conquered Rajputana, attacking and seizing the states of Jaisalmer (1299), Ranthambhor (1301), Chittorgarh (1303), Malwa(1305), he also conquered Gujarat and plundered the wealthy state of Devagiri during his raids in the south. He also withstood two Mongol raids. Alauddin was also known for his cruelty against attacked kingdoms after wars. Historians note him as a tyrant, and that anyone Alauddin Khalji suspected of being a threat to this power was killed, along with the women and children of that family. In 1298, between 15,000 and 30,000 people near Delhi, who had recently converted to Islam, were slaughtered in a single day, due to fears of an uprising. He also killed his own family members and nephews, in 1299–1300, after he suspected them of rebellion, by first gouging out their eyes and then beheading them.

In 1308, Alauddin's lieutenant, Malik Kafur captured Warangal, overthrew the Hoysala Empire south of the Krishna River and raided Madurai in Tamil Nadu. He then looted the treasury in capitals and from the temples of south India. Among these loots was the Warangal loot that included one of the largest known diamond in human history, the Koh-i-Noor. Malik Kafur returned to Delhi in 1311, laden with loot and war booty from Deccan peninsula which he submitted to Alauddin Khalji. This made Malik Kafur, born in a Hindu family and who had converted to Islam before becoming Delhi Sultanate's army commander, a favorite of Alauddin Khalji.

In 1311, Alauddin ordered a massacre of Mongols in the Delhi Sultanate wherein between 15,000 and 30,000 Mongol settlers, who had recently converted to Islam, were killed after Khalji suspected them of plotting an uprising against him.

The last Khalji sultans

Alauddin Khalji died in January 1316. Thereafter, the sultanate witnessed chaos, coup and succession of assassinations. Malik Kafur became the sultan but lacked support from the amirs and was killed within a few months.

Over the next three years following Malik Kafur's death, another three sultans assumed power violently and/or were killed in coups. First, the amirs installed a six-year-old named Shihab-ud-din Omar as sultan and his teenage brother, Qutb ud din Mubarak Shah, as regent. Qutb killed his younger brother and appointed himself sultan; to win over the loyalty of the amirs and the Malik clan he offered Ghazi Malik the position of army commander in the Punjab. Others were given a choice between various offices and death. After ruling in his own name for less than four years, Mubarak Shah was murdered in 1320 by one of his generals, Khusraw Khan. Amirs persuaded Ghazi Malik, who was still army commander in the Punjab, to lead a coup. Ghazi Malik's forces marched on Delhi, captured Khusraw Khan, and beheaded him. Upon becoming sultan, Ghazi Malik renamed himself Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq, becoming the first ruler of the Tughluq dynasty.

Economic policy and administration

Alauddin Khalji changed the tax policies to strengthen his treasury to help pay the keep of his growing army and fund his wars of expansion. He raised agriculture taxes from 20% to 50% – payable in grain and agricultural produce (or cash), eliminating payments and commissions on taxes collected by local chiefs, banned socialization among his officials as well as inter-marriage between noble families to help prevent any opposition forming against him; he cut salaries of officials, poets and scholars in his kingdom.

Alauddin Khalji enforced four taxes on non-Muslims in the Sultanate - jizya (poll tax), kharaj (land tax), kari (house tax), and chari (pasture tax). He also decreed that his Delhi-based revenue officers assisted by local Muslim jagirdars, khuts, mukkadims, chaudharis and zamindars seize by force half of all produce any farmer generates, as a tax on standing crop, so as to fill sultanate granaries. His officers enforced tax payment by beating up middlemen responsible for rural tax collection.Furthermore, Alauddin Khalji demanded, state Kulke and Rothermund, from his "wise men in the court" to create "rules and regulations in order to grind down the common man, so as to reduce them to abject poverty and deprive them of wealth and any form of surplus property that could foster a rebellion; At the same time, he confiscated all landed property from his courtiers and officers. Revenue assignments to Muslim jagirdars were also cancelled and the revenue was collected by the central administration. Henceforth, state Kulke and Rothermund, "everybody was busy with earning a living so that nobody could even think of rebellion."

Alauddin Khalji taxation methods and increased taxes reduced agriculture output and the Sultanate witnessed massive inflation. In order to compensate for salaries that he had cut and fixed for Muslim officials and soldiers, Alauddin introduced price controls on all agriculture produce, goods, livestocks and slaves in the kingdom, as well as controls on where, how, and by whom these could be sold. Markets called shahana-i-mandi were created. Muslim merchants were granted exclusive permits and monopoly in these mandi to buy and resell at official prices. No one other than these merchants could buy from farmers or sell in cities. Alauddin deployed an extensive network of Munhiyans (spies, secret police) who would monitor the mandi and had the power to seize anyone trying to buy or sell anything at a price different from the official controlled prices. Those found violating these mandi rules were severely punished, such as by cutting out their flesh. Taxes collected in form of seized crops and grains were stored in sultanate's granaries. Over time, farmers quit farming for income and shifted to subsistence farming, the general food supply worsened in north India, shortages increased and Delhi Sultanate witnessed increasingly worse and extended periods of famines. The Sultan banned private storage of food by anyone. Rationing system was introduced by Alauddin as shortages multiplied; however, the nobility and his army were exempt from the per family quota-based food rationing system. During these famines, Khalji's sultanate granaries and wholesale mandi system with price controls ensured sufficient food for his army, court officials and the urban population in Delhi. Price controls instituted by Khalji reduced prices, but also lowered wages to a point where ordinary people did not benefit from the low prices. The price control system collapsed shortly after the death of Alauddin Khalji, with prices of various agriculture products and wages doubling to quadrupling within a few years.

Historical impact
The tax system introduced during the Khalji dynasty had a long term influence on Indian taxation system and state administration,

Slavery

Within Sultanate's capital city of Delhi, during Alauddin Khalji's reign, at least half of the population were slaves working as servants, concubines and guards for the Muslim nobles, amirs, court officials and commanders. Slavery in India during the Khalji dynasty, and later Islamic dynasties, included two groups of people - persons seized during military campaigns, and people who defaulted on their taxes. The institution of slavery and bondage labor became pervasive during the Khalji dynasty; male slaves were referred to as banda, qaid, ghulam, or burdah, while female slaves were called bandi, kaniz or laundi.

Architecture
Alauddin Khalji is credited with the early Indo-Mohammedan architecture, a style and construction campaign that flourished during Tughlaq dynasty. Among works completed during Khalji dynasty, are Alai Darwaza - the southern gateway of Qutb complex enclosure, the Idgah at Rapri, and the Jamat Khana Masjid in Delhi. The Alai Darwaza, completed in 1311, was included as part of Qutb Minar and its Monuments UNESCO World Heritage site in 1993.

Perso-Arabic inscriptions on monuments have been traced to the Khalji dynasty era.

Disputed historical sources
Historians have questioned the reliability of historical accounts about the Khalji dynasty. Genuine primary sources and historical records from 1260 to 1349 period have not been found. One exception is the short chapter on Delhi Sultanate from 1302 to 1303 AD by Wassaf in Persia, which is duplicated in Jami al-Tawarikh, and which covers the Balban rule, start of Jalal-ud-din Chili's rule and circumstances of the succession of Alauddin Khalji. A semi-fictional poetry (mathnawi) by Yamin al-Din Abul Hasan, also known as Amir Khusrau, is full of adulation for his employer, the reigning Sultan. Khusrau's adulation-filled narrative poetry has been used as a source of Khalji dynasty history, but this is a disputed source. Three historical sources, composed 30 to 115 years after the end of Khalji dynasty, are considered more independent but also questioned given the gap in time. These are Isami's epic of 1349, Diya-yi Barani's work of 1357 and Sirhindi's account of 1434, which possibly relied on now lost text or memories of people in Khalji's court. Of these Barani's text is the most referred and cited in scholarly sources.

List of rulers

See also

 Ikhtiyar Uddin Muhammad Bin Bakhtiyar Khalji
 Persianate society
 List of Sunni Muslim dynasties

Notes

References

Bibliography

External links

Khilji - A Short History of Muslim Rule in India I. Prasad, University of Allahabad
The Role of Ulema in Indo-Muslim History, Aziz Ahmad, Studia Islamica, No. 31 (1970), pp. 1–13

Delhi Sultanate
Pashtun dynasties
Empires and kingdoms of India
Medieval Afghanistan
Muslim dynasties of India
13th century in India
14th century in India
1290 establishments in Asia
1320 disestablishments in Asia
13th-century establishments in India
14th-century disestablishments in India

Khalji dynasty


The Cushaw Hydroelectric Project is a 7.5 megawatt (MW) dam and power house facility owned and operated by Virginia Electric Power Company, operating as Dominion Virginia Power.

The project is located on the James River, a navigable waterway of the United States, in Bedford and Amherst Counties, Virginia. The project occupies federal lands administered by the U.S. Forest Service. Nearby communities include Snowden and Big Island, Virginia. The town of Glasgow, Virginia lies just northwest of the Cushaw Project pool.

The project was constructed and began generating electric power in 1930 at the site of a former dam constructed in the 1800s also known as Cushaw Dam or Snowden Dam.
The Cushaw Project consists of a 1,550-foot-long, 27-foot-high reinforced concrete dam, with a 1,500-foot-long spillway extending diagonally across the James River. The dam impounds a 138-acre reservoir with a surface elevation of 656 feet mean sea level (msl) at normal operating pool. The project's powerhouse is integral with the dam and contains five generating units with a total installed capacity of 7,500 kilowatts. Project power is transmitted through a 2.3-kilovolt (kV) underground cable connected to a substation. Dominion operates the project remotely from its Bath County Pumped Storage project. Dominion Energy has sold this power plant (the oldest one in their fleet) in late 2018.

