In systems theory, a system or a process is in a steady state if the variables (called state variables) which define the behavior of the system or the process are unchanging in time. In continuous time, this means that for those properties p of the system, the partial derivative with respect to time is zero and remains so:

In discrete time, it means that the first difference of each property is zero and remains so:

The concept of a steady state has relevance in many fields, in particular thermodynamics, economics, and engineering.  If a system is in a steady state, then the recently observed behavior of the system will continue into the future. In stochastic systems, the probabilities that various states will be repeated will remain constant. See for example Linear difference equation#Conversion to homogeneous form for the derivation of the steady state.

In many systems, a steady state is not achieved until some time after the system is started or initiated. This initial situation is often identified as a transient state, start-up or warm-up period. For example, while the flow of fluid through a tube or electricity through a network could be in a steady state because there is a constant flow of fluid or electricity, a tank or capacitor being drained or filled with fluid is a system in transient state, because its volume of fluid changes with time.

Often, a steady state is approached asymptotically. An unstable system is one that diverges from the steady state. See for example Linear difference equation#Stability.

In chemistry, a steady state is a more general situation than dynamic equilibrium. While a dynamic equilibrium occurs when two or more reversible processes occur at the same rate, and such a system can be said to be in a steady state, a system that is in a steady state may not necessarily be in a state of dynamic equilibrium, because some of the processes involved are not reversible.

Applications

Economics

A steady state economy is an economy (especially a national economy but possibly that of a city, a region, or the world) of stable size featuring a stable population and stable consumption that remain at or below carrying capacity. In the economic growth model of Robert Solow and Trevor Swan, the steady state occurs when gross investment in physical capital equals depreciation and the economy reaches economic equilibrium, which may occur during a period of growth.

Electrical engineering

In electrical engineering and electronic engineering, steady state is an equilibrium condition of a circuit or network that occurs as the effects of transients are no longer important. Steady state is also used as an approximation in systems with on-going transient signals, such as audio systems, to allow simplified analysis of first order performance.

Sinusoidal Steady State Analysis is a method for analyzing alternating current circuits using the same techniques as for solving DC circuits.

The ability of an electrical machine or power system to regain its original/previous state is called Steady State Stability.

The stability of a system refers to the ability of a system to return to its steady state when subjected to a disturbance. As mentioned before, power is generated by synchronous generators that operate in synchronism with the rest of the system. A generator is synchronized with a bus when both of them have same frequency, voltage and phase sequence. We can thus define the power system stability as the ability of the power system to return to steady state without losing synchronicity. Usually power system stability is categorized into Steady State, Transient and Dynamic Stability

Steady State Stability studies are restricted to small and gradual changes in the system operating conditions. In this we basically concentrate on restricting the bus voltages close to their nominal values. We also ensure that phase angles between two buses are not too large and check for the overloading of the power equipment and transmission lines. These checks are usually done using power flow studies.

Transient Stability involves the study of the power system following a major disturbance. Following a large disturbance in the synchronous alternator the machine power (load) angle changes due to sudden acceleration of the rotor shaft. The objective of the transient stability study is to ascertain whether the load angle returns to a steady value following the clearance of the disturbance.

The ability of a power system to maintain stability under continuous small disturbances is investigated under the name of Dynamic Stability (also known as small-signal stability). These small disturbances occur due to random fluctuations in loads and generation levels. In an interconnected power system, these random variations can lead catastrophic failure as this may force the rotor angle to increase steadily.

Steady state determination is an important topic, because many design specifications of electronic systems are given in terms of the steady-state characteristics. Periodic steady-state solution is also a prerequisite for small signal dynamic modeling. Steady-state analysis is therefore an indispensable component of the design process.

In some cases, it is useful to consider constant envelope vibration—vibration that never settles down to motionlessness, but continues to move at constant amplitude—a kind of steady-state condition.

Chemical engineering

In chemistry, thermodynamics, and other chemical engineering, a steady state is a situation in which all state variables are constant in spite of ongoing processes that strive to change them. For an entire system to be at steady state, i.e. for all state variables of a system to be constant, there must be a flow through the system (compare mass balance). One of the simplest examples of such a system is the case of a bathtub with the tap open but without the bottom plug: after a certain time the water flows in and out at the same rate, so the water level (the state variable being Volume) stabilizes and the system is at steady state.  Of course the Volume stabilizing inside the tub depends on the size of the tub, the diameter of the exit hole and the flowrate of water in.  Since the tub can overflow, eventually a steady state can be reached where the water flowing in equals the overflow plus the water out through the drain.

A steady state flow process requires conditions at all points in an apparatus remain constant as time changes.  There must be no accumulation of mass or energy over the time period of interest.  The same mass flow rate will remain constant in the flow path through each element of the system. Thermodynamic properties may vary from point to point, but will remain unchanged at any given point.

Mechanical engineering

When a periodic force is applied to a mechanical system, it will typically reach a steady state after going through some transient behavior. This is often observed in vibrating systems, such as a clock pendulum, but can happen with any type of stable or semi-stable dynamic system. The length of the transient state will depend on the initial conditions of the system. Given certain initial conditions, a system may be in steady state from the beginning.

Biochemistry

In biochemistry, the study of biochemical pathways is an important topic. Such pathways will often display steady-state behavior where the chemical species are unchanging, but there is a continuous dissipation of flux through the pathway. Many, but not all, biochemical pathways evolve to stable, steady states. As a result, the steady state represents an important reference state to study. This is also related to the concept of homeostasis, however, in biochemistry, a steady state can be stable or unstable such as in the case of sustained oscillations or bistable behavior.

Physiology

Homeostasis (from Greek ὅμοιος, hómoios, "similar" and στάσις, stásis, "standing still") is the property of a system that regulates its internal environment and tends to maintain a stable, constant condition. Typically used to refer to a living organism, the concept came from that of milieu interieur that was created by Claude Bernard and published in 1865. Multiple dynamic equilibrium adjustment and regulation mechanisms make homeostasis possible.

Fiber optics
In fiber optics, "steady state" is a synonym for equilibrium mode distribution.

Pharmacokinetics
In Pharmacokinetics, steady state is a dynamic equilibrium in the body where drug concentrations consistently stay within a therapeutic limit over time.

See also

Attractor
Carrying capacity
Control theory
Dynamical system
Ecological footprint
Economic growth
Engine test stand
Equilibrium point
List of types of equilibrium
Evolutionary economics
Growth curve
Herman Daly
Homeostasis
Limit cycle
Limits to Growth
Population dynamics
Simulation
State function
Steady state economy
Steady State theory
Systems theory
Thermodynamic equilibrium
Transient state

References

Systems theory
Control theory

Steady state


Ashgabat Cable Car () is a  cableway between Ashgabat and the foothills of the Kopetdag. It is the first and only cable car in Turkmenistan. Construction was finished on 18 October 2006.

History
Construction was started in 2005. Object constructed by the French company Bouygues. The project cost $20,5 million. The customer is concern Turkmenenergogurlushyk of the Ministry of Energy and Industry of Turkmenistan. Construction went 2 years.

Inaugurated on 18 October 2006 with the participation of the President of Turkmenistan Saparmurat Niyazov and the head of the company Bouygues Martin Bouygues.

Specification
The cable car can accommodate 300 passengers simultaneously, totaling 1,700 riders per day. Each of the 14 cabins accommodate up to 8 people. The journey time is 10 minutes. The velocity of 16 cabins — 6 meters per second. Passengers are carried out every 72 seconds. Length of the cable car — 4 km.

Sending station is located south of the Main Museum of Turkmenistan at an altitude of 1270 meters above sea level. The station has a waiting room and ticket office, facilities for technical services and equipment. On an area of 6500 square meters is a small park and is equipped with parking for 100 cars and 5 buses. In addition to the arrival station, constructed building with a total area of over 1,000 square meters, which houses two restaurants and cafes, which both can take 280 people, several shops and offices for staff. The neighborhood and set up a sightseeing helicopter pad, covered terraces and stairways, alleys and water cascade length of 80 meters.

References

Aerial tramways
Tourist attractions in Turkmenistan
Tourist attractions in Ashgabat
2006 establishments in Turkmenistan

Ashgabat Cable Car


Gerhardt Laves  (July 15, 1906 – March 14, 1993) was a graduate student at the University of Chicago and Yale University who between August 1929 and August 1931 undertook extensive fieldwork on Australian Aboriginal languages. Laves was probably the first person trained in modern linguistic fieldwork and analysis to study Australian languages. He intensively studied six languages: 'Kumbaingeri' (Gumbaynggir) in northern New South Wales; 'Karadjeri' (Karajarri) at Lagrange Bay, north-west Western Australia; 'Barda' (Bardi) at Cape Leveque, north-west Western Australia; 'Kurin' (Goreng) near Albany Western Australia; and 'Hermit Hill' (Matngele) and 'Ngengumeri (Ngan'gimerri) at Daly River Northern Territory. On the basis of his work Laves concluded that all Australian languages belong to a single language family.

After his fieldwork he returned to Chicago, married [1932] and followed his mentor, Edward Sapir, to Yale in New Haven, CT where he continued his graduate studies. Before completing his Ph.D. (which he never finished) he left Yale to be a teacher on the Navajo reservation at Shiprock, New Mexico. Several years later he returned to Chicago where he began a career with the International Harvester Company in Chicago. Laves never returned to linguistics or anthropology and only published two notes based on his work on Australian languages (listed below). His collection of materials from his fieldwork sat in storage until Mark Francillon (an anthropology student at the University of Chicago) heard about it and made contact with Laves in 1983. He arranged for the collection to be copied and deposited (as were the originals, sometime later) in the library at the Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies. The collection of Aboriginal objects he acquired during his fieldwork in Australia is now held in the National Museum of Australia.

Laves' publications
 Laves, Gerhardt. 1929a Words among Australian Aborigines, Science n.s. 70, no.1823 : Supplement, xiv.
 Laves, Gerhardt. 1929b Collecting native words, El Palacio 27(8/9), 290-1.

