José Antonio Aguirre y Lecube (6 March 1904 – 22 March 1960) was a Basque politician and activist in the Basque Nationalist Party. He was the first president of the Provisional Government of the Basque Country and the executive defense advisor during the Spanish Civil War. Under his mandate, the Provisional Government formed the Basque Army and fought for the Second Spanish Republic.

Early life

José Antonio Aguirre was born in Bilbao, Biscay, Spain. He studied in the Basque Country's first Ikastola, a school in which all lessons were given in Basque. He later studied law at the University of Deusto.

After his father's death in 1920, Aguirre moved with his family to Algorta, near Bilbao. At 16 years of age, he had to become a father figure to his 10 younger brothers and sisters.

After finishing his law studies, he began working in the family business, Chocolates Aguirre. He later took responsibility for the business and introduced many reforms, including free health care and paid holidays, which significantly improved conditions for the workers in the factory. He also donated part of the business's revenue to the poor and advocated for social housing. Until 1937, Chocolates Bilbaínos S.A. was the second-largest business in its sector in Spain.

Aguirre was a football player for Athletic Bilbao; he won the Copa del Rey with the club in 1923. During the Spanish Civil War, he was one of the main promoters of the Basque Country national football team, which played in Europe and the Americas to raise funds for Basque refugee children whose parents had been forced into exile.

In 1926, after completing his military service, he began work as an attorney at Esteban Bilbao's office. Soon after, he founded his own firm, which focused on political issues and the working conditions of the lower class.

At the time, Spain was ruled by the dictator Miguel Primo de Rivera. Aguirre, a Basque nationalist, joined the Basque Nationalist Party. The party was later divided into two political streams. Aguirre opposed the division, believing that the Basque Country was above any differences. He worked to unify the two factions and succeeded in 1930.

Aguirre increased his involvement in politics and published articles in the newspapers Euzko Gaztedia and Euzkadi. As an example of his integrationist views and new ideals, in 1932, he proposed that the party should accept people who were not born in the Basque Country.

Early political career

After the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera ended in 1930, a new political era began in Spain. In 1931 and 1932, Aguirre intervened decisively in failed attempts at Basque devolution, which called for self-government, including in Navarre.

On 5 November 1933, two weeks before a general election, a referendum was held in Álava, Gipuzkoa and Biscay on new wording for the Statute of Devolution, which abandoned the inclusion of Navarre. The wording was approved by an overwhelming majority (459,000 votes in favour, 14,000 against), but in Álava, the votes in favour did not reach 50%.

As a result of the dissolution of the legislature for the general election, the hesitation of radical government, and Carlist opposition to the incorporation of Álava in the statutory process, devolution was prevented until 1 October 1936, when the Spanish Civil War started.

Spanish Civil War
On 7 October, the councillors from Biscay, along with some from Gipuzkoa and Álava, participated in passing a ballot. A major uprising had occurred in Álava and Navarre, and most of Gipuzkoa was in the hands of the rebels, who, with the political machinations of the councillors, set the stage for major political change. Aguirre was elected lehendakari, or president. After a religious ceremony at the Basilica of Begoña in which he swore allegiance to Catholicism, his country and his party, he visited Guernica and took his oath of office in the Basque language:

A government of conciliation was formed by Basque Nationalists, Socialists, Communists, and other Republicans but not without tensions among them. The government was in power in Biscay for several months until the fall of Bilbao.

The first Basque government was made up of four members of the Basque Nationalist Party (Aguirre as president and head of defense, Jesús María Leizaola as head of justice and culture, Eliodoro de la Torre as head of finance, and Telesforo Monzón as head of interior); three of the PSOE (Santiago Aznar as head of industry, Juan Gracia Colás as head of welfare, and Juan de los Toyos as head of labor); one of Basque Nationalist Action (Gonzalo Nárdiz as head of agriculture); one of the Republican Left (Ramón María Aldasoro Galarza as head of trade); one of the Republican Union (Alfredo Espinosa as head of health); and one of the Spanish Communist Party (Juan Astigarrabía as head of public works).

The Basque Army (Basque: Eusko Gudarostea), with 100,000 soldiers, was made up of battalions of different ideologies. It was well armed but poorly trained, and one of its most acute deficiencies was the absence of heavy artillery and an air force. Aguirre begged Indalecio Prieto and Manuel Azaña to send some aircraft. Historians agree that it was not a viable option because of the difficulties in breaking the Siege of Biscay. However, 40 to 50 airplanes were sent in different shipments, most flying over enemy territory. Others were sent across France and, after being disarmed, were retained or returned to Barcelona or Valencia in accordance with a "no intervention" policy. Another factor that contributed decisively to the Basque Army's defeat was its lack of a qualified general staff.

In June 1937, the  Franco's Nationalists broke through the Iron Ring of Bilbao and entered the city as a result of the treachery of Alejandro Goicoechea, the engineer who had designed the fortifications. Aguirre moved his government to Trucíos before he headed to Santander and finally to Catalonia, where he prepared to continue fighting with his men. In May, Aguirre had entered into talks with the Italians, through intermediaries, about a possible surrender. The talks continued, with the leader of the Basque Nationalist Party, Juan de Ajuriaguerra, discussing terms, the Santoña Agreement, to allow a withdrawal from Bilbao if Nationalist troops did not attack the city. However, they attacked, and Aguirre refused to sign the surrender agreement and fought on.

Exile

Aguirre fled the country after the war and was pursued for years by agents of Francisco Franco. His exile took him to Paris, Berlin and New York City. In June 1940, the Breton Yann Fouéré gave him documents that allowed him to escape France, which had been invaded by the Wehrmacht.

Aguirre fled first to France, where he organised camps and services for Basque refugees and the government-in-exile. Caught behind enemy lines, he was in Belgium when Hitler occupied that country. He then fled to Berlin, where he lived underground until a false identity was arranged.

Under the protection of a Panaman ambassador (Germán Guardia, who provided him with a Panamanian passport), Aguirre reached Sweden. Dodging SS German intelligence, he arrived in Rio de Janeiro on the ship Vasaholm on 27 August 1941. The Brazilian customs authorities registered a Panamanian, Dr. José Álvarez Lastra, and a Venezuelan, María de Arrigorriaga, accompanied by their children, José and Gloria. They were actually Aguirre; his wife, María Zabala; and their sons, Aintzane and Joseba. Despite intense efforts made by Manuel de Ynchausti in the United States, Aguirre's true identity was in danger of being discovered within a month.

He wrote then to Ramón María de Aldasoro, the former trade and business secretary of the Basque government, who led the Euzkadi delegation in Buenos Aires, Argentina. However, Aldasoro's efforts on Aguirre's behalf were unsuccessful because the Argentine authorities sympathized with the European "New Order".

Aguirre went to Uruguay and asked a small group of Basque patriots for what Argentina had denied him. The Uruguayan president, General Alfredo Baldomir, agreed, and he even received Aguirre with honours in accordance with his status. Once the arrangements were complete, the public announcement of his arrival was made on 8 October in the newspapers of Montevideo. Aguirre's identity was reinstated, and he was given a visa to travel to New York, where he was put under the protection of resident Basques, who were leading movements in Mexico and New York.

In New York, Aguirre took up a post as a lecturer at Columbia University. After the Pact of Madrid between the US and Spain, he went to France, where the Basque government-in-exile was established. There, he found that France's Vichy government had sequestrated the Basque government building and that President Charles de Gaulle was maintaining it on behalf of Francoist Spain. The building is now the Instituto Cervantes.

The president of the government-in-exile was always a Basque Nationalist Party member, and even the Spanish sole representative in the United Nations was a Basque appointee, Jesús de Galíndez, until his murder in an obscure episode at the time of Spain's entry to the United Nations. Aguirre decided to place the large Basque exiles' network at the service of the Allies, and collaborated with the US Secretary of State and the CIA to defeat their common enemies.

Aguirre died in Paris on 22 March 1960 from a heart attack, aged 56. His body was shipped from Paris to Saint-Jean-de-Luz in the French Basque Country, where it spent a night in the Monzón house and was buried on 28 March after a funeral Mass at the Saint-Jean parish church.

Influence
Aguirre's life was the subject of a Soule folk play, Aguirre presidenta ("President Aguirre"). He wrote a book about his experiences, Escape Via Berlin: Eluding Franco in Hitler's Europe (New York, 1942).

See also
Tomas Agirre Lekube

References

Sources

External links
 Basque Nationalist Party.
 Tribute to Aguirre website

1904 births
1960 deaths
Athletic Bilbao footballers
Footballers from Bilbao
Basque Nationalist Party politicians
Leaders of political parties in Spain
Members of the Congress of Deputies of the Second Spanish Republic
Politicians from Bilbao
Presidents of the Basque Government
Spanish emigrants to France
Spanish men's footballers
Spanish people of the Spanish Civil War (Republican faction)
University of Deusto alumni
Columbia University faculty
Men's association football midfielders
Basque independence activists
Mayors of places in the Basque Country
Basque Anti-Francoists

José Antonio Aguirre (politician)


Toynton St Peter is a village and civil parish in the East Lindsey district of Lincolnshire, England, approximately  south from the town of Spilsby.

Toynton St Peter, and its neighbours Toynton All Saints, and Toynton Fenside are listed three times in the Domesday Book of 1086, jointly as "Toantun" so it is not possible to distinguish which entry referred to which place. As a whole, "Toantun" consisted of 78 households and had a church.

The parish church is a Grade II listed building dedicated to Saint Peter and dating from the 14th century, although it was rebuilt in 1876 by James Fowler of Louth. It was built of greenstone and limestonewith some brick patching. It has a 15th-century tower and a 14th-century font.

In the churchyard is the base of a 14th-century churchyard cross which is both Grade II listed and a scheduled monument.

A Wesleyan Methodist chapel was built in 1811. The chapel is now closed and an application for planning permission to convert it into a dwelling was refused.

The parish has a village hall.

References

External links

Toynton St Peter Parish Council
Toynton St Peter - Roll of Honour
Toynton St Peter, Genuki

Villages in Lincolnshire
Civil parishes in Lincolnshire
East Lindsey District

Toynton St Peter


Vivant is a small social-liberal political party in Belgium founded by millionaire Roland Duchâtelet. In the regional elections in June 2004, the party formed a strategic alliance with the Flemish Liberals and Democrats (VLD). Both parties are founded on the principle of individualism and can be called liberal. In 2007, the party announced it would likely merge with the VLD.