There are no designated recreation areas at the project, but Dominion cooperates with the Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries in maintaining a boat ramp known as Rocky Row Run, which is located on the project impoundment approximately 0.8 mile upstream from the Cushaw dam. In addition, the Appalachian National Scenic Trail Foot Bridge, constructed in 2000 on the pilings of a former railroad bridge, crosses the reservoir about 0.5 mile upstream from the dam.

A railroad bridge constructed by the Chesapeake & Ohio Railway, now used by successor CSX, crosses the upstream impoundment. US 501 crosses the James River on a girder bridge. Approximately one mile downstream of the dam lies the smaller Bedford Hydropower Project owned and operated by the Town of Bedford, Virginia.

Dominion operates the project in a run-of-river mode whereby flows through the turbines and/or over the spillway crest (elevation 656 feet msl) equal inflow to the project reservoir, as follows. Through use of a level probe equipped with an alarm and a video camera, Dominion ensures that a continuous veil of flow occurs over the 1,500-foot-long spillway. When river flows are between the maximum and minimum hydraulic capacity of the powerhouse [4,150 cubic feet per second (cfs) maximum and 700 cfs minimum], plant operators increase or decrease flows through the turbines to maintain spill over the spillway. When river flow reaches 7,000 cfs, the units are taken off line and all inflow passes over the spillway because the head is insufficient to generate energy due to the increased tailrace elevation. Similarly, when inflow is less than 700 cfs, all inflow passes over the spillway.

References

Dams in Virginia
Gravity dams
James River (Virginia)
Hydroelectric power plants in Virginia

Cushaw Hydroelectric Project


Darwin Mounds is a large field of undersea sand mounds situated off the north west coast of Scotland that were first discovered in May 1998. They provide a unique habitat for ancient deep water coral reefs and were found using remote sensing techniques during surveys funded by the oil industry and steered by the joint industry and United Kingdom government group the Atlantic Frontier Environment Network (AFEN) (Masson and Jacobs 1998). The mounds were named after the research vessel, itself named for the eminent naturalist and evolutionary theorist Charles Darwin.

The mounds are about  below the surface of the North Atlantic ocean, approximately  north-west of Cape Wrath, the north-west tip of mainland Scotland. There are hundreds of mounds in the field, which in total cover approximately . Individual mounds are typically circular, up to  high and  wide. Most of the mounds are also distinguished by the presence of an additional feature referred to as a 'tail'. The tails are of a variable extent and may merge with others, but are generally a teardrop shape and are orientated south-west of the mound. The mound-tail feature of the Darwin Mounds is apparently unique globally.

Composition
The mounds are mostly sand, currently interpreted as "sand volcanoes". These features are caused when fluidised sand "de-waters" and the fluid bubbles up through the sand, pushing the sediment up into a cone shape. Sand volcanoes are common in the Devonian fossil record in UK, and in seismically active areas of the planet. In this case, tectonic activity is unlikely; some form of slumping on the south-west side of the undersea (Wyville-Thomson) Ridge being a more likely cause. The tops of the mounds have living stands of Lophelia and blocky rubble (interpreted as coral debris). The mounds provide one of the largest known northerly cold-water habitats for coral species. The mounds are also unusual in that Lophelia pertusa, a cold water coral, appears to be growing on sand rather than a hard substratum. Prior to research on the mounds in 2000, it was thought that Lophelia required a hard substratum for attachment.

The deep-water coral systems on the mounds are especially fragile. Unlike shallow-water coral reefs, they are not adapted to cope with minor disturbances such as wave action. The mounds also support significant populations of the xenophyophore Syringammina fragilissima. This is a giant single-celled organism (a protozoan) that is widespread in deep waters, but occurs in particularly high densities on the mounds and the tails. Individual xenophyophores can grow to be larger than  and are often very fragile. The corals themselves provide a habitat for a wide diversity of other marine life including sponges, worms, crustaceans and molluscs. Among these starfish, sea urchins and crabs. Various fish have been observed, including blue ling, roundnose grenadier, and the orange roughy.

Conservation efforts
On 23 October 2001, UK Minister Margaret Beckett made a commitment at WWF's Oceans Recovery Summit in Edinburgh to protect the Darwin Mounds. The summit launched the Edinburgh Declaration, targeting politicians and marine stakeholders alike to sign up to action to safeguard the seas. Deep water bottom trawling had been occurring in the area, with nets as heavy as one tonne dragged across the sea floor. Researcher Jason Hall-Spencer of the University of Glasgow had found pieces of coral at least 4,500 years old in the nets of trawlers operating off the coast of Ireland and Scotland. Pieces of coral up to  were found in the nets of French trawling vessels that had been scraping the seabed  down. It is known that much coral was destroyed by these nets and the mounds themselves in some areas were found to be scraped and flattened. The mounds are ancient structures, and this damage is permanent.

After the discovery of the mounds, three well-documented surveys of the area were undertaken, one in June 1998 (Bett 1999), August 1999 (Bett & Jacobs 2000,) and twice during summer 2000 (B. Bett, pers. comm.). Instruments deployed during the studies included side-scan sonar, stills and video cameras and piston corers. However, the entirety of what was lost to heavy-netted fishing trawlers remains unknown. On 22 March 2004 EU Fisheries Ministers in Brussels agreed to give permanent protection to the United Kingdom's unique cold-water coral reefs, recognising the Darwin Mounds as an important habitat. In 2004 deep-water bottom trawling in the area was made illegal.

See also
 List of reefs

References

External links
"Biogenic reefs – cold water corals", Joint Nature Conservation Committee, U.K. government, retrieved 8 December 2007
"Trawler ban to protect reefs, BBC News, 20 August 2003

1998 in science
1998 in Scotland
Coral reefs
Landforms of Highland (council area)
Physical oceanography
Reefs of the Atlantic Ocean
Reefs of Scotland
Scottish coast

Darwin Mounds


The White Ship () was a historic ship that sank in the English Channel. It went down near the Normandy coast off Barfleur, on 25 November 1120. Only two of those aboard survived. Those who drowned included William Adelin, the only surviving legitimate son and heir of King Henry I of England. William Adelin's death led to a succession crisis and a chain of events that changed the history of England.

Shipwreck
The White Ship was a new ship captained by Thomas FitzStephen. His father Stephen FitzAirard had been captain of the ship Mora for William the Conqueror when he invaded England in 1066. FitzStephen offered his ship to Henry I of England to use it to return to England from Barfleur in Normandy. Henry had already made other plans, but allowed many members of his royal court to take the White Ship. This included his only son, William Adelin. It also included his illegitimate son Richard of Lincoln, his illegitimate daughter Matilda FitzRoy, Countess of Perche and many other nobles. According to the chronicler Orderic Vitalis, the crew asked William Adelin for wine and he supplied it to them in great abundance. By the time the ship was ready to leave there were about 300 people on board although some had left before the ship sailed due to the excessive drinking going on.

The ship's captain, Thomas FitzStephen, was ordered by the revelers to catch up to and pass the king's ship which had already sailed. The White Ship was fast, of the best construction and had recently been fitted with new materials. This made the captain and crew certain they could reach England first. But when the ship left in the dark, its port side struck a submerged rock called Quillebœuf and the ship quickly sank. William Adelin got into a small boat and could have survived but he turned back to try to save his half-sister, Matilda (Countess of Perche), when he heard her cries for help. His boat filled with water when others tried to get in to save themselves, and William drowned along with them. According to Orderic Vitalis only two survived by clinging to the rock all night. One was a butcher from Rouen, the second was Geoffrey de l'Aigle. The chronicler further claimed that when Thomas FitzStephen came to the surface after the sinking and learned that William Adelin had not survived, he let himself drown rather than face the King.

One legend says that the ship was doomed because priests were not allowed to board it in the customary manner.

Descent into anarchy

A direct result of William Adelin's death was the period known as the Anarchy.  The White Ship disaster had left Henry I with only one legitimate child, a second daughter named Matilda.  Although Henry I had forced his barons to swear an oath to support Matilda as his heir on several occasions, a woman had never ruled in England in her own right.  Matilda was also unpopular because she was married to Geoffrey V, Count of Anjou. He was a traditional enemy of England's Norman nobles. Upon Henry's death in 1135, the English barons were not sure they wanted Matilda as queen Regnant.

One of Henry I's male relatives, Stephen of Blois, the king's nephew by his sister Adela, usurped Matilda as well as his older brothers William and Theobald to become king.  Stephen had allegedly planned to travel on the White Ship but had left just before it sailed; Orderic Vitalis attributes this to a sudden bout of diarrhoea.

After Henry I's death, Matilda and her husband Geoffrey of Anjou, the founder of the Plantagenet dynasty, started a long and devastating war against Stephen and his allies for control of the English throne. The period called the Anarchy lasted from 1135 to 1153 with devastating effect, especially in southern England.

A historian who lived about that time William of Malmesbury wrote:
{{quote| "Here also perished with William, Richard, another of the King's sons, whom a woman without rank had borne him, before his accession, a brave youth, and dear to his father from his obedience; Richard d'Avranches, second Earl of Chester, and his brother Otheur; Geoffrey Ridel; Walter of Everci; Geoffrey, archdeacon of Hereford; the Countess of Chester; the king's niece Lucia-Mahaut of Blois; and many others ... No ship ever brought so much misery to England."<ref>J.A. Guiles, William of Malmesbury's Chronicle of the Kings of England" (London: George Bell and Sons, 1904), p. 456</ref>}}

Poetry
 Dante Gabriel Rossetti, "The White Ship: a ballad"; first published 1881 in his collected Ballads and Sonnets.
 Geoffrey Hill, "The White Ship". In his first book, For the Unfallen'', 1959.
 Felicia Hemans, "He Never Smiled Again", c. 1830

Notes

References

Other websites

 The Wreck of the White Ship  on britannia.com

Ships
1120s

White Ship


Pyanopsia  (Πυανόψια) or Pyanepsia  (Πυανέψια) was an ancient Athenian festival held in honor of Apollo in Athens on the 7th day of the month Pyanepsion (October/November). Its name literally means "bean-stewing", in reference to one of the sacred offerings given during this time, and is taken from the Greek words πύανος - pyanos "bean" and ἕψειν - hepsein "to boil".