External links
Laves materials and biographical information
Laves obituary

1906 births
1993 deaths
Linguists of Australian Aboriginal languages
University of Chicago alumni
Yale University alumni
American educators
Linguists from the United States

Gerhardt Laves


Cheese mites are mites which live in food, grain and plant leaves.

They are sometimes found in flour but prefer cheese. Refrigerated cheese is not usually affected as they prefer warm, damp foods. Cheese mites are used to make certain cheeses. Milbenkäse and Mimolette are two examples. The action of the mites on the surface of these cheeses adds to the flavor. It also gives them a distinctive appearance. A 2010 SEM study found that Milbenkäse cheese was produced using Tyrolichus casei mites, while Mimolette cheese used Acarus siro mites (also known as flour mites).

References

Cheese
Arachnids

Cheese mite


The Arpeggione Quartet is a French string quartet, led by Isabelle Flory (violin), with Nicholas Risler (violin), Patrick Dussart (viola), and Marie-Thérèse Grisenti (cello).

The quartet has played all over the world including performances at London's Wigmore Hall, the Musée d'Orsay, Opéra Bastille and Carrousel du Louvre in Paris, and recently at the Musique-Cordiale festivals in the Var, France and Britain. It has starred at major international festivals including the Salzburg, the Lockenhaus, the Schloss-Elmau (Germany), the Wiener Klassisch and the Ottawa "Strings of the Future" Festival, as well as at the Simon Wiesenthal Center in Los Angeles.  In 2005, Margaret Fingerhut played César Franck's passionate Piano Quintet with the quatuor at the Conway Hall in London. In March 1996, the Arpeggione were invited to perform at the Elysée Palace by Yehudi Menuhin to celebrate his eightieth birthday.

The repertoire of the Arpeggione is considerable in wealth, breadth and ambition, ranging from Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven – along with Schubert, Schumann and Brahms – to Stravinsky, Bartók, Schönberg, Berg and Weber, with special mention to the "big three" French composers – Debussy, Fauré, Ravel. It recently revived Florent Schmitt's outstanding string quartet, which had not been played, at least in France, for forty years.

External links
Arpeggione Quartet at Musique-Cordiale Festival
Arpeggione Quartet own site

French string quartets

Arpeggione Quartet


A cultural invention is any innovation developed by people. Cultural inventions include sets of behaviour adopted by groups of people. They are perpetuated by being passed on to others within the group or outside it. They are also passed on to future groups and generations. Sources of cultural invention can either come from outside a specific group or from within that group.

Allan Hanson, a postmodern anthropologist, believed that the analytical purpose of studying cultural inventions was not to uncover which portions of a culture's belief systems are invented, but rather to study how cultural inventions become accepted as authentic within groups. This notion has been met with criticism from within the anthropological community as well as from outside sources, and has been referred to as both politically revisionist and anti-native. The fear is that viewing cultural invention as a process which leads to something authentic and widely accepted may undermine indigenous people's traditions in addition to questioning the authority they have over their own culture.

Examples
Examples of areas where cultural inventions may take place include:
 Languages
 Legal systems
 Political systems
 Scientific method
 Sports
 Social institutions
 Belief systems

Cultural transmission
One way that cultural inventions can be spread is through cultural transmission, the means by which culturally specific ideas and patterns of behavior are shared and become cultural reality. According to Marc J. Swartz, people of status within society play an important role in deciding what is understood as cultural reality. Such people have the correct kinds of skills and knowledge within society to help transmit ideas in such a way that they are accepted by society at large, which is one method by which cultural inventions can become cultural realities.

Case study: Maori
Allan Hanson proposed that several aspects of Maori culture had been invented by European scholars who were accustomed to analytical frameworks focused on long-distance migration and diffusion.  Because of this, he believed that European scholars constructed the notion that a "Great Fleet", headed by a man named Kupe from a neighboring island, who was responsible for the initial discovery and peopling of New Zealand. Although Maori ancestors most likely arrived in canoes from nearby islands, Hanson believed that the account of the Great Fleet was created to simplify various Maori traditions into a single tradition.

Additionally, to make the Maori seem more elevated in European eyes, scholars may have invented a cult to the named Io, who was thought to be a supreme being that controlled all the other gods in the Maori pantheon. The story of Io creating the world is so similar to that of the Book of Genesis in the Bible, that it is believed to have been a European invention. Hanson asserted that those and other elements of Maori tradition were incorporated and taken to be true by the Maori and that they have been passed down through generations by way of oral tradition. According to Hanson, "Io and the Great Fleet have been incorporated into Maori lore and are passed down from elders to juniors in storytelling, oratory, and other Maori contexts".

See also
 Creativity techniques

References

Cultural concepts
Innovation

Cultural invention


Kentucky Moonshine is a 1938 American comedy musical film directed by David Butler and released by 20th Century Fox.

Plot
Radio star Jerry Wade's program ratings are falling and he suggests to his sponsors a show that is different and he goes to Kentucky to find an idea. Caroline, a Kentucky girl in New York trying to crash into radio, learns of Wade's quest and takes her three friends, Harry, Jimmy and Al Ritz, also aspiring to show-business fame, to Kentucky with her, where Wade discovers them in beards, guns, feuds, moonshine and every cliché that fits the hillbillies lifestyle. He stages a broadcast from the hills, which is not heard because of technical difficulties. He takes the whole troupe back to New York with him.

Cast
 Ritz Brothers as Themselves
 Tony Martin as Jerry Wade
 Marjorie Weaver as Caroline
 Slim Summerville as Hank Hatfield
 John Carradine as Reef Hatfield
 Wally Vernon as Gus Bryce
 Berton Churchill as J.B.
 Eddie Collins as 'Spats' Swenson
 Cecil Cunningham as Landlady
 Paul Stanton as Mortimer Hilton
 Mary Treen as 'Sugar' Hatfield
 Francis Ford as Grandpa Hatfield
 The Brian Sisters as Specialty
 Clarence Hummel Wilson as Attorney
 Frank McGlynn, Jr. as Clem Hatfield
 Jan Duggan as Nurse
 Si Jenks as Buckboard Driver
 Irving Bacon as Hotel
 Olin Howland as Tom Slack
 John Hiestand as Radio Announcer
 Carroll Nye as Radio Announcer
 Tom Hanlon as Radio Announcer

External links

1938 films
1938 comedy films
American black-and-white films
Films directed by David Butler
Films set in Kentucky
American comedy films
Films produced by Darryl F. Zanuck
20th Century Fox films
1930s English-language films
1930s American films

Kentucky Moonshine


Boer War Memorial is a heritage-listed war memorial at Crescent Street, Gatton, Queensland, Australia. It was designed by William Hodgen and produced by Toowoomba mason William Bruce. It was built in 1908, and was unveiled on 3 August by Governor of Queensland, Lord Chelmsford. The memorial honours four local men who died in or as a result of the Boer War, and is one of only three known Boer War memorials in Queensland. It is also known as the Fallen Soldiers Memorial and the South African War Memorial.

The memorial consists of a life-size statue of a digger, atop a pedestal with marble plaques stating the names and ranks of the men who died. The memorial was originally located in the intersection of Railway and Crescent Streets and was moved to its current location in the late 1970s. In 1984 the monument was sandblasted to remove layers of paint. The original statue had been made of Italian marble; it was replaced at some stage by the current sandstone statue, and when or for what reason is unknown. The memorial was added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 21 October 1992.

History

In April 1907, a public meeting was held at which it was decided to erect a memorial. A design competition was announced and was won by Toowoomba architect, William Hodgen.

William Hodgen was born in Toowoomba in 1866. He was employed by the Queensland Colonial Architect's Office in Brisbane from 1886 to 1891 when he left for London. On his return to Queensland in 1896 he established a private practice in Toowoomba and designed buildings throughout Queensland. The Gatton Boer War Memorial is an unusual example of his work.

The pedestal was produced by Toowoomba monumental mason, Walter Bruce and the statue was imported from Italy. The total cost of the monument was .

The Gatton memorial was constructed at an early phase of the history of war memorials in the state. After World War I, the construction of war memorials was prolific. In 1908, when this memorial was unveiled, they were still quite rare.

Australian war memorials are valuable evidence of imperial and national loyalties, at the time not seen as conflicting; the skills of local stonemasons, metalworkers and architects; and of popular taste. In Queensland, the soldier statue, which was first used to commemorate those died in the Boer War, became the popular choice of memorial for the First World War. This was in contrast to the southern states where the obelisk predominated.

The digger statue later embodied the ANZAC Spirit, representing the qualities of the ideal Australian - loyalty, courage, youth, innocence and masculinity. The digger was a phenomenon peculiar to Queensland, perhaps due to the fact that other states had followed Britain's lead and established Advisory Boards made up of architects and artists, prior to the erection of war memorials. The digger statue was not highly regarded by artists and architects who were involved in the design of relatively few Queensland memorials

Most statues were constructed by local masonry firms, although some were by artists or imported.

There are only three known Boer War memorials in Queensland in the form of the digger. Of these only two were erected shortly after the war. These are the Allora Memorial, erected in 1904 and the Gatton Memorial, erected in 1908. The third Boer memorial, in Brisbane, was not unveiled until 1919.

This memorial was originally located in the intersection of Railway and Crescent Streets and was moved in the late 1970s. It originally stood on a stepped base, which was lost in the relocation. In 1984 the monument was sandblasted to remove layers of paint. The original Italian marble digger statue, which was said to be very realistic, was replaced by the current sandstone statue. When this occurred, or for what reason is unknown.

Description

The Boer Memorial is situated in a small park in Gatton in front of the railway station. The monument is centrally located in a paved area in the centre of the park and is flanked by two large fig trees.

The paved area consists of a short path at the front which divides into curved paths around the memorial and rejoins at the rear to continue in a short, straight path. Comparatively new planting is contained in beds on either side of the paving.