Vivant is economically interventionist, advocating a basic income guarantee for all citizens. Vivant considers the basic income as an inalienable part of the legal minimum wage (approximately half of it for full-time employment). In order to tax goods more evenly, wherever they are manufactured in order to respond to automatisation, globalization and an ageing population, Vivant proposes to shift taxes from labour to final consumption. (All taxes in the chain of production are an inclusive part of the price paid by the consumers and could be considered as a consumption tax, each tax in each stage with its specific side effects.) Vivant also proposes a flat tax on income in two steps, 0% on to 1350 Euro and 50% from there. The VLD doesn't support all of these measures. Vivant also has direct democracy as one of its key points.

In the regional elections of 2004, partner VLD lost heavily, dragging Vivant with it to third place among Flemish political parties. Although interest in Vivant increased during the elections, the party remained a marginal force in Belgian politics. Vivant is particularly strong in the German-speaking community of Belgium, where it won 7.3% and two representatives in the Parliament of the German community.

While vivant means "alive" or "lively" in French, as an acronym "VIVANT" stands for Voor Individuele Vrijheid en Arbeid in een Nieuwe Toekomst, ("for individual freedom and labour in a new future") in Dutch.

Elections
Vivant first took part in the federal elections for the Belgian Senate and Chamber of Representatives in 1999, but obtained no seats. The 2003 elections were no different. In 2004 there were elections of the European Parliament and the Belgian regional parliaments, where Vivant took part in a list-cartel with the VLD, but none of Vivant's candidates were elected. In 2006, Nele Lijnen became a co-opted member of the Senate.

See also
List of liberal parties
Liberalism in Belgium

References

External links
 Vivant official site
 http://www.vivanteurope.org/doc/THEME/th29_2_en.pdf

Political parties supporting universal basic income
Liberal parties in Belgium
Social liberal parties
Belgian nationalism
Eurosceptic parties in Belgium

Vivant


The Reverend Revett Sheppard (1778, in Campsey Ash – 1830, in Wrabness) was an English malacologist. He was a Fellow of the Linnean Society. He described several new non-marine species of mollusks.

Sheppard was a friend of the entomologist William Kirby.

Publications
Sheppard's publications include:
Sheppard, R., 1822. On two new British species of Mytilus. Transactions of the Linnean Society of London 13: 83-87.
Sheppard, R., 1823. Descriptions of seven new British land and freshwater shells, with observations on many other species, including a list of such as have been found in the county of Suffolk. Transactions of the Linnean Society of London 14: 148-170.

References
 Killeen, I. J., 1992. The land and freshwater molluscs of Suffolk. Suffolk Naturalists' Society, Ipswich.
 Revett Sheppard is listed (alphabetically) on page 811 of "2,400 Years of Malacology" published online by the American Malacological Society

English zoologists
1830 deaths
1778 births
English malacologists
People from Suffolk Coastal (district)

Revett Sheppard


Horns and Halos is the fourteenth album released by rapper, Andre Nickatina and his second with rapper Equipto. It was released on May 17, 2005 for Million Dollar Dream and featured production from Andre Nickatina, Nick Peace, Little J, Sweet Geez, Tone Capone and DJ Pause. Two sequels were released for the album, 2005's Gun-Mouth 4 Hire: Horns and Halos, Vol. 2 and 2006's Bullet Symphony: Horns and Halos 3.

Track listing
"Heelz"- 2:26
"Morire da Solo (Die Alone)"- 3:03
"Turf on Fire"- 3:33
"Bananas"- 2:17
"Close n Personal"- 2:18
"Boss Soss Talk"- 3:20
"Git Down"- 3:35
"Dedicate Yo Life 2 This P"- 1:54
"Tina Terry"- 3:04
"Blueberry Rain"- 3:30
"2 B U"- 3:31
"I'm Gone"- 4:10
"Upgrade Call"- 4:00
"Holla 4 Madonna"- 3:27
"These Clowns"- 3:41
"Somethin' Holy Like Qur'an"- 3:19

2005 albums
Andre Nickatina albums

Horns and Halos (Andre Nickatina album)


Times and Seasons was a 19th-century Latter Day Saint newspaper published at Nauvoo, Illinois. It was printed monthly or twice-monthly from November 1839 to February 1846.  The motto of the paper was "Truth will prevail," which was printed underneath the title heading. It was the successor to the Elders' Journal and was the last newspaper published by the Church in the United States before the schisms that occurred after the death of Joseph Smith.

History
As members of the early Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints fled Missouri as a result of the 1838 Mormon War, the press and type for the Elders' Journal was buried in Far West. In April 1839, Elias Smith and Hiram Clark, among others, returned to the city and recovered the press and type. It was taken to Nauvoo and in June 1839 was given to Ebenezer Robinson and Don Carlos Smith (younger brother of Joseph Smith), who served as the editors. In December 1840, Robinson moved exclusively to book printing while Don Carlos took over as the sole editor of the Times and Seasons. In May 1841, Robert B. Thompson joined as an editor. After the death of Don Carlos in 1841, Robinson rejoined as an editor and worked with Thompson on a single issue before Thompson's death, just twenty days after the death of Don Carlos. Robinson was then joined by Gustavus Hills for a few issues before he deeded the print shop to Joseph Smith. in January 1842. Joseph acted as director of the print shop and was listed as editor in the Times and Seasons, but operation was actually run by John Taylor and Wilford Woodruff. In November 1842, Taylor became the principal editor, but was still assisted by Woodruff. The printing office was eventually sold to Taylor directly in January 1844.

Contents
The publication was the first to include such significant Latter Day Saint documents as The Wentworth Letter, a construction of the King Follett Discourse, the Book of Abraham (which was later canonized in 1880 by the LDS Church as part of their Pearl of Great Price), the personal history of Joseph Smith, and the announcement of the assassination of Joseph and Hyrum Smith.

Namesake
From 1974 to 1977, a periodical entitled The New Times and Seasons was published by the Church of Jesus Christ Restored, a group that broke from the RLDS Church in 1979. The church's president, Stanley M. King, opened the first issue with a prospectus claiming the paper was a continuation of the original Times and Seasons. The paper republished many articles, letters, and other materials published in the original Nauvoo newspaper. It was published in Owen Sound, Ontario.

Another breakaway sect, the True and Living Church of Jesus Christ of Saints of the Last Days, which split from the LDS church, published a periodical entitled The Manti Times and Seasons. Its purpose was "to uplift and encourage all those who truly seek to reclaim the House of Israel and redeem the Zion of our God." The first issue was published in August 1996. The periodical was edited and printed by J. K. Braddy in Manti, Utah.

A LDS-themed blog, and one of the earliest blogs in the so-called Bloggernacle or community of blogs on Latter Day Saint topics, carries the name of Times & Seasons.

See also

The Evening and the Morning Star
Messenger and Advocate
Elders' Journal
Millennial Star
List of Latter Day Saint periodicals

Notes

References

Sorensen, Parry D. "Nauvoo Times and Seasons," Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society, vol. 55 no. 2, pp. 117–35.

External links
Times and Seasons online source (HTML) at CenterPlace.org, courtesy of the Restoration Internet Committee.
Times and Seasons online source (PDF scans) courtesy of the L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University.
 Times & Seasons blog

Defunct newspapers published in Illinois
Church of Christ (Latter Day Saints) periodicals
Newspapers established in 1839
Publications disestablished in 1846
Latter Day Saint movement in Illinois
1839 in Christianity
19th-century Mormonism

Times and Seasons


Chief Justice Hamoodur Rahman (; 1 November 1910 – 20 December 1981), . , was a Pakistani Bengali jurist and an academic who served as the Chief Justice of Pakistan from 18 November 1968 until 31 October 1975.

Educated in law and trained as a jurist from the United Kingdom, he chaired the War Enquiry Commission to investigate the causes of the Bangladesh Liberation War that led to the creation of Bangladesh. In addition, Rehman served as a law professor in the faculty of Karachi University and vice-chancellor of University of Dhaka while remaining active in promoting literacy across the country. After the independence of Bangladesh, Rehman's family retained Pakistan's citizenship and his son served as the Chief Justice of Islamabad High Court.

Chief Justice Rahman remained a respected figure in Pakistan's judiciary, and is hailed for his honesty and patriotism that Senior Justice Khalil-ur-Rehman Ramday once publicly noted that "his Commission was the most honourable commission that was investigated by a Bengali Chief Justice, in spite of East-Pakistan disaster." His findings, which exposed the Bangladesh genocide and recommended charges for senior Pakistani officials, were never made public as the report was muzzled by the Bhutto administration under the guise of harming civil-military relations.

Biography

Early life, background, and education

Hamoodur Rahman was born in Patna, Bihar, British India on 1 November 1910. Despite being born in Bihar, Rahman hailed from a Bengali Muslim family. Hamoodur Rahman's family practised law before the Partition of India— his brother, Maudoodur Rahman, was also a barrister who ascended as a Judge of Calcutta High Court. His father, Khan Bahadur Dr. Dawood ur Rahman was the first Muslim civil surgeon in undivided India to do FRCS form Royal College London. He was the personal surgeon to the Emir of Kuwait.  His father in law, Nawabzada Ashraf Ali was a barrister who was a practising advocate in the Calcutta High Court. Ashraf Ali later participated in general elections held in 1930 and was a member of Bengal Legislative Assembly. Ali later served as deputy speaker of the Bengal Legislative Assembly before the Partition of India.

Hamoodur Rahman was educated in Calcutta and entered in St. Xavier's College of the University of Calcutta where he secured his graduation in BA. He went to the Great Britain to attend the University of London where he graduated with the LLB degree and resume his studies in Gray's Inn, London, and was called to the Bar in London in 1937.

Upon arriving in British India, Rehman began practising law at the Calcutta High Court in 1938 and served as the legal councillor of the Calcutta Corporation in 1940. In 1943, he also presented the Mayor of Calcutta as its legal councillor, and was a member of the Junior Standing Counsel of the East Bengal from 1943 to 1947. After the independence of Pakistan, he opted for East Pakistan and settled in Dhaka in 1948. He was the first Legal Advisor State Bank of Pakistan and drafted all the State Bank of Pakistan laws and rules Supreme Court of Pakistan He was appointed Advocate-General of East Pakistan in 1953, and held it until 1954 when he was appointed to the bench as a judge of the Dhaka High Court by the Governor of East Pakistan.

Family

His son Justice Iqbal Hameedur Rahman is currently now the Senior Justice of the Supreme Court of Pakistan. In 2007, his son refused to take an oath under the Provisional Constitutional Order issued by President Pervez Musharraf who imposed the Emergency in November 2007. After his restoration in 2009, he resumed hearing cases at the Lahore High Court and eventually ascended as Chief Justice of Islamabad High Court in 2013.