Mythical context
The Pyanopsia is linked to Theseus, the mythical king and founder-hero of Athens. In specific, the festival is linked to one of the Six Labours of Theseus, which was to kill the Minotaur on the Greek island of Crete. Before facing the Minotaur Theseus promised a thank offering to Apollo in rewards for favoring him during his quest. As a result of Apollo's divine favor, it is said that Theseus established the Pyanopsia, a tradition which was later continued by his hero-cult. The offerings given during the festival also relate to this founding myth, as Theseus' promised thanks came in the form of the eiresione (εἰρεσιώνη). The bean stew is related to the meal prepared by Theseus' crew following their landing back in Attica.

Theseus' status in the cultic calendar of Athens, as represented by festivals such as the Pyanepsion, is unique given the fact that Theseus is inherently an outsider to the Athenians, being born in Megara. Theseus, despite his status as a foreign entity in an intensely nationalistic city-state (he would later be named an honorary citizen in the 5th century BCE), became representative of many essential Athenian traits. In fact, it has even been proposed that his actions in and his journey to Crete came to represent the naval power of the Athenians after the Persian Wars. This reveals the dynamic nature of Athenian festivals, as new understandings and depictions of founding myths may in turn lead to new understandings of the festival. The Pyanopsia and other Theseus-based Greek festivals may not have only symbolically thanked Apollo for his actions and agricultural abundance, but also represented the values of their founders. The Pyanopsia also involved the worship of the Horae - the daughters of Themis, the goddess of divine law and order. By being worshipped at the Pyanopsia and a spring festival called the Thargelia, the Horai – Eunomia (well ordering) and Dike (right and justice) – are revealed as being connected to agriculture and vegetation.

Offerings
There were two offerings given to Apollo by the people of Athens during the Pyanopsia. One of these offerings came in the form of a stew made of boiled beans, grains, and other vegetables and cereals. This stew would have been prepared by the various households of Athens and then consumed on a community-wide basis as a part of the tradition of public-feasting in Athens. Athenian festivals were seen to be done in benefit to the state. The Attic calendar was one marked by frequent festivals to the gods which offered some form of divine patronage or assistance for Athenian state as a whole. In performing acts such as preparing and eating the Pyanopsia, Athenian citizens and those who participated across Attica were making use of a tradition whereby private actions were done to help the state as a whole. To be considered a proper and functioning Athenian, participation in civic feasting by both men and women was essential. By taking part in the preparation and consumption of the stew, Athenian men and their family members not only represented the agricultural abundance of the state and gave thanks to the gods, but also reinforced their status.

The other offering was the eiresione - εἰρεσιώνη. The eiresione was a branch of olive bound with purple or white wool, and hung with various fruits of the season, pastries, small jars of honey, oil, and wine, all of which served as symbols of agricultural abundance in thanks to Apollo. The fact that the eiresione is principally composed of an olive branch is of great importance. Due to its connections with Athena and the importance of olives to the wealth and success of the city of Athens, olive branches were seen as a representative of life and therefore vital to the spread of blessings to the people of Athens. The eiresione served as the most prominent example of the olive branch serving in such a capacity due to its prominence in the procession. In understanding the eiresione in such a way, the connections between the offerings given at the Pyanopsia and the success of the city are elucidated. According to Chisholm, "it was intended as a thank-offering for blessings received, and at the same time as a prayer for similar blessings and protection against evil in future; hence, it was called a suppliant branch (εἶρος)." The principal eirisione was carried in a procession by a group of singing boys who carried it to the Athenian Temple of Apollo, where it was suspended on the gate. Smaller eirsiones were also left by the boys on private households, in return for which the boys would receive presents. The branch was said to bring good fortune to the homes at which it was left, and would have been replaced on an annual basis during next year's Pyanopsia. There was also a chant sung during the procession which was recorded by Plutarch and went as follows: "Eiresin carries figs and rich cakes; Honey and oil in a jar to anoint the limbs; And pure wine, that she may be drunken and go to sleep"." In this song, the eiresione is effectively personified. By personifying the branch it was awarded special importance showing how the olive tree, an important cultic image of Athena and therefore the city of Athens, is connected to the success and fortune of the city and its denizens.

During the Pyanopsia, the Athenians seem to have also venerated the Horae (the goddesses of the seasons) and Helios, the god of the sun, with a feast as gods with connection to agriculture; a procession in their honour is attested, separate from the one at the Thargelia, and perhaps related to the Pyanopsia.

Significance and connections
The Pyanopsia is connected to other Greek Festivals. One such festival is the Thargelia, another Attic agricultural festival related to the god Apollo, which occurred in the Spring. Just as at the Pyanopsia, the Thargelia was staged by children of Athens who performed offerings with musical features, connected to the song sang at the Pyanopsia. An additional festival which the Pyanopsia seemingly resembles is the Procession of the Girls festival performed in Sparta. Though in a different region of Greece and occurring in modern-day May, the festival bears a number of striking resemblances to the Pyanopsia. The Procession of the Girls involved Spartan women bringing offerings to the altar of Artemis at Orthia, whilst singing a hymn.

The Pyanopsia is also connected to a common Greek practice of offering firstlings - the first and foremost produce of agriculture - to the Gods. The festival also gave its name to the month in which it occurred, Pyanepsion. The name Pyanopsia derives from the Greek term "pyana" which meant the "cooked beans" which were given to all members of an Athenian household during this festival. The Pyanopsia is also related to the buildings of the Ancient Athenian city center. During his time as king of Athens, Theseus constructed two buildings - the Bouleuterion and the Prytaneion - though only remains of the Prytaneion are still present. It is of special notice that even when much of the business of the old Agora, where the buildings were located, moved to the new Agora, the Prytaneion maintained the function of housing the Archon. The importance of this building is connected to its "sacred hearth" which is where the Pyanopsia departed from, emphasizing the sacred nature of the festival and its connections to the city.

Notes

References

 Parker, Robert, Polytheism and Society at Athens, Oxford University Press, 2005. .
Attribution
 Endnotes:
W. Mannhardt, Weld- und Feidkulte (1905), ii. 214, for an exhaustive account of the eiresin and its analogies;
J. G. Frazer, The Golden Bough (1900), i. 190; J. E. Harrison, Prolegomena to Greek Religion (1908), ch. 3;
L. R. Farnell, Cults of the Greek States (1907), iv. 286.

Festivals in ancient Athens
Festivals of Apollo
September observances
October observances
November observances
Horae
Helios

Pyanopsia


Lago Escondido (Spanish for Hidden Lake) is a village and lake in the Ushuaia department in Tierra del Fuego Province, Argentina. As of 2001 it has a population of 71, growing from 46 in 1991.

The villages which thrives lives mainly on logging and tourism, is located 57 km north of Ushuaia. There is a major sawmill works and timber operation in the area.

Lago Escondido is surrounded by forests and steep mountain ranges. The lake on which the village lies (and shares the same name) tends to change color depending on the sunlight.

See also
 Escondido Lake

Populated places in Tierra del Fuego Province, Argentina

Lago Escondido


A hot dog (commonly spelled hotdog) is a food consisting of a grilled or steamed sausage served in the slit of a partially sliced bun. The term hot dog can refer to the sausage itself. The sausage used is a wiener (Vienna sausage) or a frankfurter (Frankfurter Würstchen, also just called frank). The names of these sausages commonly refer to their assembled dish. Hot dog preparation and condiments vary worldwide. Typical condiments include mustard, ketchup, relish, onions in tomato sauce, and cheese sauce. Other toppings include sauerkraut, diced onions, jalapeños, chili, grated cheese, coleslaw, bacon, and olives. Hot dog variants include the corn dog and pigs in a blanket. The hot dog's cultural traditions include the Nathan's Hot Dog Eating Contest and the Oscar Mayer Wienermobile.

These types of sausages were culturally imported from Germany and became popular in the United States. It became a working-class street food in the U.S., sold at stands and carts. The hot dog became closely associated with baseball and American culture. Although particularly connected with New York City and its cuisine, the hot dog eventually became ubiquitous throughout the US during the 20th century. Its preparation varies regionally in the country, emerging as an important part of other regional cuisines, including Chicago street cuisine.

History

The word frankfurter comes from Frankfurt, Germany, where pork sausages similar to hot dogs originated. These sausages, Frankfurter Würstchen, were known since the 13th century and given to the people on the event of imperial coronations, starting with the coronation of Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor, as King. "Wiener" refers to Vienna, Austria (), home to a sausage made of a mixture of pork and beef. Johann Georg Lahner, an 18th/19th century butcher from the Franconian city of Coburg, is said to have brought the Frankfurter Würstchen to Vienna, where he added beef to the mixture and simply called it Frankfurter. Nowadays, in German-speaking countries, except Austria, hot dog sausages are called Wiener or Wiener Würstchen (Würstchen means "little sausage"), to differentiate them from the original pork-only mixture from Frankfurt. In Swiss German, it is called Wienerli, while in Austria the terms Frankfurter or Frankfurter Würstel are used.