The Helidon sandstone Boer Memorial comprises a pedestal surmounted by a digger statue.

It sits on a slightly concave base constructed of sandstone blocks. This is surmounted by a curved moulding and a smooth-faced step which is capped by a series of curved mouldings with shadow reveals between.

The pedestal comprises a recessed square section with freestanding columns at each corner. Leaded marble plaques are located on the front and rear faces stating the names and ranks of the four local men who died as a result of the Boer War. One of the men was a bugler, and the front face has a relief carved bugle above the plaque. The insignia of the Australian Light Horse is located above the plaque on the rear face.

The columns have Corinthian order capitals and bases and support a large frieze and cornice. The cornice has a large central convex surface on which is a simple, deeply carved curvilinear pattern.

Surmounting the pedestal is the digger statue which is life-sized. The soldier stands on a square plinth decorated on all faces with relief carved wreaths and festoons. His head is bowed and hands are resting on his reversed rifle. A supporting tree stump is located at the rear of the statue.

Heritage listing
Boer War Memorial was listed on the Queensland Heritage Register on 21 October 1992 having satisfied the following criteria.

The place is important in demonstrating the evolution or pattern of Queensland's history.

War Memorials are important in demonstrating the pattern of Queensland's history as they are representative of a recurrent theme that involved most communities throughout the state. They provide evidence of an era of widespread Australian patriotism and nationalism, particularly during and following the First World War.

It was constructed at an early phase of the history of war memorials in the state, which became prolific after the First World War but in 1908 when this memorial was constructed were quite rare.

The Boer War Memorial at Gatton is an immensely important Queensland monument.

The place demonstrates rare, uncommon or endangered aspects of Queensland's cultural heritage.

It is one of only two known digger statues built to commemorate the involvement and death of Queensland soldiers in the Boer War of 1899–1902. A third Boer War Memorial was unveiled in Brisbane at a much later date.

The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a particular class of cultural places.

The monuments manifest a unique documentary record and are demonstrative of popular taste.

The Gatton Boer War Memorial demonstrates the principal characteristics of a commemorative structure erected as an enduring record of a major historical event. This is achieved through the use of appropriate materials and design elements.

The place is important because of its aesthetic significance.

It is of aesthetic significance, both as a landmark within the streetscape and for its high level of workmanship and design.

The place has a strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group for social, cultural or spiritual reasons.

It has a strong association with the community as evidence of the impact of a major historic event and with Toowoomba architect, William Hodgen as an unusual example of his work.

The place has a special association with the life or work of a particular person, group or organisation of importance in Queensland's history.

It has a strong association with the community as evidence of the impact of a major historic event and with Toowoomba architect, William Hodgen as an unusual example of his work.

References

Attribution

External links

Queensland Heritage Register
Gatton, Queensland
Second Boer War memorials in Queensland
1908 sculptures
Articles incorporating text from the Queensland Heritage Register

Boer War Memorial, Gatton


Gadolinium(III) hydroxide is a chemical compound with the formula Gd(OH)3. Its nanoparticles has a potential use for layering various drugs, such as diclofenac, ibuprofen, and naproxen.

Production and properties
Gadolinium(III) hydroxide can be produced in various ways such as the reaction of gadolinium(III) nitrate and sodium hydroxide:
Gd(NO3)3 + NaOH → Gd(OH)3 + NaNO3
If this compound is heated to 307 °C, it decomposes to gadolinium(III) oxide-hydroxide(GdOOH), which in turn decomposes to gadolinium(III) oxide if continually heated.

Uses
Gadolinium(III) hydroxide has no commercial uses. However, gadolinium(III) hydroxide nanoparticles have gained interest as a coating agent for various anti-inflammatory drugs such as diclofenac, ibuprofen, and naproxen due to their property to be non-cytotoxic. The nanoparticles are produced by adding base anion exchange resin to gadolinium(III) nitrate.

References

Gadolinium compounds
Hydroxides

Gadolinium(III) hydroxide


"Supranatural" is the first single by B.U.G. Mafia from their ninth studio album, Înapoi În Viitor. It was released on YouTube and the group's official website on March 14, 2010. The song is produced by Tataee.

Background

After B.U.G. Mafia released Viaţa noastră (Vol.2) (Our life), the second and final volume of their greatest hits collection, the group started work on a new album, their first after their 2003 Băieţii Buni (Goodfellas). Group producer Tataee stated in various interviews that B.U.G. Mafia were released from their contract with Cat Music and entered a new digital era in which they started to release their music for free on the Internet. As in Romania music piracy boycotts virtually every chance of an artist to make significant profits from their music, the group decided to cut out the middle man, release their own music and earn money from live appearances and advertising.

Content

Tataee stated that, because the group had access to one of the most modern recording studios in Romania, he was able to experiment a lot with production techniques and look for a new sound to fit the group for their new album. The sound has an overall experimental, electronic-influenced feel to it, a direction Tataee had hinted since the release of Viaţa noastră (Vol.2). The song's lyrics reference the group's interest in experimenting with new directions in music: "Supranatural, supranatural, atât de tare-n boxe în scop experimental" (Supernatural, supernatural, so loud in the speakers with an experimental purpose).

Track listing
 Digital single

References

External links
 Supranatural at Discogs

2010 singles
B.U.G. Mafia songs
2010 songs
Songs written by Tataee

Supranatural (B.U.G. Mafia song)


Brake-by-wire technology in the automotive industry is the ability to control brakes through electronic means, without a mechanical connection that transfers force to the physical braking system from a driver input apparatus such as a pedal or lever.

The three main types of brake-by-wire systems are: electronic parking brakes which have, since the turn of the 21st century, become more common; electro-hydraulic brakes (EHB) which can be implemented alongside legacy hydraulic brakes and as of 2020 have found small-scale usage in the automotive industry; and electro-mechanical brakes (EMB) that use no hydraulic fluid, which as of 2020 have yet to be successfully introduced in production vehicles.

Electro-hydraulic braking systems control or boost the pressure applied to the hydraulic pumps through the brake pedal. Safety requires that the system remains fail-operational in the event of a power failure or an electronic software or hardware fault. Traditionally this has been achieved by means of a mechanical linkage between the brake pedal and the brake master cylinder. With a mechanical linkage, the braking system still operates hydraulically via the pedal, whether or not electrical control is present. EHBs can be implemented by-wire, without legacy hydraulic systems and mechanical connections. In such a case, fail-operational redundancy is implemented, allowing the vehicle to brake even if some of the brake systems fail.

Electro-mechanical brakes offer the advantage of reduced braking system volume and weight, less maintenance, easier compatibility with active safety control systems, and absence of toxic braking fluid. Their novel actuation methods such as wedge brakes have kept them, as of 2020, from successfully being introduced in production vehicles.

Since by-wire systems have no mechanical linkages that would provide manual control over the brakes, they require fail-operational redundancy as specified by the ISO 26262 standard level D. Redundant power supplies, sensors, and communication networks are required.

Implementations

Prevalence
Some x-by-wire technologies have been already installed on commercial vehicles such as steer-by-wire, and throttle-by-wire. Brake-by-wire technology has been widely commercialized with the introduction of Battery Electric Vehicles and Hybrid Vehicles. The most widely used application by Toyota in the high volume Prius was preceded by the GM EV1, the Rav4 EV, and other EVs where the technology is required for regenerative braking. Ford, General Motors, and most other manufacturers use the same general design, with the exception of Honda, who designed a notably different design.

Brake-by-wire is used in most common hybrid and electric vehicles produced since 1998 including all Toyota, Ford, and General Motors Electric and hybrid models. The Toyota Synergy Drive and the Rav4 EV use a system where a modified ABS (antilock brake system) actuator is coupled with a special hydraulic brake master cylinder to create a hydraulic system, coupled with the brake control unit (computer). Ford's system is almost identical to the Toyota system, and the General Motors system uses different nomenclature for components while the operation is virtually identical.

Electro-hydraulic brakes
The hydraulic force generated by pressing the brake pedal is used only as a sensor input to the computer unless a catastrophic failure occurs including a loss of 12-volt electrical power. The brake actuator has an electric pump that provides the hydraulic pressure for the system, and valves to pressurize each wheel caliper to apply the friction brake when required by the system.

The system includes all of the complexity of a vehicle stability control system (VSC), antilock brake system (ABS), and the requirement to use the Regeneration Braking as the primary mode of slowing the vehicle unless the Traction Battery (high-voltage battery) state of charge is too high to accept the additional energy or a panic stop or ABS situation is detected by the system.

The sensors monitored as inputs for the brake system include the wheel speed sensors,
traction battery state of charge, yaw sensor, brake pedal, stroke sensor, steering wheel angle, hydraulic actuator pressure, hydraulic pressures of each wheel caliper circuit, and accelerator position. Other information and inputs are also monitored.

The standard or typical operation is as follows:
 The vehicle operator presses the brake pedal
 The master cylinder converts the brake pedal movement to hydraulic pressure
 the stroke sensor measures the pedal movement to identify a "panic stop" condition
 The pressure transducer provides the brake force desired.
 The Brake Control Unit (computer) detects the inputs, and then checks the wheel speed sensors to determine vehicle speed, and to determine if a wheel lockup requires the ABS algorithm.
 The Brake Control System then checks the yaw sensor, steering wheel angle, and state of charge of the traction battery.
 If the speed of the vehicle is above about 7 MPH, the vehicle traction motor generator is used as a generator to convert the kinetic energy to electric power, and stores the energy in the battery. This slows the vehicle.
 If the operator (driver) presses the brake pedal harder, the system will apply hydraulic friction brakes to increase brake force.
 Once the vehicle speed drops below about 7 MPH, the hydraulic brake system will completely take over, as regenerative Braking does not work effectively.
 If the yaw sensor detects vehicle yaw, the system will initiate vehicle stability algorithms and processes (VSC).
 If the wheel speed sensors detect wheel lock-up, the system will initiate anti-lock algorithm (ABS).