Career as Supreme court justice

Supreme Court of Pakistan

Justice Hamoodur Rahman served as a judge of the Dhaka High Court from 1954 until 1960 when he was appointed as Senior Justice of the Supreme Court of Pakistan by the President of Pakistan. In addition, Rahman served as the vice-chancellor of Dhaka University from 11 May 1958 until 14 December 1960 while serving as visiting professor of law at the Karachi University.

During his career as Senior Justice at the Supreme Court, Rehman held various dignified positions and engaged himself in promoting literacy across the country. From 1959 to 1960, he was a member of International Court of Arbitration that is based in the Hague, Netherlands. In 1964, Rehman, upon requested by the Ministry of Education (MoEd), led the "Commission on Students Problems and Welfare" as its chairman where he authored the report and submitted the case study recommendations to the Government of Pakistan in 1966. In 1967, he was the member of the "Law Reforms Commission" that conducted the various case studies on land reforms in Pakistan on behalf of Ministry of Law (MoL)– its report was submitted in 1970 to the President of Pakistan.

Chief Justice of Pakistan

In 1968, Senior Justice Hamoodur Rehman was nominated as Chief Justice by outgoing Chief Justice Alvin Robert Cornelius; his appointment as Chief Justice was approved by President Ayub Khan. His tenure witnessed the resignation of President Ayub Khan who invited Yahya Khan to take over the country through enforcing the martial law in 1969. He heard the petition filed by Asma Jillani against Yahya Khan's takeover in case known as "Asma Jillani vs. Government of the Punjab." Upon hearing the case, Hamoodur Rahman court retroactively invalidated the martial law that suspended the Constitution and notably ruled that Yahya Khan's assumption of power was "illegal usurpation". The Supreme Court also over-ruled and overturned its convictions that called for validation of martial law in 1958.

Chief Justice Hamoodur Rehman carefully distinguish the meaning of martial law in terms of controlling the internal disorder and imposing the martial law in alien territory. His stance stood firm against Yahya Khan's martial law but condone such actions by the application of doctrine of necessity. In 1970, he supported the Election Commission of Pakistan to hold the general elections held in 1970 across the country.

Bangladesh and 1971 war

Hamoodur Rahman, remained loyal to Pakistan during the Bangladesh Liberation War and the war with India in 1971. He did not supported the independence of Bangladesh and remained quiet throughout the events. He administered the oath of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto as President of Pakistan in 1971 at the Supreme Court building.

After the war

In 1972–73, he went onto work with the United Nations and was a member of the Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice. Chief Justice Justice Hamoodur Rahman retired with state honours in 1975 and administered the oath to appoint Senior Justice Muhammad Yaqub Ali as Chief Justice.

In 1974, he was the chairman of the Council of Islamic Ideology (CII) until retiring in 1977.

War Enquiry Commission

In 1971, President Zulfikar Bhutto constituted a commission to investigate the responsibility causes of the war with India that led the liberation of East Pakistan and to provide insightful recommendations to prevent future armed foreign intervention. The commission, known as War Enquiry Commission (or otherwise known as Hamoodur Rahman Commission), was led by Chief Justice Hamoodur Rehman as its chairman and consisted of both civilian and military members.

Initially, Chief Justice Rahman was tasked to investigate the causes and the break-up of Pakistan, and role of the Pakistan Armed Forces in the national politics. His report revealed many aspects of politics in Pakistan Armed Forces during the East-Pakistan war. Because of the nature of the findings, it was not declassified for decades until Indian newspapers, later Pakistani newspapers, published the details.

Fact finding and recommendations

From 1971 until 1975, the Commission led by Rahman conducted several interviews of Pakistan military's senior officers, bureaucrats, politicians, activists, and the Bengali nationalists. Criticism on the government and misconduct of civilian politicians were very heavy and intense, therefore, the Hamoodur Rahman Commission Report was never made it public in Pakistan and concealed all of its information as the report was marked as "Top secret".

The report explores a number of issues such as, genocide of the Bengali populace—both civilians and Bengali soldiers—rape, pan smuggling, looting of banks in East Pakistan, drunkenness by military officers, even an instance of a one star rank officer "entertaining" women while their troops were being shelled by Indian troops. The Report recommended a string of courts-martial and military trials against the top senior military officers including the PAF's Air Marshal Enamul Haq (the AOC of Eastern Air Command of Pakistan Air Force), Vice-Admiral Mohammad Shariff (Fleet Commander of the Eastern Naval Command of Pakistan Navy), and Lieutenant-General Tikka Khan (the GOC of Eastern Army Command of Pakistan Army), and former generals such as Amir Khan Niazi and Rao Farman Ali.

Despite recommending field courts-martial by the commission, there were no actions taken by Prime Minister Bhutto or the successive governments. Nearly 300 individuals were interviewed and hundreds of classified armed forces military signals were examined, with the final comprehensive report was submitted on 23 October 1974 by Chief Justice Hamoodur Rahman who submitted the report to Prime minister Secretariat.

Rehman on "Separation"

Originally, the commission was to overlook the military failure to prevent the break–up of Eastern Pakistan but Chief Justice Rahman went into great depths in the roots of matter since the independence of Pakistan in 1947. A separate chapter on the political history of Pakistan was very detailed oriented and written by Chief Justice Rahman who critically opined on the political role of Zulfikar Bhutto. Rahman critically opined on Bhutto and, with some degree, implicated Bhutto of manipulating President Yahya Khan to take the military action as a solution.

He noted that President Yahya Khan failed to seek a sincere political settlement with East Pakistan. Though the responsibility of the debacle lay on the shoulders of the people in power then as was recommended in the report by Chief Justice Rahman.

When the report was submitted the then Prime Minister Bhutto, the Prime minister wrote to the chairman War Enquiry Commission Chief Justice Hamoodur Rahman, that the commission has exceeded its limits. The commission was appointed to look into the military "aspect of debacle", not the aspect of political failure; therefore, Bhutto classified the publications of the commission and marked its report as "Top Secret".

Fate of the Report

In 1974, the final report was submitted, but both Bhutto and President Zia-ul-Haq claimed that the report was lost and was nowhere to be located in the National Archives of Pakistan.

In the 1990s, it was revealed through investigative journalism by News International that the report was suppressed and was held secretly at the Joint staff HQ in Rawalpindi. In 2000, portion of the report was leaked equally by the India Today and the Dawn. However, the India Today wilfully suppressed its own publications as if the surrender was its own scandal.

Death and legacy

Hamoodur Rahman lived a very quiet life in Lahore and remained active in the Supreme Court of Pakistan. He was appointed the Chairman of Islamic Ideology after his retirement for 3 years, later he was appointed as an advisor to the President of Pakistan on constitutional affairs. He also conducted a commission on election reforms and proposed the proportional representation system existing in Germany, Sri Lanka and many other countries. In which it can be accessed via the library to publish judicial supplements. He died in Lahore due to a cardiac arrest on 20 December 1981. He was buried in Lahore with close judicial associates and friends attending his funeral.

Chief Justice Rahman remained very respected in Pakistan's judiciary even after his death, and is hailed for his honesty and patriotism that Senior Justice Khalil-ur-Rehman Ramday once publicly noted that "his Commission was the most honorable commission that was investigated by a Bengali Chief Justice, in spite of East-Pakistan disaster", in 2010.

See also

 List of Pakistanis

References

External links
 The complete Hamoodur Rahman Report

1910 births
1981 deaths
People from Islamabad
Politicians from Patna
20th-century Bengalis
Bengali lawyers
Bengali educators
Bengali ethicists
Bengali Muslims
Bengali philosophers
Pakistani jurists
20th-century Pakistani philosophers
People of East Pakistan
Pakistani ethicists
University of Calcutta alumni
Alumni of the University of London
Bangladesh Liberation War
Chief Justices of Pakistan
Justices of the Supreme Court of Pakistan
Academic staff of the University of Karachi
Pakistani legal scholars
Pakistani people of Bengali descent
Vice-Chancellors of the University of Dhaka
Philosophers of law
Members of the Pakistan Philosophical Congress
Recipients of Nishan-e-Imtiaz
Recipients of Hilal-i-Imtiaz

Hamoodur Rahman


Bahrain (officially called Kingdom of Bahrain) is an island country in the Arabian Gulf. Saudi Arabia is to the west and is connected to Bahrain by the King Fahd Causeway, and Qatar is to the south across the Persian Gulf.  The Qatar-Bahrain Friendship Bridge, not yet built, will link Bahrain to Qatar as the longest fixed bridge in the world. Qatar and Bahrain's flag is the same design but not the same colors because Qatar is white and maroon and Bahrain is white and red.

History

People have lived in Bahrain before there was writing.  It has been ruled and influenced by the Assyrians, Babylonians, Greeks, Persians, and the Arabs, who made the island Muslim. Bahrain was in old times known as Dilmun, Tylos, Awal and Mishmahig.

The islands of Bahrain, set in the middle south of the Persian Gulf, have attracted many invaders in history. The word Bahrain, "Two Seas", means that the islands contain two kinds of water, sweet water springs and salty water in the sea.

A location between East and West, fertile lands, fresh water, and pearls made Bahrain important in history. About 2300 BC, Bahrain started trading with Mesopotamia (now Iraq) and the Indus Valley (now near India). It was then called Delmon, and  was linked to the Sumerian Civilization about 2000 BC. Bahrain also became part of the Babylonian empire about 600 BC. Historical records called Bahrain the "Life of Eternity", "Paradise", the "Pearl of the Persian Gulf" and other names.

Until 1521, Bahrain also ruled Al-Hasa and Qatif (both are now the eastern province of Saudi Arabia) and Awal (now the Bahrain Islands). The country had all of the land from what is now Kuwait to Oman. This was called Iqlim Al-Bahrain (Province of Bahrain). In 1521, the Portuguese took Awal (now Bahrain) from the rest and since then the name of Bahrain only means today's Bahrain.

Modern history

The modern history of Bahrain begins with Great Britain exploring the area, trying to keep Iran from taking more land. The British gave support to the Al-Khalifa family, who made a power base in the island and allied with the British to keep the island from Iran. The British got free passage to the Persian Gulf through this agreement. In November of 1957, the Iranian parliament declared that Bahrain was the Fourteenth Province of Iran. Later the British would become involved in the politics of Bahrain by choosing an Emir of the island. Iran and Britain later agreed that the United Nations Secretary General would judge the political situation in Bahrain. In a Plebiscite to decide the country's future, the majority of the people of Bahrain chose to reject Iran's claims, and to define their country and their culture to be Arabic, and not Persian.