  It is not definitively known who started the practice of serving the sausage in the bun.  One of the strongest claims comes from Harry M. Stevens who was a food concessionaire.  The claim is that, while working at the New York Polo Grounds in 1901, he came upon the idea of using small French rolls to hold the sausages when the waxed paper they were using ran out.

A German immigrant named Feuchtwanger, from Frankfurt, in Hesse, allegedly pioneered the practice in the American Midwest; there are several versions of the story with varying details. According to one account, Feuchtwanger's wife proposed the use of a bun in 1880: Feuchtwanger sold hot dogs on the streets of St. Louis, Missouri, and provided gloves to his customers so that they could handle the sausages without burning their hands. Losing money when customers did not return the gloves, Feuchtwanger's wife suggested serving the sausages in a roll instead. In another version, Antoine Feuchtwanger, or Anton Ludwig Feuchtwanger, served sausages in rolls at the World's Fair – either at the 1904 Louisiana Purchase Exposition in St. Louis, or, earlier, at the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition, in Chicago – again, allegedly because the white gloves provided to customers to protect their hands were being kept as souvenirs.

Another possible origin for serving the sausages in rolls is the pieman Charles Feltman, at Coney Island in New York City. In 1867 he had a cart made with a stove on which to boil sausages, and a compartment to keep buns in which they were served fresh. In 1871 he leased land to build a permanent restaurant, and the business grew, selling far more than just the "Coney Island Red Hots" as they were known.

Etymology

The term dog has been used as a synonym for sausage since the 1800s, possibly from accusations that sausage makers used dog meat in their sausages.

In Germany the consumption of dog meat was common in Saxony, Silesia, Anhalt, and Bavaria during the 19th and 20th centuries. Hot dogs occasionally contained it.

An early use of the term hot dog in reference to the sausage-meat appears in the Evansville (Indiana) Daily Courier (September 14, 1884):

even the innocent 'wienerworst' man will be barred from dispensing hot dog on the street corner.

It was used to mean a sausage in casing in the Paterson (New Jersey) Daily Press (31 December 1892):

the 'hot dog' was quickly inserted in a gash in a roll.

Subsequent uses include the New Brunswick Daily Times (New Jersey; May 20, 1893), the New York World (May 26, 1893), and the Knoxville Journal (September 28, 1893).

According to one story, the use of the complete phrase hot dog (in reference to sausage) was coined by the newspaper cartoonist Thomas Aloysius "Tad" Dorgan around 1900 in a cartoon recording the sale of hot dogs during a New York Giants baseball game at the Polo Grounds. He may have used the term because he did not know how to spell "dachshund".
 He used the term again in connection with a bicycle race at Madison Square Garden, in The New York Evening Journal December 12, 1906. No copy of the apocryphal cartoon has ever been found.

General description

Ingredients
Common hot dog sausage ingredients include:
Meat trimmings and fat
Flavorings, such as salt, garlic, and paprika
Preservatives (cure) – typically sodium erythorbate and sodium nitrite

Pork and beef are the traditional meats used in hot dogs. Less expensive hot dogs are often made from chicken or turkey, using low-cost mechanically separated poultry. Changes in meat technology and dietary preferences have led manufacturers to lower the salt content and use turkey, chicken, and vegetarian meat substitutes.

Commercial preparation

Hot dogs are prepared commercially by mixing the ingredients (meats, spices, binders and fillers) in vats where rapidly moving blades grind and mix the ingredients in the same operation. This mixture is forced through tubes into casings for cooking. Most hot dogs sold in the US are "skinless" rather than "natural casing" sausages.

Natural casing
As with most sausages, hot dogs must be in a casing to be cooked. Traditional casing is made from the small intestines of sheep. The products are known as "natural casing" hot dogs or frankfurters. These hot dogs have firmer texture and a "snap" that releases juices and flavor when the product is bitten.

Kosher casings are expensive in commercial quantities in the US, so kosher hot dogs are usually skinless or made with reconstituted collagen casings.

Skinless
"Skinless" hot dogs use a casing for cooking, but the casing may be a long tube of thin cellulose that is removed between cooking and packaging, a process invented in Chicago in 1925 by Erwin O. Freund, founder of Visking.

The first skinless hot dog casings were produced by Freund's new company under the name "Nojax", short for "no jackets" and sold to local Chicago sausage makers.

Skinless hot dogs vary in surface texture, but have a softer "bite" than with natural casing.  Skinless hot dogs are more uniform in shape and size and cheaper to make than natural casing hot dogs.

Home consumption
A hot dog may be prepared and served in various ways. Typically it is served in a hot dog bun with various condiments and toppings. The sausage itself may be sliced and added, without bread, to other dishes.

Sandwich debate
There is an ongoing debate about whether or not a hot dog fits the description of a sandwich. The National Hot Dog and Sausage Council (NHDSC) has declared that a hot dog is not a sandwich. Hot dog eating champions Joey Chestnut and Takeru Kobayashi agree with the NHDSC. Merriam-Webster, on the other hand, has stated that a hot dog is indeed a sandwich. United States Supreme Court justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg also weighed in on the matter, stating that a hot dog might be categorized as a sandwich, but ultimately it comes down to the definition of a sandwich. She went on to acknowledge that a hot dog bun is a single roll that is not sliced all the way through and in that way is similar to a submarine sandwich.

In June 2022, Jon Batiste stated that hot dogs were his favourite kind of sandwiches when he was given the Colbert Questionert by Stephen Colbert.

Health risks

Although hot dogs are cooked during manufacture, it is still recommended that packaged hot dogs are heated to an internal temperature of at least 165 °F (75 °C) prior to consumption.

Most hot dogs are high in fat and salt and have preservatives sodium nitrate and potassium nitrate, which are contributors to nitrate-containing chemicals classified as group 1 carcinogens by the World Health Organization, although this has been disputed. These health concerns have resulted in manufacturers offering alternative product lines made from turkey and chicken, and uncured, low-sodium, and "all-natural" franks.
Hot dogs have relatively low carcinogenic heterocyclic amine (HCA) levels compared to other types of ready-to-eat meat products because they are manufactured at low temperatures.

An American Institute for Cancer Research (AICR) report found that consuming one daily 50-gram serving of processed meat—about one hot dog—increases long-term risk of colorectal cancer by 20 percent. Thus, eating a hot dog every day would increase the probability of contracting colorectal cancer from 5.8 percent to 7 percent. The AICR's warning campaign has been criticized as being "attack ads". The Cancer Project group filed a class-action lawsuit demanding warning labels on packages and at sporting events.

Like many foods, hot dogs can cause illness if not cooked properly to kill pathogens. Listeria monocytogenes, a type of bacteria sometimes found in hot dogs, can cause serious infections in infants and pregnant women, and can be transmitted to an infant in utero or after birth. Adults with suppressed immune systems can also be harmed.

Due to their size, shape, and ubiquitous consumption, hot dogs present a significant choking risk, especially for children. A study in the US found that 17% of food-related asphyxiations among children younger than 10 years of age were caused by hot dogs. The risk of choking on a hot dog is greatly reduced by slicing it. It has been suggested that redesign of the size, shape and texture of hot dogs would reduce the choking risk.

In the United States

Hot dogs are a traditional element of American food culture, having obtained significant cultural and patriotic status from their association with public events and sports since the 1920s. In the US, the term hot dog refers to both the sausage by itself and the combination of sausage and bun. Many nicknames applying to either have emerged over the years, including frankfurter, frank, wiener, weenie, coney, and red hot.  Annually, Americans consume 20 billion hot dogs.

Restaurants
Stands and trucks sell hot dogs at street and highway locations.  Wandering hot dog vendors sell their product in baseball parks.  At convenience stores, hot dogs are kept heated on rotating grills. Hot dogs are also common on restaurants' children's menus. Costco, a big-box retail chain, sells a yearly average of 135 million hot dogs at its food courts, at a notably low price. Fast-food restaurant chains typically do not carry hot dogs because of its shorter shelf-life, more complex toppings and cooking, and mismatched consumer expectations.  There are also restaurants where hot dogs are a specialty.

Condiments
Hot dogs are commonly served with one or more condiments. In 2005, the US-based National Hot Dog & Sausage Council (part of the American Meat Institute) found mustard to be the most popular, preferred by 32% of respondents; 23% favored ketchup; 17% chili; 9% pickle relish, and 7% onions. Other toppings include sauerkraut, mayonnaise, lettuce, tomato, cheese, and chili peppers.

Condiment preferences vary across the U.S. Southerners showed the strongest preference for chili, while Midwesterners showed the greatest affinity for ketchup.

Variations

American hot dog variations often have misleading names; they are commonly named for the geographical regions that allegedly inspired them instead of the regions in which they are most popular. For example, michigan hot dogs, also known as white hots, are popular in upstate New York, whereas Coney Island hot dogs are popular in Michigan.
Sauteed bell peppers, onions, and potatoes find their way into New Jersey's deep-fried Italian hot dog. Hot wieners, or weenies, are a staple in Rhode Island where they are sold at restaurants under the misleading name "New York System." Texas hot dogs are spicy variants found in upstate New York and Pennsylvania (and as "all the way dogs" in New Jersey), but not Texas.  In the Philadelphia metro area, Texas Tommy refers to a hot dog variant in which the frank is topped with melted cheese (often cheddar) and wrapped in bacon. In the Midwest, the Chicago-style hot dog is served on a poppy seed bun and topped with mustard, fresh tomatoes, onions, "sport peppers", bright green relish, dill pickles, and celery salt.

The "New York dog" or "New York style" hot dog is a natural-casing all-beef frank topped with sauerkraut and spicy brown mustard, onions optional, invented and popularized in New York City.