EBS
Brake-by-wire exists on heavy duty commercial vehicles under the name Electronic Braking System (EBS). This system provides electronic activation of all braking system components including retarder and engine brake. EBS also supports trailers and communicates between the towing vehicle and trailer using the ISO 11992 protocol. The communication between trailer and towing vehicle shall be done through a specific connector dedicated to ABS/EBS following either ISO 7638-1 for 24 V systems or ISO 7638-2 for 12 V systems.

EBS still relies on compressed air for braking and is only controlling the air through valves which means that it is not depending on higher voltages used by the electromechanical or electrohydraulical brake systems where electric power also is used to apply the brake pressure.

EBS enhances the precision of the braking over conventional braking, which shortens the braking distance. The fall back of an EBS system in case of failure is to use the ordinary air brake control pressure, so even in the event of a failure of the electronics the vehicle shall be able to make a safe stop.

Electro-mechanical brakes

General architecture of an electromechanical braking (EMB) system in a drive-by-wire car is shown in Fig. 1. The system mainly comprises five types of elements:
 Processors including an electronic control unit (ECU) and other local processors
 Memory (mainly integrated into the ECU)
 Sensors
 Actuators
 Communication network(s).

Once the driver inputs a brake command to the system via a human–machine interface – HMI (e.g. the brake pedal), four independent brake commands are generated by the ECU based on high level brake functions such as anti-lock braking system (ABS) or vehicle stability control (VSC). These command signals are sent to the four electric calipers (e-calipers) via a communication network. As this network might not be able to properly communicate with the e-calipers due to network faults, HMI sensory data are also directly transmitted to each e-caliper via a separate data bus.

In each e-caliper a controller uses the brake command (received from ECU) as a reference input. The controller provides drive control commands for a power control module. This module controls three phase drive currents for the brake actuator which is a permanent magnet DC motor, energised by 42 V sources. In addition to tracking its reference brake command, the caliper controller also controls the position and speed of the brake actuator. Thus, two sensors are vitally required to measure the position and speed of the actuator in each e-caliper. Because of the safety critical nature of the application, even missing a limited number of samples of these sensory data should be compensated for.

Voting
A brake-by-wire system, by nature, is a safety critical system and therefore fault tolerance is a vitally important characteristic of this system. As a result, a brake-by-wire system is designed in such way that many of its essential information would be derived from a variety of sources (sensors) and be handled by more than the bare necessity hardware. Three main types of redundancy usually exist in a brake-by-wire system:
 Redundant sensors in safety critical components such as the brake pedal.
 Redundant copies of some signals that are of particular safety importance such as displacement and force measurements of the brake pedal copied by multiple processors in the pedal interface unit.
 Redundant hardware to perform important processing tasks such as multiple processors for the ECU in Fig. 1.

To use the existing redundancy, voting algorithms need to be evaluated, modified and adopted to meet the stringent requirements of a brake-by-wire system. Reliability, fault tolerance and accuracy are the main targeted outcomes of the voting techniques that should be developed especially for redundancy resolution inside a brake-by-wire system.

Example of a solution for this problem: A fuzzy voter developed to fuse the information provided by three sensors devised in a brake pedal design.

Missing data compensation
In a brake-by-wire car, some sensors are safety-critical components, and their failure will disrupt the vehicle function and endanger human lives. Two examples are the brake pedal sensors and the wheel speed sensors. The electronic control unit must always be informed of the driver's intentions to brake or to stop the vehicle. Therefore, missing the pedal sensor data is a serious problem for functionality of the vehicle control system.

In the current brake-by-wire systems used in passenger and light truck vehicles, the system is designed to use existing sensors that have been proven to be dependable in brake system components and systems including ABS and VSC systems.

The highest potential risk for brake system failure has proven to be the Brake Control System software. Recurring failures have occurred in over 200 cases documented in NTSB documents. Because each manufacturer guards the confidentiality of their system design and software, there is no independent validation of the systems.

As of 2016 the NTSB has not directly investigated passenger car and light truck brake-by-wire vehicle accidents, and the manufacturers have taken the position that their vehicles are completely safe, and that all reported accidents are the result of "driver error".

Wheel speed data are also vital in a brake-by-wire system to avoid skidding. The design of a brake-by-wire car should provide safeguards against missing some of the data samples provided by the safety-critical sensors. Popular solutions are to provide redundant sensors and to apply a fail-safe mechanism. In addition to a complete sensor loss, the electronic control unit may also suffer an intermittent (temporary) data loss. For example, sensor data can sometimes fail to reach the electronic control unit. This may happen due to a temporary problem with the sensor itself or with the data transmission path. It may also result from an instantaneous short circuit or disconnection, a communication network fault, or a sudden increase in noise. In such cases, for a safe operation, the system has to be compensated for missing data samples.

Example of a solution for this problem: Missing data compensation by a predictive filter.

Accurate estimation of position and speed of brake actuators in the e-calipers
The caliper controller controls the position and speed of the brake actuator (besides its main task which is tracking of its reference brake command). Thus, position and speed sensors are vitally required in each e-caliper and an efficient design of a measurement mechanism to sense the position and speed of the actuator is required.  Recent designs for brake-by-wire systems use resolvers to provide accurate and continuous measurements for both absolute position and speed of the rotor of the actuators. Incremental encoders are relative position sensors and their additive error needs to be calibrated or compensated for by different methods. Unlike the encoders, resolvers provide two output signals that always allow the detection of absolute angular position. In addition, they suppress common mode noise and are especially useful in a noisy environment. Because of these reasons, resolvers are usually applied for the purpose of position and speed measurement in brake-by-wire systems. However, nonlinear and robust observers are required to extract accurate position and speed estimates from the sinusoidal signals provided by resolvers.

Example of a solution for this problem: A hybrid resolver-to-digital conversion scheme with guaranteed robust stability  and automatic calibration of the resolvers used in an EMB system.

Measurement and/or estimation of clamp force in the electromechanical calipers
A clamp force sensor is a relatively expensive component in an EMB caliper. The cost is derived from its high unit value from a supplier, as well as marked production expenses because of its inclusion. The later emanates from the complex assembly procedures dealing with small tolerances, as well as on-line calibration for performance variability from one clamp force sensor to another. The successful use of a clamp force sensor in an EMB system poses a challenging engineering task. If a clamp force sensor is placed close to a brake pad, then it will be subjected to severe temperature conditions reaching up to 800 Celsius that will challenge its mechanical integrity. Also temperature drifts must be compensated for. This situation can be avoided by embedding a clamp force sensor deep within the caliper. However, embedding this sensor leads to hysteresis that is influenced by friction between the clamp force sensor and the point of contact of an inner pad with the rotor. This hysteresis prevents a true clamp force to be measured. Due to the cost issues and engineering challenges involved with including the clamp force sensor, it might be desirable to eliminate this component from the EMB system. A potential opportunity to achieve this presents itself in accurate estimation of the clamp force based on alternative EMB system sensory measurements leading to the omission of a clamp force sensor.

Example of a solution for this problem: Clamp force estimation from actuator position and current measurements using sensor data fusion.

Electric parking brakes

Brake by wire is now a mature concept in its application to vehicle parking brakes. The electronic parking brake (EPB) was introduced in the early 2000s by BMW and Audi on their top line models (the 7 Series and A8 respectively) to dispense with the traditional cable operated system (operated via a lever between the seats or via a foot pedal) which commonly acted on the rear wheels of a car. EPBs, however, use a motorized mechanism built into the rear disc brake caliper, and is signalled via a switch on the centre console or dashboard.  The electric parking brake is normally integrated with the vehicle's other systems via a CAN bus network, and can provide additional functionality such as

 Automatic release of the parking brake upon moving off
 Automatic engagement of the parking brake whenever the vehicle is stopped on an incline – known as "Hold Assist"

EPB systems afford packaging and manufacturing advances, since it allows for an uncluttered central console in the absence of the traditional handbrake lever (many manufacturers have used the freed up space to place the controls for their infotainment systems), plus it reduces manufacturing complexity since it removes the need to route bowden cables underneath the vehicle.

EPB has gradually filtered down to cheaper vehicles, for instance within the Volkswagen Group, EPB became now a standard fitment on the 2006 Passat (B6), whilst Opel introduced it on the 2008 Insignia.

See also
 Regenerative brake
 Drive-by-wire
 Fly-by-wire

References

Vehicle braking technologies

Brake-by-wire


Don Manuel Rodriguez de Albuerne y Pérez de Tagle, 5th Marquis of Altamira (1733–1791) was a Spanish-Mexican aristocrat. He was a member of the House of Tagle, one of Spain and Mexico's most important and influential noble family during the 16th to the 19th century.

Early life
He was born on April 5, 1733, in Guadalajara, New Spain and was baptized on 12 April 1733. Don Manuel was the son of Don Juan Rodríguez de Albuerne and Doña Luisa Pérez de Tagle, 4th Marchioness of Altamira.

Don Manuel inherited the Hacienda Cuisillos after a period of administration by his brother-in-law and legal guardian Domingo Trespalacios Escandón, a judge in the Audiencia of Mexico and a member of the Council of Indies.

Family
He married Doña María de la Paz Girón Moctezuma, a direct descendant of Emperor Moctezuma II, and a member of the family of the Duke of Moctezuma de Tultengo on April 21, 1771, in Madrid, Spain.

Together they had three children:
 Doña María de la Paz Rodríguez Albuerne y Girón who married her second cousin José María Trespalacios Rodríguez de Albuerne, son of Domingo Trespalacios Escandón and Cecilia Rodríguez de Albuerne y Pérez de Tagle
 Doña Luisa Rodríguez Albuerne y Girón who married Manuel José Álvarez de Abreú
 Don Manuel Rodríguez Albuerne y Girón

Don Manuel and his wife were also the fourth cousins of Empress Ana Maria of Mexico as Don Manuel's and Empress Ana Maria's great great great grandfathers, Don Luis Sánchez de Tagle, 1st Marquis of Altamira and Don Pedro Sánchez de Tagle were brothers.