Oil was found in the early 20th century and brought modern improvements to the country.  Relations with the United Kingdom also became closer, and the British brought more military bases to the nation.  British influence grew, until Charles Belgrave became an advisor; Belgrave brought modern education to Bahrain.

After World War II, anti-British feeling spread through the Arab world and led to riots in Bahrain.  The British left Bahrain in 1971, making it an independent country.  The sales of more oil in the 1980s brought money to Bahrain, but even when the sales of oil  decreased in later years, it did not cause as many problems in Bahrain as in other oil countries, because the economy of Bahrain had grown into other areas.

In 1973 the election of first parliament was done but the government stopped & dissociate the parliament in 1975 which result in strong protests by the Bahraini opposition (Moderate Islamic & non-Islamist opposition).

In 1994, many highly educated Bahraini people signed a letter to Prince of Bahrain at that time Isa bin Salman Al Khalifa to re-establish the parliament life which is strongly refused & the leader of the opposition at that time Sheikh Abdulamir Aljamri was jailed then a huge protest & conflicts occurs between Bahraini nation & the armed forces.

In 1999, Sheikh Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa followed his father as head of state and called for elections for parliament to resolve the congestion that occurred over that last period.  The women were given the right to vote and the new ruler released all political prisoners in 2001.

In 2002 the King released a new constitution without any voting from the nation & canceled 1973 constitution which caused strong refuse from the most of nation parties & opposition.
The situations became worse later & some of political activists were jailed like Abdulhadi Al-Khuwajah, Hasan Mushaima.

Many political websites that refused these changes were blocked like Bahrain online forum (the most popular website in Bahrain): www.bahrainonline.org; Until 2009 there were many riots & conflicts especially from Shia group which faces a huge organized discrimination according to Human Rights Watch & US Congress.

In 2023, Around 700-1000 political detainees in Bahrain begin a hunger strike demanding an end to solitary confinement, access to medical care and religious freedom (right to pray together in groups). A large number of Bahrainis came on streets of Manama in support of prisoners. The hunger strike was suspended after a week as the Bahraini officials agreed to the demands but many prisoners went back to hunger strike again the next day itself, as they say none of the demands were fulfilled.

Politics

Bahrain is a constitutional monarchy ruled by the King, Shaikh Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa. The head of government is the Prime Minister, which is currently held by Crown Prince Salman bin Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa. Shaikh Khalifa bin Salman Al Khalifa was the country's first prime minister from 1971 until his death in 2020.  The prime minister has a cabinet of 15 members.

Bahrain has a bicameral legislature with a lower house, the Chamber of Deputies, elected by all of the people and the upper house, the Shura Council, appointed by the King. Both houses have forty members. The first elections were held in 2002, with Members of Parliament serving four year terms.

Women were given the right to vote and stand in national elections for the first time in 2002's election, but no women were elected to office that year, and Shia and Sunni Islamists won a majority of seats. Because no women were elected, six were appointed to the Shura Council, which also includes members of the Kingdom's Jewish and Christian people.

The King recently created the Supreme Judicial Council to organise the country's courts and the government offices.

Governorates

Bahrain is split into five governorates. Until July 3 2003, it was divided into twelve municipalities.

 Capital
 Central
 Muharraq
 Northern
 Southern

For further information, see: Decree-Law establishing governorates from the Bahrain official website.

Cities

The largest cities in Bahrain are:
Manama - 154,700
Riffa - 111,000
Muharraq - 98,800
Hamad Town - 57,000
A'ali - 51,400
Isa Town- 39,800
Sitra - 37,100
Budaiya - 33,200
Jidhafs - 32,600
Al-Malikiyah - 14,800
Adliya

Other towns include: Awali, Diraz, Hidd, Sar, Bani Jamrah.

Economy

In Bahrain, petroleum (oil product) producing and processing is about 60% of the money from export, 60% of government money, and 30% of Gross Domestic Product. The economy has changed as the sales of oil have changed since 1985, for example, during and after the Persian Gulf War of 1990 - 1991. Bahrain has high quality  communications and transport, and so the country is home to many international companies with business in the Persian Gulf. A large part of the country's income comes from petroleum products made from imported crude oil. There are several major industrial projects being built. Unemployment, especially among young people, and the decrease of both oil and water resources are major economic problems.

Geography
Bahrain is a flat and dry archipelago, with a low desert plain rising gently to a low central hill, in the Arabian Gulf, east of Saudi Arabia.  The highest point is the 122 meter Jabal ad Dukhan ("Mountain of Smoke").

Bahrain has a total area of 620 km², which is a few square kilometres larger than the Isle of Man.  As an archipelago of 33 islands, Bahrain does not share a land border with any other country, but it does have a 161 km coast line and claims a further 12 nm of territorial sea and a 24 nm contiguous zone.  Bahrain enjoys mild winters and has very hot, humid summers.

Bahrain's natural resources include large amounts of oil natural gas as well as fish.  Only 1% of the country includes land where crops can be grown.  92% of Bahrain is desert, and droughts and dust storms are the main natural dangers.

Environmental problems in Bahrain include desertification, which is causing the land where crops can be grown to decrease, and damage to coast lines, coral reefs, and sea vegetation caused by oil spills from large tankers and oil refineries.

About the people

The official religion of Bahrain is Islam; most of the people are Shi'a and Sunni Muslims, but there are also small Jewish and Christian minorities. Most Bahrainis are Arabs, although some tribes came from Persia.  Today, many of the people in Bahrain are guest workers who come from Iran, South Asia and Southeast Asia. A Financial Times article from 31 May 1983 found that "Bahrain is a polyglot (speaking many languages) state, both religiously and racially. Leaving aside the temporary immigrants of the past 10 years, there are at least eight or nine communities (groups of people) on the island".

The present communities may be classified as Al-Khalifa, Arab tribes allied to Al-Khalifa, the Baharnah (Shia Arabs), the Howilla (Sunni Arabs from Persia), Sunni Arabs (from the mainland), Ajam (Persian Shia), Indians who traded with Bahrain and settled before the age of oil (used to be called Banyan), a tiny Jewish community, and a group which contains everyone else.

Culture

Manama, Bahrain's capital city, is as modern as other cities in the world.  But life in the island's many villages (and in parts of Manama itself) remains traditional. Where there is tradition in the Persian Gulf area, there is Islamic conservatism: women cover themselves from head to foot and women travellers are expected to wear long skirts and one-piece bathing suits. Bahrain's population is 85% Muslim and Islam is the state religion. Arabic is the official language, but many people speak English.

Traditional folk art continues in several places around Bahrain: dhows (fishing boats) are built near Manama and Muharraq, cloth is made at Bani Jamrah and pottery is made at A'ali. A few goldsmiths still work in the Manama souk, though much of the work is now done in other countries. One of the important parts of Bahraini culture is the drinking of traditional Arabian coffee.   Traditional Arabian street food like shawarma (lamb or chicken cut from a large spit and served in pita bread) and desserts such as baklava are also found.

Formula One
Bahrain is the home of Formula One racing in the Middle East, hosting the Bahrain Grand Prix.

Holidays

Related pages
Bahrain at the Olympics
Bahrain national football team

References

Other websites
 University of Bahrain

 History of Bahrain from Britannica

Current monarchies
Members of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
Current dictatorships
Monarchies of Asia

Bahrain


Spadina Museum (), also known as Spadina House, is a historic mansion at 285 Spadina Road in Toronto, Ontario, which is now a historic house museum operated by the City of Toronto's Economic Development & Culture division. The museum preserves the house much as it existed and developed historically. The art, decor and architecture of the house used to reflect the contemporary styles of the 1860s through the 1930s, including Victorian, Edwardian, Arts and Crafts, Art Nouveau, Art Deco and Colonial Revival styles. The museum closed for a year for extensive interior and exterior renovations. When it re-opened to the public on October 24, 2010, it was decorated in the style of the inter-war era of the 1920s and 1930s. The estate's gardens reflect the landscape during the Austin family's occupation of the house.

History
The first house constructed on the site was built in 1818 by Dr. William Warren Baldwin.  He named his  property  and estate Spadina, which derived from the Ojibwe word espadinong, which translates as "hill" or "sudden rise of land"; it is located at the top of an escarpment.  Baldwin himself designed the two storey wood-frame house.  The house burnt down in 1835, and owing to the three mile (5 km) trek from the estate into York, he moved to a house on Front Street.  He built a smaller country estate on the property in 1836.

In 1866 the property was acquired by James Austin, founder of The Dominion Bank and Consumers Gas.  By this time, parts of the property had been sold off, and what Austin purchased covered .  In the 19th and early 20th century the area was the wealthiest in Toronto, with a number of Toronto's leading families having large estates.  Austin subdivided and sold off the land west of Spadina Road in 1889, which amounted to .  In 1892, James Austin turned over the house, and  of the property to his son, Albert William Austin.  Albert Austin expanded the house in several renovations, including the addition of a third floor in 1912.  He sold much of the property to the City of Toronto in 1913 for the construction of the St. Clair Reservoir.  Albert Austin died in 1933.

The last member of the family to live in the house was Anna Kathleen Thompson, a daughter of Albert Austin, who lived there from 1942 until 1982.  The aged house had outdated wiring and needed a thorough overhaul, that would have been far more expensive than rebuilding it.  While the house could have been sold to private interests, the family decided instead to donate the house and all of its furnishings to the city.  In 1984 it opened as a museum, jointly owned by the city and the Ontario Heritage Foundation and operated by the City of Toronto.  The museum is especially known for its gardens.

Museum operation

The Spadina historic house and gardens is one of ten historic museums operated and owned by the City of Toronto. The museum's visitors learn and experience how Torontonians lived during the early 20th Century. Tours are scheduled at set times each day, that explore political, economic and social themes of that time period. The restoration process of the museum is also offered in "The restoration tour". Other possible excursions available include "It's a Kid's Life" and "Meet the Austins: A Toronto Family in the 1920s and 1930s". A seasonal excursion at the Spadina House is "Flashman versus Evil: A Grudge Match-recreated 1930's Radio Play". This excursion has been on exhibit four times, during the holiday season, and recreates 1930's live radio shows for the visitors to experience Radio how the inhabitants of the Spadina House would have in the 1930s.

The Spadina Historic house is known as a desirable location for photography, film shots, weddings, and corporate functions.