Some baseball parks have signature hot dogs, such as Dodger Dogs at Dodger Stadium in Los Angeles, and Fenway Franks at Fenway Park in Boston.

Washington, D.C. is home to the half-smoke, a half beef, half pork sausage that is both grilled and smoked. A half-smoke is often placed into a hotdog-style bun and topped with chili, cheese, onions, and mustard, similar to a chili dog. Among the famous half-smoke restaurants in the Washington area include Ben's Chili Bowl, which is a cultural landmark, as well as Weenie Beenie in Arlington, Virginia.

In Canada
Skinner's Restaurant, in Lockport, Manitoba, is reputed to be Canada's oldest hot dog outlet in continuous operation, founded in 1929 by Jim Skinner Sr. Hot dogs served at Skinner's are European style foot-long (30.5 cm) hot dogs with natural casings, manufactured by Winnipeg Old Country Sausage in Winnipeg, Manitoba.

The Half Moon Drive In, also in Lockport, Manitoba, and located directly across the river from Skinner's, was established in 1938 by brothers Peter and Louie Kosowicz. The original drive-in consisted of three wooden buildings shaped like semicircles—one was for takeout, one was for dine-in, and the third was a dance hall and later an arcade. The Half Moon also serves European-style wieners manufactured by Winnipeg Old Country Sausage.  One of the most popular items on the menu is the Moon Dog, consisting of a hot dog topped with cheese, bacon, fried onions, pickles and mustard; the Half Moon serves about 2,000 on an average summer weekend day.

Outside North America

In most of the world, a "hot dog" is recognized as a sausage in a bun, but the type varies considerably. The name is often applied to something that would not be described as a hot dog in North America. For example, in New Zealand a "hot dog" is a battered sausage, often on a stick, which is known as a corn dog in North America; an "American hot dog" is the version in a bun.

Gallery

Records

The world's longest hot dog had been  long and rested within a  bun. The hot dog was prepared by Shizuoka Meat Producers for the All-Japan Bread Association, which baked the bun and coordinated the event, including official measurement for the world record. The hot dog and bun were the center of a media event in celebration of the Association's 50th anniversary on August 4, 2006, at the Akasaka Prince Hotel in Tokyo.

On May 31, 2012, Guinness World Records certified the world record for the most expensive hot dog at USD$145.49.  The "California Capitol City Dawg", served at Capitol Dawg in Sacramento, California, features a grilled  all-beef, natural-casing frank from Chicago, served on a fresh-baked herb-and-oil focaccia roll, spread with white truffle butter, then grilled.  It is topped with whole-grain mustard from France, garlic and herb mayonnaise, sauteed chopped shallots, organic mixed baby greens, maple syrup-marinated and fruitwood-smoked uncured bacon from New Hampshire, chopped tomato, moose cheese from Sweden, sweetened dried cranberries, basil olive oil and pear-cranberry-coconut balsamic vinaigrette, and ground peppercorn.  Proceeds from the sale of each  super dog were donated to the Shriners Hospitals for Children.

Hot dogs are a popular food for eating competitions. The record for hot dogs eaten in 10 minutes is 75. This record is held by Joey Chestnut, who achieved this feat at the Nathan's Hot Dog Eating Contest on July 4, 2020, beating his previous record of 74. The last person to hold the record before Chestnut was Takeru Kobayashi. Competitive eater Miki Sudo holds the record for most hot dogs eaten in 10 minutes by a female at 48.5 hot dogs, also setting this record on July 4, 2020. The last person to hold the record before Sudo was Sonya Thomas.

See also

 Advanced meat recovery
 Breakfast roll
 Corn dog
 Hamburger
 Hot dog variations
 List of hot dogs
 List of hot dog restaurants
 Mechanically separated meat
 Pigs in a blanket
 Sausage sandwich
 Vienna sausage

References

Notes

Bibliography

Further reading

External links

 Home page for a PBS documentary about hot dogs
 USDA Fact Sheet on hot dogs

American fast food
Articles containing video clips
Cuisine of Chicago
Cuisine of New York City
German-American cuisine
Hot sandwiches
Independence Day (United States) foods
National dishes
Sausage sandwiches
Street food in the United States
American sandwiches

Hot dog


The  is a small to medium breed of dog, mainly used as a companion dog (although they can be used as a watchdog). Standards (requirements) usually vary across the world for these dogs. Developed in Japan during the 1920s and 30s, they were bred by breeding some Spitz type dog breeds. The breed is recognized by most kennel clubs except the AKC. It is a new breed, however it is growing in popularity due to their good temperament (behaviour).

These dogs are known for being smart, easy to train, and good with children. They can be protective of their owner(s), hence why they can be good watchdogs. They can bark if people they do not know enter their territory.

Dog breeds originating in Japan
FCI breeds

Japanese Spitz


Marston Green is a veelage o aroond 5000 residents in the Metropolitan Borough of Solihull in the Wast Midlands, approximately 7 mile frae Birmingham.

The veelage is adjacent tae Birmingham Internaitional Airport an the Naitional Exhibition Centre. Marston Green railway station lies on the Birmingham loop o the Wast Coast Main Line railway an is served bi Lunnon Midland local trains tae Birmingham an Coventry, an a sma number o semi fast services tae Northampton an Lunnon Euston. Notable featurs o the aurie include a number o shops, the Marston Green Tavern, St Leonards Kirk an Marston Green Infant an Junior schuils.

History
Marston Green began as a sma veelage surroondit bi agricultural land in the estate o Coleshill at this time, the veelage wis kent as Merstone. The veelage grew intae a leafy suburb in the late nineteent an early twintiet centuries, due tae the construction o mony detached and semi-detached homes in the 1930s, which were typical of many suburban hames in the aurie.  The growth o hames here wis encouraged bi the presence o a rail station.  Follaein the expansion o the nearbi Birmingham Internaitional Airport, the construction o the Naitional Exhibition Centre an the local hoosin estate o Chelmsley Wood, Marston Green haes grown lairgely intae a commuter veelage wi mony o its residents wirkin in Solihull an Birmingham.

There wis a Canadian airforce base in Marston Green durin the Seicont Warld War.  Efterwards, the biggins wur uised as a maternity hospital an then a psychiatric hospital.  They wur demolished in the 1990s.

The veelage is pairt o the ceevil parish o Bickenhill.

Freemit airtins

1891 Ordnance Survey map o Marston Green

Marston Green & District Lions Club serving Marston Green and Chelmsley Wood since 1977

Veelages in the Wast Midlands (coonty)
Solihull

Marston Green


Ela Gandhi (born 1 July 1940) is a South African politician and peace activist. She was a Member of Parliament in South Africa from 1994 to 2004. Gandhi is the granddaughter of Mahatma Gandhi.

Life
Ela Gandhi was born in Durban, South Africa. She grew up in Ashram near Durban. She received her B.A. degree at the former Natal University and later received a B.A. in social science from the University of South Africa.  After her graduation, she worked as a social worker with the Verulam Child and Family Welfare Society for 15 years. She also worked with the Durban Indian Child and Family Welfare Society for five years.

Resistance against apartheid
Ela Gandhi was subject to a "banning order" by the apartheid-era South African government. She was banned in 1975 from political activism and subjected to house arrest for a total of nine years. She kept working underground for an end to the practice.

Banning was a repressive and extrajudicial measure used by the South African apartheidregime (1948–1994) against its political opponents.

Furthermore, Ela Ghandi was Founder of the Natal Organisation of Women. The Natal Organisation of Women was a regional women's organization in South Africa in the Natal area. It included women from all ages, class and races.  The issues they focused on included the cost of living, housing and problems surrounding maternity and childcare in South Africa. Her goal as an activist was to bring about awareness among people.

Moreover, she was a member member of the NIC, ANC and the UDF. NIC stands for the Natal Indian Congress, it was the first of the Indian Congresses to be formed. It was established in 1894 by Mahatma Gandhi to fight discrimination against Indian traders in Natal. ANC are the first letters of African National Congress which was South African political party and Black nationalist organization. Founded in 1912, its main goal was the maintenance of voting rights for Black people. Last but not least UDF stands for United Democratic Front (UDF), which brought all the communities together.

From 1994-2004, she was a Member of the South African Parliament helping to deconstruct apartheid.

Post parliament
Ela Ghandi developed a 24-hour program against domestic violence, founded the Gandhi Development Trust and still serves as a member of the Religious Affairs Committee. She chairs the Mahatma Gandhi Salt March Committee and the Mahatma Gandhi Development Trust.

Family
Ela Ghandi is the granddaughter of the famous Mahatma Ghandi. Mahatma Ghandi was an Indian lawyer, publicist, moral teacher and leader of the Indian independence movement. He developed methods of non-violent political struggle for the equallity of the Indians.

Ela Ghandi's father Manilal Ghandi, was the second son of Mahatma Ghandi. Among other things, he took part in the Kliptown Conference which resulted in the Freedom Charter. Manilal Ghandi, like his father, was sent to prison several times because of his protest against unjust laws.

Sushila Mashruwala, the mother of Ela Gandhi founded a non-racist school for children at the Ghandi House in Pheonix. However, the authorities had to close the school again because it had violated the apartheid policy.

One of her sons was killed during the struggle against apartheid.

Awards and recognitions

 Community of Christ International Peace Award (2002)
 Padma Bhushan Award (2007)
 Shanti Doot International Award (2013)
 Pravasi Bharatiya Samman for public service (2014) -  the highest honour for overseas Indians conferred by the President of India
 honoured as a veteran of the Umkhonto we Sizwe (2014)

References

"Ela Gandhi" - South African History Online
Shanti Doot International Award - Hindustan Times, 13 Sep 2013
Durban Living Legend - Ela Gandhi - UWALZI Sharing indigenous knowledge
Mahatma Gandhi's South African Family: The rich legacy that India forgot - WION, 8 Jun 2021

1940 births
Living people
South African MPs

Ela Gandhi


Two Door Cinema Club are a Northern Irish pop-rock band from Bangor, County Down.