He is also the great grandfather of Carlos O'Donnell, 2nd Duke of Tetuan and Grandee of Spain through his daughter Doña Luisa.

The title of Marquis of Altamira has since been passed on to the descendants of his great grandson. The current holder of the title is Don Carlos O'Donnell, 15th Marquis of Altamira and Grandee of Spain

References
 Tagle. Enigma de un nombre, Historia de un pueblo. Author: José Luis Sáiz Fernández
 Nobleza Colonial de Chile. Author: J. Mujica
 Diccionario Heráldico y Genealógico de Apellidos Españoles. Author: Alberto y Arturo García Garrafa
 Nobiliario de los reinos y Señorios de España. Author: Francisco Piferrer
 La Sociedad Chilena del siglo XVIII, Mayorazgos y Títulos de Castilla. Author: Domingo Amunátegui Solar
 Patrons, Partisans, and Palace intrigues: the court society of Colonial Mexico. Author: Christoph Rosenmüller
 Hacienda and market in eighteenth-century Mexico: Second Edition, The Rural Economy of the Guadalajara. Author: Eric Van Young and John H. Coatsworth

External links
 http://gw5.geneanet.org/index.php3?b=sanchiz&lang=es;p=luisa;n=perez+de+tagle+sanchez+de+tagle
 http://gw1.geneanet.org/index.php3?b=fracarbo&lang=en;p=jose+bernardo;n=de+tagle+bracho+y+perez+de+la+riva
 https://web.archive.org/web/20090220114504/http://per-can.com/CarpD/deTagle/deTagle.htm#Biografia
 http://www.ianchadwick.com/tequila/16-17th%20centuries.htm

Marquesses of Altamira
1733 births
1791 deaths


Finished goods are goods that have completed the manufacturing process but have not yet been sold or distributed to the end user.

Manufacturing

Manufacturing has three classes of inventory:

 Raw material
 Work in process
 Finished goods

A good purchased as a "raw material" goes into the manufacture of a product.  A good only partially completed during the manufacturing process is called "work in process".  When the good is completed as to manufacturing but not yet sold or distributed to the end-user, it is called a "finished good".

This is the last stage for the processing of goods. The goods are ready to be consumed or distributed.
There is no processing required in term of the goods after this stage by the seller. Though there maybe instance that seller finished goods become buyer's raw materials

Finished goods is a relative term. In a Supply chain management flow, the finished goods of a supplier can constitute the raw material of a buyer.

References

Inventory
Manufacturing
Management accounting

Finished goods


Allan A. Schoenherr (February 6, 1937 – May 31, 2021) was a Californian author, ecologist, and naturalist. He is the author of the widely used reference book, A Natural History of California.

He received his PhD in zoology at Arizona State University and taught a long-running course on natural history of California University of California, Irvine.  He is emeritus professor of ecology in Fullerton College. He taught classes for the Desert Institute of the Joshua Tree National Park Association.

An accomplished nature photographer, he has provided the photographs to illustrate his books and he has received two awards for his images of California Gray Whales. A lover of the outdoors, he traveled, hiked, and photographed all over the world. He was the naturalist on many shipboard excursions including trips to Iceland, Greenland, Russia, Alaska, the Arctic and the Antarctic, the lagoons of Baja California, the South Pacific, and the Caribbean. As a biology professor on the Semester at Sea program traveled four times around the world teaching marine biology and ecology. He was the coordinator of Global Studies on the Spring '09 voyage of the Semester at Sea program.

He was a professor of biology at Fullerton College for over 30 years.  He died at 84 at his cabin in the Sierra Nevada outside Bishop 31 May 2021.

Bibliography

Books
 The herpetofauna of the San Gabriel Mountains, Los Angeles County, California (1976)
 A Natural History of California (1995)
 Natural History of the Islands of California (2003)
 Terrestrial Vegetation of California (2007), editor with Michael Barbour and Todd Keeler-Wolf
 Wild and Beautiful: A Natural History of the Open Spaces in Orange County (2013)
 A Natural history of California Second Edition (2017)

Academic publications

References

Living people
American ecologists
American naturalists
Arizona State University alumni
1937 births

Allan A. Schoenherr


Sillar is a variety of rhyolite, which is a type of volcanic rock. Although sillar is of rhyolitic composition, it has been erupted from volcanoes which mostly erupt andesite lava, and sillar contains small fragments of andesite. A pink variety of sillar owes its colour to crystals of hematite within the rock. A white variety lacks these hematite crystals. Sillar is found as pyroclastic flow deposits of tuff near volcanoes in southern Peru, for example the now-extinct Chachani volcano which erupted flows of sillar during the Pleistocene epoch.

Sillar facies Orvieto-Bagnoregio Ignimbrite (black blocks of scoria in red tuff) occurs at Civita di Bagnoregio in the Vulsini volcanic district of central Italy.

Building stone
Sillar has been used as a building stone in Peru. Many colonial buildings in the city of Arequipa are made of sillar, for example, the arches of the "Mirador of Yanahuara" in Arequipa, from which the entire city can be viewed.

See also

References

 Composition of sillar from Maricopa Center for Learning and Instruction
 Information Arequipa

Rhyolite
Building stone
Architecture in Peru

es:Toba volcánica#Sillar de Arequipa

Sillar


Philip D. McMurdo (born 19 May 1954) is an Australian judge. He has been a judge of the Queensland Court of Appeal since 2015; he was previously a judge of the Supreme Court of Queensland from 2003 to 2015.

He was born in Brisbane, and studied law at the University of Queensland. He was admitted as a solicitor in 1977 and admitted to the Queensland Bar in 1980. He was a part-time member of the Queensland Law Reform Commission from 1995 to 2001. His wife, Margaret McMurdo, has also served on the court.

He had been long-tipped for a Court of Appeal appointment before his promotion; in 2014, all judges apart from his wife nominated McMurdo as the most suitable choice for a vacancy, in advice that was ignored by then-Attorney-General Jarrod Bleijie. In the same year, he called for changes to judicial appointment processes following the controversy over the appointment of former Chief Justice Tim Carmody.

References

Judges of the Supreme Court of Queensland
Living people
1954 births

Philip McMurdo


Valence House Museum is the only surviving of the five manor houses of Dagenham. The timber-framed museum building, partially surrounded by a moat, is situated in Valence Park off Becontree Avenue, in the London Borough of Barking and Dagenham, London, England. The building has been used as a manor house, a family home, a town hall, the headquarters of the library service and now houses a museum.

Valence House Museum
The museum contains permanent exhibitions on history and life in Barking and Dagenham, including displays from the 1945 Becontree Estate. It hosts regular special events for the public and school parties.

Valence House Museum, archives and local studies library closed on 22 December 2007 for a period of extensive refurbishment, partly funded by the Heritage Lottery Fund. It reopened in June 2010 and a few days later a plaque was unveiled to mark the funding. The refurbishment included a new purpose-built archive and local studies centre.

An exhibition opened showing restored items from the Ray and Diana Harryhausen Foundation collection at Valence House Museum on 14 March 2018. The exhibition was inspired by local man Alan Friswell who worked with Ray Harryhausen on the creature's restorations. It was funded Barking and Dagenham London Borough Council.

Valence Park
The surrounding park of , has been created from the former Valence House estate, and was purchased by Dagenham Urban District Council from the London County Council in 1926.

The park hosts one of the Great Trees of London, a Holm oak.

History

A house was first established on this site in the 13th century, owned by Robert Dynes in 1280. Later tenants of the estate are commemorated in the road names surrounding the park. The name of the house derives from 14th-century tenants, Agnes de Valence and her brother Aylmer, Earl of Pembroke, who came from a wealthy family in the French province of Valence, the family moving here when their uncle became king. The estate passed into the ownership of the Dean and Chapter of Windsor in 1475, and remained in their ownership until 1867, when it passed to the Church Commissioners. In the latter part of the 16th century the owner and tenant of Valence House was Timothy Lucye, who married in 1584 Susanna, daughter of Henry Fanshawe, of Jenkyns, an adjoining manor. He was the brother of Sir Thomas Lucy of Charlecote, Warwickshire.

Local government
In 1921, the London County Council (LCC) purchased the building and land to develop the Becontree estate. The house was used as the LCC headquarters during construction. The Dagenham Urban District Council acquired the premises. During 1928 and 1929 they extended to building for use as offices and the council chamber.

Valence House served as the town hall until 1937, when the Dagenham Civic Centre was completed. The house became the library headquarters of the borough. The house is now a museum, and houses the Borough Archives and Local Studies Library in a new building.

The building was Grade II* listed in 1954.

References

External links
London Borough of Barking and Dagenham: Valence House Museum

Houses completed in the 15th century
Grade II* listed buildings in the London Borough of Barking and Dagenham
Grade II* listed museum buildings
Grade II* listed houses
Libraries in the London Borough of Barking and Dagenham
Houses in the London Borough of Barking and Dagenham
Local museums in London
Museums in the London Borough of Barking and Dagenham
History of the London Borough of Barking and Dagenham
Art museums and galleries in London
Country houses in London
Barking

Valence House Museum


A bog body' is a human cadaver, that has been left in a bog. Because of the circumstances, it has been mummified, using natural mummificvation. The enviroment of the peat bog means that certain features are preserved, which would usually decay. Such bodies are often found, the oldest ones date to about 8000 BC, the most recent ones are those of dead soldiers of the Second World War.
Bog bodies

Bog body


José Revueltas Sánchez (November 20, 1914 in Santiago Papasquiaro, Durango – April 14, 1976 in Mexico City) was a Mexican writer, essayist, and political activist. He was part of an important artistic family that included his siblings Silvestre (composer), Fermín (painter) and Rosaura (actress).