Description
The house is at the southern end of the northern section of Spadina Road, on top of Davenport Hill, an escarpment which was the shore of prehistoric Lake Iroquois. Immediately east was Sir John Craig Eaton and Lady Eaton's massive Italianate palace and estate, Ardwold. Just around the corner on Austin Terrace, on the lot adjacent to Spadina House, is Casa Loma, a stately pile built in 1911 by Major-General Sir Henry Mill Pellatt.

The architecture of the Austin Home is inspired by the second empire architectural style combined with elements of later Victorian and Edwardian style. The exterior features that it is known for are its bay windows, its brick and stone terrace, the brick chimneys, and the botanically themed carved keystones. The estate ground's oldest building is a wood stable from the mid-19th century, which was attached to the old coach house, and was once used as a gardener's shed until the end of the 1920s. The interior of the house showcases the Victorian and Edwardian components through its floating staircase in the central hall, high baseboards, ceiling medallions, plaster crown mouldings and hardwood floors. This home is separated into 14 rooms and six common areas, in which various new art pieces and decorations are showcased.

The remodelling in 2010 added specific studied reproductions of the original family's artefacts. The wallpaper, the kitchen, the bathroom, and bedroom closet were remodelled. Stuffed wolves found in the family's archives are now placed at the entryway of the museum. Additionally, the artwork included in the remodel was a statue from France of a woman. Due to the blue and pink colors of the sculpture, the museum staff nicknamed it "Wonder Woman". Another part of the remodelling was the addition of a mechanical chair used by Albert Austen when he lost mobility. The entirety of the chair moves and is kept as an artefact as it was designed by him for himself. This chair resembles a "La-Z-Boy chair". The City of Toronto invested about 600,000 dollars towards the revitalization of the Spadina House to present day.

The natural landscape of the Spadina House is protected by law under the "Ravine and Natural Feature Protection By-law". This estate originally included 200 acres of farmland. There were 200 feet of trees between the house's initial frame and the edge of the ridge in the south of the property, still providing an unbroken view of Downtown Toronto and Lake Iroquois. Spadina House's landscape features include formal gardens, the old Orchard, the stone pergola, the fieldstone wall, and the Battery constructed by James and Susan. There are presently 6 acres of restored 1905 Gardens. These 6 acres hold more than 300 varieties of flowers and vegetables.

The name and pronunciation of the "Spadina House" is rooted from the Ojibway word "Espadinong" which signifies "Hill". It was adopted as a name for the home and the street by Baldwin. Many Torontonians follow a convention of pronouncing Spadina Road with the i as  as in mine, and Spadina House with the i as in  as in ski. Occasionally, Spadina Road is pronounced the second way. South of Bloor Street, however, Spadina Road becomes Spadina Avenue, which is always pronounced the first way. The distinction between the two ways was once an economic class marker in Toronto with the upper classes favouring the second pronunciation. Now, however, even the official TTC stop announcements pronounce the i in Spadina as the one in mine.

Awards
Spadina Museum was jointly awarded the Peggi Armstrong Public Archaeology Award along with the Ontario Heritage Trust in 2004.

Spadina Museum was awarded the Ontario Museum Association Award of Merit in conjunction with Dawn Roach Bowen for their Black History Month programme Meet Mrs. Pipkin in 2002.  Mrs. Pipkin was a laundress at the Spadina house in the 1860s, where she came after escaping slavery in the United States.

"Spadina Museum was nominated for the 2013 Toronto Heritage Award in the William Greer Architectural Conservation and Craftsmanship category"

This award category was created to honor the owners who restored structures or buildings that, either have existed for 40 years or more, or are included in the inventory of "Toronto's Heritage Properties". The jury who decides on the winners of the award focus on several different aspects, such as: whether the new building or structure meets current needs, was restored using the appropriate materials, kept a significant portion of the original building's design, use of sound conservation and of course quality of craftsmanship.

See also
List of museums in Toronto
Mary Lake Augustinian Monastery

References

Further reading
Thompson, Austin Seton. Spadina: A Story of Old Toronto. Pagurian Press, 1975.

External links

Houses in Toronto
Museums in Toronto
Historic house museums in Ontario
Art Deco architecture in Canada
Art Nouveau architecture in Canada
Art Nouveau houses
Houses completed in 1913
1913 establishments in Ontario
City of Toronto Heritage Properties
National Historic Sites in Ontario
Estate gardens in Canada

Spadina House


Jerzy and Eugenia Latoszyński were a Polish husband and wife who saved the life of a Jewish boy named Artur Citryn, during the Holocaust in Nazi-occupied Poland in World War II. They were posthumously bestowed the title of the Righteous Among the Nations by Yad Vashem on 23 May 2005. The medals and a diploma were presented by the Israeli ambassador, David Peleg, to their two surviving daughters, Teresa and Elżbieta, at the Branicki Palace in Warsaw.

The family of Artur Citryn, including his mother, sister and a female cousin, managed to escape from the Warsaw Ghetto (pictured) in 1941, before the mass deportations began. They went to a temporarily freer Jewish ghetto in Adamów, from where Mrs. Citryn began a prolonged search for a safe hiding place for her children. She succeeded only two years later, in the summer of 1943. Together with Artur, she arrived at the house of the Latoszyński family living in the village of Lendo Wielkie. According to the testimony of one of Latoszyński's daughters, towards the end of July 1943, they were visited by a young-looking Jewish mother with a thin 10-year-old boy who was introduced as Antoś Cytryniarz from Warsaw. His mother, Mrs Citryn explained that she had heard from their neighbors about Jerzy Latoszyński who owned the largest farm in the area, frequently in need of additional help. The boy, Artur Citryn, was taken in with their blessing.

Artur's story
Depending on the season, Artur slept in the gardener's room, in the attic, in the family kitchen in winter or in a barn on bales of hay during the summer. His responsibilities included grazing cattle and looking after them. The Latoszyńskis had a fair–sized library of Polish books, and Artur spent a lot of time reading, which soon became his most beloved pastime. He read adventure stories by Karl May and children's magazines, and while distracted, would allow his cows to cause considerable damage on occasion.

Patrolling Germans as well as local partisans raided the farm numerous times in search of money and provisions. At such times, Artur would hide behind Mrs. Latoszyński along with her own children, pretending to be her son. In the spring of 1945, as soon as the Nazis retreated, Mrs Citryn returned to the farm to take back her child. The boy didn't want to leave and cried. He had grown accustomed to his new place in life and wanted to remain with the Latoszyńskis, who had since become his second family.

Notes and references

  Miasto stołeczne Warszawa,  Wręczenie Medali i Dyplomów "Sprawiedliwy Wśród Narodów Świata", May 23, 2005. Official ceremony in Warsaw, Poland. Bestowing the medals of the Righteous among the Nations.
 Warsaw Life,  Poles Honoured by Israel Source: Radio Polonia, May 24, 2005.

Married couples
Polish Righteous Among the Nations
People from Ryki County
20th-century Polish farmers

Jerzy and Eugenia Latoszyński


Jack Curtis, Jr. (June 16, 1926 – September 1970) was an American voice actor, director, producer, writer and editor. He began his career as an actor in radio shows in the 1940s. He directed, produced, shot and edited the sci-fi thriller film The Flesh Eaters (1964). He did numerous voice-overs. His voice was featured in several cartoons, and he dubbed the voices for animated characters that included Kimba the White Lion, Marine Boy, and Speed Racer for the Japanese anime series in 1967.

Early life
He was born in Queens, New York, the son of theatrical agent Jack Curtis and vaudeville dancer Mabel Ford. His half sister was actress Beatrice Curtis (1901-1963), whose first husband was the vaudevillian actor Harry Fox of the dance the foxtrot. He was also the first cousin of magician Roy Benson who appeared on The Ed Sullivan Show.

Career
Curtis started acting as a teenager in the early 1940, performing in various radio shows, including Coast to Coast on a Bus, where he first met Peter Fernandez. Curtis never did on camera work because he was born with a defect to his hand, which had been wrapped up in the umbilical cord and never properly formed. He did play the piano, however.

In 1962, he made the cult classic The Flesh Eaters, which was released in 1964. Besides being credited as the film's director, he also wrote, edited, and provided camera work.

On December 31, 1964, he and actress Paulette Rubinstein were married. They had one child, Liane Curtis (born July 11, 1965), who became an actress.

Curtis was hired to dub voices for the anime series Speed Racer by his longtime friend Peter Fernandez. At the time he also provided voice-overs for the cartoon series Marine Boy. He had a company that was named Film Sync, and did a lot of dubbing work.

Death
In September 1970, at the age of 44, Curtis died of pneumonia that he contracted in the hospital, which could not be treated as he was allergic to penicillin, the only antidote in 1970. He was remembered fondly by friends and co-workers alike, particularly for his sense of humor and practical jokes. Corinne Orr recalled, "He was so outrageous, and a warm and giving person."

Filmography

Film
Killer's Kiss (1955) - TV Announcer (Uncredited)
Prince of Space (1959) - Additional voices
The Flesh Eaters (1964) - Radio Deejay
Mothra vs. Godzilla (1964) - Torahata
Planet of the Vampires (1965) - Capt. Sallas
Gammera the Invincible (1966) - News Announcer, Police Officer
Speed Racer: The Movie (1967) - Pops Racer
Marine Boy (1968) - Bulton

Television
Speed Racer (1967–1968) - Pops Racer, Inspector Detector, assorted villains

Production work
Juventud a la intemperie (1961) (As editor)
The Flesh Eaters (1964) (As director, producer, writer and editor)
The Sexperts: Touched by Temptation (1965) (As editor)
We Are All Naked (1966) (As writer)
Placer sangriento (1967) (As writer)

References

External links
Jack Curtis at the Internet Movie Database

1926 births
1970 deaths
20th-century American male actors
American male voice actors
Male actors from New York City
Deaths from pneumonia in the United States

Jack Curtis (voice actor)


In propositional logic, affirming the consequent, sometimes called converse error, fallacy of the converse, or confusion of necessity and sufficiency, is a formal fallacy of taking a true conditional statement (e.g., "if the lamp were broken, then the room would be dark") under certain assumptions (there are no other lights in the room, it is nighttime and the windows are closed), and invalidly inferring its converse ("the room is dark, so the lamp must be broken"), even though that statement may not be true under the same assumptions. This arises when the consequent ("the room would be dark") has other possible antecedents (for example, "the lamp is in working order, but is switched off" or "there is no lamp in the room").

Converse errors are common in everyday thinking and communication and can result from, among other causes, communication issues, misconceptions about logic, and failure to consider other causes.

The opposite statement, denying the consequent, is called modus tollens and is a valid form of argument.