The band formed in 2007 and consists of three main members; Alex Trimble, Kevin Baird and Sam Halliday. Trimble and Halliday met while attending Bangor Grammar School. The two later met Kevin Baird while he was flirting with girls who Trimble and Halliday knew. The three first performed as a band at the age of 16 on Northern Irish television programme ATL Rock School under the name Life Without Rory. However, the band finished in last place.

On 18 January 2011, the band appeared on the American late night talk show, Late Night with Jimmy Fallon, performing the song, "What You Know". The song would go on to become the biggest hit of the 2010 album "Tourist History".

Discography
Tourist History (2010)
Beacon (2012)
Gameshow (2016)
False Alarm (2019)

2000s British music groups
2010s British music groups
Musical groups established in 2007

Organisations based in Northern Ireland

Two Door Cinema Club


Fantasy wrestling is an umbrella term representing the genre of role-playing and statistics-based games which are set in the world of professional wrestling. Several variants of fantasy wrestling exist which may be differentiated by the way they are transmitted (through websites, message boards, e-mail, postal mail, face-to-face, etc.), the method in which the storyline is determined, (via roleplay, "angles", strategy- or statistics-based systems, etc.) and how the roster is composed (are characters created by the players, are real wrestlers "imported" into the game, etc.).

Fantasy wrestling's roots lie in the play-by-mail wrestling games often featured in professional wrestling magazines that became prominent in the mid-to-late 1980s during one of professional wrestling's boom periods. By the late 1980s, fantasy wrestling games had started to appear on the internet. In the early 1990s, the advent of national bulletin board services like Prodigy, AOL, and Compuserve allowed players to use e-mail and bulletin boards to more easily trade information and post roleplays. As technology progressed and the internet evolved, fantasy wrestling enthusiasts took advantage, using websites and newsgroups to connect and build broader communities for gameplay.

History and progression

Creation of character(s)
In order to begin fantasy wrestling, one must create a custom character. Some people will elect to use pro-wrestlers over their own, custom characters; this can be either allowed or rejected by the administrator of the federation. Usually, one will decide the following: physical appearance (height, weight, sex; these can be copied through "renders" - images of pro-wrestlers - or through their imagination/CAW mechanics through wrestling games), moveset (style, signature moves, finishing moves, etc.), fan reaction (heel or face; booed or cheered), and entrance music. Once this is all decided, the character is named and the player can begin to promo in the federation. Some players create multiple characters, either for choice for playing or to freshen the experience/start new.

Play-by-mail
Early versions of the game began in the 1980s using play-by-mail formats.  Based on the moves and any strategies applied the adjudicator would then decide the outcome.  Play-by-mail leagues often included a 'pay to play' model where handlers paid a fee per match and/or 'strategy' applied.  The later expansion into email was a natural progression, often using the same mechanics as the pbm format.

Internet email play
In the late 1980s, e-wrestling got started on the Internet, played by email and often advertised via Usenet, including rec.games.pbm and rec.games.frp. The early games followed the model of a simplified role-playing game with "combat systems" of varying complexity, resolved by the Federation Head, or "Fedhead."  The role-playing aspect was significant and the fast turn-around of email allowed for collaboration in the creation of "promos" and the formation of tag-teams and "stables" made up of multiple players.  The term e-wrestling was coined about this time, probably by Scott Baxter, since there were enough federations active to require a collective noun.  By 1989, there was enough activity for a dedicated Usenet group, rec.sports.pro-wrestling.fantasy, to be created.

Email play persisted, as was still common enough in 1995 to rate the occasional mention in annual reviews, although not always favourably.

Online bulletin boards
Fantasy wrestling expanded in the early 1990s with the rise of nationwide message boards based on PRODIGY, AOL and Compuserve. Originally connected to message boards focused on professional and amateur wrestling, fantasy wrestling's popularity caused specific subforums to be created on PRODIGY's Wrestling BB and AOL's Grandstand. The games based on the online boards had some differences from the federations operating on the Internet via email and Usenet.  Many stat-based systems found ways to integrate roleplay as a factor into determining match winners, paralleling similar developments in some of the Internet email federations. Eventually, roleplay became the primary factor for many leagues.

The Web
As the previously isolated message board services began to connect to the Internet, the disparate communities began to overlap, and much of the activity began to migrate to the World Wide Web.  The use of roleplay and promos became a larger factor in the operation of many leagues and determining results.

The first websites featuring fantasy wrestling began to pop up as the World Wide Web started to develop.  An early example was "The Wild World of e-Wrestling," which was devoted to the Internet-based games, and "FW Central," a site devoted to the PRODIGY-based fantasy wrestling community based on PRODIGY. These sites offered new places for players to interact and expand the hobby, providing online news and resources.

As the web matured, so did sites devoted to the hobby. The various federations, which had been exclusively text-based, or nearly so, began to integrate Poser images of created wrestlers, animated videos, audio shows, and vlogs.

Current
Fantasy wrestling continues to evolve. Traditionally, most roleplays (referred to as "promos") revolved around more traditional pro-wrestling topics, focused on trash talking an opponent and hyping an upcoming match, although extensive storylines existed, and gag advertising was fairly common. Longer form roleplay has continued to gain in popularity, resulting in detailed stories and arcs.

However, roleplay is not the only form of fantasy wrestling currently available. There are also federations based around angles and booking, there are turn-based sites that allow you and an opponent to alternate between different parts of the match until a moderator decides who wins. Another niche is match-writing federations. Seen as one of the more challenging types, match-writing federations require you to write your match against your opponents and the winner's match is seen as canon. Stat or dice based federations continue to thrive, as well, sometimes deliberately harkening back to the earlier days of the hobby.

Another method of fantasy wrestling currently used is called "E-Fedding" (a slang term for E-Federations, internet groups that identify as fictional companies). Individuals roleplay with promos, written similar to a screenplay of a movie, and the moderators/administrators of the forum/group decide the winner(s) based on the promos written, storylines in play/building, along with other factors that may present themselves. On Facebook, several E-Federations can be found.

Some players have created social media accounts now to live out the lives of their characters in ways a typical roleplay could not show.

In the now shutdown social media website Google+, users would create communities for Fantasy Wrestling role-play. Often, these communities involved the community members voting for who they deemed winner of the fantasy matches. The members of the community would choose the victor based on which participant in the match made the better promo in their opinions. These wrestling role-play communities became very popular among wrestling fans on Google+. With the biggest community, named World Wrestling Role-play (WWR), having over 800 members.

CAW-Leagues
A form of fantasy wrestling that revolves around produced shows using recordings or livestreams of matches featuring custom characters in wrestling video games. They are also often called E-Feds. CAW-Leagues are named after the Create-A-Wrestler mode, the name of the character creation tool in several, usually older, wrestling games. Modern games changed the terminology but colloquially custom wrestlers are still called CAWs.

Shows are usually run by a sole fedhead, who may be assisted by other users who help them book the show or help them with presentation or production. Some leagues are closer to real-life pro-wrestling with pre-determined outcomes and planned storylines while others simulate or play matches and take whichever outcome they get.

Feds are not necessarily part of a community but many of them are organized on websites, forums or, more loosely, in Discord severs and other social media platforms. Feds run under a community umbrella may also share a continuity, requiring fedheads to work together to some extent.

Production values can range from only footage of the game used, with no alterations, to more elaborate presentations featuring commentary as well as promos or other segments.

Pro wrestling companies in fantasy wrestling
In 2004, World Wrestling Entertainment began its own fantasy wrestling game focused on selecting WWE Superstars as part of a team and receiving points based on their involvement on the WWE television shows.  WWE singled out "real wrestling" E-Feds who used the names and likenesses of WWE Superstars and began sending them cease-and-desist letters. WWE later disbanded its fantasy wrestling game.

Between 2005 and 2006, Total Nonstop Action Wrestling also operated their own fantasy wrestling game. The game operated from the promotion's message boards and was based on real wrestlers. The game never gained notoriety and was removed along with the message boards from the promotion's website in late 2006. In June 2011, TNA relaunched their fantasy wrestling game as a part of their Impact Wrestling campaign.

References

Fantasy sports

it:Terminologia del wrestling#E

Fantasy wrestling


Biculturalism in sociology describes the co-existence, to varying degrees, of two originally distinct cultures.

Official policy recognizing, fostering, or encouraging biculturalism typically emerges in countries that have emerged from a history of national or ethnic conflict in which neither side has gained complete victory. This condition usually arises from colonial settlement. Resulting conflicts may take place either between the colonisers and indigenous peoples (as in Fiji) and/or between rival groups of colonisers (as in, for example, South Africa). A deliberate policy of biculturalism influences the structures and decisions of governments to ensure that they allocate political and economic power and influence equitably between people and/or groups identified with each side of the cultural divide.

Examples include the conflicts between Anglophone and Francophone Canadians, between Anglophone White South Africans and Boers, and between the indigenous Māori people and European settlers in New Zealand. The term biculturalism was originally adopted in Canada, most notably by the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism (1963–1969), which recommended that Canada become officially bilingual.

Because the term biculturalism suggests, more or less explicitly, that only two cultures merit formal recognition, advocates of multiculturalism (for which biculturalism formed a precedent) may regard bicultural outlooks as inadequately progressive by comparison. This was the case in Canada where Ukrainian Canadians activists such as Jaroslav Rudnyckyj, Paul Yuzyk and other "third force" successfully pressured the Canadian government to adopt multiculturalism as official policy in 1971.