Biography

Early life
José Revueltas Sánchez was born on November 20, 1914, in Santiago Papasquiaro, Durango. In 1920, the family relocated to Mexico City, first to the colonia Roma and then to colonia Doctores. He studied at the Colegio Alemán until the fourth grade and finished his primary education in public school. The family entered an economic crisis after the death of his father In 1923. He left school in 1925, but continued through self-education in the Biblioteca Nacional.

Political activism
Revueltas joined the Mexican Communist Party in 1928, but was expelled in 1943 for his criticisms of the organization's bureaucratic practices and for his critique of the Mexican Left, Mexico: Ensayo de un proletariado sin cabeza (Essay About a Headless Proletariat).

He founded the Liga Espartaquista (Spartacist League) and the Partido Popular Socialista (Popular Socialist Party, or PPS), from which he also was expelled for questioning and criticizing the Left.

Imprisonment
Authorities arrested Revueltas for his participation in a political "riot" in the Zócalo in 1929. He was accused of sedition and rioting and sent to the maximum-security penal colony Islas Marías. He was freed on bail after six months. He was again incarcerated in Islas Marías from July to November 1932, and again in 1934 for organizing a strike among agrarian peasants in Camarón, Nuevo León.

He was again imprisoned in 1958 for his participation in the Railwaymen's Movement.

In 1968 he was accused of being the "intellectual author" of the student movement that culminated in the Tlatelolco massacre, so he was arrested and sent to the Palacio de Lecumberri prison (aka The Black Palace), where he wrote one of his more popular books: El apando (The Punishment Cell) (A. Revueltas 1998; Valle, Alvárez Garín, and J. Revueltas 1970).

Translated from the Spanish Wikipedia article.

Death & Memorial
Revueltas died on April 14, 1976, at the age of 61. The official cause of death was post-cardiac arrest.

A memorial for Revueltas was held at the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Secretary of Public Education Victor Bravo Ahuja attended on behalf of President Luis Echeverría, Ahuja was encouraged to leave by Professor Martín Dosal, who had been imprisoned with Revueltas.

President Andrés Manuel López Obrador announced in 2021 that the former prison where Revueltas was held would be rehabilitated as the environmental and cultural education center "Muros de Agua-José Revueltas".

Writings
Los muros de agua (1941)
El luto humano (1943) Published in English as Human Mourning and also as The Stone Knife
Dios en la tierra (1944)
Los días terrenales (1949)
Los errores (1964)
El apando (1969) Published in English as The Hole
México 68: Juventud Y Revolución (1968–1972)

References

Sources
Revueltas, Andrea. 1998. "José Revueltas y el 68. (escritor mexicano)." Siempre! 45, no. 2363 (October): 58–60.
Revueltas, Rosaura. 1980. Los Revueltas: Biografía de una familia.  México: Editorial Grijalbo.
Sáinz, Gustavo, et al. 1977. Conversaciones con José Revueltas. Introduction by Jorge Ruffinelli, bibliography of works by and about José Revueltas by Marilyn R. Frankenthaler. (Cuadernos de texto crítico 3). Veracruz: Universidad Veracruzana, Centro de Investigaciones Lingüístico-Literarias.
Slick, Sam L. 1983. José Revueltas. Edited by Luis Davila. Twayne's world authors series 683. Boston: Twayne Publishers.
Valle, Eduardo, Raúl Álvarez Garín, and José Revueltas. 1970. Los procesos de México 68; tiempo de hablar. México: Editorial Estudiantes.

External links
The Afterlife of Cotton:, On José Revueltas

1914 births
1976 deaths
Writers from Durango
People from Santiago Papasquiaro
Mexican communists
Mexican male writers

José Revueltas


A synsepal is a floral structure formed by the partial or complete fusion of two or more sepals.  Such sepals are said to be gamosepalous.

It is common among Lady's Slipper orchids (Cypripedioideae) that the two lateral sepals are connate to form a synsepal in the outer whorl. This is located directly behind the pouch, opposite the upward-pointing dorsal sepal.

Synsepals may be bifid, i.e. divided into two equal lobes, or forked and divided in two by a deep cleft.

References

Plant morphology
Orchid morphology

Synsepal


A land value tax (LVT) is a levy on the value of land without regard to buildings, personal property and other improvements upon it. It is also known as a location value tax, a point valuation tax, a site valuation tax, split rate tax, or a site-value rating.

Land value taxes are generally favored by economists as they do not cause economic inefficiency, and reduce inequality. A land value tax is a progressive tax, in that the tax burden falls on land owners, because land ownership  is correlated with wealth and income. The land value tax has been referred to as "the perfect tax" and the economic efficiency of a land value tax has been accepted since the eighteenth century. Economists since Adam Smith and David Ricardo have advocated this tax because it does not hurt economic activity, and encourages development without subsidies.

LVT is associated with Henry George, whose ideology became known as Georgism. George argued that taxing the land value is the most logical source of public revenue because the supply of land is fixed and because public infrastructure improvements would be reflected in (and thus paid for by) increased land values.

A low-rate land value tax is currently implemented throughout Denmark, Estonia, Lithuania, Russia, Singapore, and Taiwan; it has also been applied to lesser extents in parts of Australia, Mexico (Mexicali), and the United States (e.g., Pennsylvania).

Economic properties

Efficiency

Most taxes distort economic decisions and discourage beneficial economic activity. For example, property taxes discourage construction, maintenance, and repair because taxes increase with improvements. LVT is not based on how land is used. Because the supply of land is essentially fixed, land rents depend on what tenants are prepared to pay, rather than on landlord expenses. Thus, if landlords passed LVT on to tenants, they might move or rent smaller spaces before absorbing increased rent.

The land's occupants benefit from improvements surrounding a site. Such improvements shift tenants' aggregate demand curve to the right (they will pay more). Landlords benefit from price competition among tenants; the only direct effect of LVT in this case is to reduce the amount of social benefit that is privately captured as land price by titleholders.

LVT is said to be justified for economic reasons because it does not deter production, distort markets, or otherwise create deadweight loss. Land value tax can even have negative deadweight loss (social benefits), particularly when land use improves. Economist William Vickrey believed that:

LVT's efficiency has been observed in practice. Fred Foldvary stated that LVT discourages speculative land holding because the tax reflects changes in land value (up and down), encouraging landowners to develop or sell vacant/underused plots in high demand. Foldvary claimed that LVT increases investment in dilapidated inner city areas because improvements don't cause tax increases. This in turn reduces the incentive to build on remote sites and so reduces urban sprawl. For example, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania's LVT has operated since 1975. This policy was credited by mayor Stephen R. Reed with reducing the number of vacant downtown structures from around 4,200 in 1982 to fewer than 500.

LVT is arguably an ecotax because it discourages the waste of prime locations, which are a finite resource. Many urban planners claim that LVT is an effective method to promote transit-oriented development.

Real estate values
The value of land reflects the value it can provide over time. This value can be measured by the ground rent that a piece of land receives on the market. The present value of ground-rent is the basis for land prices. A land value tax (LVT) will reduce the ground rent received by the landlord, and thus will decrease the price of land, holding all else constant. The rent charged for land may also decrease as a result of efficiency gains if speculators stop hoarding unused land.

Real estate bubbles direct savings towards rent seeking activities rather than other investments and can contribute to recessions. Advocates claim that LVT reduces the speculative element in land pricing, thereby leaving more money for productive capital investment.

At sufficiently high levels, LVT would cause real estate prices to fall by taxing away land rents that would otherwise become 'capitalized' into the price of real estate. It also encourages landowners to sell or develop locations that they are not using. This might cause some landowners, especially pure landowners, to resist high land value tax rates. Landowners often possess significant political influence, which may help explain the limited spread of land value taxes so far.

Tax incidence
A land value tax has progressive tax effects, in that it is paid by the owners of valuable land who tend to be the rich, and since the amount of land is fixed, the tax burden cannot be passed on as higher rents or lower wages to tenants, consumers, or workers.

Practical issues
Several practical issues complicate LVT implementation. Most notably, it must be:
 Calculated fairly and accurately
 High enough to raise sufficient revenue without causing land abandonment, but if land is abandoned, it could be claimed by the State (as occurs under Israel's Absentees' Property Laws)
 Billed to the correct person or business entity

Assessment/appraisal

Levying an LVT requires an assessment and a title register. In a 1796 United States Supreme Court opinion, Justice William Paterson said that leaving the valuation process up to assessors would cause bureaucratic complexities, as well as non-uniform procedures. Murray Rothbard later raised similar concerns, claiming that no government can fairly assess value, which can only be determined by a free market.

Compared to modern property tax assessments, land valuations involve fewer variables and have smoother gradients than valuations that include improvements. This is due to variation of building design and quality. Modern statistical techniques have improved the process; in the 1960s and 1970s, multivariate analysis was introduced as an assessment tool. Usually, such a valuation process begins with a measurement of the most and least valuable land within the taxation area. A few sites of intermediate value are then identified and used as "landmark" values. Other values are interpolated between the landmark values. The data is then collated in a database, "smoothed" and mapped using a geographic information system (GIS). Thus, even if the initial valuation is difficult, once the system is in use, successive valuations become easier.

Revenue
 In the context of LVT as a single tax (replacing all other taxes), some have argued that LVT alone cannot raise enough tax revenue. However, the presence of other taxes can reduce land values and hence the revenue that can be raised from them. The Physiocrats argued that all other taxes ultimately come at the expense of land rental values. Most modern LVT systems function alongside other taxes and thus only reduce their impact without removing them. Land taxes that are higher than the rental surplus (the full land rent for that time period) would result in land abandonment.

Title
In some countries, LVT is impractical because of uncertainty regarding land titles and tenure. For instance, a parcel of grazing land may be communally owned by village inhabitants and administered by village elders. The land in question would need to be held in a trust or similar body for taxation purposes. If the government cannot accurately define ownership boundaries and ascertain the proper owners, it cannot know from whom to collect the tax. Clear titles are absent in many developing countries. In African countries with imperfect land registration, boundaries may be poorly surveyed, and the owner can be unknown.