Formal description

Affirming the consequent is the action of taking a true statement  and invalidly concluding its converse . The name affirming the consequent derives from using the consequent, Q, of , to conclude the antecedent P. This fallacy can be summarized formally as  or, alternatively, .
The root cause of such a logical error is sometimes failure to realize that just because P is a possible condition for Q, P may not be the only condition for Q, i.e. Q may follow from another condition as well.

Affirming the consequent can also result from overgeneralizing the experience of many statements having true converses. If P and Q are "equivalent" statements, i.e. , it is possible to infer P under the condition Q. For example, the statements "It is August 13, so it is my birthday"  and "It is my birthday, so it is August 13"  are equivalent and both true consequences of the statement "August 13 is my birthday" (an abbreviated form of ).

Of the possible forms of "mixed hypothetical syllogisms," two are valid and two are invalid. Affirming the antecedent (modus ponens) and denying the consequent (modus tollens) are valid. Affirming the consequent and denying the antecedent are invalid.

Additional examples
Example 1

One way to demonstrate the invalidity of this argument form is with a counterexample with true premises but an obviously false conclusion.  For example:

If someone lives in San Diego, then they live in California.
Joe lives in California.
Therefore, Joe lives in San Diego.

There are many places to live in California other than San Diego; however, one can affirm with certainty that "if someone does not live in California" (non-Q), then "this person does not live in San Diego" (non-P). This is the contrapositive of the first statement, and it must be true if and only if the original statement is true.

Example 2

Here is another useful, obviously fallacious example.

If an animal is a dog, then it has four legs.
My cat has four legs.
Therefore, my cat is a dog.

Here, it is immediately intuitive that any number of other antecedents ("If an animal is a deer...", "If an animal is an elephant...", "If an animal is a moose...", etc.) can give rise to the consequent ("then it has four legs"), and that it is preposterous to suppose that having four legs must imply that the animal is a dog and nothing else.  This is useful as a teaching example since most people can immediately recognize that the conclusion reached must be wrong (intuitively, a cat cannot be a dog), and that the method by which it was reached must therefore be fallacious.

Example 3

Arguments of the same form can sometimes seem superficially convincing, as in the following example:

If Brian had been thrown off the top of the Eiffel Tower, then he would be dead.
Brian is dead.
Therefore, Brian was thrown off the top of the Eiffel Tower.

Being thrown off the top of the Eiffel Tower is not the only cause of death, since there exist numerous different causes of death.

Example 4

In Catch-22, the chaplain is interrogated for supposedly being "Washington Irving"/"Irving Washington", who has been blocking out large portions of soldiers' letters home. The colonel has found such a letter, but with the Chaplain's name signed.

"You can read, though, can't you?" the colonel persevered sarcastically. "The author signed his name."
"That's my name there."
"Then you wrote it. Q.E.D."

P in this case is 'The chaplain signs his own name', and Q 'The chaplain's name is written'. The chaplain's name may be written, but he did not necessarily write it, as the colonel falsely concludes.Example 5

When teaching the scientific method, the following example is used to illustrate why, via the fallacy of affirming the consequent, no scientific theory is ever proven true but rather simply failed to be falsified.

 If this theory is correct, we will observe X.
 We observe X.
 Therefore, this theory is correct.

Concluding or assuming that a theory is true because of a prediction it makes being observed is invalid. This is one of the challenges of applying the scientific method though rarely is it brought up in academic contexts as it is unlikely to be of consequence to the results of the study. Much more common is questioning the validity of the theory, the validity of expecting the theory to have predicted the observation, and/or the validity of the observation itself.

See also

 Abductive reasoning
 Appeal to consequences
 Confusion of the inverse
 Denying the antecedent
 Fallacy of the single cause
 Fallacy of the undistributed middle
 Modus ponens Modus tollens Necessity and sufficiency
 Post hoc ergo propter hoc''

References

Logic articles needing expert attention
Formal fallacies

Affirming the consequent


Dr. Rangin Dadfar Spanta (born December 15, 1954) is a politician in Afghanistan who last served as National Security Advisor of President Hamid Karzai. Prior to that he served as Foreign Minister from April 2006 to January 2010.

He was appointed to that position by President Karzai during a cabinet reshuffle on March 21, 2006, and approved by the 249-seat lower house on April 20, 2006. He was previously the Senior Advisor on International Affairs to President Hamid Karzai. On January 18, 2010, Zalmai Rassoul became the Foreign Minister of Afghanistan.

Early years
Spanta was born on 15 December 1954 in Karukh, Herat Province, where he completed his primary and secondary education. Spanta is fluent in Dari Persian, Pashto, Turkish, German and English.

Spanta was an ex-patriate for many years as he fled during the Soviet–Afghan War to Turkey, where he received his master's degree from the Faculty of Political Science of Ankara University. Some years later, he moved to Germany claiming to be a refugee in 1982. In Germany he became a scholar and assistant professor of political science at RWTH Aachen University, Germany, at which time he also served as spokesperson for the Alliance for Democracy in Afghanistan, was active in the local section of the German Green Party and being employed by a local NGO Eine Welt Forum Aachen e.V. During his visits to Afghanistan, upon the fall of the Taliban, he taught briefly at the Kabul University while still being resident in Germany.

Afghan politician

He returned in January 2005 and served as advisor of internationally affairs to Hamid Karzai.

On May 10, 2007, the Wolesi Jirga, the lower house of the bicameral National Assembly of Afghanistan, attempted a vote of no-confidence against Spanta in connection with the plight of Afghan refugees. The effort failed by one vote, but two days later the Wolesi Jirga did succeed in stripping him of his minister status. On June 3, 2007, the Supreme Court of Afghanistan, acting on a request by President Hamid Karzai, declared the second vote illegal and restored Spanta's status as minister. A significant dispute about this issue remains between the Wolesi Jirga and Karzai.

When Karzai presented his list of minister candidates for the new government after the presidential election in 2009, he announced that he would decide on Spanta's post after the International conference on Afghanistan in London on January 28, 2010. On January 9, 2010, when president Karzai presented his second list of candidates to the Wolesi Jirga, he proposed to replace Spanta by the former security advisor Rassoul. Suddenly on January 18, 2010, Mr Rassoul was nominated and accepted by the Kabul parliament as the new foreign minister.

Spanta was one of Karzai's ministers that did not have a reputation for corruption or incompetence, but he could not boast popularity or enjoy tribal followings.

In January 2010, president Karzai decided to replace Spanta after the International Conference on Afghanistan in London by Zalmai Rassoul. At the London conference, Spanta still represented Afghanistan. Shortly before, he visited the Afghanistan Congress of the German SPD in Berlin, where he referred to his background as a peace activist during his time in Germany.

Assassination of Dr. Spanta's brother
On July 17, 2013, Spanta's brother Ahmad Wali Tahiri, was assassinated by unknown gunmen in Karukh district of western Herat province. Tahiri used to serve as administrative employee of Karukh attorney general for the past seven years.

At the funeral, Spanta revealed that two weeks earlier the Taliban had sent him a threat message notifying that the group is planning to kill his brother. "The foreign elements are training and hiding some people in Peshawar and Quetta. After the training, they are sent on terror missions during which they kill our brothers, sisters and relatives," said Spanta.

Book
In 2017, Spanta published a memoir called 'Afghanistan Politics: A Narrative From Within' in Dari. The book included reflection on President Hamid Karzai's administration.

See also
 Waziristan War
 Waziristan accord

References

External links

Foreign ministers of Afghanistan
1954 births
Living people
Academic staff of RWTH Aachen University
Pashtun people
Afghan emigrants to Germany
Ankara University Faculty of Political Sciences alumni
2000s in Afghanistan
21st-century Afghan politicians
Afghan political scientists

Rangin Dadfar Spanta


Joe Sentieri (byname of Rino Luigi Sentieri;  Genoa 3 March 1925, - Pescara 27 March 2007) was an Italian singer and actor.

Career

His first success was the winning of the competition "Canzonissima" in 1959 with his version of the number one hit "Piove (Ciao, ciao bambina)" by Domenico Modugno. In the same year he reached number two and number five in the Italian charts with "Ritroviamoci" and "Milioni di scintille". In 1960 he won the third place with "Quando vien la sera" at the Sanremo Festival. This song was number two in the Italian charts. Another top ten success was "È mezzanotte", which reached number eight.

Perhaps his internationally best known song is "Uno dei tanti". The song written by Carlo Donida and Giulio Rapetti was released in 1961. In 1963 Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller translated the text into English and released this song under the title "I (Who Have Nothing)". It became one of their greatest hits and was covered more than thirty times, e.g. by Tom Jones, Gladys Knight, Manfred Mann's Earth Band, Ben E. King, Sylvester James, Luther Vandross and Shirley Bassey.

Further songs which had an entry in the Italian charts were "Libellule" (1961), "Lei" (1961), "Cipria di sole" (1962), "Tobia" (1962), "Fermate il mondo (1963) and "Quando ci si vuol bene... (come noi)" (1963).

In the 1960s and the 1970s Sentieri was also seen in some films, e.g. in Howlers in the Dock (1960) with Adriano Celentano and in The Most Beautiful Wife (1970) with Ornella Muti.

Sentieri died from cerebral hemorrhage in a hospital in Pescara. He is survived by his wife Dora and two children.

Selected filmography
 Howlers in the Dock (1960) - Joe il rosso
 The Two Rivals (1960)
 Sanremo - La grande sfida (1960)
 A Qualcuna Piace Calvo (1960) - Cantante del Sing-Sing
 Caccia al marito (1960) - Himself
 Bellezze sulla spiaggia (1961)
 Io bacio... tu baci (1961)
 Tartarin of Tarascon (1962) - Le chanteur dans le wagon du train
 Appuntamento in Riviera (1962) - Himself
 The Shortest Day (1963) - Soldato (uncredited)
 Three Nights of Love (1964)
 Prega Dio... e scavati la fossa! (1968)
 The Most Beautiful Wife (1970) - Poidomani
 I Am Afraid'' (1977) - Tognon (final film role)

External links
Songs by Joe Sentieri
Biography

1925 births
2007 deaths
Musicians from Genoa
20th-century Italian  male singers
Actors from Genoa

Joe Sentieri


Gary C. Clark (born May 1, 1962) is an American former professional football player who was a wide receiver in the National Football League (NFL) for the Washington Redskins (1985–92), Phoenix/Arizona Cardinals (1993–94), and Miami Dolphins (1995).

Early life
Clark attended and played high school football for the Cougars football team at Pulaski County High School in Dublin, Virginia.