In the context of relations between the cultures of deafness and non-deafness, people find the word "biculturalism" less controversial because the distinction between spoken language and sign language commonly seems like a genuine binary distinction—transcending the distinctions between various spoken languages.

In the context of the United States of America, bicultural distinctions have traditionally existed between the US and Mexico, and between the White and the African-American population of the US.

Regions which formally recognize biculturalism include:

 Belgium, divided basically between speakers of French and of Dutch
 Vanuatu, formerly a condominium with both French and British politico-administrative traditions
 the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, retrospectively termed "The Commonwealth of Both Peoples"
 Switzerland, overwhelmingly German and French in language (though with recognition of Italian and Romansch)
 Paraguay, with a population 90% of which speaks Guaraní and 99% of which speaks Spanish
 New Zealand, where the Treaty of Waitangi forms the basis of a relationship between the Crown and Māori iwi (tribes) through which te reo Māori is recognised as an official language, and Māori have protected representation in Parliament through the Māori electorates
Hong Kong, where both Chinese and English are official languages

Biculturalism can also refer to individuals (see bicultural identity).

See also
 Bilingualism
 Creolization
 Interracial marriage
 Canadian identity
 Bilingualism in Canada
 Melting pot
 Salad bowl (cultural idea)
 Cultural mosaic
 Plurinationalism
 One-state solution

References

Political terminology in Canada
Multiculturalism
Cultural politics
Majority–minority relations
Interculturalism
Cross-cultural studies
National identity
Sociology of culture

Biculturalism


Chamant (1874–1898) was a French-bred, British-trained Thoroughbred racehorse and sire who won the classic 2000 Guineas in 1877. In a career that lasted from July 1876 to May 1877 he ran eleven times and won five races. In 1876, Chamant won one of his first six races, but showed improved form at Newmarket in autumn when he won both the Middle Park Stakes and the Dewhurst Stakes. In 1877, Chamant won the 2000 Guineas and started second favourite for The Derby despite being found to be lame before the race. He finished unplaced behind Silvio, aggravating a back injury which ended his racing career. He later became a successful stallion in Germany.

Background
Chamant was a bay horse bred at the Haras Dangu stud of his owner Comte Frederic de Lagrange. Lagrange had extensive racing and breeding interests on both sides of the English Channel in partnership with his compatriot Claude Joachim Lefèvre. Chamant was sired by Mortemer, a French-bred horse who won the Ascot Gold Cup for Lefevre in 1871. Chamant's dam, Araucaria, was a daughter of Pocahontas, the foundation mare of Thoroughbred family 3-n. Araucaria was an important broodmare in her own right: apart from Chamant she produced the St Leger winner Rayon d'Or and the 1000 Guineas winner Camelia.

Like his sire Mortemer, Chamant was named after a village in Picardy. Lagrange sent the colt to his private trainer Thomas Jennings at his Phantom House stable at Newmarket, Suffolk.

Racing career

1876: two-year-old season
Chamant arrived at Jennings' yard from France in June 1876, and it was some time before the trainer could bring him to peak condition. Despite not yet being fully fit, he began his racing career shortly afterwards, when he finished unplaced behind Warren Hastings in the July Stakes. He then finished second in the Lavant Stakes at Goodwwod before being sent to compete at Lewes Racecourse where he ran twice. After finishing unplaced behind the filly Placida in the Astley Stakes he recorded his first win in the £465 Priory Stakes.

At Doncaster in September, Chamant finished unplaced behind the filly Lady Golightly in the Champagne Stakes and third in another race at the same meeting. At Newmarket in October, Lagrange's colt started a 20/1 outsider for the year's most valuable two-year-old race, the six furlong Middle Park Plate, for which Lady Golightly was made 2/1 favourite. In a closely contested finish, Chamant won by a head from Pelegrino, just ahead of Plunger and Lady Golightly. According to press reports, he was "brilliantly ridden" by Jem Goater, but many observers considered the result to be a "fluke". Later that month Chamant, ridden again by Goater, started 9/4 for the seven furlong Dewhurst Stakes. Despite carrying a five pound weight penalty for winning the Middle Park Plate, he won impressively from Plunger to establish himself as the best two-year-old seen in Britain that season.

Chamant's earnings of £5,930 made him the third most successful horse of 1876 in Britain, behind the three-year-old classic winners Petrarch and Kisber. The success of Chamant, and other horses owned by Lagrange, led Lord Falmouth (the owner of Lady Golightly) to call for foreign horses to be banned from competing in British races. Falmouth unsuccessfully took his proposal to a general meeting of the Jockey Club in 1877.

1877: three-year-old season
Chamant reportedly thrived over the winter and by early 1877, the French colt was favourite for both the 2000 Guineas and the Derby, at odds of 3/1 and 6/1 respectively. On his first appearance of the season, Chamant was allowed to walk over at a race at Newmarket in April when the other entries were withdrawn by their owners. Following a large gamble on a previously unraced colt named Morier, Chamant started 9/4 second favourite in a field of eleven runners for the 2000 Guineas over the Rowley Mile course on 2 May. Ridden by Goater, Chamant tracked the leaders before taking the lead at half way. He was never seriously challenged and won with "consummate ease" from the American-bred Brown Prince with Lord Falmouth's Silvio in third. A telegram reporting the result to Australia became so garbled that it was interpreted as referring to the ongoing Russo-Turkish War and newspapers described an action in which 2,000 men were led to victory by "Chamat Croun" and "Prince Silvio".

Four weeks later, Chamant faced sixteen opponents in the Derby at Epsom, and started second favourite behind Rob Roy. He had been favourite for the race for months, but his appearance in the paddock before the race caused serious concern, as he was seen to be lame in his hock. Lagrange was advised to withdraw the colt but decided to allow him to run. The odds against the French horse fluctuated wildly in the half-hour before the race, drifting from 6/4 to 20/1 before settling at 4/1. Chamant was not among the early leaders but improved to fourth place at half way. In the straight he briefly looked likely to challenge the leaders, but weakened in the final furlong and finished tenth behind Silvio.

A back injury sustained in the 2000 Guineas had deteriorated throughout the season and by autumn the horse was also beginning to develop respiratory trouble which may have been a form of Roarer Syndrome. Despite his problems, Chamant was still strongly fancied for the St Leger, but he never raced again and was retired to stud at the end of the season. In December 1877, Chamant was put up for auction at Tattersalls but was not sold as he failed to reach his reserve price of £6,000.

Stud career
Chamant began his stud career at the Haras Dangu, but after a single covering season he was sold for £4,000 and exported to stand as a stallion at the German Imperial Stud at Graditz. He remained at Graditz until 1892 when he was moved to another Imperial Stud at Beberbeck where he lived for six years before dying of heart disease in 1898.

Chamant sired three winners of the Deutsches Derby (Potrimpos, Peter and Habenichts) five winners of the Mehl-Mulhens-Rennen (German 2000 Guineas) and was the leading sire in Germany on six occasions. Apart from his success with Thoroughbreds, Chamant was also influential in the development of the Trakehner breed.

Pedigree

References

1874 racehorse births
1898 racehorse deaths
Racehorses bred in France
Racehorses trained in the United Kingdom
Thoroughbred family 3-n
Byerley Turk sire line
2000 Guineas winners

Chamant (horse)


Matthew Ducie Moreton, 2nd Baron Ducie (died 1770) of Tortworth, Gloucestershire, was a British Whig politician who sat in the House of Commons between 1721 and 1735 winning by-elections at four separate constituencies but never winning at a general election. He vacated his seat when he succeeded to the peerage as Baron Ducie.

Moreton was the eldest son of Matthew Moreton, 1st Baron Ducie and his wife Arabella Prestwick, daughter of Sir Thomas Prestwick, 2nd Baronet, of Hulme, Lancashire. He was possibly educated at Harrow School.

Moreton's father left the House of Commons in 1720 on being raised to the peerage and the son was elected Member of Parliament for Cricklade at a contested by-election on 1 February 1721. Thereafter, he voted consistently for the Administration. He was defeated by a single vote at the 1722 general election. He was then elected MP for Calne at another contested by-election on 28 February 1723, possibly on the interest of Walter Hungerford to whom he was related. He stood in a contest for Gloucester at the 1727 general election, but was caught up in a double return and waived his rights. The Administration brought him in for Tregony at a by-election on 6 February 1729. He was subsequently brought in for Lostwithiel at a further by-election on 31 March 1735. A month later on 2 May 1735, he succeeded to the peerage as Baron Ducie on the death of his father.

When Walpole's government fell in 1742, Lord Ducie agreed to hold the office of surveyor of the petty customs in London in trust for Henry Bilson-Legge and Benjamin Keene, but in 1752 he asked to be relieved of it. In 1755 he was appointed Constable of St. Briavels, Warden of the Forest of Dean and Lord Lieutenant of Gloucestershire holding the posts to 1758, and High Steward of Gloucester which he held until 1766. He was unmarried and as his barony would become extinct, he was created Baron Ducie of Tortworth, on 27 April 1763 with a special remainder to the descent of his sister Elizabeth, who married Francis Reynolds.

Lord Ducie died unmarried in December 1770 and was succeeded by his nephew Thomas Reynolds, who adopted the name Moreton.