Incentives

Speculation

The owner of a vacant lot in a thriving city must still pay a tax and would rationally perceive the property as a financial liability, encouraging them to put the land to use in order to cover the tax. LVT removes financial incentives to hold unused land solely for price appreciation, making more land available for productive uses. Land value tax creates an incentive to convert these sites to more intensive private uses or into public purposes.

Incidence
The selling price of a good that is fixed in supply, such as land, does not change if it is taxed. By contrast, the price of manufactured goods can rise in response to increased taxes, because the higher cost reduces the number of units that suppliers are willing to sell at the original price. The price increase is how the maker passes along some part of the tax to consumers. However, if the revenue from LVT is used to reduce other taxes or to provide valuable public investment, it can cause land prices to rise as a result of higher productivity, by more than the amount that LVT removed.

Land tax incidence rests completely upon landlords, although business sectors that provide services to landlords are indirectly impacted. In some economies, 80 percent of bank lending finances real estate, with a large portion of that for land. Reduced demand for land speculation might reduce the amount of circulating bank credit.

While landowners are unlikely to be able to charge higher rents to compensate for LVT, removing other taxes may increase rents, as this may affect the demand for land.

Land use

Assuming constant demand, an increase in constructed space decreases the cost of improvements to land such as houses. Shifting property taxes from improvements to land encourages development. Infill of underutilized urban space is one common practice to reduce urban sprawl.

Collection
LVT is less vulnerable to tax evasion, since land cannot be concealed or moved overseas and titles are easily identified, as they are registered with the public. Land value assessments are usually considered public information, which is available upon request. Transparency reduces tax evasion.

Ethics

Land acquires a scarcity value owing to the competing needs for space. The value of land generally owes nothing to the landowner and everything to the surroundings.

Religion
It has been claimed that land is God's gift to mankind. For example, the Catholic Church asserts in its 1967 "universal destination of goods" principle:

In addition, the Church maintains that civil authorities have the right and duty to regulate the legitimate exercise of the right to ownership for the sake of the common good, including the right to tax.

Equity

LVT considers the effect on land value of location, and of improvements made to neighbouring land, such as proximity to roads and public works. LVT is the purest implementation of the public finance principle known as value capture.

A public works project can increase land values and thus increase LVT revenues. Arguably, public improvements should be paid for by the landowners who benefit from them. Thus, LVT captures the land value of socially created wealth, allowing a reduction in tax on privately created (non-land) wealth.

LVT generally is a progressive tax, with those of greater means paying more, in that land ownership correlates to income and landlords cannot shift the tax burden onto tenants. LVT generally reduces economic inequality, removes incentives to misuse real estate, and reduces the vulnerability of economies to property booms and crashes.

History

Pre-modern
The philosophies and concepts underpinning land value taxation were discussed in ancient times, stemming from taxes on crop yield. For example, Rishis of ancient India claimed that land should be held in common, and that unfarmed land should produce the same tax as productive land. "The earth ...is common to all beings enjoying the fruit of their own labour; it belongs...to all alike"; therefore, "there should be left some for everyone". Apastamba said "If any person holding land does not exert himself and hence bears no produce, he shall, if rich, be made to pay what ought to have been produced".

Mencius was a Chinese philosopher (around 300 BCE) who advocated for the elimination of taxes and tariffs, to be replaced by the public collection of urban land rent: "In the market-places, charge land-rent, but don't tax the goods."

During the Middle Ages, in the West, the first regular and permanent land tax system was based on a unit of land known as the hide. The hide was originally the amount of land sufficient to support a household. It later became subject to a land tax known as "geld".

Physiocrats

The physiocrats were a group of economists who believed that the wealth of nations was derived solely from the value of land agriculture or land development. Before the Industrial Revolution, this was approximately correct. Physiocracy is one of the "early modern" schools of economics. Physiocrats called for the abolition of all existing taxes, completely free trade and a single tax on land. They did not distinguish between the intrinsic value of land and ground rent. Their theories originated in France and were most popular during the second half of the 18th century. The movement was particularly dominated by Anne Robert Jacques Turgot (1727–1781) and François Quesnay (1694–1774). It influenced contemporary statesmen, such as Charles Alexandre de Calonne. The physiocrats were highly influential in the early history of land value taxation in the United States.

Radical Movement
A participant in the Radical Movement, Thomas Paine contended in his Agrarian Justice pamphlet that all citizens should be paid 15 pounds at age 21 "as a compensation in part for the loss of his or her natural inheritance by the introduction of the system of landed property." "Men did not make the earth. It is the value of the improvements only, and not the earth itself, that is individual property. Every proprietor owes to the community a ground rent for the land which he holds." This proposal was the origin of the citizen's dividend advocated by Geolibertarianism. Thomas Spence advocated a similar proposal except that the land rent would be distributed equally each year regardless of age.

Classical economists

Adam Smith, in his 1776 book The Wealth of Nations, first rigorously analyzed the effects of a land value tax, pointing out how it would not hurt economic activity, and how it would not raise contract rents.

Henry George

Henry George (2 September 1839 – 29 October 1897) was perhaps the most famous advocate of recovering land rents for public purposes. An American journalist, politician and political economist, he advocated a "single tax" on land that would eliminate the need for all other taxes. George first articulated the proposal in Our Land and Land Policy (1871). Later, in his best-selling work Progress and Poverty (1879), George argued that because the value of land depends on natural qualities combined with the economic activity of communities, including public investments, the economic rent of land was the best source of tax revenue. This book significantly influenced land taxation in the United States and other countries, including Denmark, which continues grundskyld ('ground duty') as a key component of its tax system. The philosophy that natural resource rents should be captured by society is now often known as Georgism. Its relevance to public finance is underpinned by the Henry George theorem.

Meiji Restoration
After the 1868 Meiji Restoration in Japan, land tax reform was undertaken. An LVT was implemented beginning in 1873. By 1880 initial problems with valuation and rural opposition had been overcome and rapid industrialisation began.

Liberal and Labour Parties in the United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, LVT was an important part of the platform of the Liberal Party during the early part of the twentieth century. David Lloyd George and H. H. Asquith proposed "to free the land that from this very hour is shackled with the chains of feudalism." It was also advocated by Winston Churchill early in his career. The modern Liberal Party (not to be confused with the Liberal Democrats, who are the heir to the earlier Liberal Party and who offer some support for the idea) remains committed to a local form of LVT, as do the Green Party of England and Wales and the Scottish Greens.

The 1931 Labour budget included an LVT, but before it came into force it was repealed by the Conservative-dominated national government that followed.

An attempt at introducing LVT in the administrative County of London was made by the local authority under the leadership of Herbert Morrison in the 1938–1939 Parliament, called the London Rating (Site Values) Bill. Although it failed, it detailed legislation for the implementation of a system of LVT using annual value assessment.

After 1945, the Labour Party adopted the policy, against substantial opposition, of collecting "development value": the increase in land price arising from planning consent. This was one of the provisions of the Town and Country Planning Act 1947, but it was repealed when the Labour government lost power in 1951.

Senior Labour figures in recent times have advocated an LVT, notably Andy Burnham in his 2010 leadership campaign, former Leader of the Opposition Jeremy Corbyn, and Shadow Chancellor John McDonnell.

Republic of China
The Republic of China was one of the first jurisdictions to implement an LVT, specified in its constitution. Sun Yat-Sen would learn about LVT from the Kiautschou Bay concession, which had successful implementation of LVT, bringing increased wealth and financial stability to the colony. The Republic of China would go on to implement LVT in farms at first, later implementing it in the urban areas due to its success.

Modern economists

Alfred Marshall argued in favour of a "fresh air rate", a tax to be charged to urban landowners and levied on that value of urban land that is caused by the concentration of population. That general rate should have to be spent on breaking out small green spots in the midst of dense industrial districts, and on the preservation of large green areas between different towns and between different suburbs which are tending to coalesce. This idea influenced Marshall's pupil Arthur Pigou's ideas on taxing negative externalities.

Pigou wrote an essay supporting LVT, interpreted as support for Lloyd George's People's Budget.

Paul Samuelson supported LVT. "Our ideal society finds it essential to put a rent on land as a way of maximizing the total consumption available to the society. ...Pure land rent is in the nature of a 'surplus' which can be taxed heavily without distorting production incentives or efficiency. A land value tax can be called 'the useful tax on measured land surplus'."

Milton Friedman stated: "There's a sense in which all taxes are antagonistic to free enterprise – and yet we need taxes. ...So the question is, which are the least bad taxes? In my opinion the least bad tax is the property tax on the unimproved value of land, the Henry George argument of many, many years ago."

Michael Hudson is a proponent for taxing rent, especially land rent. ".... politically, taxing economic rent has become the bête noire of neoliberal globalism. It is what property owners and rentiers fear most of all, as land, subsoil resources and natural monopolies far exceed industrial capital in magnitude. What appears in the statistics at first glance as 'profit' turns out upon examination to be Ricardian or 'economic' rent."

Paul Krugman agreed that LVT is efficient, however he disputed whether it should be considered a single tax, as he believed it would not be enough alone, excluding taxes on natural resource rents and other Georgist taxes, to fund a welfare state. "Believe it or not, urban economics models actually do suggest that Georgist taxation would be the right approach at least to finance city growth. But I would just say: I don't think you can raise nearly enough money to run a modern welfare state by taxing land [only]."

Joseph Stiglitz, articulating the Henry George theorem wrote that, "Not only was Henry George correct that a tax on land is nondistortionary, but in an equalitarian society ... tax on land raises just enough revenue to finance the (optimally chosen) level of government expenditure."

Rick Falkvinge proposed a "simplified taxless state" where the state owns all the land it can defend from other states and leases this land to people at market rates.

Fred Foldvary, an Austrian economist, has expressed support for the LVT and has integrated Georgist and Austrian models into his theory of the business cycle. "Conventional macroeconomics lacks a warranted explanation of the major business cycle, while the Austrian and geo-economic Georgist schools have incomplete theories. A geo-Austrian synthesis, in contrast, provides a potent theory consistent with historical cycles and with explanations about the root causes."