College career
Clark played college football at James Madison University in Harrisonburg, Virginia, where he caught 155 passes for 2,863 yards and 16 touchdowns.  He also had three punt returns for touchdowns, including 89- and 87-yard returns in a game during the 1983 season against the University of Virginia.  Clark was at James Madison during the Dukes' first four Division I-AA seasons.  He caught 46 passes for James Madison's 8-3 team in 1982 and had 57 receptions in 1983.  He was the Virginia offensive player of the year in 1982 and an honorable mention All-American in 1982 and 1983.

Clark became the first person in James Madison history to have his jersey retired.

Professional career

USFL
Clark was selected by the Jacksonville Bulls sixth overall in the 1984 USFL Draft. He led Jacksonville in receiving in his rookie season, in both receptions (56) and receiving yardage (760 yards). He played for the Bulls in 1984 and 1985.

NFL
Clark was selected by the Washington Redskins in the second round of the 1984 NFL Supplemental Draft of USFL and CFL Players.

In 1985, he signed with the Redskins and had a superb rookie season, recording 72 receptions for 926 yards and five touchdowns.  Clark quickly established himself as one of the top receivers in the NFL.  He followed up his superb rookie season in 1986 with a Pro Bowl year catching 74 passes for 1,265 yards and seven touchdowns.  Clark set a Redskin record for receiving yards in a game during a Monday Night Football contest with the New York Giants.  He caught 11 passes for 241 yards and a touchdown.  The record still stands today as the "most receiving yards in a non-strike game" (Anthony Allen surpassed Clark's tally during the 1987 strike season). The Redskins went on to finish with a 12-4 record and defeated the reigning Super Bowl champion Chicago Bears, 27-13, in a divisional playoff game but lost to the Giants in the NFC Championship game, 17-0.

In 1987, Clark again had a Pro Bowl year, catching 56 passes for 1,066 and seven touchdowns.  He achieved these numbers in only 12 games, as a player strike shortened the season by one game and replacements played three games.  No Redskin player crossed the picket line and the replacements went 3-0.  Clark was only one of four NFL receivers to surpass 1,000 yards.  By this time, he had caught the eye of CBS commentator John Madden.  Clark's toughness, big-play ability and willingness to block made him a regular on the All Madden Team during his playing career.  The Redskins went on to finish 11-4, winning the NFC East crown.  In the playoffs, the Redskins defeated the Chicago Bears in the Divisional Playoff game for the second year in a row, 21-17.  Clark caught three passes for 57 yards and a touchdown in the NFC Championship game against the Minnesota Vikings.  The Redskins won, 17-10, to earn the right to play in Super Bowl XXII.  Clark caught three passes for 55 yards and a touchdown, while also rushing for 25 yards in Washington's 42-10 rout of John Elway and the Denver Broncos in Super Bowl XXII.

Clark's numbers dropped in 1988 as he caught 59 passes for 892 yards and seven touchdowns.  The Redskins finished a paltry 7-9 and missed the playoffs.  He returned to form in 1989, catching 79 passes (a career-high) for 1,229 yards and nine touchdowns.  The Redskins finished 10-6 but missed the playoffs again because of a 5-6 start.  Clark, along with fellow receivers Art Monk and Ricky Sanders, surpassed the 1,000 yard mark in 1989.  This was the second time in NFL History that three receivers from one team all went over the 1,000 yard mark in the same year.

In 1990, Clark had another Pro Bowl year and the Redskins made the playoffs.  He caught 75 passes for 1,112 yards and eight touchdowns.  The Redskins went on to beat the Philadelphia Eagles, 20-6, in an NFC Wild Card game.  Clark caught four passes for 63 yards and a touchdown.  The Redskins lost the next week to the San Francisco 49ers, 28-10.

In 1991, Clark and the Redskins tore through the NFL.  He caught 70 passes for 1,340 yards and ten touchdowns.  His 19.1 yards per catch was second in the NFL.  Clark caught four passes for 203 yards and three touchdowns in Washington's 56-17 rout of the Atlanta Falcons in week 11.  The Redskins finished 14-2, won the NFC East, and claimed home field advantage throughout the playoffs.  Washington beat Atlanta, 24-7, and crushed Detroit, 41-10, to earn a berth in Super Bowl XXVI against the Buffalo Bills.  Clark had a big day with seven catches for 114 yards and a touchdown in Washington's 37-24 defeat of the Bills.  The Redskins led 24-0 early in the third quarter, but Buffalo cut the lead to 24-10.  His 30-yard touchdown reception in the third quarter was instrumental in thwarting a comeback attempt by the Bills.

Clark, Monk, and Sanders gave the Redskins one of the best receiving corps in the NFL during the late 1980s and early 1990s.  They were known as The Posse.  Clark was long known as the most fiery spirit of the bunch, and he was known to run laps around RFK Stadium after touchdowns and during Redskins comebacks.  Clark signed with the Phoenix Cardinals as a free agent prior to the 1993 season, and the Redskins have only made the playoffs five times since, as of the end of the 2020 season.

Clark retired from the NFL after the 1995 season.  In his 11 NFL seasons, he caught 699 passes for 10,856 yards and 65 touchdowns, while rushing for 54 yards and gaining 62 yards on nine punt returns.  He also had twenty-seven 100-yard games wearing the Redskins uniform.  Clark was a four-time Pro Bowl selection in 1986, 1987, 1990, and 1991.  He was also a three-time All-Pro selection.  He led his team in receiving seven times (1986, 1987, 1989–1992, 1994), and won two Super Bowls, Super Bowl XXII and Super Bowl XXVI, during his NFL career.

Clark was the first wide receiver in NFL history to catch at least 50 passes in his first ten NFL seasons.  As of , the only other players to do so have been Marvin Harrison, Torry Holt and Larry Fitzgerald. Despite this, Clark was never considered as a finalist for the Pro Football Hall of Fame, much less even make it as a semifinalist despite being one of few receivers to record 10,000 receiving yards in the pre-salary cap era of the NFL while recording 65 touchdown receptions as one of the key receivers on the Redskins along with Art Monk.

Notes
Clark was the owner of the now closed South Beach Restaurant and Martini Lounge in Bethesda, Maryland.

He was inducted into the Redskins Ring of Honor on October 7, 2007 and concluded his speech with, "We are going to spank Detroit's butt."  The Redskins won the game, 34-3.

In 2007, he was inducted into the Virginia Sports Hall of Fame.

References

External links
 Clark's statistics
 More career statistics
 Gary Clark biography
 JMU Athletic Hall of Fame

1962 births
Living people
American football wide receivers
National Conference Pro Bowl players
Arizona Cardinals players
Phoenix Cardinals players
Miami Dolphins players
Washington Redskins players
James Madison Dukes football players
People from Dublin, Virginia
Players of American football from Virginia
Jacksonville Bulls players
People from Radford, Virginia

Gary Clark (American football)


Douglas Mark Rushkoff (born February 18, 1961) is an American media theorist, writer, columnist, lecturer, graphic novelist, and documentarian. He is best known for his association with the early cyberpunk culture and his advocacy of open-source solutions to social problems.

Rushkoff is most frequently regarded as a media theorist and is known for coining terms and concepts including viral media (or media virus), digital native, and social currency.  He has written ten books on media, technology and culture. He wrote the first syndicated column on cyberculture for The New York Times Syndicate, as well as regular columns for The Guardian of London, Arthur, Discover, and the online magazines Daily Beast, and TheFeature.

Rushkoff is currently Professor of Media Theory and Digital Economics at the City University of New York, Queens College. He has previously lectured at The New School University in Manhattan and the Interactive Telecommunications Program at New York University's Tisch School of the Arts, where he created the Narrative Lab. In 2012, Rushkoff was declared the sixth most influential thinker in the world by MIT Technology Review, following Steven Pinker, David Graeber, Nobel prize-winner Daniel Kahneman, Thilo Sarrazin, and Richard Florida.

Biography

Background

Rushkoff was born in New York City, New York, and is the son of Sheila, a psychiatric social worker, and Marvin Rushkoff, a hospital administrator. He graduated from Princeton University in 1983. He moved to Los Angeles and completed a Master of Fine Arts in Directing from the California Institute of the Arts. Later he took up a post-graduate fellowship from the American Film Institute. He was a PhD candidate at Utrecht University's New Media Program, writing a dissertation on new media literacies, which was approved in June, 2012.

Rushkoff emerged in the early 1990s as an active member of the cyberpunk movement, developing friendships and collaborations with people including Timothy Leary, RU Sirius, Paul Krassner, Robert Anton Wilson, Ralph Abraham, Terence McKenna, Genesis P-Orridge, Ralph Metzner, Grant Morrison, Mark Pesce, Erik Davis, and other writers, artists and philosophers interested in the intersection of technology, society and culture.

Cyberia, his first book on cyberculture, was inspired by the San Francisco rave scene of the early 1990s. The initially planned publication was scrapped, however; in Rushkoff's words, "in 1992 Bantam canceled the book because they thought by 1993 the internet would be over." It was eventually published in 1994.

As his books became more accepted, and his concepts of the "media virus" and "social contagion" became mainstream ideas, Rushkoff was invited to deliver commentaries on National Public Radio's All Things Considered, and to make documentaries for the PBS series Frontline.

In 2002, Rushkoff was awarded the Marshall McLuhan Award by the Media Ecology Association for his book Coercion, and became a member and sat on the board of directors of that organization. This allied him with the "media ecologists", a continuation of what is known as the Toronto School of media theorists including Marshall McLuhan, Walter Ong, and Neil Postman.

Simultaneously, Rushkoff continued to develop his relationship with counterculture figures, collaborating with Genesis P-Orridge as a keyboardist for Psychic TV, and credited with composing music for the album Hell Is Invisible... Heaven Is Her/e. Rushkoff taught classes in media theory and in media subversion for New York University's Interactive Telecommunications Program, participated in activist pranks with the Yes Men and eToy, contributed to numerous books and documentaries on psychedelics, and spoke or appeared at many events sponsored by counterculture publisher Disinformation.

Influences
References to media ecologist and Toronto School of Communication founder Marshall McLuhan appear throughout Rushkoff's work as a focus on media over content, the effects of media on popular culture and the level at which people participate when consuming media.

Rushkoff worked with both Robert Anton Wilson and Timothy Leary on developing philosophical systems to explain consciousness, its interaction with technology, and social evolution of the human species, and references both consistently in his work.
Leary, along with John Barlow and Terence McKenna characterized the mid-1990s as techno-utopian, and saw the rapid acceleration of culture, emerging media and the unchecked advancement of technology as completely positive.
Rushkoff's own unbridled enthusiasm for cyberculture was tempered by the dotcom boom, when the non-profit character of the Internet was rapidly overtaken by corporations and venture capital. Rushkoff often cites two events in particular – the day Netscape became a public company in 1995, and the day AOL bought Time Warner in 2000 – as pivotal moments in his understanding of the forces at work in the evolution of new media.