References

1690s births
1770 deaths
Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for English constituencies
British MPs 1715–1722
British MPs 1722–1727
British MPs 1727–1734
British MPs 1734–1741
Barons in the Peerage of Great Britain

Matthew Ducie Moreton, 2nd Baron Ducie


An iceway is a linear channel eroded through bedrock by the passage of glacial ice. The term was coined by geographer Ronald Kay Gresswell in a paper in 1964 in relation to the origins of the Dee and Mersey estuaries on the boundary of northwest England and northeast Wales. Gresswell identified several such sub-parallel features running in a northwest to southeast direction from Liverpool Bay through Merseyside into Cheshire. The Dee estuary and its landward continuation south of Chester as far as Farndon along with the Mersey estuary are the two largest iceways discerned in this region. Further iceways were identified underlying the lower Gowy valley and the Alt-Ditton depression east of Liverpool. Each of these have also been referred to as tunnel valleys.

References

Glaciology
Glacial landforms

Iceway


The Heraea was an ancient Greek festival in which young girls competed in a footrace.  The race was held every four years at Olympia, and probably took place around the same time as the ancient Olympic Games.

Overview

Not much is known about the Heraea, but most of our knowledge comes from Pausanias' Description of Greece.  The date that the festival began is uncertain.  Pausanias says that the games are  (, "old").  There is evidence for cult activity in Olympia as far back as the tenth century BC, but the earliest cultic activity at the site appears to centre around the cult of Zeus; the cult of Hera was certainly in place by about 600 BC, when the first temple of Hera at Olympia was built.  It is uncertain whether the races were an original feature of the festival, or a later addition.  One story in Pausanias associates the sixteen women responsible for the Heraea with the conflict between Elis and Pisa after the death of Damophon, tyrant of Pisa around 580 BC.  If the festival were already established by this point, there may have been a re-organisation around this time (as there was at other Greek festivals in the late archaic period).

The only event at the Heraean Games was the stadion, which was one sixth shorter than the equivalent men's race.  Only parthenoi (unmarried young women) competed in the games.  Competitors raced in three different age categories, though it is uncertain exactly how old the competitors were.  They wore a distinctive outfit of a short chiton cut above the knees, which left the right shoulder and breast bare, and wore their hair loose.  This outfit may have derived from the exomis, a variant of the chiton worn by labourers and associated with Hephaestus.

The winners were awarded a crown of olive leaves and a portion of a cow which was sacrificed to Hera.  They were also permitted to dedicate statues inscribed with their name to Hera, though none of these statues survive.

The festival of the Heraea was presided over by a group of sixteen women, who as well as conducting the games were responsible for weaving a peplos for Hera and arranging choral dances in honour of Hippodameia and Physcoa.  Pausanias gives two stories about these sixteen women.  The first is that the Heraia was founded by Hippodamia and the first games were held to celebrate her marriage to Pelops, and she selected sixteen women to compete in the games.  The second is that to settle a dispute between Elis and Pisa, the Eleans selected a wise elderly woman from each of sixteen polites in ancient Elis to settle the dispute; these women were also given the responsibility of organising the Heraea.

The Heraean Games may have been puberty rites or pre-nuptial rituals.  Matthew Dillon argues that as there were three different age categories for competitors, the ceremonies were unlikely to be associated with marriage.  On the other hand, the races were associated with a mythological wedding, and other races between girls in ancient Greece (such as a footrace in honour of Dionysos held at Sparta, also described by Pausanias) seem to have been associated with pre-nuptial initiations.

References

Footnotes

Works cited

External links

Ancient Greek athletic festivals
Ancient Greek women
Ancient Olympia
Festivals of Hera
Panhellenic Games
Women's sports competitions
Women's sport in Greece
6th-century BC establishments in Greece

Heraean Games


Sibaropsis is a monotypic genus of flowering plants in the family Brassicaceae containing the single species Sibaropsis hammittii, which is known by the common name Hammitt's clay-cress. It is endemic to California, where it is known from two locations in the Peninsular Ranges. The plant is known from the Santa Ana Mountains of Riverside County and Viejas Mountain and nearby peaks east of San Diego. It grows in grassy habitat in openings in chaparral alongside purple needlegrass (Nassella pulchra), generally in moist areas in heavy clay soils. This species and its genus were first described to science in 1997.

This is an annual herb producing a waxy, hairless or slightly hairy stem up to about 20 centimeters tall. The leaves are linear in shape, measuring up to 4.5 centimeters long and about a millimeter wide. The inflorescence produces mustardlike flowers with four spoon-shaped, dark-veined, purple-pink petals each about a centimeter long. The fruit is a long, narrow, flat silique measuring 1.5 to 2.5 centimeters long and under a millimeter wide. This fruit contains up to 44 minute seeds.

References

External links
Jepson Manual Treatment
USDA Plants Profile
Flora of North America
Photo gallery

Brassicaceae
Endemic flora of California
Monotypic Brassicaceae genera

Sibaropsis


Augustin Friedrich Walther (26 October 1688 – 12 October 1746) was a German anatomist, botanist and physician who was a native of Wittenberg. He was the son of theologian Michael Walther the Younger (1638–1692).

In 1712 he earned his degree of philosophy from the University of Wittenberg, and in the following year received his medical doctorate from the University of Leipzig. At Leipzig he became a professor of anatomy (1728), pathology (1732) and therapy (1737). In 1730 he became director of the Leipzig Botanical Gardens, and in 1737 was rector at the university.

Among his numerous writings was a 1735 botanical treatise called Designatio plantarum quas hortus AF Waltheri complectitur, in which he provides descriptions of thousands of plant species from his private botanical garden. As a physician he made contributions in the fields of myology and angiology, and has several medical and anatomical terms named after him, including:
 "Walther's dilator": An instrument used for dilation of the female urethra.
 "Walther's ducts": Also known as minor sublingual ducts.
 "Walther's ganglion": Also known as the coccygeal ganglion.
 "Walther's plexus":  Also known as the intracavernous plexus; which is the portion of the internal carotid plexus in the cavernous sinus.

The plant genus Waltheria from the family Sterculiaceae is named after him.

References
 This article incorporates translated text from an equivalent article at the German Wikipedia, whose sources include ADB:Walther, Augustin Friedrich at Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie.
 Mondofacto Dictionary (definition of eponyms)
 Biographical Notes on Southern African Botanical Epithets

German anatomists
18th-century German botanists
Scientists from Wittenberg
Academic staff of Leipzig University
Rectors of Leipzig University
1688 births
1746 deaths

Augustin Friedrich Walther


Joseph Holyhead (1 November 1880 – 1944) was an English footballer who played at half-back for Wolverhampton Wanderers and Burslem Port Vale. He made 129 league appearances in the Football League between 1902 and 1907. He also represented Wednesbury Old Athletic and Kidderminster Harriers.

Career
Holyhead played for Wednesbury Old Athletic, before joining Wolverhampton Wanderers in 1902. He played six First Division games at Molineux in the 1902–03 season. He joined Burslem Port Vale in September 1903. He made 27 Second Division appearances and eight cup appearances in 1903–04. He scored his first FA Cup goal on 19 November 1903, in a 6–0 win over Stockport County at the Athletic Ground. He scored his first league goal on 9 April 1904, in a 3–1 home win over Burton United. Holyhead featured 38 times in 1904–05, and found the net once in a 2–1 defeat to Bradford City at Valley Parade. He played 30 games in 1905–06, and scored in a 3–3 home draw with Glossop and a 4–1 defeat to West Bromwich Albion at The Hawthorns. He made 39 appearances in the 1906–07 campaign, and scored in home wins over Grimsby Town and Stockport County. He was forced to leave the club in the summer due to the club's worsening financial crisis. He briefly returned to Wednesbury Old Athletic, before moving on to Kidderminster Harriers.

Career statistics
Source:

References

1880 births
1944 deaths
Footballers from Walsall
English men's footballers
Men's association football midfielders
Wednesbury Old Athletic F.C. players
Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C. players
Port Vale F.C. players
Kidderminster Harriers F.C. players
English Football League players

Joseph Holyhead


Amy X Neuburg (born Cheltenham, England) is an American composer, vocalist, and electronic musician.

Education and career
She holds a B.M. degree in voice from the Oberlin Conservatory of Music, a B.A. in linguistics from Oberlin College, and an M.F.A. in electronic music from Mills College, where she studied with Pauline Oliveros and David Rosenboom.

Her solo works combine her singing and speaking voice with electronic loops and samples triggered with electronic drums.  Her multi-layered compositions incorporate musical styles including opera, rock, Medieval music, and world music.  For ten years she led the experimental band Amy X Neuburg & Men. Neuburg's live-looping works incorporate voice and digital instrument samples, and draw upon compositional traditions such as acousmatic voice and the posthuman vocal subject.

More recently Ms. Neuburg's compositions have focused on chamber and vocal ensembles, often with electronics and her own voice as soloist. She has composed for and sung with the Paul Dresher Ensemble, Solstice vocal ensemble, Del Sol String Quartet, Robin Cox Ensemble, Present Music, and Pacific Mozart Ensemble.

From 2005 to 2010 Amy led the Cello ChiXtet, a group she established to perform her song cycle The Secret Language of Subways.

Neuburg lives in Oakland, California.

Discography
Neuburg's recorded output reflects a polystylistic approach to singing/songwriting.

Solo
 The Secret Language of Subways
 Residue —2004 (Other Minds)
 Sports! Chips! Booty!
 Utechma
 Songs 91 to 85

References

External links
Amy X Neuburg web page
Amy X Neuburg page from IS Productions site
Amy X Neuburg performs Six Little Stains for solo voice and electronics (2002) at the Other Minds 9 festival, Palace of Fine Arts Theatre, San Francisco, March 6, 2003

American women composers
21st-century American composers
British emigrants to the United States
Living people
Oberlin Conservatory of Music alumni
Avant-garde singers
American women in electronic music
21st-century American women musicians
Year of birth missing (living people)
21st-century women composers

Amy X Neuburg