Implementation

Australia

Land taxes in Australia are levied by the states. The exemption thresholds vary, as do tax rates and other rules.

In New South Wales, the state land tax exempts farmland and principal residences and there is a tax threshold. Determination of land value for tax purposes is the responsibility of the Valuer-General. In Victoria, the land tax threshold is  on the total value of all Victorian property owned by a person on 31 December of each year and taxed at a progressive rate. The principal residence, primary production land and land used by a charity are exempt from land tax. In Tasmania the threshold is  and the audit date is 1 July. Between  and  the tax rate is 0.55% and over  it is 1.5%. In Queensland, the threshold for individuals is  and  for other entities, and the audit date is 30 June. In South Australia the threshold is  and taxed at a progressive rate, the audit date is 30 June.

By revenue, property taxes represent 4.5% of total taxation in Australia. A government report in 1986 for Brisbane, Queensland advocated an LVT.

The Henry Tax Review of 2010 commissioned by the federal government recommended that state governments replace stamp duty with LVT. The review proposed multiple marginal rates and that most agricultural land would be in the lowest band with a rate of zero. The Australian Capital Territory moved to adopt this system and planned to reduce stamp duty by 5% and raise land tax by 5% for each of twenty years.

Canada
LVT were common in Western Canada at the turn of the twentieth century. In Vancouver LVT became the sole form of municipal taxation in 1910 under the leadership of mayor, Louis D. Taylor. Gary B. Nixon (2000) stated that the rate never exceeded 2% of land value, too low to prevent the speculation that led directly to the 1913 real estate crash. All Canadian provinces later taxed improvements.

Estonia
Estonia levies an LVT to fund municipalities. It is a state level tax, but 100% of the revenue funds Local Councils. The rate is set by the Local Council within the limits of 0.1–2.5%. It is one of the most important sources of funding for municipalities. LVT is levied on the value of the land only. Few exemptions are available and even public institutions are subject to it. Church sites are exempt, but other land held by religious institutions is not. The tax has contributed to a high rate (~90%) of owner-occupied residences within Estonia, compared to a rate of 67.4% in the United States.

Hong Kong
Government rent in Hong Kong, formerly the crown rent, is levied in addition to Rates. Properties located in the New Territories (including New Kowloon) or located in the rest of the territory and whose land grant was recorded after 27 May 1985, pay 3% of the rateable rental value.

Hungary
Municipal governments in Hungary levy an LVT based on the area or the land's adjusted market value. The maximum rate is 3% of the adjusted market value.

Kenya
Kenya's LVT history dates to at least 1972, shortly after it achieved independence. Local governments must tax land value but are required to seek approval from the central government for rates that exceed 4 percent. Buildings were not taxed in Kenya as of 2000. The central government is legally required to pay municipalities for the value of land it occupies. Kelly claimed that possibly as a result of this land reform, Kenya became the only stable country in its region. As of late 2014, the city of Nairobi still taxed only land values, although a tax on improvements had been proposed.

Mexico
The capital city of Baja California, Mexicali, has had an LVT since the 1990s when it became the first locality in Mexico to implement such a tax.

Namibia
A land value taxation on rural land was introduced in Namibia, with the primary intention of improving land use.

Russia
In 1990, several economists wrote to then President Mikhail Gorbachev suggesting that Russia adopt LVT. Currently, Russia has an LVT of 0.3% on residential, agricultural and utilities lands as well as a 1.5% tax for other types of land.

Singapore
Singapore owns the majority of its land which it leases for 99-year terms. In addition, Singapore taxes development uplift at around 70%. These two sources of revenue fund most of Singapore's new infrastructure.

South Korea
South Korea has an aggregate land tax that is levied annually based on an individual's landholding value across the whole country. Speculative and residential land has a progressive tax rate of 0.2–5%, commercial and building sites 0.3–2%, farm and forest lands 0.1% and luxury properties 5%.

Spain

Taiwan
As of 2010, land value taxes and land value increment taxes accounted for 8.4% of total government revenue in Taiwan.

Thailand
The Thai government introduced the Land and Building Tax Act B.E. 2562 in March 2019, which came into effect on 1 January 2020. It sets a maximum tax rate of 1.2% on commercial and vacant land, 0.3% for residential land and 0.15% for agricultural land.

United States

In the late 19th century George's followers founded a single tax colony at Fairhope, Alabama. Although the colony, now a nonprofit corporation, still holds land in the area and collects a relatively small ground rent, the land is subject to state and local property taxes.

Common property taxes include land value, which usually has a separate assessment. Thus, land value taxation already exists in many jurisdictions. Some jurisdictions have attempted to rely more heavily on it. In Pennsylvania, certain cities raised the tax on land value while reducing the tax on improvement/building/structure values. For example, the city of Altoona adopted a property tax that solely taxed land value in 2002 but repealed the tax in 2016. Many Pennsylvania cities use a split-rate tax, which taxes the value of land at a higher rate than the value of buildings.

Countries with active discussion

China
China's Real Rights Law contains provisions founded on LVT analysis.

Ireland

In 2010 the government of Ireland announced that it would introduce an LVT, beginning in 2013. Following a 2011 change in government, a property tax was introduced instead.

New Zealand
After decades of a modest LVT, New Zealand abolished it in 1990. Discussions continue as to whether or not to bring it back. Earlier Georgist politicians included Patrick O'Regan and Tom Paul (who was Vice-President of the New Zealand Land Values League).

United Kingdom

In September 1908, Chancellor of the Exchequer David Lloyd George instructed McKenna, the First Lord of the Admiralty, to build more Dreadnoughts. The ships were to be financed by an LVT. Lloyd George believed that relating national defence to land tax would both provoke the opposition of the House of Lords and rally the people round a simple emotive issue. The Lords, composed of wealthy landowners, rejected the Budget in November 1909, leading to a constitutional crisis.

LVT was on the UK statute books briefly in 1931, introduced by Philip Snowden's 1931 budget, strongly supported by prominent LVT campaigner Andrew MacLaren MP. MacLaren lost his seat at the next election (1931) and the act was repealed, MacLaren tried again with a private member's bill in 1937; it was rejected 141 to 118.

Labour Land Campaign advocates within the Labour Party and the broader labour movement for "a more equitable distribution of the Land Values that are created by the whole community" through LVT. Its membership includes members of the British Labour Party, Trade Unions and Cooperatives and individuals. The Liberal Democrats' ALTER (Action for Land Taxation and Economic Reform) aims:

The Green Party "favour moving to a system of Land Value Tax, where the level of taxation depends on the rental value of the land concerned."

A course in "Economics with Justice" with a strong foundation in LVT are offered at the School of Economic Science, which was founded by Andrew MacLaren MP and has historical links with the Henry George Foundation.

Scotland

In February 1998, the Scottish Office of the British Government launched a public consultation process on land reform. A survey of the public response found that: "excluding the responses of the lairds and their agents, reckoned as likely prejudiced against the measure, 20% of all responses favoured the land tax" (12% in grand total, without the exclusions). The government responded by announcing "a comprehensive economic evaluation of the possible impact of moving to a land value taxation basis". However, no measure was adopted.

In 2000 the Parliament's Local Government Committee's inquiry into local government finance explicitly included LVT, but the final report omitted any mention.

In 2003 the Scottish Parliament passed a resolution: "That the Parliament notes recent studies by the Scottish Executive and is interested in building on them by considering and investigating the contribution that land value taxation could make to the cultural, economic, environmental and democratic renaissance of Scotland."

In 2004 a letter of support was sent from members of the Scottish Parliament to the organisers and delegates of the IU's 24th international conference—including members of the Scottish Greens, the Scottish Socialist Party and the Scottish National Party.

The policy was considered in the 2006 Scottish Local Government Finance Review whose 2007 Report concluded that "although land value taxation meets a number of our criteria, we question whether the public would accept the upheaval involved in radical reform of this nature, unless they could clearly understand the nature of the change and the benefits involved.... We considered at length the many positive features of a land value tax which are consistent with our recommended local property tax [LPT], particularly its progressive nature." However, "[h]aving considered both rateable value and land value as the basis for taxation, we concur with Layfield (UK Committee of Inquiry, 1976) who recommended that any local property tax should be based on capital values."

In 2009, Glasgow City Council resolved to introduce LVT by saying "the idea could become the blueprint for Scotland's future local taxation". The Council agreed to a "long term move to a local property tax / land value tax hybrid tax". Its Local Taxation Working Group stated that simple [non-hybrid] land value taxation should itself "not be discounted as an option for local taxation reform: it potentially holds many benefits and addresses many existing concerns".

Zimbabwe
In Zimbabwe, government coalition partners the Movement for Democratic Change adopted LVT.

Belgium
Bernard Clerfayt called for the overhaul of the property tax in the Brussels region, with a higher tax for land values than for buildings.

Tax rates

EU countries

See also

 Citizen's dividend
 Classical economics
 Danegeld
 Earth Rights Institute
 Ecotax
 Equity in taxation
 Geographic information system
 Geolibertarianism
 Georgism
 International Union for Land Value Taxation (The IU)
 Land (economics)
 Land monopolization and reform
 Land speculation
 Land tenure and registration
 Law of rent
 Lockean proviso
 Natural resource economics
 Open letter to Gorbachev
 Optimal tax
 Physiocracy
 Pigovian tax
 Progressive tax
 Property rights (economics)
 Property Tax
 Prosper Australia
 Rent-seeking
 Scottish League for the Taxation of Land Values
 Single tax
 Tax reform
 Tax shift
 Value capture
 Wealth tax

References

Notes

Sources

Further reading

External sources
 New South Wales Land Tax Management Act 1956 (Australia)

Land taxation
Georgism
Real estate valuation
Tax reform
Valuation (finance)

Land value tax