Rushkoff spent several years exploring Judaism as a primer for media literacy, going so far as to publish a book inviting Jews to restore the religion to its "open source" roots. He founded a movement for progressive Judaism called Reboot, but subsequently left when he felt its funders had become more concerned with marketing and publicity of Judaism than its actual improvement and evolution.
Disillusioned by the failure of the open source model to challenge entrenched and institutional hierarchies from religion to finance, he became a colleague of Mark Crispin Miller and Naomi Klein, appearing with them at Smith College as well as in numerous documentaries decrying the corporatization of public space and consciousness.
He has dedicated himself most recently to the issues of media literacy, participatory government, and the development of local and complementary currencies. He wrote a book and film called Life Inc., which traces the development of corporatism and centralized currency from the Renaissance to today, and hosted a radio show called The Media Squat on WFMU from 2008 to 2009, concerned with reclaiming commerce and culture from corporate domination.

Influence
In late 2020, Rushkoff commented on the release of the documentary The Social Dilemma. This was partly based on the prompting from his fanbase that expressed that the ideas on the film were direct quotations from his books and films. Rushkoff speculated at the possibility that the programmers interviewed in the film have read something from himself, or other writers such as Nicholas Carr, Sherry Turkle, Andrew Keen, Howard Rheingold, Richard Barbrook, Tim Wu, or even the singer Raffi. He acknowledged that while their work and analogies are being quoted without acknowledgement of their source, that these quotations serve as memes themselves and are indicative of their sustaining value beyond their original authors. One of the people in the documentary includes Jaron Lanier, who was a subject in Rushkoff's Cyberia years before. Rushkoff also acknowledged he got a call from the Center for Humane Technology stating that they are starting a new organization called Team Humanity, which is a direct wordplay from Rushkoff's podcast Team Human. Rushkoff asked his fanbase to not act negatively toward this appropriation, and to be inclusive of this new community in order to open up a new dialogue between the groups.

Awards and appointments
Douglas Rushkoff has served on the board of directors of the Media Ecology Association, The Center for Cognitive Liberty and Ethics, and is a founding member of Technorealism, as well as of the advisory board of The National Association for Media Literacy Education, MeetUp.com and HyperWords

He is the winner of the first Neil Postman Award for Career Achievement in Public Intellectual Activity, given by the Media Ecology Association, in 2004.

Themes

General
Douglas Rushkoff's philosophy developed from a techno-utopian view of new media to a more nuanced critique of cyberculture discourse and the impact of media on society. Viewing everything except for intention as media, he frequently explores the themes of how to make media interactive, how to help people (especially children) effectively analyze and question the media they consume, as well as how to cultivate intention and agency. He has theorized on such media as religion, culture, politics, and money.

Technology and cyberculture
Up to the late-1990s, Douglas Rushkoff's philosophy towards technology could be characterized as media-deterministic. Cyberculture and new media were supposed to promote democracy and allow people to transcend the ordinary.

In Cyberia, Rushkoff states the essence of mid-1990s culture as being the fusion of rave psychedelia, chaos theory and early computer networks. The promise of the resulting "counter culture" was that media would change from being passive to active, that we would embrace the social over content, and that empowers the masses to create and react.

This idea also comes up in the concept of the media virus, which Rushkoff details in the 1994 publication of Media Virus: Hidden Agendas in Popular Culture. This significant work adopts organic metaphors to show that media, like viruses, are mobile, easily duplicated and presented as non-threatening. Technologies can make our interaction with media an empowering experience if we learn to decode the capabilities offered to us by our media. Unfortunately, people often stay one step behind our media capabilities. Ideally, emerging media and technologies have the potential to enlighten, to aid grassroots movements, to offer an alternative to the traditional "top-down" media, to connect diverse groups and to promote the sharing of information.

Rushkoff does not limit his writings to the effect of technology on adults, and in Playing the Future turns his attention to the generation of people growing up who understand the language of media like natives, guarded against coercion. These "screenagers", a term originated by Rushkoff, have the chance to mediate the changing landscape more effectively than digital immigrants.

With Coercion (1999), Rushkoff realistically examines the potential benefits and dangers inherent in cyberculture and analyzes market strategies that work to make people act on instinct (and buy!) rather than reflect rationally. The book wants readers to learn to "read" the media they consume and interpret what is really being communicated.

Religion
In Nothing Sacred: The Truth About Judaism, Rushkoff explores the medium of religion and intellectually deconstructs the Bible and the ways that he says religion fails to provide true connectivity and transformative experiences.

Currency
Most recently, Douglas Rushkoff has turned his critical lens to the medium of currency. One of the most important concepts that he creates and develops is the notion of social currency, or the degree to which certain content and media can facilitate and/or promote relationships and interactions between members of a community. Rushkoff mentions jokes, scandals, blogs, ambiance, i.e. anything that would engender "water cooler" talk, as social currency.

In his book, Life, Inc. and his dissertation "Monopoly Moneys," Rushkoff takes a look at physical currency and the history of corporatism. Beginning with an overview of how money has been gradually centralized throughout time, and pondering the reasons and consequences of such a fact, he goes on to demonstrate how our society has become defined by and controlled by corporate culture.

Social media

Rushkoff has long been skeptical of social media. On February 25, 2013, he announced in a CNN op-ed that he was leaving Facebook, citing concerns about the company's use of his personal data. In 2023, he announced his departure from X and other social media platforms, explaining, "And Twitter has no tolerance for ambiguity. It's missing the moderated, the emotional, the poetic...the whole human experience."

Wealth and Power
In his most recent work, Survival of the Richest: Escape Fantasies of the Tech Billionaires (2022), Rushkoff explored the calculus some of the extremely wealthy make in the recognition that their often single-minded pursuit of greater profits and better technology are creating an increasingly unstable world. In a 2022 talk for House of SpeakEasy's Seriously Entertaining program, Rushkoff explained the billionaires' mindset as coming down to this essential question: "How much money and technology do I need to insulate myself from the reality I'm creating by earning money and using technology in this way?" He argues that treating people better in the present may be the most surefire way to avoid widespread catastrophe in the future.

Bibliography

Articles
 "Team Human vs. Team AI," Strategy+Business, February 5, 2019.

Books
 2022. Survival of the Richest
 2019. Team Human
 2016. Throwing Rocks at the Google Bus
 2013. Present Shock: When Everything Happens Now
 2010. Program or be Programmed: Ten Commands for a Digital Age Paperback  Ebook
 2009. Life, Inc.: How the World Became A Corporation and How To Take It Back
 2009. Foreword: The Opportunity for Renaissance, pp. 273–281, in Be The Media, David Mathison, editor
 2005. Get Back in the Box: Innovation from the Inside Out
 2003. Open Source Democracy A Demos Essay
 2003. Nothing Sacred: The Truth About Judaism
 1999. Coercion: Why We Listen to What "They" Say
 1996. Playing the Future: What We Can Learn From Digital Kids  (Published in the UK in 1997 as "Children of Chaos: Surviving the End of the World as We Know it" )
 1995. Media Virus: Hidden Agendas in Popular Culture
 1994. The GenX Reader (Editor, contributor)
 1994. Cyberia: Life in the Trenches of Cyberspace

Book chapters

Fiction works
 2002. Exit Strategy (aka Bull)
 1997. Ecstasy Club

Graphic novels
 2016. Aleister and Adolf with Michael Avon Oeming
 2012. A.D.D. – Adolescent Demo Division
 2005–2008. Testament
 2004. Club Zero-G

Documentaries
 2014. Generation Like. PBS Frontline.
 2008. American Music: OFF THE RECORD Dir. Benjamin Meade, Cosmic Cowboy Studio.
 2009–2010. Digital Nation, Life on the Virtual Frontier. Web site and documentary, PBS Frontline.
 2009. Life Inc. The Movie
 2004. The Persuaders. This Frontline documentary examines the psychological techniques behind popular marketing and advertising trends, determines how these methods influence how we view ourselves and desires, and postulates on the future implications of these persuasive approaches at work.
 2001. Merchants of Cool, a groundbreaking, award-winning Frontline documentary which explores the people, marketing techniques and ideologies behind popular culture for teenagers. This video attempts to answer whether or not teen popular culture is reflective of its population or manufactured by big business and related groups.

Radio
 The Media Squat (creator and host): freeform, bottom-up, open source WFMU radio which examines similarly open source, bottom-up solutions to some of the problems engendered by our relentlessly top-down society.
 Team Human Podcast (creator and host): a weekly interview show focused on themes of inspecting and subverting technology's effect on human behaviour. The format of the show is typically started with a monologue from Rushkoff and then an interview with a guest.

References

External links

1961 births
Living people
American bloggers
American socialists
Princeton University alumni
California Institute of the Arts alumni
Utrecht University alumni
Writers from Scarsdale, New York
20th-century American Jews
Mass media theorists
Communication scholars
Open content activists
American radio DJs
Cyberpunk writers
Futurologists
Anti-corporate activists
Critical theorists
Chaos magicians
New York University faculty
Scarsdale High School alumni
Internet theorists
Open-source movement
21st-century American essayists
21st-century American Jews

Douglas Rushkoff


Ei Ogawa (, Ogawa Ei, March 10, 1930; Osaka - April 27, 1994; Tokyo (age 64) ), also credited as Hide Ogawa (江里 明, Ogawa Hide) was a Japanese screenwriter.

Career
Graduated from the Faculty of Law at Chuo University. He studied under the screenwriter & author Keiichiro Ryu and mainly wrote many Nikkatsu action films. Ogawa was one of the people who supported the Golden Age of Nikkatsu action movies during the 1960s. From around 1970, he shifted his main activity to TV dramas, and in "Taiyo ni Hoero!", he was involved from the beginning to the end of the program, and mainly played the role of supervising and revising the scenario. In parallel with this, Ogawa has written numerous drama scripts in a wide range of genres such as action, suspense, and historical drama. At the end of the 1960s, he joined the video production group Jack Production (ジャック・プロダクション, Jakku purodakushon) with Takashi Tsuboshima, Yasuo Tanami, Katsuki Iwauchi and others.

In addition, Ogawa presided over the private school "Eijuku" for training scenario writers, and produced many writings.

Related pages

1930 births
1994 deaths
Japanese screenwriters
Writers from Osaka

Ei Ogawa